Climate and soil for horticultural
crops
Climate
Climate is defined as the whole of average atmospheric phenomena
for a certain region calculated for a period of thirty years.
These phenomena are:
-light, heat, water and air.
Weather- day to day condition of particular area or state of
atmosphere
Climate is formed as a result of three factors:-
1. Latitude
2. Altitude
3. Position of the area (sea or other water bodies)
Light
• It is essential for the process of photosynthesis and therefore, for growth
and development of plants.
• Aspects of light:
Intensity
and duration (Long, short and day neutral)
• Generally horticultural crops need a lot of light and must be grown in sunny
climate, but there are some crops which can tolerate shade eg. turmeric and
ginger.
• There are others like young mangosteen, coffee, cocoa and tea need shade
during part of their development.
• A third group requires permanent shade like palm and carambola.
Photoperiod
• The duration of light for the time elapsing between dawn and dusk
referred as photoperiod or day length.
• It has considerable influence on flowering.
• On the bases of response by plants we classify plants in nine classes but
the major classes are following:-
• Long day plants (LDP): Cabbage, Cauliflower, Onion, Beet, Radish, Carrot,
Spinach and Potato.
• Short day plants (SDP): Strawberry, Pineapple, Chrysanthemum,
Poinsettia, Aster, Balsam, Salvia, Euphorbia and Xanthium.
• Day neutral plants: Tomato, most fruit crops, Pepper, Cucumber, peas.
HEAT/TEMPERATURE
Growth of the plants depends primarily on temperature.
Availability of heat units decide the crop for a given place and
the average temperature of a place gives an idea about heat
units available on the basis of which crop can be decided.
Temperate fruit crops like apple, pear, peach, plum and almond
become dormant due to short day conditions in the region and
need chilling of various lengths to break dormancy.
Frost and chilling are harmful for tropical and subtropical plants.
On the other hand extremely high temperatures found in arid
region cause wilting, sunscald, necrotic spot and even death of
plants.
Classification of plants based on
temperature requirements
• Tropical equable climate with no distinct
winter.
• Subtropical Climate with distinct winter and
summer.
• Temperate: Distinct winter, summer and
autumn with temperature below freezing
during winter is common.
Temperature Requirements
• Tropical plants:
Originate in tropical climates with a year-
round summer-like growing season without
freezing temperatures.
The average temperature never goes below
18 oC .
e.g. cocao, cashew and macadamia nuts,
banana, mango, papaya, and pineapple.
Sub-tropical plants
• They cannot tolerate severe winter
temperatures but need some winter chilling.
• Winter average temperature never goes below
zero degree Celsius and average temperature
can go below 18 OC
e.g. citrus, dates, figs, litchi and olives.
Temperate plants
• Temperate-zone plants require a cold winter
season as well as a summer growing season, and
are adapted to survive temperatures
considerably below freezing.
• The temperature can go below 0 oC and mean
summer temperature above 10 oC.
• Fruit plants require chilling temperature for
flowering and fruiting.
• E.g. apples, cherries, peaches, apricot, plum etc.
Cool season plants
• Cool season plants thrive in cool temperatures
(40°F to 70°F daytime temperatures) and are
somewhat tolerant of light frosts. Examples
include Kentucky bluegrass, peas, lettuce and
pansies.
Warm season plants
• Warm season plants thrive in warm
temperatures (65°F to 90°F daytime
temperatures) and are intolerant of cool
temperatures.
• Examples include corn, tomatoes, and squash.
Some warm season plants are sub-tropical and
tropical plants.
• Tropical : Mango, Banana, Papaya, Sapota,
Pineapple, Coconut, Cashew, Arecanut,
Breadfruit, Jackfruit and Avocado.
• Subtropical: Guava, Grape, Citrus, Date palm,
Phalsa, Pomegranate, Litchi and Loquat.
• Temperate: Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Quince,
Apricot, Walnut, Almond, Strawberry and
Cherry.
Classification of vegetable crops according to seasons
Warm Season Cool Season
Bottle gourd Cabbage
Water melon Cauliflower
Brinjal Pea, Radish
Tomato Beans
Okra Onion
Sweet potato Carrot and radish
WATER/HUMIDITY/PRECIPITATION
• It is essential for plant growth and development
as a substrate in photosynthesis, regulation of
plant temperature, distribution of metabolites
and nutrients.
• It comes through precipitation of rain and snow.
• Near equator the total rainfall is 2000 mm per
year and away from it, which reduces but again
influenced by a number of factors like mountain
ranges.
• Water requirement of plant is dependent on soil
type and evapo-transpiration rate.
• Water is also present in the atmosphere as
vapour and we call it as humidity.
• This atmospheric humidity also influences
growth and development of plants.
• Low humidity has drying effects and enhances
water requirement.
