1 Introduction

Developments in information and communication technologies have compelled distance learning environments to continuously evolve and adapt. This transformation was notably accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, which brought rapid changes across various sectors, including education, healthcare, and the business world, with many face-to-face activities transitioning to online platforms. Globally, in the field of education, distance learning environments have been preferred over face-to-face education, and the topic of distance education has gained significant importance. Although distance and online education have become increasingly widespread and popular, there are some challenges to its success. Students often encounter crises in online learning environments, such as failing to attend virtual classes, neglecting their assignments, losing interest in course materials, decreasing success rates, and even dropping out of education (Ali et al., 2018; Lee, 2014; Park & Choi, 2009).

Numerous studies have explored the challenges encountered during the distance learning process, particularly during the pandemic. In this period, high dropout and low engagement rates among students in online education were consistently identified as critical challenges in the learning process (Fu et al., 2024). For instance, Eden et al. (2022) reported that during the pandemic, student engagement, motivation, and satisfaction levels in higher education were significantly low. Rasskazova and Soldatova (2022) found similar results in their study of undergraduate students in the United States, stating that students faced challenges such as academic satisfaction, subjective competence, decreased participation, and learning difficulties in distance learning during the pandemic period. In Turkey, Çetin et al. (2024) noted that distance learning systems implemented during and after the pandemic lacked interactivity, making it difficult to sustain students'active participation. In Saudi Arabia, Almossa (2021) analyzed tweets about online learning experiences and revealed that students often felt disconnected and demotivated. Therefore, researchers have suggested that it is necessary to develop more innovative teaching methods to enhance engagement and retention in online distance education platforms (De Paepe et al., 2018; Malik & Akkaya, 2021; Wallace, 2003).

Digital nudging, defined as the use of design, information presentation, and interaction elements in a deliberate and subtle manner to guide user behavior in online environments (Meske & Potthoff, 2017), has been identified as a promising solution. Research has emphasized its significant potential, particularly in reshaping educational practices, and has called for further exploration of its applications in education (Damgaard & Nielsen, 2018; Weinmann et al., 2016). Although digital nudging has been widely used in fields such as policy development, promoting environmentally friendly behaviors, e-commerce, and digital services, its application in education remains relatively limited. Nevertheless, the pandemic period saw a growing interest in employing digital nudges to support students’ adaptation to digital learning environments, improve their motivation, and enhance their online participation (Tate, 2023).

Digital nudges are applied in different ways in the literature to increase user interactions with distance learning platforms through the platform interface or various tools integrated into the platform (e-mail, mobile application notifications, learning analytics-based personalized systems). The nudges provided through user interface design have been implemented to increase motivation and engagement performance in the form of prioritization of information presented to the user (Castmo and Persson, 2018), alerts such as progress feedback and time remaining for students to complete their assignments (Brown et al., 2019), and feedback on how they performed in terms of assignment submission compared to others (Feild, 2015). The nudges provided by the tools integrated into the platform were to increase students'completion rates by overcoming the problem of dropping out of online learning (Thistoll & Yates, 2016; Zaqoot & Oh, 2020; Rodríguez et al., 2022) to ensure more active participation in their online courses (Lawrence et al., 2019), to increase their interaction with crucial course resources (Brown et al., 2023), to increase participation in exams (Plak et al., 2023), to reduce procrastination behaviors (Li et al., 2021), to submit their assignments on time and to increase their submission rates (Motz et al., 2021) through e-mails, notifications or personalized systems. These studies highlight the versatility and effectiveness of digital nudging in fostering user engagement in distance learning.

However, there is no existing guide on how, with what content, and when nudges should be delivered to guide students toward positive behaviors in higher education (Brown et al., 2023; Tate, 2023). Given the nascent yet growing body of literature on distance learning, further research is needed to explore the implementation and impacts of diverse nudge types (Lawrence et al., 2019; Zaqoot & Oh, 2020; Dimitrova & Mitrovic, 2022; Rodríguez et al., 2022).

