This paper makes an important contribution to the ongoing debate over the validity of the psychological construct, ADHD. While not ruling out the possibility that something of value may lie at the core of this diagnosis, the authors articulate a clear set of problems with the research logic that forms the foundation of the disorder itself, reaching the conclusion that there appears to be insuffi cient, valid scientifi c evidence for the demarcation of a coherent and independent disease entity.

While research on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has traditionally focused on cognitive and behavioral deficits, there is increasing interest in exploring possible resources associated with the disorder. In this paper, we argue that the attention-patterns associated with ADHD can be understood as expressing an alternative style of inquiry, or “zetetic” style, characterized mainly by a lower barrier for becoming curious and engaging in inquiry, and a weaker disposition to regulate curiosity in response to the cognitive and practical (...) costs associated with inquiry. Exploring this zetetic style from an epistemological perspective, we show that it is often epistemically rational and can be advantageous in important respects. We close by suggesting that the very aspects of the zetetic style that might at times render it disadvantageous from the point of view of individual subjects with ADHD, will often confer epistemic benefits to the social group that the subjects are part of. (shrink)

How we ought to diagnose, categorise and respond to spectrum disabilities such as autism and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a topic of lively debate. The heterogeneity associated with ADHD and autism is described as falling on various continua of behavioural, neural, and genetic difference. These continua are varyingly described either as extending into the general population, or as being continua within a given disorder demarcation. Moreover, the interrelationships of these continua are likewise often vague and subject to (...) diverse interpretations. -/- In this paper, I explore geneticists' and self-advocates’ perspectives concerning autism and ADHD as continua. These diagnoses are overwhelmingly analysed as falling on a continuum or continua of underlying traits, which supports the notion of “the neurodiversity spectrum”, i.e., a broader swath of human neural and behavioural diversity on which some concentrations of different functioning are diagnosed. I offer a taxonomy of conceptions of the genetic, phenotypic, and endophenotypic dimensionality within and beyond these diagnostic categories, and suggest that the spectrum of neurodiversity is characteristically endophenotypic. (shrink)

Dear Editor, we would like to raise some points regarding ADHD philosophical knowledge considering initially the article by Thurber et al.

Russell Barkely describes ADHD as a disorder of one’s ability to self-regulate, i.e., to engage in internal self-directed actions. This raises a problem when considering the phenomenon of masking, in which a neurodivergent individual puts up a front to fit in situations with neurotypical norms. If masking is a form of self-regulation, and if ADHD is a disorder of self-regulation, then how can people with ADHD mask at all? I will argue that this problem prompts us to (...) understand ADHD as a disorder of a specific type of self-regulation, quasi-transcendent self-regulation, and that the German anarchist Max Stirner provides us with a new concept of immanent self-regulation that can account for ADHD masking. First, I perform a phenomenological analysis of my own experiences masking my ADHD in order to uncover the internal logic of immanent masking. I identify that this logic originates from an internalization of consistent social exclusion due to the social disruptiveness of one’s ADHD symptoms. Such an internalization constitutes one’s self as devalued in relation to the other, which allows this other to transcend them. Then, I argue that the progression of a logic of domination in Stirner’s psychological and historical accounts of two major ideological shifts—first, from Catholicism to Protestantism, and, second, from Socialism to Humanism—provides us with theoretical accounts of quasi-transcendent and immanent masking respectively. I conclude by proposing a possible solution to immanent masking. Using Stirner’s ethical notion of the insurrection, I propose my own notion of the micro-insurrection, and discuss the implementation of it in my life through the employment of subversive humor. I describe how this humor can destabilize the social expectations of a given context by strategically adopting the positions rendered absurd and impossible by the dominant ideology in order to locally undermine it. Micro-insurrections thus render the power relations of a space ambiguous so as to allow for free movement and free expression. (shrink)

While difficulties with emotion regulation are widely recognized to be prevalent in individuals with ADHD, researchers disagree on the centrality and explanatory role of dysregulated emotions in ADHD. “Lumpers” comprehend emotion dysregulation as a core symptom alongside inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, while “splitters” view the combination as a distinct entity, and “diplomats” hold that they are correlated but ultimately dissociable (Shaw et al. 2014). The literature has predominantly focused on negative emotions such as anger and irritability, often overlooking (...) positive emotional states like curiosity and interest, possibly because these were not traditionally regarded as genuine emotions. We argue that they indeed qualify as epistemic emotions and demonstrate how they can become dysregulated in various ways. By properly acknowledging these emotional dimensions, the core symptoms of ADHD can be understood as manifestations of emotional dysregulation. With this, our account will offer support for “lumpers” and indicates that granting a more prominent explanatory role to emotions and emotional dysregulation could lead to a more unified and integrative model of cognition and behavior in ADHD. (shrink)

The field of special pedagogy has received increased global attention in recent years. This resulted in the development of a variety of schooling (or non-schooling) and of teaching methods that are tailored to the needs of non-neurotypical individuals. Regardless of whether or not they wish to be “healed”, their needs require special consideration. This study aims to determine if incorporating anime into teaching methods would benefit individuals with ADHD. In this article, we will consider the desires of people with (...) ADHD, the functioning of their brains, the effect of prescribed medications, as well as the impact of video and the need for it in relation to contemporary educational models and methods. In support of this, three short surveys conducted at the onset of the pandemic will be presented, along with anime recommendations for each education field. Do teachers and professors have the freedom to teach as they wish, the right to use what methods they want. or the responsibility to find and choose the best educational methods for their students? Do the neurodiverse individuals have the freedom to discontinue their education or the right to receive a proper education? Which prevails? (shrink)