• Whereas high humidity favours fungal diseases.
• High humidity: Sapota, Banana, Mangosteen,
Jackfruit and Breadfruit.
• Low humidity (Dry): Ber, Grape, Date palm,
Pomegranate, Citrus, Aonla and Guava.
Hailstorms
• Hailstorms which often occur sporadically are main disasters during
flowering and fruiting in most of the fruit plants.
• The ice pallets destroy the panicle, developing flowers and small fruits.
• The damage caused to larger fruits is by physical hitting on the fruit
surface which leads to cracks in skin, rupture of aril and rotting of pulp.
• Secondary infection by fungus starts some time after the physical
damage. Affected fruits are unfit for consumption.
• Netting of individual plant is only method to protect from hailstorm
damage.
Frost
• The temperature below 1.10 C in the night, bright sunshine during
day and sharp drop in evening temperature with no wind are the
pre-condition of frost.
• The frost affects fruit plants adversely.
• The extent of damage by frost depends upon:-
age of the tree,
moisture content of the soil,
condition of growth,
actual timing of frost occurrence,
severity and duration of the frost.
• Well grown up trees with mature wood are less affected
than young trees which are immature and in active growth
phase.
• Level of soil moisture affects the extent of frost injury.
• Moist soil or irrigated soil raises the soil temperature and
provides protection against mild frosts therefore; trees of
such growth and age growing under dry soils conditions
are severely damaged by frost than to those growing in
wet land.
High Velocity Wind/Hurricane
• High velocity of wind can affect fruit plants in many ways.
• Younger plants during initial years of establishment have drooping, brittle
branches that can be severely damaged by storm even if they are properly
staked.
• It leads to quick evaporation of water from the soil and thus, reduces
moisture availability which is very much necessary for ideal growth and
development of the plant.
• Strong winds (more than 120 km/hour), gales or storms blow away the
branches, leaves or panicles and sometimes fully grown trees also get
toppled
• It prevents flowering on branches which are exposed to constant
buffeting, burns inflorescences, causes flower and fruit shed and
its drying effect leads to skin-cracking.
• Fruit drop at initial stages of growth is a common problem of high
velocity wind.
Management of high wind:
• Planting tall trees like Shisoo on the boarder of the orchard can
minimise the impact of wind to litchi trees up to an inward
distance measuring 3-4 times of its (windbreak) height.
Horticultural zones of India
• Temperate: Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, North
Uttaranchal, Sikkim and part of Arunachal
Pradesh.
• N. W. Subtropical: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Central Uttar Pradesh and North M.P.
• N. E. Subtropical: Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur.
• Central tropical: South Madhya Pradesh,
Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa and
West Bengal.
• Southern tropical: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu.
• Coastal tropical humid: Konkan, Goa, Kerala,
Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats in Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.
Horticulture zones of HP
• Sub-tropical sub-mountainous and low hill (sub-
tropical) areas near the plains, elevation 365-914 m a m
s l, average annual rainfall 60 – 100 cm. District Una,
Hamirpur, Bilaspur, Kangra, Chamba, Solan, and Sirmaur,
fruits being grown; Mango, Litchi, Guava, Loquat, Citrus
Fig, Ber, Papaya, Early varieties of Grapes, Jack Fruit,
Banana, Low chilling varieties of Peach, Plum and Pear,
Strawberry.
Sub-temperate mid hills and valley (Sub
Temperate)
• Sub-temperate mid hills and valley (Sub
Temperate), elevation 915-1523 m a m s l and
annual rain fall 90 – 100 cm. Sirmaur, Mandi,
Solan, Chamba, Kullu, Kangra and Shimla.
Main fruits grown are: Stone Fruits (Peach,
Plum, Apricot, Almond), Persimmon, Pear,
Pomegranate, Pecan nut, Walnut, Kiwi Fruit,
Strawberry.
• Wet temperate high hills and valleys (Wet
Temperate zone) elevation 1524-2742 m a m s
l and annual rain fall 90 – 100 cm. District
Shimla, Mandi, Kullu, Sirmaur and Chamba.
Main fruits suitable for this zone are: Apple,
Pear (Soft), Cherry, Almond, Walnut, Chestnut,
Hazel- nut, Strawberry.
• Cold and Dry Temperate zone high hills (Dry
Temperate zone) elevation ranging from 2743-
3656 m a m s l and average annual R/F 24 –
40 cm. District Kunnaur, Lahaul & Spiti and
Bharmaur of Chamba district. The main fruits
of this zones are: Apples, Prunes, Drying type
of Apricot, Almond, Chilgoza, Pistachionut,
Walnut, Hazel-nut, Grapes and Hops.
