BME, BT-203

IMP questions
UNIT-I

1. Discuss the classifications of engineering materials in brief. (RGPV 2018)

OR
Give a brief classification of engineering materials. (RGPV 2019)
OR
Give the broad classifications of engineering materials. (RGPV 2012)
OR
Discuss basic classification of engineering materials. (RGPV 2020)
OR
Classify engineering material. What do you mean by alloys? (RGPV 2022)

Answer:
Engineering Material: Engineering materials refers to the group of materials that are used in the
construction of manmade structures and components. The primary function of an engineering material is to
withstand applied loading without breaking and without exhibiting excessive deflection.
Engineering materials are generally classified into two categories:
• Metals
• Non-metals

Metals: Metallic materials are opaque and lustrous element that are good conductor of heat and
electricity. They are relatively ductile and some have good magnetic properties. Some of the examples of
metallic material are aluminum, tin, zinc, copper and alloys like steel, brass, bronze, gun metal, etc.

• Ferrous Metals: These are the metals which have iron as their main constituent such as cast iron,
wrought iron, steel etc.

• Non-Ferrous Metals: These are the metals which do not have iron as their main constituent such as
copper, aluminum and their alloys like tin, zinc etc.
Non-Metals: Non-metallic material do not contain metal in their composition. They are less ductile, weaker
and less dense than metal and have poor thermal and electrical conductivities. Some common non- metals are
wood, plastic, paper, rubber etc.

• Organic: These are the non-metals which have carbon as their main constituent such as petroleum,
rubber, paper, etc.

• Inorganic: These are the non-metals which do not have carbon as their main constituent such as
ceramics, minerals, glass, etc.

Alloys: Alloy is a material having combination of more than one metal or a metal and non-metallic elements.
For example, brass is an alloy of two metals: copper and zinc, while steel is an alloy of a metallic element (iron)
and. a small amount - up to 2% of a non-metallic element (carbon).

2. Define following mechanical properties of Engineering Materials: (RGPV 2018)

(i) Strength (ii) Hardness (iii) Ductility (v) Toughness

OR
Enlist important mechanical properties of engineering materials. (RGPV 2022)
Define any three with suitable example
OR
Define following properties of material -- ductility, toughness,
hardness, creep. (RGPV 2024)
OR
 Explain the various mechanical properties of material. (RGPV 2020, 2023)

Answer:
Hardness: It is the ability of material by virtue of which it resists scratching, cutting, abrasion, penetration, wear
and machining etc. The hardness is also defined as the ability of material to cut another material.
Diamond is the hardest substance, while other hard substances are tungsten carbide, boron nitride, quartz etc.

Brittleness: It is the property of material by virtue of which it breaks or fails under the action of external
load without undergoing any elastic or plastic deformation. Glass and cast iron are best example of brittle
material.

Strength: It is the ability of material to withstand the external forces without destruction or breaking. A
stronger material can withstand greater load. The strength of material varies according to the type of loading
i.e. tensile strength, compressive strength, shear or torsional strength.

Toughness: It is the ability of the material to resist fracture due to high impact load. It is measured in terms of
amount of energy that a material can absorb before actual fracture or rupture takes place. Mild steel is
tougher than glass.

Elasticity: It is the ability of material to regain its original shape after deformation, when load is
removed. When external force is applied on any elastic material, it will deform and as the external load is
removed, the material will return back to its original shape and size. Rubber, copper, mild steel, etc. are
some common example of elastic material.

Plasticity: It is the ability of material by virtue of which it retains the deformation permanently even after
removal of external force causing the deformation. It is the property which allows to give any desired shape
to engineering material.

Ductility: This is the property of a metal by virtue of which it can be drawn into wires or elongated before
rupture takes place. It depends upon the grain size of the metal crystals. This property allows bending,
elongation and change of cross-section of metals under the action of external load. Mild steel is an example
of ductile material.

Malleability: It is the property of a metal to be deformed or compressed permanently into the sheet without
fracture. It shows the ability of the material to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets. Aluminium, copper,
tin, steel etc. are malleable material.
Stiffness: It is the ability of material to resist the deformation under the action of external force. It is also
called as rigidity. The material which suffers more deformation under load has a low degree of stiffness or
rigidity. The modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.

Fatigue: It is the failure of material, when it is subject to cyclic loads, in which the maximum stress is
developed in each cycle. The stress at which the material fails due to fatigue is called as fatigue strength. The
fatigue failure always shows a brittle fracture with no appreciable deformation of material in vicinity of
fracture.

Creep: Creep may be defined as a time-dependent deformation at elevated temperature and constant stress.
It is the tendency of a solid material to undergo slow deformation while subjected to persistent mechanical
stresses. It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are still below the yield
strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods and
generally increases as they near their melting point.

3. Draw and explain stress-strain diagram for ductile material. (RGPV 2018)
OR
Write short note on stress-strain diagram for ductile material.
(RGPV 2019)
OR
Explain stress-strain diagram for mild steel.
(RGPV 2014)
OR

Explain the stress-strain diagram for ductile materials with neat sketch. (RGPV 2023)

Answer:
Hooke's Law: It states that, within the elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to the strain i.e. ratio of
stress to strain is constant. This constant is known as Young's modulus of elasticity & is designated by 'E.
Mathematically,
Stress Strain Diagram
Stress-strain curve represents the relationship between stress and strain for material. This curve is drawn by
plotting a graph between different values of stresses and corresponding strains obtained during the tensile test
of material specimen. The stress values are plotted along Y-axis and corresponding strain values along
X-axis.

Point A: Limit of Proportionality

In the beginning of test, the material elongates elastically and the strain varies in direct proportion to the
applied stress till point A. Hooke's law is perfectly obeyed till this point.

Point B: Elastic Limit

If the material is loaded beyond the proportional limit, the material will exhibit the true elastic behavior till
point B i.e. the elastic limit of material. However, Hooke's law is not obeyed in this portion (AB).

Point C: Upper Yield Point

If the material is loaded beyond the elastic limit, the applied stress cause plastic deformation and material fails
to regain its original shape and size even after removal of load. In plastic range, the strain increases more
rapidly than the corresponding stress. This process continues till point of maximum stress (Point C) is reached,
which is called as upper yield point.

Point D: Lower Yield Point

Beyond point C, the material stretches without any increase in stress, till it reaches to point D, which is called
as lower yield point.

Point E: U1timate Tensile Stress

Beyond point D, the material again start taking load due to strain hardening and the curve rises till it reaches to
ultimate stress point (Point E). The ultimate stress is the maximum stress that material can take before it fails.

Point F: Fracture Point

After point E, necking of the spec imen takes place, which causes a loss in the load carrying capacity of the
specimen and ultimately causes it to fail. This point is represented by point F o n the curve.

4. Draw an iron-carbon diagram for steel. (RGPV 2019)

OR
Explain iron-carbon diagram and its importance. (RGPV 2018, 2022)
OR
Sketch iron-carbon equilibrium diagram and point out its salient features. (RGPV 2019)

Answer:
Iron- Carbon Equilibrium Diagram
The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram is the graphical representation of the effects of temperature and
presence of carbon on all phases of steel. This diagram is obtained by plotting temperatures along Y-axis and
carbon percentage along X-axis. It also indicates the boundaries at which the phase change takes place.
There are four single phases of steel:
The delta-iron, Austenite (y-iron), a-iron and carbide intermetallic compound called cementite (Fe3C)
• The 8-iron is also known as ~-ferrite, is a phase of steel, which present at extreme high temperature
(1400°C). Therefore, it is of little engineering importance.
• y-iron or austenite is face centered cubic structure phase of iron and it has high solubility of carbon upto
2.11 % . It is chemically uniform and highly ductile at elevated temperature. Therefore most of the heat
treatment of steel begins with austenite structure.
• A-iron or a-ferrite is the stable form of iron at temperature below 910C. It has only 0.02% carbon in its
solid solution. It forces creation of two phase mixture in most steel.

