Perspective Chapter: Cadmium from Soil to Table – Implications of Contaminated Poultry Feed on Meat Quality and Human Health

Samuel O. Oluwayemi; Lucy W. Ngatia

doi:10.5772/intechopen.1015272

Abstract

Cadmium (Cd) is known as a very toxic heavy metal that can accumulate in soils through natural processes and human activities, particularly with the use of phosphate fertilizers, manure, and industrial emissions. It can persist and mobilize through soil solutions, allowing it to be absorbed by crops used in poultry feed formulations. Different parameters, such as soil pH, organic matter content, and climatic conditions, play an integral role in determining the bioavailability of Cd. Its absorption by feed crops in varying concentrations directly affects feed quality and growth performance in chickens fed such contaminated feed. Bioaccumulation, resulting from the long-term intake of contaminated feed by poultry, causes Cd to accumulate in their organs (liver and kidneys) and edible tissues (meat and eggs). Health risks, such as kidney damage, bone demineralization, and the growth of cancerous cells, are likely to arise in humans through the consumption of these products – a process known as biomagnification – as Cd moves up the food chain. Therefore, soil- and feed-based interventions are necessary to reduce the risk of Cd contamination. The addition of biochar, lime, and phytoremediation strategies helps reduce the bioavailable forms of Cd in soils. Supplementing poultry feed with minerals (zinc and selenium) and adsorbents (zeolite and bentonite) also helps reduce Cd absorption in poultry. Overall, the mitigation approaches ensure food safety and security, aligning with the One Health principle by safeguarding the health of animals, humans, and the environment.

Keywords

cadmium soil pollution
poultry feed safety
poultry meat quality
soil amendment
human health
food safety
and food security

Author Information

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Samuel O. Oluwayemi
- College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, USA
Lucy W. Ngatia *
- College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, USA

*Address all correspondence to: lucy.ngatia@famu.edu

1. Introduction

Cadmium (Cd) is one of the most toxic heavy metals, affecting both soil and food production systems. It has an atomic number of 48 and a weight of 112.41 and belongs to Group 12 of the periodic table, also classified as a transition metal [1]. Cadmium is also known as a nonessential trace element that has no known biological function in plants, animals, or humans and is inherently toxic when taken up by living organisms [2]. It is identified as a priority pollutant because it causes a wide range of health risks to animals and humans [3]. Unlike many other organic contaminants, it is a persistent environmental contaminant as it does not biodegrade. Once in the soil, it can accumulate for years due to its high ecological persistence [4]. Even at low concentrations, soil Cd can be absorbed by plants and transferred into the food chain [5]. This ability to persist and cycle through soil–plant ecosystems increases the risk of exposure in animals and humans that rely on crops grown in these soils [6].

Cadmium in soils can occur in different chemical forms, including free ions, bound to organic matter, adsorbed to clays, and precipitated. The most bioavailable chemical form of Cd for plant uptake from the soil solution is Cd²⁺. Specific soil properties, such as pH, organic content, and redox conditions, significantly impact the amount of Cd that remains mobile and available to the plants, as well as the amount that becomes tightly bound, thereby becoming unavailable to plants [7]. The influence of soil type on Cd binding and bioavailability is illustrated in Figure 1. In basic soils, Cd²⁺ ions are tightly held onto soil particles in the presence of high organic matter content through electrostatic forces. In neutral soils, reduced organic matter content and weaker electrostatic forces result in a greater proportion of Cd²⁺ existing in the soil solution as free cations. In acidic soils, elevated hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]) promotes the release of Cd²⁺ into the soil solution, thereby increasing its bioavailability. This chemical activity has a direct relation to the safety of poultry feed [8]. Consequently, soil characteristics that increase cadmium bioavailability also increase cadmium entry into crops used for animal feed, highlighting underlying soil chemical mechanisms that directly influence poultry feed safety [9].

Figure 1.
Structural diagram illustrating the binding interactions of cadmium with soil particles under basic, neutral, and acidic soil conditions. Source: Modified from the study by Rashid et al. [15].

