Best Management Practices for Intensive Grazing Systems: Southeast Missouri Case Study

1. Introduction

Best management practices (BMPs) in grazing systems aim to optimize productivity, ensure environmental sustainability, and promote animal welfare. Some best management practices include grazing management and planning, soil and water management, and plant and animal health.

For grazing management, producers can divide pastures into smaller paddocks and rotating livestock between them allows forage to rest and regrow, reducing overgrazing and improving pasture health [1]. Well-managed pastures also promote more even utilization of forage and minimizes soil compaction [2]. Producers must evaluate the pastures based on factors like forage availability, stocking rates, and seasonal changes. Producers must regularly monitor pasture condition, forage growth, and livestock performance to make informed management decisions [3]. Livestock use must also be adjusted for appropriate stocking rates based on forage availability and carrying capacity of the land. Stocking rates and density must avoid overstocking, which can lead to overgrazing, soil degradation, and reduced animal performance [4]. Livestock diets and nutritional requirements are also the responsibility of the producer by ensuring access to diverse forage species and supplementing with appropriate feed, when necessary, especially during periods of low forage availability or high nutritional demand (e.g., lactation, gestation) [5, 6].

Livestock and grazing management require installment and maintenance of appropriate fencing to control livestock movement and protect sensitive areas such as riparian zones, wetlands, and wildlife habitats [7]. Invest in infrastructure like water troughs, shade structures, and handling facilities to support efficient grazing management. Livestock always require access to clean water by strategically placing water sources throughout grazing areas [8]. Proper water management improves livestock hydration, encourages even grazing distribution, and reduces soil erosion around watering points [9, 10].

Overall animal health is important to the success of a farming system. Producers should implement preventive healthcare measures such as vaccination programs, parasite control, and regular health checks to maintain livestock health and productivity. Producers should also provide appropriate shelter, bedding, and protection from extreme weather conditions to promote animal welfare [11].

Pasture health considering plants and soils impacts the overall health and performance of the animals, as well. Producers should monitor pasture health and implement strategies to control invasive weeds, pests, and diseases. Integrated pest management approaches may include cultural practices, biological control methods, and judicious use of herbicides or pesticides [12]. Producers can improve soil health, implementing practices such as rotational grazing, minimizing soil compaction, and incorporating legumes into pasture mixes. Healthy soils support diverse plant communities, enhance nutrient cycling, and improve water infiltration [13, 14, 15]. Incorporating conservation practices can help to minimize environmental impacts associated with grazing, such as erosion control, riparian area protection, and wildlife habitat enhancement [1, 15, 16]. Adopting sustainable grazing practices helps maintain ecosystem integrity and resilience.

By implementing these BMPs, producers can optimize the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of grazing systems while enhancing ecosystem health and resilience. Regular monitoring, adaptive management, and ongoing education and outreach are key to successful implementation of best management practices in grazing operations.

2. Grazing systems

A basic review of forage and grazing systems can be found in Forages I [17] and Forages II [18], as well other publications. Grazing allows producers to use land and natural resources for a feed system for livestock. While there are various methods of grazing livestock, it is important to define terms [19].

For this chapter, continuous grazing refers to livestock with access to grazing a pasture over a period. In a continuous grazing system, livestock are allowed access to the entire pasture often for the course of a year. Livestock intake and movements are not restricted across the entire pasture. Management decisions and labor for this system are often considered less than other grazing methods [20]. Challenges with a continuous grazing system include the grazing pressure on select forage species while allowing undesirable species to increase. The lack of rest periods for the regrowth of the forages increases the stresses on the plant health [21, 22, 23] and reduction in forage quality [24]. A continuous grazing system often results in poor plant health, an increased potential for soil health issues and for soil erosion, less diversity of forage species, more unfavorable or unpalatable species, and increased potential for water and nutrient runoff [25].