The fourth phase is known as cementite (Iron carbide or Fe,C). It consists of 6.67% carbon. It is very
hard and brittle.
All the alloy in the temperature range above the curve ABCD, irrespective of their compositions are in
liquid state. Point A on the curve represents the melting point of pure iron (1539°C). Point D on the curve
represents the melting point of cementite (1550°C). With the fall in temperature of liquid along the curve
ABC, austenite crystal separate from the liquid metal.

Similarly, the crystals of cementite will separate from the liquid along the line CD. The horizontal line
HJB represents a peritectic reaction in which austenite (y-iron) is formed. Crystals of ~-iron separate from the
liquid along the line AB.
The curve HJECF represents the temperature line along which all iron-carbon alloy will solidify completely. It
is known as solidus line. All the alloy containing 0.18% to 2 .1 1 % carbon will solidify at temperature
represented by solidus line HJE & alloys containing 2.11 % to 6.67% carbon will solidify at 1148°C represented
by solidus line ECF. Point C corresponds to 4. 3% carbon. At this point austenite and cementite are
precipitated from the liquid alloy and form an eutectic alloy called ledburite.
The three points J, C and F are called as peritectic, eutectic and eutectoid respectively at which phase
change occurs.
Eutectic reaction: The eutectic reaction (Point C) takes place at 1148°C and its equation may be written as,

Eutectic point is at 4.3% carbon. Eutectic mixture is not usually seen in microstructure, because austenite is
not stable at room temperature and must undergo another reaction during cooling.

Eutectoid reaction : The eutectoid reaction (Point L) takes place at 727°C and 0.8% carbon. Its equation
is written as,
Peritectic reaction: The peritectic reaction (Point J) takes place at 1493°C and 0.17% carbon. Its equation
is wntten as,

5. Define hardness. How it can be measured. (RGPV 2016)

OR
Write short note on hardness testing. (RGPV 2017, 2019)
OR
Define hardness and explain Brinell hardness test. (RGPV 2014)
OR

Explain the methods to measure the hardness of materials. (RGPV 2022)

Answer:
Hardness: Hardness is the ability of material to resist scratching, cutting, abrasion, penetration,
wear and machining. It is determined by performing following hardness test:

i) Brinell hardness test

ii) Rockwell hardness test iii) Vickers hardness test

Brinell Hardness Test:

• In this test, a tungsten carbide or hardened steel ball of 1 cm in diameter is pressed into the
flat surface of the material by a standard load of 500, 1500 or 3000 kg for 5 to IO seconds, to
permit the full amount of plastic deformation to occur.

• The load and ball are then removed and the diameter of the resulting spherical indentation (2 to
5 mm) is measured using a travelling microscope.
The Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is equal to the load divided by spherical surface area of
indentation.

Where, P = Load applied, kg

D = Diameter of ball, mm
d = Diameter of indentation, mm
• The Brinell hardness number is the indication of relative hardness of the material. The higher
value of
BHN indicates harder material.
• It is relatively simple and easy to conduct and is used extensively on iron and steels.

6. What is alloy steel? Name three alloying elements and their effect on (RGPV 2012, 2018)
properties.
OR

Explain the effect of any eight alloying element in alloy steel with details. (RGPV 2023)
OR
What is composition of carbon steel? Give its application. (RGPV 2019, 2020)
OR
What is alloy steel? Name any two types of alloy steel giving their (RGPV 2012, 2016)
composition and uses.

Answer :
Alloy Steel
The alloy steel may be defined as the steel to which elements other than carbon are added in
sufficient amount to improve the properties of steel. The common alloying elements are
Chromium, Nickel, Molybdenum, Tungsten, Cobalt, Copper, Manganese, Silicon, and Sulfur,
Phosphorous, etc. Depending on the percentage of alloying elements, mechanical properties of
steel like strength, hardness corrosion, etc. changes under different operating conditions.

Effect of Alloying Elements

Some common alloying elements with their effects are discussed below:
Manganese (Mn) : It also serves as deoxidizing and purifying agent. The manganese combines
with Sulphur and decreases the effect of impurities in the steel. When manganese added with low
carbon steel, it makes the steel ductile. More than 2% addition of the Manganese, the steel
becomes brittle. It is used to make axles, connecting rods, gears, etc.
Silicon (Si) : It acts as a deoxidizer and prevents the steel to become porous. It removes the
gases, oxides and prevents blow holes. It makes the steel tough and harder. It is extensively
used in electrical industries. Steel with 0.5% C and 34% Si is used to make a motor, transformer
cores. This is known as transformer steel. More than 4% Si makes the steel brittle.
Sulphur (S) : It is present in steel as iron sulphide or manganese sulphide. The iron
sulphide increases brittleness at elevated temperature, while the manganese sulphide does
not affect the properties of steel. The presence of substantial amount of sulphur affects tensile
strength, yield point, fatigue limit etc. and it decreases the corrosion resistance.
Phosphorus (P) : Small amount (about 0.05%) is present in normal steel. If it is increased to
0.12% in low carbon steel then it improves strength, hardness, corrosion resistance, machine
ability, etc. It increases high brittleness at normal temperature. It increases the tensile
strength but it reduces the impact strength and ductility.
Nickel (Ni) : It is added into steel to increase tensile strength, toughness, shock resistance and
fatigue resistance at low temperatures. It is added in amount from 2 to 5% . Steels with 1.5-
3% Ni are suitable for loco boilers, railway axles, etc.
Chromium (Cr) : It improves corrosion resistance, wear resistance, heat resistance, strength,
toughness and elastic limit. It is usually added less than 2% to increase strength and
hardenability. It is the prime constituent in stainless steel apart from Nickel. It is widely used in
tool steel.
Tungsten (W) : The steel retains its hardness at a higher temperature with addition of tungsten
as an alloy. It is a strong carbide former. Tungsten carbide is extremely hard and stable. It
improves wear and abrasive resistance in steel. So is commonly added to make tool and hot-
working die steel. In High-Speed Steel (HSS), it is added up to 1 8% .
Molybdenum (Mo) : The steel becomes more wear resistant with the addition of
Molybdenum. Molybdenum Carbide can withstand higher temperature as compared to iron
carbide. It is used to make aircraft components, pressure vessels, and springs. 5% Mo is added
in some HSS steel.
Vanadiun (V) : It improves fatigue resistance and wear resistance property. Vanadium carbide
has the highest hardness and wear resistance property amongst alloying elements added
to steel. 2% Vanadium is added in some HSS.

Two alloy steel:

Carbon Steel:
Carbon steel are also known as plain carbon steel, is an alloy of iron and carbon with
varying quantities of phospohorous and sulphur. It is defined as the steel which has its
properties mainly due to its carbon content and does not contain more than 0.5% of silicon
and 1.5% of manganese.
Composition: Carbon : 0.05 to 1.6% Silicon : 0.15 to 0.3% Manganese: 0.1 5 to 0.35%
Small quantity of silicon, sulphur, chromium, nickel and phosphorus. Remaining is iron
• It is cheaper and has less ductility and strength.
• It is stiff, tough, hard and can easily be heat treated for changing its properties.
• It is used for making cold chisels, wood working tools, rock drills, circular saws,
hacksaw blades, files, reamers etc.

High Speed Steel / Tool Steel

• The high speed steels (HSS) are used to make cutting tools, which are operated at high
speed & high temperatures.