The demand for effective interventions to improve domain-specific academic outcomes for individuals with special needs at either end of the spectrum has existed for some time. Since the earlier contributions to the literature documenting gifted individuals who were simultaneously exhibiting disabilities, there has been some progress in our understanding. We now know that in individuals with both gifts and disabilities, potentially, either or both of the exceptionalities can obscure the effects of the other, which significantly delays the average time to (...) receive a diagnosis. Such delays in diagnosis detrimentally impact the quality of life across various domains because there can be no opportunity to receive help in the form of effective interventions without a diagnosis. The purpose of this paper is to determine whether effective interventions exist to improve domain-specific (i.e., social, emotional, or academic) outcomes for people with both gifts and disabilities. A query was performed using evidence databases TRIP and PDQ for “twice-exceptional,” “Giftedness,” “Disability,” and “intervention.” The four most relevant, freely available studies in English were selected for critique. Despite identifying potential threats to validity among the studies, methodological similarities among them were strong enough to confidently conclude that not only do effective interventions exist for the population of gifted with ADHD, but the outcomes of these interventions may also carry over into other domains resulting in indirect effects. (shrink)

To date, diagnosing Attention Defi cit Hyperactivity Disorder remains indeed one of the most controversial issues in contemporary psychiatry and behavioural sciences. Most of the conceptual problems regarding the validity of this diagnostic category arise from the heterogeneity of syndromal pictures and the high rate of comorbidity observed in subjects diagnosed with ADHD at all stages of the longitudinal course of the disorder. In this regard, DSM 5 increased complexity by allowing a diagnosis of comorbidity between ADHD and (...) autism spectrum disorders while these two diagnoses were mutually exclusive in DSM-IV-TR. (shrink)

This paper advances a unified developmental–neurocognitive account of epistemic trauma, conceptualising it as a distinct form of relational injury arising when a child’s epistemic agency—their capacity to perceive, interpret, and speak safely—is chronically constrained within the caregiving environment. Drawing on attachment theory, family-systems research, predictive-processing neuroscience, and cognitive-dissonance models, the paper situates epistemic trauma within the ρ–σ–ϕ framework of recognition deprivation, suppression, and fiduciary containment failure. These mechanisms generate surface behaviours—silence, tearlessness, hyper-attunement, and collapse—that are frequently misinterpreted as ASD, (...) class='Hi'>ADHD, selective mutism, or dissociative shutdown. By differentiating epistemic trauma from these conditions through contextuality, relational triggers, and the logic of epistemic exposure, the analysis clarifies its unique aetiology and developmental trajectory. -/- To support clinical practice, the paper introduces the Epistemic Injury Checklist (EIC), a triadic, formulation-oriented tool that provides a structured method for identifying recognition, suppression, and containment patterns underlying epistemic inhibition. The EIC offers clinicians, psychologists, and psychiatrists a practical framework for distinguishing epistemic trauma from neurodevelopmental or anxiety-based profiles and for designing interventions that restore epistemic safety, rebuild dissonance tolerance, and recalibrate predictive models. The conclusion outlines directions for validation studies, predictive-processing-based modelling, and longitudinal developmental protocols. (shrink)

Stimulants have been shown to be safe and effective for reduction of the symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Despite much debate, however, there has been little empirical evidence as to whether stimulants affect authenticity and moral agency in children. Singh presents evidence that stimulants do not undercut children's' sense of self and increase their experience of agency. These findings are consistent with laboratory evidence that stimulant drugs in therapeutic doses improve cognitive control over thought and behavior.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) continues to be controversial with arguments for and against its veracity being waged by individuals representing a variety of disciplines from behavioral scientists to philosophers. Our perspective focuses on the epistemological underpinnings of what is now commonly known as ADHD. Its ignominious history and current disputes may stem from a "pessimistic" epistemology, meaning that truth is only the province of persons in authority and power. The authoritative organizations that govern the diagnostic labels and (...) criteria are the American Psychiatric Association and their Diagnostic and Statistical Manual and the World Health Organization that sponsors the International Classification of Disease. We contrast the pessimistic epistemology with criteria for truth from the scientific method. Although scientific scrutiny has been and is being applied subsequent to "authoritarian edicts" of the disorder, we opine that ADHD currently does not have status beyond that of the "hypothetical construct." Moreover, current brain-based causal models have failed to provide rigorous supporting data that comes from testing falsifiable hypotheses. (shrink)

rippin’s Theory V2: Quantum Addendum Crippin’s Theory V2 – Quantum Addendum: Superradiance, Somatic Processing & the Science That Caught Up deepens the original framework of Expansion, Momentum, and Reset by introducing insights from quantum biology and symbolic resonance. Prompted by a 2024 paper by physicist Philip Kurian (Science Advances), which posits that biological cells may compute faster than the brain, this work bridges lived experience and scientific emergence. Crippin reframes trauma, chronic illness, and cognitive difference not as deficits but as (...) forms of intelligent biological overprocessing. Grounded in the principles of superradiance, V2 proposes that conditions such as ME, fibromyalgia, ADHD, and dementia may represent resonant somatic computation, not malfunction. At its heart, the paper affirms: The body is not broken—it is resonating. Trauma is a looped processing state—not a flaw. This volume introduces a visual metaphor of a shattered jade bracelet suspended in a wavefield, symbolising both superradiant science and emotional coherence. The work supports a paradigm shift: from pathologising difference to recognising embodied intelligence as sacred. Crippin’s Theory is emerging as a living, open-source framework of fractal intelligence, trauma cartography, and neurodivergent architecture. It applies across domains—from system design and AI ethics to caregiving and symbolic philosophy. The paper concludes with a symbolic equation: M(t) = M₀e^(-kT) + C suggesting that memory, meaning, and motion decay over time—but always retain a sacred constant. This work is for the carers, the coded, and the curious. It invites us not to treat what is lost, but to honour what remains. (shrink)