Grazing management also includes creep, forward, strip, limit, and mob grazing [26]. Both creep grazing and forward grazing allow the manager to make the higher quality forage available to specific animals with a goal for more gain. Creep grazing allows calves or smaller animals access to another area with high quality forages as the animals choose while the mothers are prevented access to this area. Forward grazing is like creep grazing in that calves are allowed access to high quality forages with cows prohibited. Once calves have had priority access, the area can be opened for cows to follow. Forward grazing is a method that is sometimes used for various types of livestock, such as cattle followed by sheep. Strip grazing is when livestock are limited to a specific area for a short period of time and usually at a higher stocking density. This method is used for more efficient use of forage while reducing waste. Limit grazing allows animals access to certain areas for a limited time which allows for cattle to graze on very high-quality forage for a few hours per day. This method can reduce waste from trampling and can be applied to paddocks including forages high in protein to supplement a lower quality forage in other pastures or paddocks. Mob grazing is a term applied to increasing stocking density in an area. This method helps to trample residue or incorporate seed or residue into soil while providing access to forage.

Another method of grazing system is often referred to as rotational grazing. While this term is sometimes considered acceptable for producers, it requires clear definition. Rotational grazing refers to the grazing method of relocating animals to various pastures or paddocks. Rotational grazing can be rotated based on the height and available forage, period of grazing, precipitation or weather factors, or other reasons. Because of the various items to choose when and how to rotate livestock, rotational grazing will not be used in this chapter.

Many forage scientists prefer using a term of management intensive grazing systems (some refer to this grazing system as controlled rotational grazing). This term allows for consideration of plant health and recovery periods [27, 28], weather conditions, livestock needs, stocking rates and density, and producer goals. This system often includes sub-divided pastures or paddocks for movement of cattle to available forage. Management decisions on when and where to move livestock include the following: forage availability, water access, shade, winter weather protection, recover periods for forage regrowth, livestock nutritional and intake requirements, distribution of animal excreta, establishment or re-establishment of a pasture, or producer goals and management decisions [29]. By using a management intensive grazing system, a producer could rotate multiple livestock species through a paddock system. For example, grazing beef cattle would be placed into a paddock for a period and then followed by sheep or other grazing animals. Benefits to plants and soil health can be the result of paddocks managed for multiple livestock species [30, 31, 32].

Plant and animal interactions along with abiotic factors, such as water and soil, involve the complexity of pasture ecosystems [33, 34]. The biotic and abiotic factors of the pasture ecosystem complexity all combine [35] with the added complexity of the management decisions and goals of the producer. As with all farming operations and management decisions, grazing management choices are left to the decisions of the producer. In many cases, producers focus on the economics of the livestock and overlook the health of plants and soil on the farm. Some producers have grazing livestock as a hobby farm while working a job off farm or after he/she has retired. Producers considering inputs, investments and efforts as a hobby will often put limited energy into this part of their operation. While it is not the situation for all producers to put less energy into farm management, the complexities of farm management create opportunities and challenges and require effort and planning.

3. Case study

In the Midwest United States, beef (Bos taurus) cow-calf operations are common. The David M. Barton Agricultural Research Center in Gordonville, Missouri, USA, provides a case study for research and educational experiential learning for undergraduate students and regional producers. The Agricultural Research Center (ARC) is a 252-acre (~102 hectare) farm consisting of a crop science unit for row crops and a beef cow-calf livestock operation. Southeast Missouri State University Department of Agriculture faculty, staff and students work closely with the farm manager to make management decisions [36]. To provide students with experiential learning opportunities and to provide research demonstrations to producers, the ARC strategic plan is diverse.

While there are opportunities at the ARC for semi-confined feedlot trials, the focus will be on the grazing systems here. Cattle are moved from paddock to paddock based on plant growth, plant health, weather conditions, and animal needs. Cattle are split into various groups of nutritional requirements for the paddock rotations. For example, lactating cows and their calves are moved to a paddock with adequate forage availability and quality for their nutritional needs. Other cattle, such as steers, will be moved to paddocks following the cow/calf pairs based on the forage availability. Paddock design allows for a managed intensive grazing system. Faculty and students regularly evaluate the animal, plant, and soil health.

Forage species include cool-season grasses/legume mixtures and warm-season grasses. The warm-season grass pastures are reserved for hay production unless there is a very dry summer, at which time the cattle can be moved to graze these pastures or add temporary fencing for smaller paddocks. This hay can be used to provide livestock feed during the winter months. For feeding, round hay bales are fed in bale feeders to prevent waste and trampling. These feeders are moved around the pasture to prevent nutrient buildup and manure deposition in one area for a longer period. When weather does not allow for moving livestock or feeding locations, a winter paddock is dedicated to a “sacrifice” paddock for the cattle. As a result, there is less need for pasture renovation following a difficult winter in more than one area of the farm.