• Composition:
Carbon : 0.6 to 0.75% Tungsten : 14 to 20%
Chromium: 3 to 5%
Vanadium: 1 to 1.5%
Cobalt: 5 to 10% Remaining is iron
Sometimes, molybdenum is used as cheaper substitute to tungsten.
• It has excellent wear resistance & hardenability.
• It can retain its good cutting edge upto temperature of 650°C.
• It is hard steel and cannot be machined by ordinary methods.
• It is used for making cutting tools for working at high speeds.
 UNIT-2

1. Discuss the various types of error in measurement. (RGPV 2017)

OR
Briefly describe the concept of measurement error. (RGPV 2016)

Answer:
Error in Measurement
• The error may be defined as the difference between the measured and actual values.
• Every measurement of physical quantity has a certain amount of uncertainty. The error may
arise in the process or due to the mistake in the experiment.
• For example, if the two operators use the same instrument for measuring some quantity, then
it is possible that both of them measure the different value of same quantity.

1. Gross Error

The error that occurs due to human mistakes are called as gross error. The gross error may
produce due to:

• Incorrect adjustment
• Misreading of instrument scale
• Incorrect recording of experimental data
• Improper application of instrument
• Computational mistake
 Gross error can be avoided by taking care in reading and recording data. It can be reduced by
taking more than one reading of same quantity, preferably by different observer.
2. Systematic Error

The systematic error may be due to error in system of measurement, shortcoming of

instrument and due to environment effect. It is more troublesome, as these errors
cannot be determined by direct and repetitive observations. These errors may be
instrumental, observational or environmental.
Instrumental Error

The instrumental error arises due to:

• Inherent shortcomings in the instrument
• Misuse of the instrument
• Loading effect of the instrument
Instrumental errors are inherent in instruments due to construction, calibration or operation
of the instruments. These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high.

3. Environmental Error:
The environmental errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device (e.g.
pressure, temperature, dust, humidity, vibration, magnetic field, etc.)

4. Observational Error:
These errors occur due to carelessness of operators. Even when an instrument has been
properly selected, carefully installed and faithfully calibrated, shortcoming in the
measurement occurs due to certain failings on the part of observer.

5. Random Error
• The random errors are accidental, small and independent.
• They vary in an unpredictable manner.
• These are errors that remain even after gross and systematic errors have been reduced

2. Define temperature and name one device and its operating

principle for measuring temperature. (RGPV 2019)

OR

Write down the principle of temperature measurement. (RGPV 2019, 2025)

 OR
What are the various methods of temperature measurement?
Explain any one of them. (RGPV 2018, 2020,2022)
OR
What is the principle of working of RTD? Explain. (RGPV 2019, 2024)

Answer:
Temperature Measurement
Temperature of a body shows a degree of hotness with respect to reference body. We can
calibrate temperature in different scales and in different units according to our requirements.
Kelvin (k) is the international system of units (SI) of temperature, other than Kelvin, temperature
is measured in Celsius scale (C) and Fahrenheit scale (F). We can easily convert one unit of
temperature into another by using following relation:

There are a number of temperature measurement systems, some of them are:

thermocouples, resistive temperature devices (RTDs and thermistors), infrared radiators,
bimetallic devices, liquid expansion devices, and change-of-state devices, etc.
The measurement of temperature depends upon the establishment of thermal equilibrium
between system and the device used to measure temperature. The sensing device should have
atleast one measurable property that changes with the change in temperature. Such property is
called a thermometric property. The substance that shows the changes in thermometric property
is called as thermometric substance.

There are various properties that changes with change in temperature and this forms the basis of
temperature measurement. Some of the properties that changes with temperature measurement
are:
• Change in dimension: Expansion or contraction of material such as mercury in glass
thermometer.
• Change in electrical resistance of metals and semi-conductors, such as resistance
thermometer and thermistors.
• Thermo-electric emf between cold and hot junction, such as thermocouples.
• Change in intensity and colour of emitted radiations such as pyrometers.

1. Bimetalic Thermometers
The working of the bimetallic strip depends on the thermal expansion property of the
metal. The thermal expansion is the tendency of metal in which the volume of metal changes
with the variation in temperature.

Every metal has a different temperature coefficient. The temperature coefficient shows the
relation between the change in the physical dimension of metal and the temperature that causes
it. The expansion or contraction of metal depends on the temperature coefficient, i.e., at the
same temperature the metals have different changes in the physical dimension.
The bimetallic strip is constructed by bonding together the two thin strips of different metals.
The metals are joined together at one end with the help of the welding. The bonding is kept
in such a way that there is no relative motion between the two metals
Since the bimetallic strip of the thermometer is constructed with different metals. Thereby, the
length of metals changes at different rates. When the temperature increases, the strip bends
towards the metal which has a low-temperature coefficient. And when the temperature
decreases, the strip bends towards the metal which has a high-temperature coefficient.
The bimetallic strip in the form of the straight cantilever beam is shown in the figure. The strip
is fixed at one end and deflects at the other end.
The range of deflection of bimetallic strip depends on the type of metals used for construction.
The deflection of the metal is directly proportional to the length of the strip and the variation
of temperature and is inversely proportional to the thickness of the strips.

Applications:
• It is used in household devices likes oven, air conditioner, and in industrial apparatus like
refineries, hot wires, heater, tempering tanks etc. for measuring the temperature
• The other main application of bimetallic device is in circuit breakers.

2 Electric Resistor thermometer:

Metallic conductors increases with temperature, while that of semiconductors generally
decreases with temperature. Resistance thermometers employing metallic conductors for
temperature measurement are called Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), and those
employing semiconductors are termed as Thermistors. As their name indicates, RTDs rely on
resistance change in a metal, with the resistance rising more or less linearly with temperature.
Thermistors are based on resistance change in a ceramic semiconductor; the resistance
drops nonlinearly with temperature rise. The variation of resistance of metals with
temperature is normally modeled in the form:

Normally metals which are good conductors of electricity, such as copper, platinum, silver and
nickel are used in construction of resistance thermometers.
Applications:
1. It can measure temperature to a higher degree of accuracy
2. Electric resistance thermometer is very sensitive so that a small change in the temperature
can be measured.
3. It is mostly used for calibrations of other thermometers due to its higher degree of accuracy
and sensitivity.

3. Explain the operating procedure of Vernier caliper. (RGPV 2019)

OR
Discuss the method of measurement of Vernier caliper. (RGPV 2019, 2020)
OR
Write short note on use of Vernier Caliper. (RGPV 2019)
OR
Explain the measurement process using Vernier caliper with neat sketch. (RGPV 2022)

Answer:
Vernier Caliper
Vernier calipers are used for more accurate measurement than that of a slide caliper. It can
measure internal and external dimensions, and it can also be used as a depth gauge and height
gauge. Vernier calipers are available with metric and imperial graduations.
Parts of Vernier calipers:
Main Scale: It is a large scale that runs along the body of the vernier calliper. Depending on the
usage, the reading on the main scale could be either in centimetres or millimetres. 1 mm is the
lowest main scale division according to the SI units. The main scale is stationary.

Vernier Scale: This is the smaller scale attached to the main scale, moving along the main scale.
The vernier scale's movement depends on the jaws' opening. The main function of the vernier
scale is to provide accuracy to the main scale reading by dividing the reading into smaller
increments. The vernier scale in a metric calliper can have divisions up to 50 increments, each of
which measures 0.02 mm

Lower Jaws: One of the jaws is fixed and attached to the main scale, while the other jaw is
movable and is attached to the vernier scale. These jaws are designed mainly to grip the objects
firmly. The main function of the lower jaw is to measure the outer dimensions such as diameter,
width and length.

Upper Jaws: These jaws are similar to the lower jaws but are smaller than, the lower jaws.
These jaws are attached to the upper part of the vernier scale. One of the jaws is fixed, while
the other jaw is movable. The main function of the upper jaw is to measure the inner dimensions
of the objects.

Depth Rod: The depths of the jars can be measured using the depth rod. It is a. thin rod located
at the end of the main scale.
Thumb Screw: This screw is located at the bottom of the vernier scale. The main function of
the thumbscrew is to provide grip to the users so that the sliding of the jaws becomes easy.