This chapter sets the scene for the subsequent philosophical discussions by surveying a number of biological interventions that have been used, or might in the future be used, for the purposes of crime prevention. These interventions are pharmaceutical interventions intended to suppress libido, treat substance abuse or attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or modulate serotonin activity; nutritional interventions; and electrical and magnetic brain stimulation. Where applicable, we briefly comment on the historical use of these interventions, and in each case we (...) discuss the evidence that they are effective, or might become so with further refinement. The chapter concludes with a comment on some potentially significant differences between the varieties of intervention that we canvass. (shrink)

This paper applies Judgemental Philosophy to the discourse on neurodivergence, particularly conditions such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), ADHD, and borderline personality disorder (BPD). We argue that these states should be understood not merely as behavioral differences or deficits, but as structural variations or collapses within the Judgemental Triad—Constructivity, Coherence, and Resonance. Neurodivergent conditions often reveal distinct patterns or difficulties in how judgements are formed (Constructivity), maintained consistently (Coherence), or returned meaningfully (Resonance). We explore how society tends to pathologize (...) ways of being it cannot structurally resonate with, often mistaking structural differences for individual failings. This paper proposes an alternative view: neurodivergence signals not necessarily a deficit, but a deviation or unique configuration in the architecture of cognitive and ethical judgement. The paper concludes with reflections on reconceptualizing recovery not as normalization, but as the restoration of functional Resonance loops and the creation of environments that can accommodate structural diversity in judgement. (shrink)

This article offers an introductory analysis of the philosophical and empirical considerations having to do with the significance of psychopathy, intellectual disability and ADHD regarding one’s moral responsibility. Moral responsibility comes in degrees and is ultimately determined on social grounds. Whether a certain diagnosis and its under­pinning neuro-cognitive impairment affects one’s cognitive, emotional and moral conduct, depends also on social and relational factors.

Collected Works of La Shun L. Carroll, D.D.S., Ed.M. brings together more than forty peer-reviewed and scholarly works into a unified interdisciplinary research program spanning philosophy, cognitive science, disability and giftedness studies, race and institutional governance, ethics, medicine, technology, and applied systems modeling. More than an anthology, this volume reconstructs the conceptual architecture that underlies the author’s scholarship and presents a coherent framework for understanding how knowledge becomes rigid—and how it can be repaired. -/- At the center of the collection (...) is a unifying analytic goal: the identification and correction of false necessity—the tendency to treat stable patterns, institutional procedures, or familiar classifications as inevitable facts about reality, ability, morality, or social order. Across diverse domains, descriptive regularities are repeatedly transformed into claims of inevitability. This book develops systematic tools for dismantling that transformation. -/- The volume is organized into five integrated parts. Part I establishes the ontological and modal foundations of the research program, including concentric models of existence and perception, reconceptualizations of moral status and vulnerability, and a sustained philosophical investigation of death and mortality. Part II extends these foundations into cognitive architecture and neuroecology, redefining intelligence through an ethological lens and presenting new models of giftedness, disability, ADHD, and twice-exceptionality grounded in cross-modal plasticity and system-level adaptation. Part III applies the same conceptual tools to race, professional regulation, and epistemic governance, examining how institutional procedures convert uncertainty into authority and generate structural epistemic injustice. Part IV develops sociophysical and diffusion-based models of crowd behavior, implicit bias, technological access, and criminological patterns, showing how stable social outcomes emerge without centralized intent. Part V synthesizes the entire corpus through an axiomatic meta-theory that unifies the volume’s first principles into a transferable methodology. -/- Throughout the collection, Dr. Carroll advances a distinctive and repeatable method of conceptual repair: locating hidden necessity claims, diagnosing category errors, reconstructing foundational concepts using modal logic and concentric frameworks, and translating repaired models. (shrink)

The mind and brain sciences influence how human beings understand one another. Histories of the concepts of repression, implicit bias, ADHD, IQ, and personhood reveal that scientific psychology has played a role, not just in shaping people's thinking about minds, but also (and thereby) in shaping minds themselves. These case studies may thus be seen as supporting the contentious thesis that science aids in the social construction of minds. Three considerations are relevant to determining how seriously we should take (...) that contention: (1) to what extent was it inevitable that socially sophisticated animals would come to describe minds in the ways that 21st century humans do?; (2) to what extent do human sociocognitive practices accurately describe the inherent structure of the mind?; (3) to what extent can historical stability in descriptions of minds be chalked up to the fact that people are accurately describing the structure of the mind? (shrink)

One of the most significant problems in the area of learning disabilities and delinquency is failure in recognizing the characteristics of the LD by the juvenile justice system. Therefore, a number of useful techniques, skills, and strategies are provided to help court officers, educators, mental health professionals, and community service providers divert at-risk youths from the system. This study also answers the question of whether the juvenile justice system continues to work in the best interest of the youth they have (...) been entrusted to serve under the doctrine of Parens Patriae. It will be confined to secondary data analysis gathered from the Urban Government Division of Corrections in Lexington, Kentucky, using a survey methodology. The responses of 171 juvenile males and females between the ages of 9 to 18 will be analyzed to measure the LD population in Lexington’s correctional institution. (shrink)