As the ARC was previously a crop farm, there is little to no shade for cattle. Thus, shade structures have been designed and are moved around paddocks to provide shade and avoid one fixed location over longer terms. Water systems are portable if relocation is needed as well. The intermittent stream and pond access points are fenced to prevent cattle from access, which helps to provide soil stabilization of stream or pond banks. Freeze-proof, gravity-fed water tanks are available at the pond, if needed.

In areas of congregated animals, any manure buildup is relocated to a manure holding area to reduce non-point source pollution potential. As needed, the composted manure is applied to crop acres using protocol for nutrient recommendations for the plant and soil needs according to state recommendations.

A constructed wetland has been added to the ARC to reduce additional nutrient loading into waters moving off the farm. This wetland was designed as a catchment of water draining from the winter sacrifice pasture, confined areas/animal holding facilities, and high traffic areas.

In addition to the best management practices for grazing systems, the crop science unit of the ARC includes sub-surface irrigation which drains into a bioreactor on one side or a riparian management zone on the other. A water reservoir provides storage for surface water as needed for irrigation. Cover crops are established between crop season and crop rotations.

The ARC provides demonstrations for area producers and hands-on experiences for undergraduate students.

4. Best management practices: plants

Plant growth requires the correct soil health, water, and nutrient availability, as previously discussed. Selection of forage species and characteristics is equally important to animal production. Cool-season species are most productive in the cool months of the year which are the spring and fall. Warm-season species are most productive in the summer [37]. For forage availability, producers must consider the species that are planted and managed for grazing throughout the entire year. Grazing plans must also include plans and rotations during the seasonal production of the forages [38, 39, 40]. Best management practices for seasonal growth of forage species include intensive rotational grazing management with rotation plans for forage species appropriate for the time of year [39, 40].

In addition to seasonal production, forage quality and characteristics of species are also important in plant selection [41, 42]. Producers must consider the anti-quality factors that are associated with certain forages [43, 44, 45, 46]. For example, the protein and digestibility of legumes can result in bloat in animals [47]. Another example is fescue toxicity from symbiotic fungal endophyte in tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus (Schreb.) Dumort) [46, 48]. Best management practices to consider for anti-quality factors include grazing rotations to limit grazing duration in paddocks of concern [49]. For tall fescue, producers that have tall fescue in their fields can add additional species to create more diversity in each bite. The additional species can help reduce the impact of endophyte on animal performance and health by mixing the tall fescue with other species, such as legumes. Best management practices also include mixed species pastures of grass-legume mixtures to provide the protein, digestibility, and fiber necessary for grazing animals [50, 51, 52, 53].

For best management practices, grazing management also needs to include methods to prevent overgrazing of high-quality forage and undergrazing of less desirable species [54]. Intensively managed rotational grazing allows the producer to rotate animals based on intake, availability, forage quality, and species distribution while balancing forage species to grazing needs.

5. Best management practices: livestock

In grazing systems, understanding livestock behavior and their needs is crucial for effective management and ensuring animal welfare. Producers must manage livestock and forages based on animal behaviors and grazing habits [55, 56]. Animal grazing habits and behaviors also includes the type of livestock grazing. Livestock, such as cattle, sheep, and goats, are foragers that graze on a variety of grasses, forbs, and shrubs. Understanding their foraging behavior helps in managing grazing patterns and optimizing pasture utilization [56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62]. This includes managing pastures for the bite of the animal, which impacts the plant health and regenerative capabilities. Certain species of livestock graze or browse different forages, which impacts pasture management and species selection. Livestock behaviors are also exhibited in social hierarchies within their herds. Understanding social dynamics can help prevent aggression and ensure harmonious interactions among animals. For example, more assertive cows may impact the access of young calves to some areas of a pasture or paddock. One solution would be to offer a forward or creep grazing option for the young calves. Proper fencing is essential for controlling livestock movement within grazing systems. Fences should be sturdy and well-maintained to prevent escapes and minimize conflicts with livestock in other paddocks and with human neighbors.

