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Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science (2nd Edition) 2nd Edition
Purchase options and add-ons
This book introduces the mathematics that supports advanced computer programming and the analysis of algorithms. The primary aim of its well-known authors is to provide a solid and relevant base of mathematical skills - the skills needed to solve complex problems, to evaluate horrendous sums, and to discover subtle patterns in data. It is an indispensable text and reference not only for computer scientists - the authors themselves rely heavily on it! - but for serious users of mathematics in virtually every discipline.
Concrete Mathematics is a blending of CONtinuous and disCRETE mathematics. "More concretely," the authors explain, "it is the controlled manipulation of mathematical formulas, using a collection of techniques for solving problems." The subject matter is primarily an expansion of the Mathematical Preliminaries section in Knuth's classic Art of Computer Programming, but the style of presentation is more leisurely, and individual topics are covered more deeply. Several new topics have been added, and the most significant ideas have been traced to their historical roots. The book includes more than 500 exercises, divided into six categories. Complete answers are provided for all exercises, except research problems, making the book particularly valuable for self-study.
Major topics include:
- Sums
- Recurrences
- Integer functions
- Elementary number theory
- Binomial coefficients
- Generating functions
- Discrete probability
- Asymptotic methods
This second edition includes important new material about mechanical summation. In response to the widespread use of the first edition as a reference book, the bibliography and index have also been expanded, and additional nontrivial improvements can be found on almost every page. Readers will appreciate the informal style of Concrete Mathematics. Particularly enjoyable are the marginal graffiti contributed by students who have taken courses based on this material. The authors want to convey not only the importance of the techniques presented, but some of the fun in learning and using them.
- ISBN-100201558025
- ISBN-13978-0201558029
- Edition2nd
- PublisherAddison-Wesley Professional
- Publication dateFebruary 28, 1994
- LanguageEnglish
- Dimensions9.38 x 7.82 x 1.44 inches
- Print length672 pages
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Editorial Reviews
From the Back Cover
This book introduces the mathematics that supports advanced computer programming and the analysis of algorithms. The primary aim of its well-known authors is to provide a solid and relevant base of mathematical skills - the skills needed to solve complex problems, to evaluate horrendous sums, and to discover subtle patterns in data. It is an indispensable text and reference not only for computer scientists - the authors themselves rely heavily on it! - but for serious users of mathematics in virtually every discipline.
Concrete Mathematics is a blending of CONtinuous and disCRETE mathematics. "More concretely," the authors explain, "it is the controlled manipulation of mathematical formulas, using a collection of techniques for solving problems." The subject matter is primarily an expansion of the Mathematical Preliminaries section in Knuth's classic Art of Computer Programming, but the style of presentation is more leisurely, and individual topics are covered more deeply. Several new topics have been added, and the most significant ideas have been traced to their historical roots. The book includes more than 500 exercises, divided into six categories. Complete answers are provided for all exercises, except research problems, making the book particularly valuable for self-study.
Major topics include:
- Sums
- Recurrences
- Integer functions
- Elementary number theory
- Binomial coefficients
- Generating functions
- Discrete probability
- Asymptotic methods
This second edition includes important new material about mechanical summation. In response to the widespread use of the first edition as a reference book, the bibliography and index have also been expanded, and additional nontrivial improvements can be found on almost every page. Readers will appreciate the informal style of Concrete Mathematics. Particularly enjoyable are the marginal graffiti contributed by students who have taken courses based on this material. The authors want to convey not only the importance of the techniques presented, but some of the fun in learning and using them.
About the Author
Donald E. Knuth is Professor Emeritus of The Art of Computer Programming at Stanford University. His prolific writings include four volumes on The Art of Computer Programming, and five books related to his TEX and METAFONT typesetting systems.
Oren Patashnik is a member of the research staff at the Center for Communications Research, La Jolla, California. He is also the author of BibTEX, a widely used bibliography processor.
Product details
- Publisher : Addison-Wesley Professional
- Publication date : February 28, 1994
- Edition : 2nd
- Language : English
- Print length : 672 pages
- ISBN-10 : 0201558025
- ISBN-13 : 978-0201558029
- Item Weight : 2.8 pounds
- Dimensions : 9.38 x 7.82 x 1.44 inches
- Best Sellers Rank: #100,564 in Books (See Top 100 in Books)
- #4 in Computer Algorithms
- #11 in Programming Algorithms
- #95 in Mathematics (Books)
- Customer Reviews:
About the authors

Donald E. Knuth was born on January 10, 1938 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He studied mathematics as an undergraduate at Case Institute of Technology, where he also wrote software at the Computing Center. The Case faculty took the unprecedented step of awarding him a Master's degree together with the B.S. he received in 1960. After graduate studies at California Institute of Technology, he received a Ph.D. in Mathematics in 1963 and then remained on the mathematics faculty. Throughout this period he continued to be involved with software development, serving as consultant to Burroughs Corporation from 1960-1968 and as editor of Programming Languages for ACM publications from 1964-1967.