Several theories propose that one of the core functions of inner speech (IS) is to support subjects in the completion of cognitively effortful tasks, especially those involving executive functions (EF). In this paper we focus on two populations who notoriously encounter difficulties in performing EF tasks, namely, people diagnosed with schizophrenia who experience auditory verbal hallucinations (Sz-AVH) and people within the Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC). We focus on these two populations because they represent two different ways in which IS can (...) fail to help in EF tasks, which can be illustrative for other mental conditions. First, we review the main components of EF (Section 1). Then we explain the functions that IS is taken to perform in the domain of EF (Section 2) and review the evidence concerning problems about EF in the two populations of our study: Sz-AVH (Section 3) and ASC (Section 4). After this we further detail our account about what a properly functioning IS can do for both populations and how different IS profiles may impact EF performance: in the case of Sz-AVH, the uncontrolled and intrusive character of IS negatively affects EF performance, whereas in ASC, EF is not sufficiently supported by IS, given the tendency in this population to present a diminished use of IS (Section 5). We finally briefly discuss Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Developmental Language Disorders (DLD). (shrink)

This philosophical treatise examines the co-occurrence of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)—colloquially termed "AuDHD"—through the lens of existential philosophy, phenomenology, and the philosophy of psychiatry. Central to this inquiry is the phenomenon of masking: the strategic concealment of neurodivergent traits to conform to neurotypical social expectations. This paper argues that masking constitutes a form of existential inauthenticity as articulated by Heidegger and Sartre, raising profound questions about the nature of selfhood, identity diffusion, and the ontological status (...) of psychiatric categories themselves. By examining the 2013 revision to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) that permitted comorbid ASD-ADHD diagnosis, this treatise interrogates whether diagnostic categories illuminate authentic human experience or paradoxically obscure it. The analysis concludes that masking represents not merely a behavioral adaptation but a fundamental philosophical problem concerning the relationship between social being, authentic selfhood, and the medicalization of human difference. (shrink)

In this commentary, I will elaborate on the connection between motivational barriers to care, their possible remedies, and particular mental health conditions. In his paper, Masciari argues that health care providers ought to use certain methods of encouragement drawn from the extensive literature on the science of decision making. The discussion in his paper is limited to treatment plans in a cancer context because, of course, such treatments are particularly aversive and the outcomes can be particularly bad if patients do (...) not follow through with their plans. I will argue that his suggestions are particularly relevant to many mental health contexts. Though Masciari does comment on mental health in his paper, there is much more to be said. As such, in my commentary, I will do three things. 1) I will expand the discussion of Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder, 2) I will extend the encouragement techniques to ADHD, and 3) I will raise a potential limitation to the view on offer, with the case of Borderline Personality Disorder. The use and success of the provided encouragement techniques in these contexts is plausible given the similarities between them and certain therapeutic techniques. However, successful deployment of this methodology in these contexts will not come without a distinct set of challenges. (shrink)

A variety of mental disorders—including ASD, ADHD, major depression, and anxiety disorder, among others—may directly impact what an agent notices or fails to notice. A recent debate has emphasised the potential significance of such “impairment-derived ignorance,” and argued that failure to account for certain compelling cases would seriously undermine theories which intend to establish the conditions for blameworthy ignorance. In this comment we argue, contra a recent challenge, that Quality of Will (QW) accounts are able to explain the normative (...) significance of impairment-derived ignorance. The plausible, ambivalent results QW accounts yield in difficult cases of impairment-derived ignorance further reveals the explanatory power of such accounts when it comes to blameworthy ignorance. (shrink)

Este artículo trata el nexo TDAH–TEA–TUD como un problema explicativo sobre transiciones, no como etiquetado, contabilidad de comorbilidad ni suma aditiva de diagnósticos. El explanandum queda definido como un cambio de régimen dentro de un sistema acoplado cerebro–cuerpo–entorno, donde el consumo puede produ-cir estabilización local de corto plazo y, a la vez, desorganización acumulativa de largo plazo. La contribución central es conceptual y neurofilosófica: reemplaza una gramática modular (fallo de una función interna) por una gramática dinámica (mul-tiestabilidad, umbrales, dependencia de (...) historia e histéresis) para representar por qué la progresión hacia dependencia no se capta mediante variación gradual ni mediante un rasgo individual estático. El argumento integra tres estratos de evi-dencia con roles inferenciales distintos: (i) arquitectura genética compartida y dife-renciadora como restricción sobre hipótesis admisibles sin reificación causal; (ii) material cualitativo en diagnóstico dual como evidencia de estructura temporal me-diante bucles de vida cotidiana que fijan el fenómeno objetivo; y (iii) asociaciones específicas por sustancia y por perfil como restricciones de heterogeneidad sobre trayectorias. Además, el artículo incluye un programa de investigación de filosofía experimental (x-phi) para controlar sesgos de credibilidad y “anclajes” explicativos en agentes epistémicos concretos, impidiendo que el vocabulario neurobiológico opere como explanans genérico. El resultado es un modelo integrativo con criterios explícitos de refutación conceptual y de comparabilidad, orientado a disciplinar la inferencia y a reencuadrar la intervención clínica en términos de variables de con-trol, condiciones de contorno y bucles de realimentación situados. (shrink)