Different livestock species have varying nutritional requirements based on factors like age, weight, stage of production (e.g., lactation, gestation), and environmental conditions. Grazing systems must provide a balanced diet to meet these nutritional needs [63]. Producers have the challenge to provide forage for the needs of all species and all nutritional needs of the species on a farm. Forage quality and anti-quality factors previously discussed impact nutritional aspects of forage species. Thus, selection of species, timing of grazing, and adjustments for anti-quality factors must be considered for grazing systems.

Livestock gathering areas for shade and shelter may increase nutrient loads but are necessary for animal welfare [14]. Livestock may require shelter from extreme weather conditions such as heat, cold, wind, and precipitation. Natural features like trees and artificial structures such as shelters or windbreaks can provide protection within grazing systems. Regular monitoring of livestock behavior, pasture condition, and environmental factors (e.g., weather, soil moisture) allows for timely management interventions. Adjustments to stocking rates, grazing duration, and pasture rotation can be made based on observed trends and conditions for animal and pasture health [5, 64, 65, 66, 67].

By considering these factors and adopting sound grazing management practices, livestock producers can optimize productivity, promote animal welfare, and enhance the sustainability of grazing systems.

6. Best management practices: soil, water, and nutrients

Soils are the media and foundation for plant growth. Soil particles, textures, characteristics are important for healthy plant life and impact the water and pore space availability for roots. Soil characteristics like water holding capacity and cation exchange capacity impact plant health. If water and air space is appropriate for plant roots, root hairs will aid in nutrient uptake. Essential elements are required for plant survival. If any those elements or minerals are not present, a plant will not survive. Also, if they are present in the wrong form, a plant is unable to uptake or use them. In cropping or grazing systems, synthetic fertilizers or animal manures can provide a source of nutrients necessary for plant growth. Plants also require the correct soil pH for survival. If soil pH is not correct, soil amendments, such as lime, may be necessary.

In addition to soil particles, water, and air pores in soil, microbial organisms [13], invertebrates, and small vertebrates also impact soil health. Many plant species are dependent on symbiotic relationships with bacteria or fungi in the soil. For example, legumes and bacteria in the soil fix nitrogen from gaseous form and convert it to forms of nitrate or ammonium that plants uptake. Also, mycorrhizae and plant roots for some plant species create a symbiotic relationship between fungi and plants. Plant species that depend on the symbiotic relationship with microorganisms require their existence for successful growth.

Best management practices for soils include maintaining the overall health of the ecosystem of microorganisms, plants [15, 16], nutrients, water, air space, and more. The dynamics of plant health and growth in relation to these biotic and abiotic factors must be balanced [68]. Producers should have knowledge of the soil characteristics and nutrient analysis for a farm. Fertilizer or manure application should be made necessary to the plant requirements. Fertilizer should also be applied in a manner to provide nutrients to plants without risking runoff into area water ways.

In addition to soil health, the weight and traffic of livestock can create areas of compaction. Planned lanes for traffic and grazing management can reduce this impact. If soil compaction and trampled plants are possible, producers might consider using chipped limestone or other rock product to prevent soil erosion and reduce duration of animals gathering in the lane.

Water is an important aspect of forage and grazing management. Livestock animals require access to water to drink. Depending on the species, age and weight of an animal, water requirements can range in amounts [69, 70]. Recommendations for many livestock are to have at least one gallon (3.79 liters) of water per 100 pounds (45.36 kg) of weight [70]. Animal access to water also requires planning. Animal behavior demonstrates that animals may gather at the “watering hole” and remain in the area [71]. During this time, animals urinate and deposit manure near the water access. This nutrient loading in one area of a pasture creates areas of concern [72]. When manure is concentrated in one location in a field, the nutrients are also concentrated in that area [14]. Concentrated waste and nutrients pose a risk to livestock health and water quality. Depending on several conditions like slope, incorporation, soil erodibility, plant health and condition, concentrated animal waste can runoff into area waterways [73]. Added nutrient loads to watersheds and drainage basins can result in eutrophication and potential for hypoxia in area waterways. Animal manure can contain pathogens and diseases, so manure in concentrated areas can present potential problems.

