Social cohesion and inclusive participation in a polarised Europe

European democracies have changed considerably in the past 20 years. The enlargement of the European Union brought renewed optimism after the Cold War, and newly formed democracies enjoyed a period of prosperity, until the global financial crisis exposed divergences within the EU and fostered distrust within and between Member States. Moreover, protracted crises caused economic and geopolitical hardship for people and governments. Notwithstanding, Europe has led the way with regard to establishing human rights and gender equality, cultivating a society based on inclusiveness and equal treatment. The way Europeans live and what they believe have also changed drastically, and new technologies offer anyone a chance to engage with others online. Unfortunately, interactions about public issues have become increasingly hostile and aggressive as polarisation – an extreme form of disagreement that gives rise to a conflictual political and social landscape – has increased. This is harmful for both citizens and democracy.

Against this backdrop, it is important to investigate trends in polarisation in public opinion and the possible drivers of these trends, such as political engagement, perception of economic well-being and use of social media. Has polarisation increased in the EU on equality and economic and political issues? What is the role of social media in polarisation, and how can citizens use digital tools in a proactive way? What new forms of democracy can help restore participation and reduce polarisation? This report tackles these questions by analysing data from the European Social Survey and Eurofound’s Living and Working in the EU e-survey, and presenting four case studies of local, regional and national governments using forums for deliberative democracy to bolster citizen engagement.

Social cohesion has been the topic of several policy actions within the EU. The Treaty of Lisbon, which was signed in 2007 and came into force in 2009, aims to foster active citizenship and bolster social cohesion. The Treaty established a new form of participatory democracy, the European Citizens’ Initiative, consolidated in Article 11(4) of the Treaty on European Union and Article 24(1) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. Citizens’ dialogues and European citizens’ consultations were two other major EU initiatives. In recent years, the EU has addressed the current democratic challenge by proposing a new participatory approach, outlined in the White paper on the future of Europe advocated by President Juncker. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, President von der Leyen announced the first set of proposals as part of the new European Democracy Action Plan. The plan includes measures to strengthen the democratic process by promoting free and fair elections and strong democratic participation, supporting free and independent media, and countering disinformation. This became more pressing at the start of Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine and the Russian interference in European elections, as evidenced by the institution of the European Democracy Shield in the new Commission guidelines.

• Public opinion is in constant flux. Analysis of trends in polarisation on issues in Member States shows that polarisation has risen, especially on trust in political institutions, with parts of society being completely without trust in these institutions. This was especially evident during the financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic, revealing the nexus between crisis, austerity and distrust.

• Gender and sexual equality have improved across Member States, and on related issues there is a less conflictual and more accepting opinion landscape.

• Traditional values are negatively correlated with acceptance of immigrants and of gender equality, whereas universalist ones display positive correlations. When looking at political polarisation, both types of values predict increased distrust of political institutions.

• Perceptions of economic well-being, higher education and political engagement play a crucial role in depolarising citizens and increasing trust.

• Support for Ukraine is dwindling. The change in opinions with regard to government efforts in helping Ukraine has mostly been driven by war fatigue, financial insecurity and news consumption on social media.

• Citizens who participated in deliberative processes were highly appreciative of being able to be involved, felt compelled to follow up the related measures and felt more inclined to engage in such processes in the future.

• Regarding deliberative processes, local governments can be a very fertile field for experimentation, provided that political will, sufficient resources and adequate skills are available. Although digital tools are often used, in-person interaction remains the core of deliberative processes.

• Incorporating a range of democratic tools selected to suit the policy context appeals to institutions wanting to increase the inclusiveness of their policymaking.

• Trust is the glue that keeps citizens and institutions together and a fundamental aspect of social cohesion. Understanding the drivers of polarisation and addressing its main roots are of paramount importance for the proper functioning of democracy. Governments might consider investing in their communication channels and including stakeholders with local reach, such as civil society organisations (CSOs) and social partners.

• Social media and economic hardship are among the main reasons people become polarised against political institutions. Governments might consider addressing the safety of digital spaces, as well as combating misinformation within the remit of the Digital Services Act. This, in combination with measures to secure income, would help depolarise public opinion.

• Less polarised societies would lead to greater stability, as the policymaking agenda would be dictated less by sudden changes in the economic and geopolitical landscape.

• A political system that welcomes citizens’ contributions is one that empowers its citizens. Governments might consider encouraging citizens to actively participate in politics and strive for their opinions to be heard. When coupled with a reduction in polarisation, this could create a vibrant political sphere where politicians and policymakers are held accountable by their fellow citizens.

• Deliberative democracy was found to be a valuable tool in bridging the gap between citizens and institutions at the local, regional and national levels. To function properly, deliberative democracy needs funding, institutional support and political buy-in. Without these three key elements, processes cannot ensure inclusiveness and effectiveness, and their chances of success are reduced.

• The institutionalisation of deliberative democracy can foster a dynamic democratic ecosystem that has tailored democratic tools for all policy needs. This provides avenues for citizens to gather and engage in informed and moderated discussions, facilitating the sharing of knowledge and understanding among all groups of citizens.

• Finally, the involvement of social partners and CSOs is fundamental to hold the local and national political fabric together and create an environment in which citizens and institutions listen to each other. CSOs can be the watchdogs of policy implementation and can follow up with citizens.