Lock Screw: The main use of the lock screw is to fix the position of the jaws once the object
is firmly fixed between the jaws. This also makes it easy to take proper readings.
Measurement Procedure
i) A vernier caliper consists of the main scale and vernier scale. Each division on the main scale
is of 1 mm length.

ii) The vernier scale is 49 mm long and divided into 50 equal divisions. The length of each
division on vernier scale is 49/50 mm.

iii) The difference between one division on main scale and one division on vernier scale is (1-
49/50) = 1/5·0 or 0.02 mm.

iv) To read the measurement, note the main scale measurement immediately preceding the zero
line on Vernier scale.

v) Then, note the line on the vernier scale which is exactly coincident with a line on the main scale.

vi) Thus, the measurement can be done as

Total length = Main Scale reading + (Vernier Scale reading x Least Count)

Where, least count of Vernier caliper having 50 divisions on Vernier scale can be calculated as,

For example, the zero of the vernier scale immediately precedes 40 mm. To this (40 mm)
must be added the decimal reading on the vernier scale. Suppose 10th line on vernier scale
coincides with a line on the main scale. So the reading is 40 mm plus 10 divisions of 0.02 mm.
Total length will be 40 mm + 10 0.02= 40.2 mm.

4. Draw a neat sketch of lathe machine showing essential components. State functions
of three major components. (RGPV 2020,2025)

Discuss various operations that can be performed on the lathe machine.

(RGPV 2018, 2020,2022)
OR
Write short note on Lathe operations. (RGPV 2019, 2021)
OR
 With a neat diagram explain the main parts of a lathe machine. Explain any two
operations performed on a lathe machine. (RGPV 2022)

Answer:
Lathe
Lathe is the oldest machine tool. The entire machine tools are developed from the lathe,
therefore, it is also known as the mother of machine tools. A number of cutting operations
can be performed on a lathe with or without some attachments. On the lathe, a rotational motion
is provided to the job and translational motion is provided to the cutting tool.

Different Components of Lathe

A lathe machine consists of a number of components. These components perform various
functions, for example, facilitate variation in speed, hold the cutting tool, rigidly hold the job,
provide end support to the job, automatic movement of the tool, etc.

Bed: All the fixed and moving parts of the lathe are mounted on the bed. It is made of cast iron
in a single piece, it may be in two or three pieces for large size lathe, which are bolted together.
It has v-ways for the collection of chips produced during machining. The carriage of the machine
rests over the bed and slides on it. On the top of the bed, there are two sets of guide ways-inner
ways and outer ways. The inner ways provide sliding surfaces for the tail stock and the outer ways
for the carriage. The guide ways of the lathe bed may be flat and inverted V shape. Generally,
cast iron alloyed with nickel and chromium material is used for manufacturing of the lathe
bed.

Head Stock: Head stock is the housing of cone pulleys, back gear, main spindle, live center, and
feed reverse levers. It provides a driving mechanism to the job and tool post, carriage, apron, etc.
The main function of head stock is to transmit power to the different parts of a lathe.

Tail Stock: The function of tail stock is to support the job at the end. It slides over the bed. It may
have dead center or live center for point support to the job as per requirement. For tapping,
drilling or boring, a tape or drill/boring tool may be used in place of dead center. The dead center
moves forward sleeve by rotating the hand wheel manually.

Carriage and Tool Post: It provides support to the tool post, cross slide, compound rest, apron,
etc. The function of tool post is to hold cutting tool rigidly; tool post moves in the transverse
direction on compound rest. The function of swivel plate is to give angular direction to the tool
post whereas the function of cross slide is to give the linear motion to the tool by rotating the
attached hand wheel. The apron is a hanging part in front of the carriage. It is the housing of gear
trains and clutches. It gives automatic forward and reverse motion to the tool.

Legs: The legs provide rigid support to the entire machine tool. Both the legs are firmly secured
to the floor by means of foundation bolts in order to prevent vibrations in the machine.

Chucks: The function of the chuck is to hold the job. There may be three-jaw or four-jaw chuck.
In three-jaw chuck, all the jaws move inwards or outwards simultaneously and there is no
problem of centering hence it is also known as universal chuck. Whereas in four-jaw chuck
each jaw moves independently. It may accommodate the irregular shape of the job but there
is a problem of centering which is to be done manually. A magnetic chuck is also used to hold the
job which works on the principle of electromagnetism.

Operations on Lathe Machine

Following are the various types of operations performed on the lathe machines:

1. Turning: Turning is a metal removal process in which job is given rotational motion while
the cutting tool is given linear (feed and depth of cut) motion.
i) Straight Turning
ii) Face Turning or Facing
iii) Shoulder Turning
iv) Eccentric Turning
iv) Taper Turning

Parting-off (Grooving): It is the operation of cutting-off/grooving a bar after it has been

machined to the required shape and size. In this operation, the job is held on a chuck,
rotates to the turning speed and the
parting-off tool is fed into the job very slowly until the tool reaches to the center of the job.

Knurling: Knurling is the process of embossing, producing a roughened surface on a smooth

surface of a cylindrical job to provide effective gripping, for example, thimble and ratchet of
micrometer and plug gauge handle. Knurling tools (single, two or three sets of rollers) are
held rigidly on tool post, pressed against the rotating (one-third speed of the turning) surface
of a job, leaving exact facsimile of the tool on the surface of the job

Thread Cutting: For thread cutting on the lathe, there is a definite relationship between the
speeds of the job and tool. The relationship is obtained by gear ratio whose selection depends
on the pitch of the job, the pitch of the lead screw, number of the start of the thread on the
job. Every machine is supplied with a. spur gear box (a set of 23 gears) having teeth from 20 to
120 with an interval of 5 and a special gear or transfer gear is of 127 teeth for cutting the
metric thread. Two 20 teeth spurs are available. Lead screw has single start thread.

5. Drilling: The operation of producing a circular hole by removing metal by rotation against
the cutting edges of a drill is known as drilling. But on lathe drill is static and only feed
motion is given through the movement of tail stock and rotating motion is given to the job.
Drilling on the lathe is very easy. The drill bit is held in tail stock in place of dead center and
moved in the forward direction applying pressure at the end of the rotating job.

6. Tapping: Tapping is an operation for producing internal thread. After drilling the hole, the
tap is held in tail stock and inserted in drilled hole of the rotating job

6. Reaming: The operation of finishing and sizing a previously drilled hole using a multi-
edges straight cutting tool named as a reamer is known as reaming operation. Very
small amount of material (0.4mm) removal is possible by this operation.

8. Boring: The operation of enlarging and finishing a previously drilled hole throughout its
length by means of an adjustable single edge cutting tool named as boring tool is known as
boring.

Spinning: Spinning is a. process to produce a circular homogeneous pot or house hold

utensil. In this operation, the sheet metal job is held between a former attached with
headstock spindle and the tail stock center and rotates at high speed with the former. The
long round nose forming tool fixed rigidly on special tool post presses the job on the periphery
of the former. Thus the job is deformed exactly in the shape of former and the operation is
known as spinning. It is chip-less machining process.

5. With a neat diagram explain the main parts of a drilling machine. Explain any two
operations performed on a drilling machine. (RGPV 2022)
OR
Explain feed mechanism used in drilling machine. (RGPV 2023)
Answer:
Drilling Machine:
Drilling machine is one of the important machine tools in a machine shop. It is mostly used to
produce a hole in the solid material. In a drilling, the hole is generated by cutting edges of rotating
cutting tool known as drill bit which exerts large force on the workpiece fixed on the table. Drilling,
boring, counter-boring, counter sinking, reaming, tapping and spot facing operations can be
performed on this machine.