Feed ingredients such as maize, wheat, and soybean, when grown in soils contaminated with Cd, are at high risk of absorbing Cd, thus entering the compounded poultry feed [8]. When such feed is consumed by poultry, Cd bioaccumulates in their functional organs, such as the liver and kidneys, and its traces may also be found in their meat and eggs [10]. This poses a risk to consumer health and undermines global food security efforts, as poultry and its products are a major source of protein for humans. Therefore, it is essential to implement effective monitoring and remediation strategies to mitigate Cd contamination risks across the soil–plant–animal–human continuum.

2. Sources of Cd in soils

The presence of Cd in agricultural soils arises from both natural sources and human activities, with the latter being the most potentially harmful source [11]. Even at low levels, it can accumulate over time, increasing its bioavailability for crops and its entry into the food chain.

2.1 Natural sources (geogenic)

In nature, Cd enters the soil through various processes. These include the weathering of parent rock material, volcanic activity, and soil formation processes such as translocation and leaching down the soil profile, clay adsorption, organic matter accumulation, and decomposition [12]. The mobility of Cd in soils can also be influenced by climatic conditions, especially rainfall and temperature, which can enhance leaching and redistribution throughout the soil profile [13]. The background levels of Cd retention and mobility are dependent on these natural processes. Higher levels of Cd concentration are often associated with alluvial sediments and soils produced from sedimentary rocks, and this depends on local geology and mineral composition [14]. Cadmium from natural sources can bind to humic and fulvic acids in soils with high organic matter content, influencing its bioavailability to plants [15].

Furthermore, Cd has high mobility through erosion and sediment flows, thus making it easier to move and accumulate in sedimentary plains and river basins [16]. Environmental factors, such as soil texture, vegetation cover, and rainfall intensity, can also influence the extent to which Cd is deposited and transported [17]. Although these natural processes contribute to the amount of soil Cd, they are generally lower than those resulting from human activities.

2.2 Human activities (anthropogenic)

Anthropogenic sources have a greater influence on soil Cd contamination than natural sources. The most important human source of Cd in soils is the use of phosphate fertilizers, which usually contain Cd as an impurity [18]. The frequent application of these fertilizers to the soil can cause Cd to accumulate and consequently be absorbed by plants. According to [19], sedimentary deposits, which are often rich in Cd, constitute the most significant proportion of the phosphate used in the manufacture of inorganic fertilizers. This contributes to the long-term accumulation of Cd in soil (Figure 2). A previous study [20] demonstrated that the application of poultry manure/litter increases soil Cd concentrations compared to unfertilized control areas because poultry feed often contains trace amounts of Cd, which is then excreted and concentrated in the litter.

Figure 2.
Effect of phosphorus fertilization on cadmium enrichment factor and pollution index. Modified from Chen et al. [53].

Industrial emissions and atmospheric deposition are also anthropogenic sources of Cd in soil. This is particularly common in urban areas and regions near mining, smelting, and manufacturing industries [21]. Cadmium released from these industries into the atmosphere can be distributed and deposited over wide areas. The deposition of these waste materials (e.g., cement dust, demolition debris, or metal industry slag) and other industrial activities can also introduce Cd into soil [22]. Unlike emissions that can travel far, this is point-source pollution around the site.

3. Consequences of Cd contamination

Cadmium contamination in soils and poultry feed poses a serious problem to the environment, agriculture, and public health. Some of the consequences of Cd contamination are as follows.

3.1 Reduced safety and quality of poultry feed

Primary poultry feed ingredients, such as maize, wheat, and soybeans, can accumulate Cd when grown on contaminated soils. This results in feed batches with low overall quality due to increased Cd concentrations [23]. Crop genotypes and standard soil parameters, such as pH, organic matter content, and redox potential, significantly affect Cd uptake into edible tissues. This consequently enables contaminant levels in these feed ingredients to vary [7]. Physiological processes, including root uptake, influence the accumulation of Cd in crops and its transfer through the xylem and phloem, which collectively regulate its translocation from the soil to edible tissues.