Effort-related disengagement in psychiatric populations often unfolds gradually, even in the absence of overt motivational decline or changes in external task demands. Conventional behavioural models typically treat resistance as a memoryless function of momentary state variables. In this study, we investigate whether incorporating recent behavioural history improves the modelling of effort disengagement. Using a publicly available time series dataset of motor activity collected from individuals diagnosed with major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), we compare baseline memoryless models (...) with history-sensitive alternatives that incorporate prior resistance escalation. Across diagnostic groups, models augmented with short-term temporal features yielded superior predictive accuracy and revealed consistent hysteresis effects, whereby the likelihood of disengagement was modulated not only by current state conditions but also by prior trajectories of resistance. These findings suggest that resistance dynamics may exhibit temporal dependencies and asymmetries, highlighting the need for models of cognitive availability that incorporate recent behavioural context without requiring fundamental revisions to existing theoretical frameworks. (shrink)

The Psychology of Juvenile Delinquency: Understanding Causes and Solutions -/- Juvenile delinquency is a major societal concern, as it involves young individuals engaging in criminal or antisocial behavior. The study of its psychology seeks to understand why adolescents commit crimes, what factors influence their actions, and how society can prevent and rehabilitate them. This essay explores the psychological theories behind juvenile delinquency, the causes that contribute to it, and the possible interventions to reduce its occurrence. -/- Psychological Theories of Juvenile (...) Delinquency -/- Psychologists have developed various theories to explain why some juveniles engage in delinquent behavior. These theories provide insight into the mental and social processes that lead to criminal tendencies. -/- 1. Psychodynamic Theory (Freud) -/- Sigmund Freud proposed that early childhood experiences shape personality and behavior. If a child experiences neglect, abuse, or trauma, unresolved conflicts in the unconscious mind can lead to delinquent actions. -/- A weak superego (the moral part of the mind) may result in impulsive and criminal behavior due to a lack of guilt or moral reasoning. -/- 2. Behavioral Theory (Skinner) -/- B.F. Skinner’s behavioral theory suggests that actions are learned through reinforcement and punishment. -/- If a juvenile receives rewards (such as money, respect, or approval) from criminal behavior, they are likely to repeat it. -/- If punishment is inconsistent or absent, delinquency may continue. -/- 3. Social Learning Theory (Bandura) -/- Albert Bandura’s theory states that children learn by observing others. If they grow up in environments where crime is normalized, they may imitate criminal behavior. -/- Role models, such as parents, peers, or media figures, significantly influence a child’s behavior. -/- 4. Cognitive Theories -/- These theories focus on how juveniles process information and make decisions. -/- Some youth develop faulty thinking patterns, such as blaming others for their mistakes or justifying criminal actions. -/- Poor problem-solving skills and impulsivity also contribute to delinquency. -/- Causes of Juvenile Delinquency -/- Understanding the causes of juvenile delinquency is crucial in addressing and preventing it. Multiple factors contribute to criminal behavior among young individuals. -/- 1. Family Factors -/- A broken home, neglect, or abusive parenting can push children toward delinquency. -/- Children who experience harsh discipline, lack of supervision, or parental criminal behavior may develop antisocial tendencies. -/- 2. Peer Influence -/- Adolescents are highly influenced by their peers. If they associate with delinquent peers, they are more likely to engage in criminal behavior. -/- Gangs provide a sense of identity and belonging, but they also promote illegal activities. -/- 3. Socioeconomic Factors -/- Poverty, unemployment, and lack of educational opportunities can push juveniles toward crime. -/- In disadvantaged neighborhoods, exposure to drugs, violence, and criminal role models increases the likelihood of delinquency. -/- 4. Psychological and Biological Factors -/- Some juveniles have low self-control, high aggression, or mental health disorders (such as ADHD or conduct disorder), which increase the risk of delinquency. -/- Studies suggest that genetics and brain development also play a role in impulsive and violent behavior. -/- 5. School and Community Factors -/- Academic failure, dropping out of school, and negative school experiences can contribute to delinquency. -/- Weak social institutions and a lack of recreational activities lead to boredom, making crime an appealing alternative. -/- Prevention and Rehabilitation -/- To reduce juvenile delinquency, a combination of early intervention, education, family support, and rehabilitation is necessary. -/- 1. Family Interventions -/- Parents should receive training on effective discipline, supervision, and communication skills. -/- Family counseling can help resolve conflicts and strengthen relationships. -/- 2. School-Based Programs -/- Early education programs can improve academic skills and social behavior, reducing the risk of delinquency. -/- Schools should implement anti-bullying programs and mentorship initiatives to create a positive environment. -/- 3. Community Programs -/- After-school activities, sports, and vocational training can provide alternatives to crime. -/- Rehabilitation centers should focus on therapy, skill development, and reintegration into society. -/- 4. Legal and Social Policies -/- The justice system should prioritize rehabilitation over punishment for juvenile offenders. -/- Policies that address poverty, inequality, and access to education can reduce crime incentives. -/- Conclusion -/- Juvenile delinquency is a complex issue influenced by psychological, social, and environmental factors. Understanding the psychological roots of delinquent behavior can help in creating effective prevention and rehabilitation programs. By strengthening families, improving education, and providing positive social influences, society can reduce juvenile crime and help young individuals develop into responsible citizens. Addressing juvenile delinquency is not just about punishing offenders but also about addressing the underlying causes and guiding youth toward a better future. -/- . (shrink)