Working of Drilling Machine

The power from the electric motor is transmitted to drill spindle pulley through V-belt. There is a
provision of the key way on drill spindle to slide the stepped V-pulley. When the drill is required to
feed into the work, it is pressed against the work by means of feed handle. As the handle is
rotated, pinion rotates and rack moves longitudinally and hence the spindle and drill on the
machine; drill rotates at very high speed to attain the
required cutting speed

Operations on Drilling Machine

1) Drilling: The operation of producing a circular hole by removing metal by rotation the
cutting edges of a drill is known as drilling. Metal is removed by shearing and extrusion. Drilled
hole is slightly oversized due to non-alignment of the tool and vibration of the spindle. For
producing an accurate hole, the drill bit selected. is slightly smaller than the hole-diameter
required. After producing the hole reaming is required for finishing.
2) Reaming: It is an operation to produce a finished hole after drilling. Since the material
removal rate in reaming is very less (0.4 mm) therefore it is rarely used for enlarging the hole.
Reamer has straight teeth which is given a rotational motion similar to drilling.

3) Boring: It is an operation to enlarge the drilled hole. It bas single cutting point cutter.
In Boring, the material removal rate is larger than that of drilling. Therefore for enlarging
purpose boring tool is used in place of large diameter drill bit.

4) Counter Boring: The operation of enlarging the end of a hole cylindrically, as a recess tor a
bolt head, is known as counter boring.

5) Counter Sinking: The operation of making a cone shape enlargement of the end of a
hole, as for the accommodating the screw head, is known as counter sinking.

6) Spot Facing: The operation of squaring and smoothing the surface around a hole, as for the
seat for a nut or head of a bolt, etc., is known as spot facing.

7) Trepanning: The operation of producing a large hole (diameter over 50 mm) by removing
metal along the circumference of a hollow cutting tool, which enters the small previously drilled
hole to produce the larger hole concentric is known as trepanning.
6. What are dial gauge? State its applications. (RGPV 2020)
OR

Explain the construction and working ofdial gauge. (RGPV 2020,2022)

OR
What is sine bar? Give its working principle. (RGPV 2018, 2020,2022)

OR
Give the labeled diagram, method of use and application of sine bar. (RGPV 2021, 2025)

Answer:
Dial Gauge or Dial Indicator
The dia] gauge or dial indicator consists of a small clock and a stylus probe. Very small pressure
on the stylus probe in upward direction results in rotation of pointer, i.e., the linear movement
of the stylus is converted into angular movement of the pointer. Thus, this device is used to
measure the linear vertical movement and to determine the errors in a geometrical form such
as ovality, out of roundness, lobed form, taper, etc. and the surface errors such as parallelism,
squareness, alignment, etc. The dial is divided into 100 divisions. One complete revolution
of the indicator corresponds to 1 mm linear movement of the stylus. Thus each division on the
dial indicates a movement of 0.01 mm.
The indicator is set to zero, initially, at a certain reference surface, and the instrument or
the surface to be measured is brought into contact with a stylus. The movement of the
indicator can be directly read from the dial.

Sine Bar
Sine Bar is a Precision Angular measuring Instrument to measure angles and to locate the work or
Job piece at a required angle very accurately to machining.

Construction of the Sine Bar

Sine Bar is made up of High Carbon steel, High Chromium steel (Corrosion resistance), and
Hardened.

• It contains Two rollers with the Steel Bar.

• The two rollers are very accurate and Highly precise and truly equal in Diameters.
• When we place the Sine bar on the truly flat surface, The axes of the two rollers are
parallel to each other and also parallel to the upper face of the Sine bar.
• There is the presence of relief holes in the steel bar. {To handle the sine bar easily and also
reduces the overall weight.
• The normal distance between the two rollers usually available in 100mm, 200mm or 300mm.
• There are two grades in sine bars. A grade, B grade.
• Grade A sine bar is having the accuracy of 0.0lmm/m length, Grade B sine bar is having the
accuracy of 0.02mm/m length.

Working Principle of Sine Bar

One roller is placed on the surface plate and the other one is placed at a height h with the help
of slip gauges.
The principle of operation of sine bar is based on the trigonometry.

Where,L = Distance between the centres of the two rollers h= Total height of slip gauges
Slip Gauges

Slip gauges are used as measuring blocks. It is also called as precision gauge blocks. They are
made of hardened alloy steel of rectangular cross-section. The surfaces of slip gauges are made
to a high degree of accuracy. The distance between the two opposite faces indicates the size of
the gauge. But all slip gauges are made to same thickness to perform wringing. Wringing or Sliding
is nothing but combining the faces of slip gauges one over the other. Due to adhesion property of
slip gauges, they will stick together. This is because of very high degree of surface finish of the
measuring faces. They are used in comparators and sin bars. They are mainly used as a testing
and calibrating instruments in metrology. Different sets of slip gauges are manufactured in
standard. sets of 32 pieces, 45 pieces, 88 pieces, etc. A set of 45 pieces of slip gauges. A slip gauge
set of 56 pieces is made up as follows: 9 slips 1.001 to 1.009 in steps of 0.001 mm; 9 slips 1.01 to
1.09 in steps of 0.01 mm; 9 slips 1.1 to 1.9 in steps of 0.1 mm; 25 slips 1 to 25 in steps of 1 mm;
3 slips 25 to 75 in steps of 25 mm; and one slip of 1.0005 mm.

Applications of Slip Gauge

a) They are used in the tool room and machine shop for the calibration of precision
measurements.
b) They are used in sine bars for measuring the angle.
c) They are used to set other measuring instruments such as snap gauges.
d) They can be used as auxiliary measuring system on a milling machine
 Unit-3
1. What is Newton's Law of viscosity? Explain its significance.
OR
State Newton's law of viscosity.
OR
Differentiate between Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid.
OR

Differentiate between laminar and turbulentflow

Answer:
Newtonian Fluid: The fluid that obeys the Newton's law of viscosity is known as Newtonian fluids.
Newtonian fluids have a certain constant viscosity. Many common fluids such as water,
alcohol, mineral oil, air are Newtonian fluid under normal condition.

Non-Newtonian Fluid: The fluid that does not obeys the Newton's law of viscosity is known
as Non- Newtonian fluids. Common examples of non-Newtonian fluids are human blood,
lubricating oil, pint, toothpaste, ketchup etc.

Laminar Flow: Laminar flow is also referred to as streamline or viscous flow. In laminar flow, fluid
particles move in definite and observable paths or streamlines and the layers of water
flowing over one another at different speeds virtually does not mix with each other. The laminar
flow is characteristic of viscous (thick) fluid.

Turbulent Flow: Turbulent flow is characterized by the irregular movement of particles of

the fluid. The particles travel in irregular paths with no observable pattern and no definite layers.
2. Explain with suitable diagram the working principle of fluid coupling.
OR
Explain construction and working of fluid coupling.
OR
Describe the working of fluid coupling with neat sketch.

Answer:
Fluid Coupling
Fluid coupling is also known as hydraulic coupling. It is a hydrodynamic device which is used to
transfer rotational power from one shaft to another by the use of transmission fluid. It
is used in the automotive transmission system, marine propulsion system, and in
industries for power transmission. It is used as an alternative for the mechanical clutch.
Structurally, a fluid coupling consists of an impeller on the input or driving shaft and a runner on
the output or driven shaft. Impeller and runner are bladed rotors, the impeller acting as a pump
and the runner reacting as a turbine. The impeller and turbine is enclosed in an oil-tight
sealed housing. The housing consists of
transmission fluid.
As the prime mover moves, it rotates the impeller of the coupling. The impeller acts as a
centrifugal pump and throws the fluid outward and directs it towards the turbine blade. The
high moving fluid strikes the turbine blades and it also starts rotating. After striking the blades,
the direction of the fluid is changed and it is directed towards the impeller again. The blades of
the turbine are designed in such a way that it can easily change the direction of the fluid. As the
impeller speed increases, the speed of the turbine also increases. After some time the speed of
both the impeller and the turbine becomes equal. In this way, power is transmitted from one
shaft to another by the use of fluid coupling.