The presence of Cd in feed ingredients can also indirectly reduce the nutritional quality of the feed by antagonizing the uptake or availability of essential plant micronutrients such as zinc and calcium [23]. The cultivation of crops on Cd-contaminated soils over a prolonged period of time can lead to Cd buildup across multiple seasons, thereby increasing the risk of persistent contamination in feed ingredients [24]. Table 1 summarizes the range of permissible Cd concentrations in poultry feed and feed ingredients. Therefore, it is important to monitor feed quality to ensure poultry safety and minimize the risk of Cd entering the food chain. Ultimately, varying Cd levels in different poultry feed batches can complicate feed safety and control. Some feed batches may contain very low levels of Cd (safe), while others may contain high levels (unsafe). Since not every batch is tested immediately, contaminated feed may slip through and be fed to poultry before being detected [25].

Category	Feed type/ingredient	Cd (mg kg⁻¹)
Feeds	Poultry (layers)	0.01–0.60
	Poultry (broiler)	0.10–0.50
Feed ingredients	Fish meal	0.04–1.40
	Wheat and by-products	0.05–0.75
	Soybean meal	0.01–0.20
	Maize and by-products	0.01–0.50
	Minerals and premix	0.01–2.34

Table 1.

Permissible cadmium concentration (mg kg⁻¹) in poultry feed and feed ingredients.

Source: Data are based on European Union reports and modified from the study by Ketta et al. [31].

3.2 Potential accumulation in poultry tissues (bioaccumulation)

Cadmium progressively builds up in certain body organs of poultry following the ingestion of contaminated feed. This process of buildup is known as bioaccumulation, and the primary storage organs are the liver and kidneys [26]. Both the amount of Cd in the feed and the exposure time can affect the concentration of Cd in poultry tissues [27]. Even when Cd levels in feed remain low, continuous exposure to trace amounts of Cd results in its progressive bioaccumulation in the liver and kidneys over time [28], as shown in Figure 3. Several factors, such as age, breed, and metabolic rate, can influence Cd bioaccumulation, with younger birds and fast-growing broilers exhibiting higher Cd uptake [29]. Additionally, a predisposition to other heavy metals and deficiencies in essential minerals in feed can promote Cd retention in poultry tissues [30].

Figure 3.
Cadmium concentrations in the kidney and liver of chickens fed basal feed and feed derived from Cd-contaminated soil. Source: Modified from the study by Li et al. [54].

The bioaccumulation of Cd in poultry has several physiological and pathological effects. These include reduced growth and development rates, poor bone mineralization, oxidative stress, poor egg production and egg quality, and cellular damage in the liver and kidney tissues [31]. It can also impair immune function in poultry, increasing susceptibility to infections and reducing overall productivity. In edible tissues such as muscle and eggs, the transfer of Cd is lower than in the liver and kidneys [32]. However, Cd residues may be detected in these edible tissues due to continuous exposure, thereby providing a direct link to consumers [32].

3.3 Human health risks from consuming contaminated poultry products (biomagnification)

Cadmium tends to accumulate in the food chain, resulting in higher concentrations in human tissues than in the original poultry feed [33]. This leads to an increase in Cd concentration across the trophic levels in the food chain, a process known as biomagnification. Human health can be at risk following long-term consumption of poultry products contaminated by Cd. This may result in renal dysfunction, bone demineralization, and increased cancer susceptibility [1]. According to risk assessments, very low but consistent dietary intake of Cd-contaminated meat, offal, and eggs can increase body burden and risk from biomagnification over decades [34].

In addition, health conditions in individuals with pre-existing health conditions, such as hypertension and diabetes, may worsen due to Cd exposure from poultry products because it interferes with kidney function and calcium metabolism [35]. The consistent consumption of Cd-contaminated poultry products by humans may exceed recommended intake limits; hence, regulating Cd in soil and feed is crucial [36]. Thus, the problem of biomagnification highlights the need to prevent Cd from entering the food chain.

