Table 2 Characteristics of the adapted cascade model for large scale deployment

Expert trainers

Expert trainers often from another country which was found to hinder the effectiveness of cascade models in many contexts (Abeysena et al., 2016; Bett, 2016)

Ex-teachers from the region who conceived and piloted the curricular reform and pilot teacher-PD program

Adapting the teacher-PD to the local needs and culture

Cascade models suffer from content dilution (Hayes, 2000; Wedell, 2005) which have beenfound to be directly linked with lower trainingquality (Bax, 2002; Demarle-Meusel et al., 2020; Dichaba & Mokhele, 2012; Fiske & Ladd, 2004)

Directly train all the teacher-trainers who will deploy the teacher-PD (limited cascade model depth)

Limiting content dilution and decline in training quality; promoting teacher-trainer self-efficacy

Teacher-trainers often struggle with the logistics involved in deploying the PD-program (Bett, 2016; Engelbrecht et al., 2007; Wedell, 2005)

Handle the logistics of the deployment

Reducing difficulties planning and managing the teacher-PD

Teacher trainers

Teachers are more willing to accept the PD program and pedagogical content when the trainers are teachers in the region who understand the regional context and have tested the content themselves (El-Hamamsy et al., 2021a)

Current teachers from the region

Adapting the teacher-PD to the local needs and culture; promoting legitimacy and credibility

ibid.

Teachers from the level of schooling (ideally)

Aligning with teachers’ contexts and needs

Teacher-trainer motivation and retention has been found to be one important limitation of cascade models (Burr et al., 2006; Mormina & Pinder, 2018; Orfaly et al., 2005)

Motivated towards Digital Education and adult training

Promoting motivation and teacher-trainer retention

Teacher-trainer PD

Teacher-trainers need to be supported to transition to their new role which includes acquiring the required adult-training and contentspecific skills (Abeysena et al., 2016; Gilpin, 1997; Roesken-Winter et al., 2015)

Prolonged initial trainer-PD provided by the experts to acquire the required competences in terms of Digital Education and adult training

Providing sufficient training to acquire the new competences and adapt to their new role; promoting self-efficacy, legitimacy; limiting content dilution

ibid.

Continuing trainer-PD and support by experts throughout the deployment

Providing sufficient support; promoting self-efficacy, legitimacy; limiting content dilution

Teacher-PD

Cascade models often suffer from a misalignment between the PD program and teachers’ context and needs which is why it is important to adapt the PD to local realities (Bett, 2016; Moulakdi & Bouchamma, 2020; Wedell, 2009)

Deploying the teacher-PD with pairs of teacher-trainers and having these go to the same schools to establish relationships with teachers in the field and ensuring that at least one in each pair is from the cycle

Aligning with teachers’ contextsand needs; aligning with PD best practices; providing sufficient support among each otherand to teachers; promoting self-efficacy

ibid.

Having teacher-trainers collaborate with instructional coaches in the schools

Aligning with teachers’ contexts and needs; providing sufficient support to teacher-trainers

Insufficient support provided to teachers to help them implement the novel curriculum in the long term contributes to cascade models being ineffective (Robinson, 2002)

Having instructional coaches in schools to support teachers in the implementation of the novel discipline in the short and long term

Aligning with PD best practices; providing sufficient support teachers

Monitoring

Continuous monitoring of cascade model outputs should be implemented to ensure the quality and effectiveness of the resulting deployment PD program (Karalis, 2016)

Having action research as a core component to monitor the outcomes of the deployment

Aligning with PD best practices; validating the effectiveness of the intervention

ibid.

Providing feedback to teachertrainers and experts to adapt the teacher-trainer PD and the teacher-PD program

Aligning with PD best practices; aligning with teachers’ contextsand needs

ibid.

Ensuring that teacher-trainers interact with researchers so that they understand the objectives, methodologies and engage in the process

Aligning with PD best practices; aligning with teachers’ contexts and needs