He joined Stanford University as Professor of Computer Science in 1968, and was appointed to Stanford's first endowed chair in computer science nine years later. As a university professor he introduced a variety of new courses into the curriculum, notably Data Structures and Concrete Mathematics. In 1993 he became Professor Emeritus of The Art of Computer Programming. He has supervised the dissertations of 28 students.
Knuth began in 1962 to prepare textbooks about programming techniques, and this work evolved into a projected seven-volume series entitled The Art of Computer Programming. Volumes 1-3 first appeared in 1968, 1969, and 1973. Having revised these three in 1997, he is now working full time on the remaining volumes. Volume 4A appeared at the beginning of 2011. More than one million copies have already been printed, including translations into ten languages.
He took ten years off from that project to work on digital typography, developing the TeX system for document preparation and the METAFONT system for alphabet design. Noteworthy by-products of those activities were the WEB and CWEB languages for structured documentation, and the accompanying methodology of Literate Programming. TeX is now used to produce most of the world's scientific literature in physics and mathematics.
His research papers have been instrumental in establishing several subareas of computer science and software engineering: LR(k) parsing; attribute grammars; the Knuth-Bendix algorithm for axiomatic reasoning; empirical studies of user programs and profiles; analysis of algorithms. In general, his works have been directed towards the search for a proper balance between theory and practice.
Professor Knuth received the ACM Turing Award in 1974 and became a Fellow of the British Computer Society in 1980, an Honorary Member of the IEEE in 1982. He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Engineering; he is also a foreign associate of l'Academie des Sciences (Paris), Det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi (Oslo), Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Munich), the Royal Society (London), and Rossiiskaya Akademia Nauk (Moscow). He holds five patents and has published approximately 160 papers in addition to his 28 books. He received the Medal of Science from President Carter in 1979, the American Mathematical Society's Steele Prize for expository writing in 1986, the New York Academy of Sciences Award in 1987, the J.D. Warnier Prize for software methodology in 1989, the Adelskøld Medal from the Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1994, the Harvey Prize from the Technion in 1995, and the Kyoto Prize for advanced technology in 1996. He was a charter recipient of the IEEE Computer Pioneer Award in 1982, after having received the IEEE Computer Society's W. Wallace McDowell Award in 1980; he received the IEEE's John von Neumann Medal in 1995. He holds honorary doctorates from Oxford University, the University of Paris, St. Petersburg University, and more than a dozen colleges and universities in America.
Professor Knuth lives on the Stanford campus with his wife, Jill. They have two children, John and Jennifer. Music is his main avocation.

Discover more of the author’s books, see similar authors, read book recommendations and more.

Discover more of the author’s books, see similar authors, read book recommendations and more.
Customer reviews
Customer Reviews, including Product Star Ratings help customers to learn more about the product and decide whether it is the right product for them.
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Learn more how customers reviews work on AmazonTop reviews from the United States
- 5 out of 5 stars
Phenomenal introduction to discrete math & asymptotics
Reviewed in the United States on October 3, 2020This book is classic Knuth: brilliant, comprehensive, inviting, and playful. Highly, highly recommended. This book is ideal for self-study.
Material covered includes the basics of discrete math, plus some extras needed for analysis of algorithms. There is an explicit and polemical slant towards a concrete (Knuth calls it 'Eulerian') approach, but this basically just means the emphasis is on explicit calculation and motivating examples, rather than 'elegant' formality and abstraction.
In terms of topics, the book starts with a chapter introducing recurrences, then guides the reader through developing familiarity and calculational skill with sums and sigma notation; floors and ceilings; modular arithmetic and a bit of number theory; binomial coefficients and special functions, finally culminating with generating functions, which provide a general framework for solving recurrences encountered in earlier chapters. There are also a couple of chapters on discrete probability and asymptotics, which round out the stated goal of the book: covering preparatory mathematical material needed for the analysis of algorithms in Knuth's Art of Computer Programming.