4. Mitigation and management strategies for reducing Cd in soils and feed crops

4.1 Soil-level intervention

These strategies involve controlling the bioavailable forms of Cd in the soil. They prevent Cd uptake by crops from the soil solution. Implementing these soil amendments not only limits Cd transfer into the food chain but also enhances overall soil fertility and crop productivity.

4.1.1 Biochar amendment

Biochar is a carbon-rich product resulting from the thermal decomposition of biomass residues, such as poultry litter, crop straw, or wood chips, under limited oxygen conditions [37]. This is a highly effective and sustainable method for reducing Cd bioavailability in soils (Figure 4). As a result of biochar’s high porosity, surface area, and oxygen-containing functional groups, it can adsorb Cd ions via chemical adsorption or complexation. This tends to reduce Cd solubility and plant uptake [38]. Biochar can enhance water and nutrient retention in soils, providing additional benefits for crops grown under stress conditions [39].

Figure 4.
Effect of biochar on cadmium mobility in soil–crop systems, showing interactions and comparative effects on two crops. Source: Modified from the study by Fang et al. [40].

Previous studies have indicated biochar’s effectiveness in soil [40], whereby biochar application increased soil pH and cation exchange capacity (CEC), thereby immobilizing Cd ions through complexation and precipitation processes. Biochar also enhances soil fertility, microbial activity, and organic carbon sequestration, making it suitable for both soil remediation and sustainable agriculture [41]. These combined effects highlight biochar as a multifunctional amendment that simultaneously mitigates risks associated with heavy metals and promotes sustainable agricultural productivity.

4.1.2 Liming

Liming is a cost-effective, widely used practice that can be employed to reduce Cd availability in soil. The correction of soil acidity using calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) promotes the adsorption of Cd onto clay minerals and organic matter, thereby decreasing the solubility of Cd in the soil solution [19]. This occurs by increasing the soil pH and forming insoluble Cd compounds such as Cd carbonate (CdCO₃) and Cd hydroxide (Cd(OH)₂) [12]. Additionally, liming enhances soil structure by promoting the aggregation of clay particles and increasing porosity, thereby reducing Cd mobility and facilitating root growth and water infiltration [42]. Figure 5 illustrates the effects of liming on Cd-contaminated soil under different conditions.

Figure 5.
Liming effect on cadmium-contaminated soil with plants, showing both negative and positive impact conditions. Source: Modified from the study by He et al. [55].

A field experiment by [43] indicates that liming can reduce Cd uptake by grains by 44–50%. However, it is important to note that excessive liming could potentially interfere with essential micronutrients (such as zinc and manganese). Therefore, the practice should be used judiciously while adjusting soil pH. For best results, it is recommended to combine liming with organic amendments or biochar to enhance synergistic effects for Cd immobilization and soil restoration [38]. Such integrated practices also promote microbial activity and soil fertility, creating a healthier soil ecosystem that can buffer heavy metal stress over time.

4.1.3 Phytoremediation

Phytoremediation is a soil remediation strategy that utilizes selected plant species with the natural ability to absorb, accumulate, or bind Cd within the rhizosphere (root zone) or plant tissues, thereby reducing the bioavailable Cd fraction in soils over time. This soil amendment approach is environmentally friendly and inexpensive to adopt. Phytoremediation can be achieved through different methods, which include phytostabilization (which acts by reducing contaminant mobility by enhancing adsorption, precipitation, and root-mediated immobilization, thereby limiting leaching and entry into the food chain), phytofiltration (which targets dissolved contaminants in surface soils or water through root uptake and rhizosphere interactions, making it suitable for addressing shallow contamination), and phytoextraction [44].