3. Derive Bernoulli's equation. What are the assumptions made in

Bernoulli's equation?
OR
Derive Bernoulli's equation for a perfect incompressible fluid.
OR
Write short note on derivation of Bernoulli's theorem.
OR
State Bernoulli's theorem and derive equation for the flow of an incompressible fluid.
Mention the assumptions made for deriving it

Answer:
4. Explain the working and construction of Pelton wheel turbine with neat sketch.
(RGPV 2023)
OR
Explain the working of Pelton turbine. (RGPV 2022)
OR
Explain the working principle of hydraulic turbines (Pelton wheel) with neat sketch.
(RGPV 2019)
OR
Explain the working principle of water turbine

Answer:
Pelton Turbine
Pelton turbine is named after L. A. Pelton an American Engineer; it is a high head, tangential
flow, and low specific speed turbine. This turbine is most suitable for the high head. In the
case of low head, flow is to be increased and for increased flow, a bigger jet diameter is
required. The bigger jet diameter requires bigger runner diameter, which results in the bulky
turbine and low peripheral velocity. Thus, the efficiency of Pelton
turbine decreases with a low head of the water.

Main Components of Pelton Turbine

i) Penstock: Penstock is a steel or concrete conduit, through which water flows from the
reservoir to nozzle.
Its size is large due to conduction of flow of water from the high head (200 m) to the nozzle.

ii) Nozzle and Guiding Mechanism: The pressure head at the inlet of the turbine is converted
into kinetic energy using the nozzle. The velocity of the of water jet at the tip of the nozzle
depends on the net head (H); V = W2gH. The high velocity jet of water strikes on the bucket
and deviates at 165° and results into impulse on the buckets. Buckets mounted on shaft
rotate at high velocity and produce shaft power. The guide mechanism is used to control the
flow of water from the nozzle and to control the speed of the turbine.
The main function of the spear is to change the flow area of the nozzle by moving in forward and
backward directions. The flow area is decreased by the movement of the spear in the forward
direction and increased by the movement of the spear in the backward direction. But, water in
penstock causes hammering due to sudden increase and decrease in pressure resulting from a
sudden change in the flow area. Therefore, to prevent the high-pressure generation in the
penstock, a deflector is used infront of the nozzle, which deflects
the flow of water to decrease the shaft speed.

iii) Bucket: The splitter, a sharp edge at the center of the bucket, divides it into two
hemispherical part. The splitter helps the jet to be divided into two parts without producing a
shock on the bucket and moving the same sideways in opposite directions. The jet should be
deflected backward at an angle of 160° to 165°; the materials used for the bucket may be cast
iron, bronze or stainless steel.

iv) Casing: Casing has no hydraulic importance; it is only used to prevent the splashing of
water and to discharge the water to tail race; and the other purpose is to provide a safeguard to
the wheel.

UNIT-IV

1. State and explain Zeroth Law of thermodynamics. (RGPV 2018, 2019, 2020)
OR
State and explain first law of thermodynamics. (RGPV 2020, 2021,2023)
OR

Answer:
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Zeroth law states that, "If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with third body separately,
then they will also be thermal equilibrium with each other."
As shown in figure, body A is in thermal equilibrium with a body B and also separately with a
body C, then B and C will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Zeroth law is the basis of temperature measurement. To measure the temperature, a reference
body is used and certain physical characteristic of this body, which changes with
temperature, is selected. The selected characteristic is called as thermometric property and
the reference body is called as thermometer.
First Law of Thermodynamics
• First law of thermodynamics is also known as Jaw of conservation of energy i.e. "the
energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to
another form."
• According to first law of thermodynamics, whenever a closed system undergoes a cycle,
the work input to the system is proportional to the net heat output. It is expressed as,
2. State and explain second law of thermodynamics. (RGPV 2019)
3. How boilers are classified? Write down few names of mountings and accessories of
boiler. (RGPV 2019)
OR
Differentiate between boiler mounting and accessory. (RGPV 2019, 2021)
OR
Name all the boiler mountings and their function. (RGPV 2018, 2014)
OR
Write short note on Boiler accessories. (RGPV 2018, 2020)
Answer:
Boiler mountings are the components of boilers, which are mounted on the body of the boiler
for safety and controlling the steam generation processes. There are following components
which are used as mountings in
boiler operation:

i) Safety valve
ii) Water level indicator iii) Pressure gauge
iv) Fusible Plug
v) Steam stop valve vi) Feed check valve vii) Blow-off cock
viii) Man and Mudhole
1. Safety Valves
The safety valve is used to release the excess pressure inside the boiler drum. When
the pressure inside the drum exceeds the working pressure, safety valves blow-off the
steam into the atmosphere. Generally, four types of safety valves are used in boilers:
i) Dead weight safety valve ii) Spring loaded safety valve iii) Lever safety valve
iv) High steam low water safety valve
2. Water Level Indicator
The function of the water level indicator is to show the water level inside the boiler drum.
Total two water level indicators are provided on the boiler drum. One end of the glass tubes
is connected to steam space and the other end to the water space through a hollow pipe of
Gunmetal bolted to the boiler. In case, tube breaks, two balls are provided that move to
the dotted positions due to the rush of water in the passage. The steam will also rush from
the upward hollow column and will push the balls in dotted positions.

3. Pressure Gauge
 Pressure Gauge is used to measure the pressure inside the boiler drum. There is a tube
spring, one end of which is connected to the steam space and the other end is closed and
connected to a link. The link is connected to toothed quadrant meshed with the pinion. At
the center of the pinion, a pointer is fixed which can rotate with pinion. The quadrant
rotates about the pivot and magnifies the reading. Due to steam pressure, spring tube tends
to become straight and moves the pinion, which rotates the quadrant and pinion. The
deflection in the pointer is
shown on graduation on the disc, which shows the pressure of steam in the drum.

4. Feed Check Valve

The function of feed check valve is to allow the flow of water under pressure from the feed
pump to the boiler and to prevent the back flow of water in case of failure of the feed pump.
The valve rises under pressure and water is allowed to flow inside the drum. The pressure
of feed pump is more than that of steam inside the drum which allows the flow of water
into the drum, but when supply is stopped, the valve returns to its seat due to steam
pressure and prevents backflow of water. This is a one-way valve.

5. Steam Stop Valve

The function of steam stop valve is to stop or allow the flow of steam from the boiler to
steam pipe or from the steam pipe to supply. The opening of the valve is controlled by a
hand wheel
6. Blow-off Cock
The function of the blow-off cock is to blow down the sediments collected at the
bottom of the drum or to empty the boiler or to lower down the water level in the drum.
The blow-off cock is fitted at the lowest portion of the boiler. The casing is provided with
two flanges, one is connected to the boiler and the other is connected to the steam pipe.
The plug valve has a hole. When it is desired to discharge the water, the plug valve is
turned in a manner so that the hole in the plug can align with the hole in casing and
water can rush out of the boiler. The flow of water can be stopped by turning the plug
such that its solid part comes in line with the hole in the casting.