As with TAOCP, the problem sets are as enjoyable and carefully constructed as the exposition, and the solutions are included in the back of the book (about 500 pages of exposition, and about 100 pages of solutions). These problems could easily keep an interested person busy for a lifetime. They are each graded using Knuth's customary scale, and range from the trivially easy to open research problems.
29 people found this helpfulSending feedback...Sending feedback...HelpfulThank you for your feedback.Sorry, we failed to record your vote. Please try againThanks, we'll investigate in the next few days.Sorry, We failed to report this review. Please try again - 5 out of 5 stars
Maybe best book of its kind, but no walk in the park.
Reviewed in the United States on January 31, 2016I love this book.
It's extremely dense, which is great for me because I will keep learning from it for months or years to come.
If you're relatively new to the subject, like me, a lot of this book won't be easy to comprehend the first time around, however with determination and online resources for help, you can get through it.
Even without online resources, if you keep going when you don't understand something, and try to work out the examples on paper, you will get far.
After studying this book for a while, go back to the sections that you missed the first time and they should make more sense.
Try as many of the exercises as you can, some are very difficult, but others can be accomplished the first time around.
This book is not for the faint of heart. If you aren't using it for a class, it will take a lot of dedication to make it through. That said, it's one of the best resources for learning discrete and continuous mathematics that relate to computer science.
A great precursor to many of the great algorithm books.
21 people found this helpfulSending feedback...Sending feedback...HelpfulThank you for your feedback.Sorry, we failed to record your vote. Please try againThanks, we'll investigate in the next few days.Sorry, We failed to report this review. Please try again - 5 out of 5 stars
Print version is great. Do NOT buy the kindle version
Reviewed in the United States on May 23, 2019There are so many font and ligature issues in the kindle version of this book, it is virtually unuseable. But the print version is great. Other reviewers take issue with the lack of examples for some of the more advanced topics, and one reviewer attributes other's favorable reviews to Knuth "fan-boy-ism". I feel Knuth is (deservedly) a legend because of the topics he chooses and the detail in which he covers them--not because he always has the best way of presenting the information to students. Even though his books include exercises, I don't consider any of Knuth's books to be good textbooks and I am glad I never had to take a course where any of his books were used as the main text. I have been writing scientific applications software for over forty years, and Knuth's books have proven to be extremely valuable reference books for me. Compare the topics covered in Knuth's books to other algorithm books like Sedgwick or Cormen, et al. and you will find lots of useful information that is unique to Knuth.
25 people found this helpfulSending feedback...Sending feedback...HelpfulThank you for your feedback.Sorry, we failed to record your vote. Please try againThanks, we'll investigate in the next few days.Sorry, We failed to report this review. Please try again - 5 out of 5 stars
Maths poetry
Reviewed in the United States on July 11, 2024Amazon did a great logistics job. I really like what this book brings to the table. A rigorous and yet pleasant presentation of maths for computer scientists.
2 people found this helpfulSending feedback...Sending feedback...HelpfulThank you for your feedback.Sorry, we failed to record your vote. Please try againThanks, we'll investigate in the next few days.Sorry, We failed to report this review. Please try again - 4 out of 5 stars
A Path to Redemption for a CS State Schooler
Reviewed in the United States on May 30, 2014I originally bought this book as a source of remedial study following the end of my US state school CS undergrad experience (I completed a BS Computer Science in 2013, > 3.5 GPA), and as preparation for V1 & V4 of TAOCP. I use the word remedial here in the sense that I felt that I was missing a critical foundation in the mathematical analysis and derivation of algorithms, even after the course-work of that degree. I've done 3 chapters of it in full, and I will mention a number of things that other reviews haven't talked about. Due to the horrendous time commitment of this book, I strongly suspect this is because those reviewers haven't actually worked through it, and have instead chosen to skim and allow Knuth fanboyism, along with the desire for mutual association, to cloud their opinions. I'm revoking a star simply to balance those reviews out, and so that graduates in similar situations have an actual informed critical opinion of this book to find among the reviews.
Take-Aways (As of Ch 3):
There are many aspects of summations, integer functions, and proofing that: I never saw covered in my CS degree, are unforgettable, and can be immediately applied to most algorithm research. Those alone make this book worth every penny. Further, the problems posed by this book are more than just repeated mechanics, as I have seen in books like those mentioned below. Each problem is carefully chosen, thorough, and exposes multiple aspects of each topic. They really do weed out many faults that I wasn't really exposed to- as a small example: the importance of ensuring validity of n-1 and n-2 hypothesis & base cases during an induction proof.