Phytoextraction is the most common mechanism used for remediating soils contaminated with Cd. It relies on fast-growing or hyperaccumulator plants that can take up Cd from the soil and translocate it into aboveground biomass, which can be harvested and removed [44]. Several plant families, including Brassicaceae, Asteraceae, Amaranthaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Poaceae, and Euphorbiaceae, contain species known for their high Cd accumulation potential while maintaining adequate biomass production [45]. Phytoremediation is generally most suitable for soils with low to moderate levels of Cd contamination. Combining phytoremediation with other soil amendments, such as biochar or lime, produces a significant synergistic effect, thus providing a sustainable solution for Cd contamination and soil restoration.

4.2 Feed-level interventions

Federal-level interventions include mitigation strategies that could reduce Cd contamination in poultry feed and ingredients, thus limiting its entry into the food chain. Adopting these strategies not only helps reduce the accumulation of Cd in the poultry body system but also ensures that their products are safe for human consumption.

4.2.1 Mineral supplementation (zinc and selenium)

Zinc (Zn) and selenium (Se) are essential trace minerals that have been shown to decrease Cd absorption and accumulation in tissues when incorporated as dietary supplements in poultry feed. These two essential minerals are required for normal poultry metabolic functions, including enzyme function, defense, and immunity [46]. Zinc and Cd share similar pathways in the intestinal mucosa; thus, adequate zinc supplementation can compete with Cd and block its uptake by occupying metal-binding sites [32]. Through complexation, selenium reduces the toxic, bioavailable form of Cd in the liver and kidneys [47].

In addition to their preventive and neutralizing functions, these minerals also play an integral role in enhancing the bird’s antioxidant defense system, thereby helping to neutralize Cd-induced oxidative stress and protect tissues from damage [46].

4.2.2 Use of adsorbents (e.g., zeolite and bentonite)

Feed adsorbents are non-nutritional compounds incorporated into feed that can bind toxic substances, such as heavy metals, on their surface, thereby preventing their absorption in the digestive tract [48]. Commonly used feed adsorbents include zeolite and bentonite, naturally occurring aluminosilicate minerals with large surface areas and high ion-exchange capacities [49]. Due to their large surface area, they can trap Cd ions within their lattice. Additionally, their high ion-exchange capacity enables them to exchange beneficial ions, such as Na⁺ Ca²⁺, for toxic heavy metal ions like Cd²⁺.

These characteristics enable them to adsorb Cd ions and form complexes within the poultry gastrointestinal tract, which are subsequently excreted in the feces [48]. Feed adsorbents can exert a synergistic protective effect when combined with mineral supplementation. This ensures the safety of poultry products for human consumption.

5. Conclusion

Cadmium contamination in soils typically threatens the safety of poultry feed and the health of animals and humans. Even at low dietary contamination levels, its accumulation in poultry organs calls for the need to manage exposure throughout the soil-to-feed chain. Soil mitigation strategies, such as biochar addition, liming, and phytoremediation, in combination with feed mitigation strategies, including mineral supplementation and adsorbent incorporation, have proven effective in reducing the contaminating effect of Cd. It has been shown that soil-based interventions can reduce soil Cd bioavailability and its uptake by plants by up to 30–56% [50], while feed-based strategies have been reported to lower Cd bioaccumulation in poultry by up to 40–60% [51], depending on the duration and level of exposure. It is essential to adopt these mitigation strategies when Cd concentrations approach or exceed the threshold levels of concern (approximately 0.3–1.0 mg/kg in soils and 0.5–1.0 mg/kg in poultry feed) [52]. Therefore, implementing these strategies not only safeguards poultry health and productivity but also reduces Cd residues in poultry products (meat and eggs), thereby protecting human health.