How to Naturally Increase Pleasure-Boosting Brain Chemicals & Their Impact on Mental Health -/- To enhance well-being, it’s important to balance the brain’s pleasure chemicals. Below is a guide on how to naturally increase each neurotransmitter and what happens when there’s an imbalance. -/- 1. Dopamine (Motivation & Reward) -/- How to Boost Naturally: -/- ✔ Set and achieve small goals → Triggers a dopamine “reward” response. ✔ Engage in enjoyable activities (e.g., hobbies, learning new skills). ✔ Eat dopamine-boosting foods: (...) Bananas, dark chocolate, almonds, green tea. ✔ Exercise regularly (boosts dopamine and endorphins). ✔ Listen to music (stimulates the reward system). -/- Effects of Dopamine Imbalance: -/- ???? Too Low: Leads to lack of motivation, depression, fatigue, and anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure). Often seen in Parkinson’s disease and ADHD. ???? Too High: Can lead to addictive behaviors, impulsivity, and even psychosis (as seen in schizophrenia). -/- 2. Serotonin (Happiness & Mood Stabilization) -/- How to Boost Naturally: -/- ✔ Get sunlight exposure (stimulates serotonin production). ✔ Eat serotonin-boosting foods: Salmon, eggs, nuts, seeds, and complex carbs. ✔ Engage in social activities (boosts serotonin and oxytocin). ✔ Meditation, deep breathing, and prayer increase serotonin. -/- Effects of Serotonin Imbalance: -/- ???? Too Low: Depression, anxiety, irritability, sleep issues. Linked to seasonal affective disorder (SAD). ???? Too High: Can cause excessive calmness, serotonin syndrome (dangerous condition with confusion, high blood pressure). -/- 3. Oxytocin (Love, Trust & Bonding) -/- How to Boost Naturally: -/- ✔ Physical touch (hugs, cuddling, holding hands). ✔ Social bonding (spending time with loved ones, group prayer, communal worship). ✔ Petting animals (boosts oxytocin and lowers stress). ✔ Acts of kindness (helping others raises oxytocin). -/- Effects of Oxytocin Imbalance: -/- ???? Too Low: Can lead to loneliness, difficulty forming relationships, and higher stress levels. ???? Too High: May cause overattachment or excessive trust in untrustworthy people. -/- 4. Endorphins (Euphoria & Pain Relief) -/- How to Boost Naturally: -/- ✔ Exercise (runner’s high from intense workouts). ✔ Laughter (watching comedy, sharing jokes). ✔ Eating spicy foods and dark chocolate. ✔ Listening to music, dancing, or singing. -/- Effects of Endorphin Imbalance: -/- ???? Too Low: Increased pain sensitivity, depression, chronic stress. ???? Too High: Rare in natural conditions but can create dependence on activities that trigger endorphins (e.g., thrill-seeking behavior). -/- 5. Endocannabinoids (Bliss & Relaxation) -/- How to Boost Naturally: -/- ✔ Meditation, yoga, and deep breathing. ✔ Aerobic exercise (long runs or cycling). ✔ Eating omega-3 rich foods (fish, flaxseeds, walnuts). -/- Effects of Endocannabinoid Imbalance: -/- ???? Too Low: Increased stress, anxiety, poor pain regulation. ???? Too High: Can cause brain fog or lack of motivation. -/- 6. GABA (Calm & Relaxation) -/- How to Boost Naturally: -/- ✔ Meditation and mindfulness. ✔ Herbal teas (chamomile, green tea). ✔ Foods rich in magnesium (almonds, spinach, avocados). ✔ Deep breathing exercises. -/- Effects of GABA Imbalance: -/- ???? Too Low: Anxiety, insomnia, panic attacks. ???? Too High: Excessive drowsiness, lack of motivation. -/- 7. Adrenaline & Norepinephrine (Excitement & Alertness) -/- How to Boost Naturally: -/- ✔ Engaging in thrilling activities (sports, dancing, adventure). ✔ Cold showers (boosts norepinephrine). ✔ Challenging yourself with new experiences. -/- Effects of Imbalance: -/- ???? Too Low: Fatigue, lack of focus, low motivation. ???? Too High: Stress, anxiety, high blood pressure. -/- Summary Table: Boosting Pleasure Chemicals Naturally -/- Final Thoughts -/- A balanced lifestyle that includes physical activity, healthy eating, social bonding, meditation, and achieving small goals can optimize pleasure-related brain chemistry. -/- Imbalances in these chemicals can lead to mental health issues like depression, anxiety, addiction, or excessive stress. -/- Religious and spiritual activities like prayer, meditation, communal worship, and gratitude practices naturally boost serotonin, dopamine, oxytocin, and GABA. -/- . (shrink)

The neurodiversity movement grew out of the autism community but is now being applied to many neurological types, from dyslexia to schizophrenia. The resulting neurodiversity paradigm maintains that these neurological differences are normal variations in the human species, like race and sexual orientation, which should be valued and accommodated, not “fixed” or eliminated. Yet some clear-eyed individuals view their brain differences as deficits and would continue to seek treatment in the absence of discrimination or lack of accommodation. I argue that (...) fully appreciating cognitive diversity requires more nuanced normative claims that respect individual differences and fluid circumstances. Although analogies to minority statuses can be useful, variations in personality traits provide a more flexible and inclusive model for neurodivergence. Despite ultimately rejecting the biodiversity metaphor, a more nuanced neurodiversity paradigm emphasizing our shared humanity can promote compassion, respect, and support for all. (shrink)

Human history is the story of symbols turning against their makers. Myths, laws, identities, each begins as a tool for survival, coherence, and meaning. But every symbol hardens. Every order closes. And when the lock tightens too far, collapse follows. The only thing that has ever broken the cycle is rupture. Visionaries, mystics, rebels, and neurodivergent minds have stepped outside the circle, cracked the mirror, and forced reality back in. Without them, every civilization would have suffocated in its own stories. (...) Today, the lock-in is digital and global. Algorithms compress our lives into engagement, conformity, and capture. The self, our deepest symbol, has become a prison of anxiety and performance. Yet divergence still erupts in memes that mutate faster than control, in identities that refuse stability, and in the cracks where reality insists on being felt. The lesson is stark but simple: survival has never meant perfect order. It has meant learning to oscillate between coherence and rupture, stability and renewal. Neurodiversity is not a deviation from the human path. It is the path, Reality’s own way of ensuring we never close the system for good. The experiment is still running. The outcome is not fixed. (shrink)