The Bad:
Students educated through a contemporary CS track at most American uni's, I believe, (e.g. Rosen Discrete Math, Cormen Algorithms) will find this book both terrifyingly terse and frustratingly paced. In many cases, examples are given without derivation. In many cases, important points are made without obvious connection to previous topics. This is not without a solution however, and getting through this book is often an acquired technique of paper noting things as-you-go, as well as a learned hyper-literacy. The terseness is also a double-edged sword, as sometimes I found it useful as an extra opportunity to practice the taught methods to see if I could come to the same result. Further, the reader should be prepared to go back and review propositional logic & university calculus theorems (atleast FTC, definite vs indefinite integrals). For example, the description of sum by parts in the section on finite calculus assumes _much_ from the reader, and being able to use university calc. as a point of reference to get through that is helpful.
A lot of exercises are tersely explained in both problem and solution. Further, many solutions are totally left-field (having little to do with material in the book). This isn't necessarily bad, as even taking the wrong path to a solution is very educational. However, at some point the reader has to make a judgment as to how long to commit to a certain problem. Many terse problems & left-field solutions instill the wrong judgment: quitting too early.
Conclusion:
Attention to detail & extra work is necessary to overcome the terseness of this particular beast, but it's worth it. I recommend this book for developers confronted with algorithm optimization problems, as a well as for a different take on parts of discrete math, and definitely for students coming out of a US state school CS program, the last which this book complements very well. Having worked through some of V1 TAOCP, I would also say that the book is effective in expanding upon its math underpinnings (V1 at-least), and incidentally, does give one confidence to tackle Knuth's other works.
170 people found this helpfulSending feedback...Sending feedback...HelpfulThank you for your feedback.Sorry, we failed to record your vote. Please try againThanks, we'll investigate in the next few days.Sorry, We failed to report this review. Please try again - 5 out of 5 stars
Classic Reference that's Fun!
Reviewed in the United States on September 15, 2015This book is an expansion of the Preliminary Mathematics section of Book 1 of TAOCP by Knuth. Unlike TAOCP, the tone is much less dense, very relaxed and actually fun to read. Especially the sometimes tangential and sometimes downright funny graffitis.
The book is great for self -study. As with TAOCP, problems are graded. Solutions exist to all problems - except research ones- but trying to solve them yourself will be the best way to use this book.
Overall, worth every penny. A classic reference and must have.
17 people found this helpfulSending feedback...Sending feedback...HelpfulThank you for your feedback.Sorry, we failed to record your vote. Please try againThanks, we'll investigate in the next few days.Sorry, We failed to report this review. Please try again - 5 out of 5 stars
Best intro for CS math ever
Reviewed in the United States on December 19, 2022One of my lovest books. Great written, great examples, great exercises. Perfect math book. Love it.
4 people found this helpfulSending feedback...Sending feedback...HelpfulThank you for your feedback.Sorry, we failed to record your vote. Please try againThanks, we'll investigate in the next few days.Sorry, We failed to report this review. Please try again - 5 out of 5 stars
Beautiful book
Reviewed in the United States on July 24, 2018This is one of the sexiest books I have ever received. It made me super pumped for the class even though the class was the bane of my existence and made me question my life decisions daily the sleek design of this book helped.
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Top reviews from other countries
Theo LAURENT5 out of 5 starsUne perle rare
Reviewed in France on November 1, 2013Un fabuleux cours de math "concretes" ou "en béton" (pour plus de détails sur le contenu, consulter la table des matières), rédigé avec rigueur, humour et style, du grand art. (existe aussi en VF parait-il) ; je le conseille à tout étudiant en mathématiques souhaitant approfondir ses connaissances, se cultiver, (se divertir ?) ; et également aux étudiant en informatique souhaitant accérir de solides bases matématiques pour étudier l'analyse des algorithmes
A really great "concrete mathematic" course (for more details on the very inside, see the table of contents), written with humor and rigor, a great book.
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Alan5 out of 5 starsPodría simplificarse
Reviewed in Mexico on October 15, 2019Contiene todo lo básico, aunque en mi opinión debería de estar un poco mejor explicado, en su defecto recomiendo mejor el de introducción a algoritmos.
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Conor Fairclough5 out of 5 starsMany fun but difficult excercises, weak explanations
Reviewed in the United Kingdom on December 31, 2021I only started but I love the book, it has a great "applicable maths" feel to it. It really is a book for falling in love with the beauty of mathematics.