7. Fusible Plug
The function of the fusible plug is to extinguish the fire in the fire box when the water level
in the boiler comes down the limit. It prevents from blasting the boiler, melting the tube and
overheating the firebox crown plate. It is located in the water space of the boiler. The
fusible metal is protected from direct contact with water by Gunmetal and Copper plug.
When water level comes down, the fusible metal melts due to high heat and copper plug
drops down and holds in gun metal ribs. Steam comes in contact with fire and
extinguishes it. Thus, it prevents from damages.
7. Manhole:
This is opening in the boiler. It is used for enters the boiler in idle condition.
cleaning
and
inspection purpose. Through this hole, the operator

Boiler Accessories
The devices used in a boiler to increase its efficiency and quality of steam are known as
accessories. The names of some important accessories are mentioned below:
i) Economizer ii) Air preheater iii) Super heater iv) Steam trap
v) Steam separator vi) Injector
Economizer
Economizer is a type of heat exchanger which exchanges some parts of the waste heat of
flue gas to the feed water. It is installed between the exit of the furnace and entry into the
chimney. Generally, the economizer is placed after feed pump to avoid the problem of
priming in feed pump. ff the economizer is installed before feed pump, some amount of
water may be transformed into vapor, which can create a priming problem in feed pump. It
consists of vertical cast iron tubes attached with scrapers. The function of the scraper is
to remove the soot deposited on the tube. Water flows through the tube to the boiler
drum. These tubes are arranged in the path of the waste flue gas entering into the
chimney. The flow of water is controlled by two valves attached to down header and up the
header of the tubes. The waste heat of the flue gas is transferred to the tube material and
then tube material to water.
Advantages
• It increases the power output of the plant. For a 6C increase in temperature of water
efficiency of boiler increases by I% .
• It increases the evaporation capacity.
• It increases the life of boilers due to less thermal stress
Air Preheater
Air preheater is a device for recovery of waste heat from flue gas and is placed in the path of
the waste flue gas going to the chimney. Waste heat of the flue gas is transferred to the air
before its use to support economical combustion in a furnace. It is placed in the chimney
and above economizer. If fuels used in the furnace are oil, gasses, or pulverized coal, the
hot air supply is possible. But, in the case of stoker firing, the maximum temperature of
the air is limited due to overheating of stoker parts.

Advantages
i) Due to high furnace temperature, water evaporation rate increase. ii) Boiler
efficiency increases by 2 to 10 % .
iii) Low-grade fuel can be used.
Disadvantages
Capital cost increases due to use of preheater and two fans (induced fan and forced
draught fan) to create an artificial draught.
Superheater
Steam generated in the boiler is wet due to contact with water. To get superheated steam,
a device known as superheater is used in the boilers. The function of superheater is to
superheat the steam up to the desired level. It is a surface heat exchanger, located in the
path of the flue gas. The wet steam flows inside the tube and hot flue gas passed over the
tubes.
Advantages
i) Superheater increases the efficiency of prime movers due to the supply of steam
at high-temperature and pressure.
ii) It minimizes the condensation loss in a prime mover.

iii) It eliminates the problems of erosion and corrosion in turbine blades. iv) It increases the
capacity of the plant.
v) It reduces the friction of the steam in a steam engine and other steam parts

Feed Pump
The function of feed pump is to feed the water to the boiler. Different types of feed pumps
used in boilers are reciprocating, centrifugal, and injector. Centrifugal or rotary pumps are
 used where a large amount of water is required. For small boilers, reciprocating pump and
injectors are used.
5. Injector
The injector is a feed pump which is used to deliver feed water into the boiler under
pressure. It is mostly used in vertical and locomotive boilers. It is not suitable for large
power plants. It consists of a group of nozzles so
arrange that the steam expanding in these nozzles imparts kinetic energy to a mass of water.

4. Discuss how the steam generators are classified? Give example of each classification
OR
State the classification of boilers.
OR
Discuss the four types of boiler classifications
Answer:
Classification of Boiler
Boilers can be classified on the following basis:
1. According to Boiler Mobility/Nature:
a) Stationary: When the boiler is fixed at one location and cannot be transported
easily it is known as stationary boiler. Examples: Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox boiler,
vertical boiler.

b) Portable: If the boiler can be moved from one location to another it is known as a
portable or mobile boiler. Example: Locomotive boiler.

c) Marine boilers: The boilers which can work on the surface of water are called
marine boilers.
Example: Scotch marine boilers

2. According to relative position of water and hot gases

a) Fire tube: The boilers in which hot flue gases are inside the tubes and water is
surrounding the tubes are called fire tube boilers. Example: Lancashire, locomotive., Cochran
and Cornish boilers
b) Water tube boilers: When water is inside the tubes and the hot gases are outside,
the boiler is called water tube boiler. Example: Simple vertical boiler, Babcock and Wilcox
boiler.

3. According to location of boiler shell axis

a) Horizontal: When the axis of the boiler shell is horizontal the boiler is called
horizontal boiler.
Example: Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler etc.

b) Vertical: If the axis is vertical, the boiler is called vertical boiler. Example: Cochran boiler.

4. According to Furnace position

a) Internally fired: When the furnace of the boiler is inside its drum or shell, the
boiler is called
a) internally fired boiler. Example: Simple vertical boiler Lancashire boiler, Cochran boiler
b) Externally fired: If the furnace is outside the drum the boiler is called extern.ally
fired boiler.
Example: Babcock and Wilcox boiler temperature of water, the boiler is called natural
circulation boiler. Examples: Babcock & Wilcox boiler, Lancashire boiler

b) Forced circulation: When the circulation is done with the help of a pump the
boiler is known as forced circulation boiler. Examples: Velox boiler, Lamont boiler, Loffler
boiler

6. According to type of fuel used

The boiler in which heat energy is obtained by the combustion of solid fuel like coal or lignite
is known as solid fuel boiler. A boiler using liquid or gaseous fuel for burning is known as
liquid or gaseous fuel boiler. Boilers in which nuclear energy is used for generation of heat
are called as nuclear energy heated boiler.

7. According to number of Tubes

a) Single-tube: A boiler having only one fire tube or water tube is called a single tube
boiler. Example: Cornish boiler, Vertical boiler.

b) Multi-tube: The boiler having two or more, fire or water tubes is called multi tube
boiler. Example: Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

8. According to Boiler Pressure

a) Low Pressure steam boiler: It is defined as a steam boiler whose working pressure is
between 3.5 to 10 bar. Example : Cochran and Cornish boiler.
 b) Medium pressure boiler: It is that boiler whose working pressure (pressure of steam
and water in the shell) is between O bar to 25 bar. Example: Lancashire boiler and
Locomotive boiler.

c) High Pressure boiler: It is one in which the working pressure of the boiler is more than
25 bar.
Example : Babcock & Wilcox boiler.
9. According to the draft used
a) Natural draft: Boilers need supply of air for combustion of fuel. ff the circulation of
air is provided with the help of a chimney, the boiler is known as natural draft
boiler. Examples: Simple vertical boiler, Lancashire boiler.

b) Artificial draft boilers: When either a forced draft fan or an induced draft fan or
both are used to provide the flow of air the boiler is called artificial draft boiler. Examples:
Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Locomotive boiler.

5. What is draught? Discuss their types.

OR
Compare forced and induced boiler draught.
OR
Differentiate between natural and artificial draught.
OR
Write short note on Boiler draught.

Answer:
Boiler Draught
• The boiler draught may be defined as small pressure difference which causes the
flow of gases inside the boiler.
• The function of draught in a boiler is to suck the air into the furnace and to discharge the
hot flue gases to atmosphere through the flue tubes, superheater, economizer, air preheater
and chimney.
 UNIT-5

1. Write down working principle of 4-stroke petrol engine with neat sketches.
(RGPV 2010)
OR
Explain the working of 4-stroke petrol engine. (RGPV 2019,2024)
OR
Explain the structure and working of four-stroke diesel engine with a neat sketch.
(RGPV 2023)
OR
Write short note on working of 4-stroke diesel engine. (RGPV 2018, 2020)

Answer:
Working of Four-stroke Spark Ignition Engine
In this engine, the cycle of operations is completed in 4-strokes of the piston or two
revolutions of the crankshaft. During the 4-strokes, there are five processes to be
completed, viz., suction, compression, combustion, expansion, and exhaust. Each stroke
consists of 180° rotation of the crankshaft and hence a 4-
strokes cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crankshaft

Suction Stroke (0-1): It starts when the piston is at TDC and about to move downward, the
inlet valve is open, and the exhaust valve is closed. Due to suction created by the piston
movement towards BDC, air-fuel mixture enters into the cylinder, and the suction ends when
the piston reaches the BDC.