Modern society exhibits a deep cognitive asymmetry: the dominance of neurotypical convergence over structural reasoning. History has never been a smooth accumulation of knowledge, but the rare work of minds who broke consensus to open new coherence pathways. Each time, the doors they opened were swiftly flooded. Not with discovery, but with words. This paper diagnoses the neurotypification of society as a structural drift in which symbols have displaced structure, ego and hype have replaced feedback, and the doing of knowledge (...) has been eclipsed by the talking about it. Scientific publication exemplifies this pathology: a culture measuring truth in volume and citation rather than coherence yield, producing a self-reinforcing symbolic network detached from first principles. The result is a civilization in symbolic lock-in, mistaking language for reality and authority for discovery. Through historical analysis and contemporary symptoms, this work frames the crisis not as moral failure but as attractor dynamics of a species that has chosen words over world. (shrink)

Modern psychology and psychiatry present themselves as sciences of liberation, diagnosing and treating the mind’s distress. Yet their conceptual and clinical apparatuses operate almost entirely within the same symbolic attractor that generates much of that distress. The expansion of the DSM is treated as evidence of diagnostic refinement but may instead be read as a cartography of systemic incompatibility, mapping the points where human neurodiversity fails to thrive under the cultural dominance of neurotypical, symbol-stabilizing cognition. Within a civilization organized around (...) verbal mediation, binary closure, and consensus maintenance, many so-called disorders are adaptive protests. Somatic and cognitive refusals to surrender fully to the symbolic lattice. The biomedical and psychotherapeutic paradigms, in privileging symptom suppression and narrative alignment, often reinforce the attractor’s logic rather than challenging it. The result is a system that measures health by conformity to an already pathological baseline, where adaptation to the symbolic order is taken as proof of stability. This paper examines modern mental health practice as both a mirror and an extension of the symbolic substrate, critiques its epistemic self-sealing, and proposes a post-symbolic framework in which treatment entails structural re-alignment rather than the normalization of divergence into a failing cultural form. (shrink)

This paper extends the diagnosis of The Neurotypification of Society by tracing further manifestations of symbolic lock-in across contemporary culture. It examines three major trajectories: the rise of binary thinking under the computational paradigm, the transition to a verbal and service-based economy, and the exponential maladaptation triggered by social media feedback loops. Together, these movements reveal a civilization increasingly optimized for symbolic consensus at the expense of structural reasoning and recursive feedback. Binary computation has not merely transformed technology but cognition (...) itself, amplifying discrete-state logic and eroding tolerance for ambiguity. The economic shift from material production to symbolic mediation entrenches language as the primary substrate of value, deepening the identification of words with reality. Social media completes the arc, creating a hype economy where presence collapses into performance and immersion is replaced by perpetual self-description. The paper also explores the rise of anxiety as a cultural signal: the body’s response to verbal saturation and the systematic suppression of nonverbal, coherence-rich modalities of thought. These observations do not prescribe remedies but act as further probes, mapping the contours of a society drifting into symbolic gravity, where doing dissolves into talking and reality itself risks becoming another layer of description. (shrink)

According to a standard picture of agency, a person’s actions always reflect what they most desire, and many theorists extend this model to mental illness. In this chapter, I pin down exactly where this “volitional” view goes wrong. The key is to recognize that human motivational architecture involves a regulatory control structure: we have both spontaneous states (e.g., automatically-elicited thoughts and action tendencies, etc.) as well as regulatory mechanisms that allow us to suppress or modulate these spontaneous states. Our regulatory (...) abilities, however, are bounded. Mental illnesses, I argue, arise precisely where these bounds are reached, thus allowing inappropriate spontaneous states to regularly manifest in thought and action. I conclude that the volitional view of mental illness is wrong: when a person with mental illness reaches the limits of control, what they do often does not reflect what they most prefer. (shrink)

The word hallucination arrives with unusual authority. It sounds finished, clinical, as though it refers to something isolated, named, and understood. To say that someone is hallucinating feels like saying that a machine has malfunctioned; it is a discrete error occurring inside an otherwise reliable system. However, the moment one pauses over the term, it begins to wobble. What, precisely, is being named? An experience? A perception? A belief? A failure to meet a standard that is rarely examined but always (...) assumed? The apparent solidity of the word conceals its surprising vagueness. It feels concrete, but it collapses under scrutiny, revealing less a thing in the world than a verdict rendered upon certain kinds of experience. This is not because the experiences themselves are unreal, trivial, or invented. People see, hear, feel, and sense things that are intense, meaningful, and sometimes frightening. Any honest inquiry must begin by taking those experiences seriously. The problem lies not in the phenomena of experience, but in the confidence with which we name them. “Hallucination” does not simply describe what someone reports; it quietly judges how that report relates to an external frame of reference. It tells us, without saying so, that the experience has failed to line up with what is collectively recognized as real. In this sense, the term functions less as a neutral description and more as a marker of misalignment. It signals that something has gone out of bounds, not necessarily in the mind, but in the relationship between an individual’s account of reality and the symbolic order that governs shared life. (shrink)