But, my only minor complaint is some of the explanations are a little "sparse". The authors draw conclusions that my mind does not see, but this can be seen as an opportunity to self research from other sources, or to give up.
10/10
Happy Reading!
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K. K Slider5 out of 5 starsA book sent from Legends in Computer Science
Reviewed in Canada on January 21, 2016The definitive book on Computer Science - Wither or not you're seeking a job in industry or pursuing grad studies, this book will prepare you for any of the math thrown at you in full fledged Computer Science program (Summations, Proving Correctness, Asymptotic Running times, Series, etc).
The book is not written like your typical academic text book you see these days. It contains full solutions, in plain and concise English, and a lot of humorous footnotes by TA's and Students.
If you're a freshman or junior in a Computer Science program and just have done Calculus 1 and Discrete Math, you'll want to work through this if you want to masterfully analysis algorithms later on in your program.
Anyways, it's from the Legend himself - Knuth!
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Marco5 out of 5 starsStraordinario
Reviewed in Italy on May 15, 2026Testo straordinario che, anche a distanza di molti anni, rimane una delle migliori risorse per avvicinarsi allo studio della combinatoria, dell'analisi degli algoritmi, dell'informatica, dell'ottimizzazione, della crittografia e, più in generale, della matematica discreta. Gli esercizi sono organizzati secondo la classificazione adottata da Knuth su TAOCP, quindi è del tutto normale imbattersi in problemi piuttosto impegnativi che gli autori considerano invece elementari.
Ricordo ancora quando, durante un esame di matematica all'ultimo anno della triennale, ci venne proposto un esercizio tratto proprio da questo volume su una funzione generatrice tutt'altro che banale. L'esercizio era classificato dagli autori come "homework" ma come valido testo d'esame dal nostro insegnante. L'esame mise in difficoltà un discreto numero di candidati, constringendone un bel po' a ripetere la prova. Non disperate pertanto se certi esercizi vi richiedono un importante quantitativo di tempo o se altri vi sembrano addirittura inaffrontabili: è del tutto normale.
Per quanto riguarda il sottotitolo del libro ("a foundation for computer science"), va tenuto presente che il tipo di informatica a cui si riferiscono gli autori è ben diverso da quello che intendiamo oggi. Il testo serve infatti a fornire gli strumenti teorici necessari ad affrontare l'analisi combinatoria. Se quindi state cercando una risorsa per imparare l'ennesimo framework Javascript o un modo per diventare dei vibe-coders provetti, questo volume non fa decisamente per voi. In tal caso, però, evitate perlomeno di sminuirlo.
Allego una foto dell'indice dei contenuti per coloro che fossero curiosi degli argomenti trattati.

Testo straordinario che, anche a distanza di molti anni, rimane una delle migliori risorse per avvicinarsi allo studio della combinatoria, dell'analisi degli algoritmi, dell'informatica, dell'ottimizzazione, della crittografia e, più in generale, della matematica discreta. Gli esercizi sono organizzati secondo la classificazione adottata da Knuth su TAOCP, quindi è del tutto normale imbattersi in problemi piuttosto impegnativi che gli autori considerano invece elementari.
Ricordo ancora quando, durante un esame di matematica all'ultimo anno della triennale, ci venne proposto un esercizio tratto proprio da questo volume su una funzione generatrice tutt'altro che banale. L'esercizio era classificato dagli autori come "homework" ma come valido testo d'esame dal nostro insegnante. L'esame mise in difficoltà un discreto numero di candidati, constringendone un bel po' a ripetere la prova. Non disperate pertanto se certi esercizi vi richiedono un importante quantitativo di tempo o se altri vi sembrano addirittura inaffrontabili: è del tutto normale.
Per quanto riguarda il sottotitolo del libro ("a foundation for computer science"), va tenuto presente che il tipo di informatica a cui si riferiscono gli autori è ben diverso da quello che intendiamo oggi. Il testo serve infatti a fornire gli strumenti teorici necessari ad affrontare l'analisi combinatoria. Se quindi state cercando una risorsa per imparare l'ennesimo framework Javascript o un modo per diventare dei vibe-coders provetti, questo volume non fa decisamente per voi. In tal caso, però, evitate perlomeno di sminuirlo.
Allego una foto dell'indice dei contenuti per coloro che fossero curiosi degli argomenti trattati.
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