Some producers use ponds or streams for water access. This can result in waste deposition in the water. Animal traffic to and from the water also breaks down pond or streambanks and leads to erosion [9, 10]. Soil erosion is an additional nutrient load in water.

Best management practices for livestock watering include designed access points to water. Animal behavior can lead to curiosity if they cannot see where the rest of the herd is going, so they follow. By placing water access points in visible line of sight, animals are not as apt to follow. If possible, water tanks that are portable should be alternated to different locations [73, 74]. If moving water access points is not possible, animals should be prevented from pond or stream access by using gravity fed tanks at ponds or other water systems in place of stream access. If pond or stream access is the only option that a producer is willing or able to use, an access point can be focused to a narrow area limiting only one animal access at a time. This limitation can be done using barriers like fencing. The pond or streambank should also be reinforced with erosion control measures preventing bare soil, such as chipped limestone rock.

Fertilizer application, healthy plants, animal access, and nutrient loads all impact water quality. Moving animals for grazing or moving hay fed to animals in addition to rotating or limiting time spent in shade or at water access points will distribute manure and nutrients across pastures.

7. Best management practices: producers

Producers make various choices and management decisions in grazing systems that directly impact both the economics of their operations and the overall sustainability of their land use. Farmers must decide on the appropriate stocking rates and densities [75, 76] for their pastures based on factors such as forage availability, carrying capacity, and market demand for livestock products. Adjusting grazing intensity through rotational grazing or rest periods can affect pasture productivity, livestock performance, and long-term sustainability. Farmers must also choose the correct forage species for the livestock species, nutritional needs, and land resources. Choosing the right forage species, implementing proper pasture renovation and maintenance practices, and optimizing grazing strategies are critical for maximizing forage production and quality. Effective forage management directly impacts livestock nutrition, reducing the need for supplemental feed and improving economic returns [77]. Depending on factors like seasonal forage availability, livestock nutritional requirements, and market conditions, farmers may choose to provide supplemental feed to their animals. Balancing the cost of feed inputs with potential gains in livestock productivity and market value is crucial for optimizing profitability.

Producers can also consider environmental resources on the farm. Integrating conservation practices into grazing management, such as riparian buffer zones, rotational grazing, and wildlife habitat enhancement, can enhance the ecological sustainability of farming operations. Participation in conservation programs or certification schemes may also provide financial incentives or access to markets with sustainability requirements.

Producers make economic decisions [77] for livestock choices. Producers also may consider investing in infrastructure such as fencing, water systems, shade structures, and handling facilities to improve grazing efficiency, animal welfare, and overall farm productivity. These investments incur upfront costs but can lead to long-term benefits in terms of labor savings, livestock performance, and land utilization. Producers may explore different marketing channels and value-added opportunities for their livestock products, such as direct sales to consumers, niche markets (e.g., organic, grass-fed), or specialty products. Diversifying product offerings can help capture premium prices and mitigate market risks. Producers must also assess and mitigate various risks associated with grazing systems, including weather-related risks, market volatility, disease outbreaks, and regulatory changes. Risk management strategies may include diversification of enterprises, insurance coverage, hedging strategies, and emergency preparedness plans. Developing comprehensive financial plans and budgets helps producers make informed decisions about resource allocation, investment priorities, and income diversification strategies. Monitoring key financial indicators, such as production costs, revenue streams, and profitability margins, is essential for optimizing financial performance and long-term viability.

8. Conclusions

For the ARC, benefits from the case study and demonstrations include providers gaining information and knowledge on opportunities and students receiving training for a family business/farm or a future job. The location provides a comprehensive learning environment of challenges and opportunities in a grazing system including consideration for science, environment, or economics for the area.

Amid the challenges that producers experience, management involves multiple decision-making factors [78, 79, 80]. Producers may adopt new technologies, research-driven practices, or management techniques to improve efficiency, productivity, and resilience in the face of evolving challenges and opportunities. Continuous learning, innovation, and adaptation to changing conditions are essential for success in grazing systems [81].

By carefully considering complex factors and making informed choices, producers can effectively manage grazing systems to achieve economic viability, environmental sustainability, and social responsibility in their agricultural operations. Collaboration with extension services, industry organizations, and peer networks can provide valuable support and resources for decision-making and continuous improvement.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.