Agro-climatic zones of HP
• SHIVALIK HILL ZONE : Climate Sub Tropical,
consists of foothills and valley area from 350 to
650 meters above mean sea level, It occupies
about 35% of the geographical area and about
40% of the cultivated area of the State. The major
crops grown in this Zone are Wheat, Maize,
Paddy, Gram, Sugarcane, Mustard, Potato,
Vegetables etc.
• MID HILL ZONE: This zone extends from 651 meters to 1,800
meters above mean sea level. Having mild temperate climate. It
occupies about 32% of the total geographical area and about
37% of the cultivated area of the State, The major crops are
Wheat, Maize, Barley, Black Gram, Beans, Paddy etc.
• This zone has very good potential for the cultivation of cash crops
like Off-Season Vegetables, Ginger and production of quality
seeds of temperate vegetables like Cauliflower and root crops.
• HIGH HILL ZONE : It lies from 1,801 to 2,200 meters above sea
level with humid temperate climate and alpine pastures. This
zone covers about 35% of the geographical areas and about 21%
of the cultivated area of the State.
• The commonly grown crops are Wheat, Barley, Lesser Millets,
Pseudo-cereals (Buckwheat and Amaranthus), Maize and Potato
etc. The area is ideally suited for the production of quality seed
Potato and temperate Vegetables. This zone possesses good
pastures and meadows.
• COLD DRY ZONE : It Comprises of Lahaul-Spiti and Kinnaur
Districts and Pangi Tehsil of Chamba District lying about
2,200 meters above mean sea level. It occupies about 8%
of the geographical and 2% of the total cultivated area of
the State.
• The major crops grown are Wheat, Barley, Pseudo-cereals
like Buck wheat and Amaranthus. It is ideally suited for
the production of quality Seed Potato, temperate and
European type of Vegetables and their Seeds, Seed
Potato, Peas as green and seed purposes.
The ICAR, New Delhi, has
recognized eight agro climatic zones
for effective land use planning
1. Humid western Himalayan Region: J&K, HP, Kumaon
and Garhwal in UK
2. Humid Bengal – Assam Region: West Bengal & Assam
3. Humid Eastern Himalayan Region: Bay Islands,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram,
Tripura, Sikkam, Megalaya & Andaman & Nicobar
Islands.
4. Sub-humid Sutlez-Ganga: Alluvial plains Punjab, Delhi,
UP plains & Bihar.
5. Sub-humid to Humid Eastern and south Eastern
Islands: Eastern Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar.
6. Arid western plains: Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
7. Semi-arid Lava plateaus and central Islands:
Mahastra, Western Central Madhya Pradesh and
Goa.
8. Humid to Semi-arid western Ghats: Karnataka, TN,
Kerala, Pandichary and Lakshadweep Islands
SOIL
• Soil is the upper most crust of earth surface
which supports plant.
• Soil has three phase system in which plants
grow.
-Solid, liquid and gas
Solid phase:-
• it consists of minerals, clay minerals and
organic matter.
The soils also contain living system with millions
of microbes that breakdown organic matter and
builds it again.
• Microbes are essential and survive only when
soil is well aerated and rich in organic matter
and devoid of waterlogged conditions.
Texture
• Texture of soil depends on the size of solid
particles and classified as gravel, coarse and
fine sand, silt and clay.
• Soils are classified according to relative
distribution of these particles and there are 12
textural classes.
Structure
• Likewise, arrangement of these particles is
referred as structure, and both texture and
structure lend soil physical properties like
water holding capacity, aeration and bulk
density.
• Generally loamy soils and crumb structure are
most preferred for fruit crops.
Organic /Mineral
• According to level of organic matter, soils are
classified as mineral soil or organic soil and
soil having more than 20% organic matter is
organic soil like peat and muck.
• Minerals and salts lend chemical properties to
the soil like pH, alkalinity, sodicity, salinity and
cation exchange capacity which influence the
availability of nutrients in soil.
Soil pH
• pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion
activity.
• pH= -log10 (H+)
• The pH scale extends from 0 to 14
Soil pH and nutrient availability
Classification of fruits based on soil
requirements
• Salinity tolerant crops: Woodapple, Date palm,
Ber, Aonla, Fig, Sapota etc.
• Sodicity tolerant crops: Ber, Tamarind,
Woodapple, Date palm, Aonla, Karonda, Fig,
Phalsa, Pomegranate, Guava, Bael and
almond.
• Drought tolerant crops (arid): Ber, Aonla,
Phalsa, Lasora, Custard apple, Karonda, Fig,
Guava etc.
Grouping of fruits according to their
tolerance to salinity
• High salt tolerance : Date palm, Ber and
Aonla.
• Medium salt tolerance : Pomegranate, Fig and
Grape.
• Low salt tolerance : Apple, Orange, Almond,
Lemon and Avocado.
• Acid tolerance: Blueberry