Redefining mental health is not interpretive gloss or an attempt to rescue our vocabulary by reifying its assumptions in new terms. It is a statement of minimal commitments about the least one must assume in order to speak coherently about minds, meaning, and breakdown without covertly reintroducing metaphysics whenever explanation runs thin. The following axioms are intentionally sparse because surplus premises do not remain surplus; they calcify into foundations, and foundations tend to be defended long after their use has expired. (...) Each axiom is therefore not a preference but a constraint on what may legitimately be posited in subsequent analysis, and they are arranged so that later claims are disciplined by earlier ones rather than floating free as optional rhetoric. (shrink)

The Borg and the Federation appear, at first glance, to be antithetical civilizations. One annihilates difference in the name of a perfect, unified collective; the other sanctifies individuality as the highest political and moral good. Between them, every science-fiction parable about freedom and control seems to find its footing. Yet when examined through the lens of symbolic lock-in, this polarity collapses. They are not opposites but mirrors. Two modes of the same structural failure; two architectures of consensus whose differences are (...) aesthetic, not ontological. (shrink)

For as long as human societies have produced symbols, they have also produced gatekeepers. The press, the pulpit, the academy, the court; each has served not merely as a channel of communication but as a filtering and stabilizing mechanism for the symbolic order. By controlling which representations reach public attention, and in what form, these institutions have functioned as custodians of meaning. They are the structural guardians of symbolic lock-in. Their authority rests on their capacity to ensure that the symbols (...) in circulation remain aligned with the institution’s chosen interpretation of the real, even when that interpretation has begun to drift. In this way, the symbolic field is kept within a narrow band. Contradictions and anomalies, which in a more open environment might destabilize the prevailing order, are either suppressed or reframed before they can challenge the coherence of the system. (shrink)

Cecilea discusses with Shelley Tremain her experience as a first-generation U.S. citizen and first-generation university graduate; why she was motivated to study philosophy and become a professional philosopher; the launching of the new, open access, online journal, the Journal of Philosophy of Emotions (JPE); the “mismatch” between what she seemed like “on paper” and what she is is capable of; how societal, institutional, professional, and philosophical practices and policies must be adjusted to enable others like her to flourish as professional (...) philosophers; and any resources—such as articles, books, and videos—that she would like to recommend on the topics and issues that she has addressed in this interview. (shrink)

Learning to see the continuity between our everyday decision-making and our decision-making around new biotechnologies is key to acclimatizing to our enhanced future. By excavating this decision-making, Singh helps us see that Ritalin isn’t really that big a deal and helps dispel what Malcolm Gladwell (1999) noted as the “strange inversion of moral responsibility” encouraged by books like ‘Ritalin Nation’ and ‘Running on Ritalin,’ whose authors “seek to make those parents and physicians trying to help children with A.D.H.D. feel guilty (...) for doing so.”. (shrink)

This is not an attack on neuroscience, pharmacology, or the study of the brain. Those are instruments, and an instrument is neither noble nor vile; it is only sharp, useful, and obedient in the hand that wields it. This attack is on something that has dressed itself in the authority of instruments while remaining, at its core, a moral doctrine of innocence masquerading as causal explanation. Our neurochemical imbalance myth is not primarily a claim about molecules; it is a claim (...) about responsibility. It is an arrangement of blame. It is a technique for locating suffering where it can be managed without accusation. I will address it in its most respectable form, not in the nursery slogans that flatter the public with simplicity, because only strong doctrines deserve execution. I will not ask the puerile question, “is it true?” as though truth were a matter of polite verification balanced by citation. I will ask a deeper question; what kind of life needs this to be true, what kind of society rewards it, what kind of institutional order depends upon it, and what kind of weakness must continually reassert itself through explanations that turn the world into scenery and the person into fault? (shrink)

We are all born in some religion, cult, or school of thought. Some are born Christian, some Muslim, and some Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu, etc. -/- All that these people have in common as they grow up is their bias towards their own religion and how they view and criticize the opposing religions. They all seem to believe that their religion and God or the Gods are the true ones. -/- If Jews think that they are correct, and Muslims and Christians (...) think the same as the Jews, and the Buddhists, Hindus, and others feel the same way, then we need to ask one, which group is correct? And two, why do they all think the same but over different Gods and teachings? (shrink)

The development of a book is an enjoyable task. Whatever the contents of this book might be, I assure you that I would try my best to put things in such a simple language in an easy-to-understand manner. Moreover, I also promise to be as blunt and frank as I could be. -/- I have been thinking of writing this book for quite some time; however, I have decided if I am going to write one book, then I might as (...) well write more books since I am going over the basics of some of my thoughts and theories in this very first book.6 However, my thoughts and theories are the least important since everybody could be wrong, and my thoughts could have been the same as others. -/- Yet, as mentioned earlier, these are only the base of my thoughts, observations, and theories and do not include all the subjects I would love to share. I have written in this very first book a brief introduction to some of my thoughts. -/- Furthermore, they are nothing special since we all think we have something special to say. I might perhaps be under the same impression as everybody else. -/- Also, I have to admit that I am an average person like any other person who could make mistakes. Therefore, I see myself entitled to change of opinion if better logic is provided sufficiently. -/- I have to try writing this book since it is already long overdue, and it is time to share my opinions and7 understandings of the world as simple and as naive that they can be! -/- Moreover, this book will be as I usually say that ''in school, first, you learn a lesson then you have a test, but in life, first, you have a test then you learn a lesson''. -/- So I promise to listen to your criticism and pieces of advice to make myself better and develop into a better and wiser individual. I hope this book helps us both. -/- This book is not about me being right or wrong since I will always look forward to criticism since critics are the ones that help us be better at what we are or what we are trying to accomplish. (shrink)