Despite these benefits, some limitations exist. These include limited data on the combined effects of multiple mitigation strategies and an insufficient monitoring timeline for Cd transfer. Also, soil chemical properties, such as organic matter content, cation exchange capacity, and pH, can affect these remediation strategies. Several existing studies are conducted over a short period and do not account for variability in soil properties over longer periods. Future research should focus on long-term surveillance of Cd contamination and integrated mitigation approaches. This is important for establishing risk assessment models and even resorting to safer thresholds. By mitigating environmental contamination from Cd and adopting a safe system of poultry production and nutrition, this promotes the concept of One Health, which interconnects and considers the health of animals, humans, and the environment. Ultimately, sustainable animal-source protein and food security are also enhanced.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their special thanks to the College of Agriculture and Food Sciences at Florida A&M University for providing a conducive environment in which to write this chapter. This work was supported by USDA-NIFA and Evans-Allen funds, Grant No. NI241445XXXXG006 and McIntire-Stennis Grant No. NI23MSCFRXXXG047.

The author acknowledges the use of Grammarly for language polishing of the chapter.

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43. Liao P, Huang S, Zeng Y, Shao H, Zhang J, van Groenigen KJ. Liming increases yield and reduces grain Cadmium concentration in rice paddies: A meta-analysis. Plant and Soil. 2021;465(1):157–169. DOI: 10.1007/s11104-021-05004-w
44. Subašić M, Šamec D, Selović A, Karalija E. Phytoremediation of Cadmium polluted soils: Current Status and approaches for enhancing. Soil Systems. 2022;6(1):3. DOI: 10.3390/soilsystems6010003
45. Merajul Islam M, Saxena N, Sharma D. Phytoremediation as a green and sustainable prospective method for heavy metal contamination: A review. RSC Sustainability. 2024;2(5):1269–1288. DOI: 10.1039/D3SU00440F
46. Zoidis E, Pappas A, AL-Waeli A, Georgiou C, Danezis G, Demiris N, et al. Effects of selenium and zinc supplementation on cadmium toxicity in broilers. Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences. 2020;44:331–336
47. Gangadoo S, Dinev I, Willson NL, Moore RJ, Chapman J, Stanley D. Nanoparticles of selenium as high bioavailable and non-toxic supplement alternatives for broiler chickens. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2020;27(14):16159–16166. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-07962-7
48. Sam A. Evaluation of synthetic zeolite and microalgae as adsorption additives for heavy metals on productivity, egg quality, and blood metabolite traits of layer Hens Drank El-Salam canal water at Northern Sinai, Egypt. Egypt Journal of Nutrition and Feeds. 2024;27(3):415–430. DOI: 10.21608/Ejnf.2024.394233
49. Temiraev RB, Sukhanova SF, Tarchokov TT, Osepchuk D, Baeva ZT, Kubatieva ZA, et al. Effect of adsorbents in diets on production efficiency of broiler with high nutritional and ecological characteristics. Journal of Livestock Science. 2020:11. DOI: 10.33259/JLivestSci.2020.26-32
50. Abbas T, Rizwan M, Ali S, Zia-Ur-Rehman M, Farooq Qayyum M, Abbas F, et al. Effect of biochar on Cadmium bioavailability and uptake in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown in a soil with aged contamination. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2017;140:37–47
51. Tembo M, Kataba A, Soe NC, Doya R, Musonda R, Zyambo G, et al. Significant reduction of blood and tissue lead and cadmium concentrations in free-range and broiler chickens through soil remediation with biochar, phosphates, and calcined dolomite: Implications for public health and food safety. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances. 2025;20:100907
52. Directive 2002/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 May 2002 on undesirable substances in animal feed [Internet]. Available from: https://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2002/32/2012-09-06 [Accessed: 2012-September-06]
53. Chen XX, Liu YM, Zhao QY, Cao WQ, Chen XP, Zou CQ. Health risk assessment associated with heavy metal accumulation in wheat after long-term phosphorus fertilizer application. Environmental Pollution. 2020;262:114348. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114348
54. Li L, Cao Y, Ippolito JA, Xing W, Qiu K, Li H, et al Cadmium and lead bioavailability to poultry fed with contaminated soil-spiked feed. Science of the Total Environment. 2023;879:163036
55. He LL, Huang DY, Zhang Q, Zhu HH, Xu C, Li B, et al Meta-analysis of the effects of liming on soil pH and Cadmium accumulation in crops. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2021;223:112621

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