Compression Stroke (1-2): At the end of the suction stroke, the inlet valve is closed and
the piston moves towards TDC. In this stroke, both the valves, inlet and exhaust are closed;
compression of the air-fuel mixture filled in the cylinder starts from BDC and ends at TDC. At
the end of compression and at constant volume (2-
3), spark starts at the spark plug and instantaneously burning talces place in the
compressed air-fu.el mixture. Pressure and temperature are increased to the maximum
limit.

Power Stroke (3-4): The high pressure developed due to combustion of fuel forces the
piston towards BDC. The power is transferred to the crankshaft. Pressure and temperature
decrease during the stroke. In this stroke, both the valves are closed.

Exhaust Stroke (4-1): At the end of expansion or power stroke, the exhaust valve opens and
the inlet valve remains closed. Piston moves towards TDC and exhaust gas is forced to escape
into the atmosphere through the exhaust valve

Working of Four-stroke Compression Ignition (Cl) Engine

The four-stroke compression ignition (C.I. Engine) is very similar to the four-stroke spark
ignition engine, but it operates at a much higher compression ratio. The compression ratio
of S.I. Engine varies from 6 to 10 whereas in C.I. Engines it ranges from 16 to 20. During
the suction stroke, air is sucked alone inside the cylinder and then compressed sufficiently
to increase the temperature equal to the self-ignition temperature of the fuel injected
at the end of compression at constant pressure. In this engine, a fuel pump and injector
are used to inject the fuel at high pressure. The ignition system of the C.I. Engine is
completely different from S.I. engine as no spark plug and carburetor are required
The sequence of operations of the C.I. Engine can be explained as:

Suction Stroke: In this stroke, the piston moves from TDC to BDC and air is sucked alone as
the vacuum is created inside the cylinder by the piston movement During suction inlet
valve is open and exhaust valve remains closed. On the ideal P-V diagram, the suction is
shown by a straight line from O to 1.

Compression Stroke: Both the valves are closed during the stroke and air is compressed
into the clearance volume by the piston movement from BDC to TDC. In the P-V diagram, it
is shown by the process 1-2. At the end of compression at constant pressure fuel is injected.
Due to high pressure and temperature, fuel starts to ignite automatically as temperature of
the air is increased to the flash point of the fuel. The heat addition process
is shown by the line 2-3 on P-V diagram.
Expansion or Power Stroke: Fuel injection starts nearly at the end of the compression
stroke. The rate of injection is such that the combustion maintains the pressure constant
in spite of the piston movement on its expansion stroke increasing the volume. Heat is
assumed to have been added at constant pressure. After the injection of the fuel is
completed (after cut-off) the combustion products expand. Both valves remain closed
during the expansion stroke. The expansion process is shown by 3-4 on P- V diagram.

Exhaust Stroke: The exhaust valve is open and the inlet valve is closed during the stroke. The
movement of the piston from BDC to TDC pushes the product of combustion and
disposed into the atmosphere through the
exhaust valve. The exhaust process is shown by the line 4-5 on P-V diagram

2. Explain the working of two stroke petrol engine with neat sketch.
OR
Write short note on working of 2-stroke engine.
Answer:
Two-stroke Spark Ignition Engine
Two-stroke S.I. engine is developed by D. Clark in 1878. In two stroke SI engine, the charge
is inducted into the crankcase through the spring loaded inlet valve when the pressure in
the crankcase is reduced due to the upward movement of the piston during the
compression stroke. After the compression and ignition, expansion takes place in the usual
way. During expansion stroke, the charge in the crankcase is compressed. Near the end of
the expansion stroke, piston uncovers the exhaust port and cylinder pressure drops to
atmospheric pressure as combustion products leave the cylinder. Further movement of
piston uncovers the transfer port, permitting the slightly compressed charge in the crankcase
to enter the engine cylinder.
The top of the piston has usually a projection to deflect the fresh charge towards the top of
the cylinder before flowing to the exhaust port. This serves the double purpose: scavenging
the combustion product in the upper part of the cylinder and preventing the fresh
charge from flowing directly to the exhaust port. The same objective can be achieved
without piston deflector by proper shaping of the transfer port. During the upward motion
of the piston from BOC the transfer port is closed first and then the exhaust port is
closed when compression of charge begins and the cycle is repeated in the same way.

Two-stroke C.I. Engine

The working of two-stroke C.I. engine is very similar to two-stroke S.I. engine. The main
difference is that in C.I. engine supercharged air is used through the inlet port and in place
of exhaust port exhaust valves are used. Pressurized air is inducted through the inlet port,
which expels the combustion gases through the exhaust valve during the expansion stroke.
Inlet and exhaust valve is closed during the compression stroke, the piston moves
from BDC to TDC. At the end of compression, fuel is injected into the cylinder and ignites
and the piston is forced to move from TDC to BDC. The same process is repeated again and
again.

3. Derive an expression for efficiency of Otto cycle with neat sketches of p-v and T-s
diagram.
OR
Draw the p-v and T-s diagrams of Otto cycle and explain its operations.
OR
Write short note on p-v and T-s diagram of Otto cycle
4. Explain Diesel cycle and derive an expression for efficiency of diesel cycle.
5. Discuss the working principle and function of each part of steam engIne.
(RGPV 2019)
OR
Explain the working principle of steam engine. (RGPV 2018, 2020)
OR
Draw a neat sketch of steam engine. State the function of any five important
components.
OR
Write short note on working principle of steam engine.

Answer:
Steam Engine
A steam engine is a reciprocating heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam
as its working fluid. Steam engines are also known as external combustion engines. Water is
heated into steam in a boiler until it reaches a high pressure and then expanded through
pistons to do some mechanical work. The reduced-pressure steam is then released into the
atmosphere or condensed and pumped back into the boiler.

Components of Steam Engine

Frame: The frame is made up of heavy cast iron that supports all the stationary and moving
parts. It rests on engine foundations and holds all engine parts in a proper position.

Cylinder: It is a hollow cylindrical container made of cast iron. The piston moves back and
forth in the hollow container under steam pressure. Both ends of the cylinder are closed and
made steam tight.

Piston: The piston is a cylindrical disc that moves back and forth in the cylinder under the
action of steam
pressure. Its function is to convert the thermal energy of steam into mechanical work
Steam Chest: The steam chest is moulded as an integral part of the cylinder. The
superheated steam coming from the boiler at high pressure (above 20 Atm.) is fed into the
steam chest. This steam is then supplied to the cylinder using a D-slide valve

D-slide Valve: This valve moves with a simple harmonic motion in the steam chest. It is
used to exhaust steam from the cylinder.

Inlet and Exhaust Ports: These ports are used for steam movement in the cylinder body.
The steam from the steam chest enters the cylinder through inlet ports. Steam is
exhausted through the exhaust port after doing work in the cylinder.

Piston Rod: The piston rod is a round rod, its one side is connected with the piston,
and the other side is connected with the cross-head. It transfers motion from the piston to
the cross-head.

Cross Head: This is the connection between the piston rod and the connecting rod. It
is used to guide the movement of the piston and prevent the piston from bending.

Connecting Rod: Connecting rod is made of forged steel. Its one end is connected to the
crosshead and the other the crank. It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into
the rotary motion of the crank.
Crankshaft: This is the main shaft of the engine with a crank. The crank works according to
the lever principle and generates the rotational movement of the shaft.

Eccentric: Its function is to provide back and forth to the slide valve. It is made of cast
iron and is mounted on the crankshaft.

Flywheel: The flywheel is a heavy cast iron wheel mounted on the crankshaft. It
prevents fluctuation of the engine and jerks of the crankshaft