Accordingly, this study aims to influence students'behaviors and enhance their interactions with the distance learning platform through various types of digital nudges, with the goal of enabling them to fulfill all the activities required to complete a distance learning course (Fig. 1). This study adopts a multidisciplinary approach by integrating the fields of Distance Learning, Behavioral Sciences, and Information Systems. The study focuses on utilizing a digital nudging tool informed by Behavioral Economics to influence student behaviors and nudge them toward optimal outcomes. The findings are expected to raise awareness among educational software developers and practitioners,, enabling them to use digital nudging more extensively in their work and promoting the use of digital nudges in distance learning. Furthermore, to the best of our knowledge, no study similar to the design of this research has been conducted in Türkiye, where the application was carried out. Therefore, this study can be considered entirely original. In addition, this study's findings, which have an exploratory structure, are intended to significantly contribute to the limited literature on digital nudging in distance learning.

Fig. 1
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Conceptual framework

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2 Literature review

2.1 Nudging and digital nudging

Traditional economics posits that human behavior is rational; however, psychological research (Simon, 1955) indicates that people do not always behave rationally (Weinmann et al., 2016). Tversky and Kahneman (1974) argue that various heuristics influence human decision-making. The concept of nudging was first introduced by Thaler and Sunstein (2008), who defined it as"any aspect of choice architecture that alters people's behavior in a predictable way without restricting their freedom of choice or imposing prohibitions”. Rooted in the theory of Behavioral Economics, nudging recognizes the substantial impact of psychological, emotional, cultural, cognitive, and social factors on decision-making. It explains how small environmental changes can shape decision outcomes. Moreover, nudging aligns with the philosophy of Libertarian Paternalism, which encourages better choices without coercion (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008). Due to their high potential impact, nudges have been widely studied and applied in diverse fields, including health, food choices, public transport, energy saving, trade, education, and government policies such as taxation, retirement savings, charity, and donation (Halpern & Sanders, 2016; Eigenbrod & Janson, 2018; Zaqoot & Oh, 2020).

The increasing use of technological devices in daily life has led individuals to make critical decisions frequently in digital environments. This shift has extended the concept of nudging to digital contexts. Digital nudging was first introduced by Weinmann et al. (2016) and is defined as “the use of user interface design elements to guide people's behavior in digital choice environments”. Although this definition is considered the initial definition of digital nudging and is frequently cited, it limits it to user interface design elements. Recognizing this limitation, Meske and Potthoff (2017) proposed a broader definition, suggesting that digital nudging encompasses not only user interface designs but also information and interaction elements. They redefined digital nudging as"a subtle form of using design, information, and interaction elements to guide user behavior in digital environments without restricting individual freedom of choice".

Digital environments offer unique opportunities for nudging compared to physical settings. Due to the abundance and complexity of information available in digital environments, users often make hasty and automatic decisions and thus tend to make incomplete decisions. Therefore, digital nudges are considered as an effective technique to guide users'choice and decision-making behavior on digital platforms. Compared to nudges, digital nudges reach users faster and easier. Additionally, because digital environments provide opportunities such as monitoring user log records, they enable the personalization of nudges, which enhances their effectiveness (Mirsch et al., 2017).

The application of digital nudging is widespread across various fields today. One of its most common uses is to influence consumer behavior on e-commerce platforms and applications (Deng et al., 2016; Mirsch et al., 2017; Yi et al., 2014). For instance, techniques such as highlighting featured products, displaying frequently purchased items alongside a viewed product, or using phrases like"Only 3 rooms left"on hotel booking platforms exemplify digital nudging strategies designed to shape purchasing decisions (Weinmann et al., 2016; Eigenbrod & Janson, 2018; Schär & Stanoevska-Slabeva, 2019). Beyond e-commerce, digital nudging is also employed to promote healthier lifestyles (e.g., feedback from Fitbit and Apple Watch) and to reduce waste or energy consumption (e.g., Nest thermostats).

2.2 Digital nudging in education

The literature demonstrates that various nudging techniques have been applied in education over the years to enhance student performance, albeit on a limited scale (Damgaard & Nielsen, 2018). However, using nudges in online learning is new and more focused on traditional learning. Existing studies on education and online/distance learning emphasize the role of digital nudging in increasing student engagement, enhancing motivation, and supporting the overall learning process.

Damgaard and Nielsen (2018) identify different types of nudging interventions currently being implemented in education, such as nudges that induce decision-making and nudges that involve changes or additions to the decision environment. Nudges that influence behavior by inducing decision-making include nudges that rely on underutilized self-regulation tools (e.g., deadlines, goal setting, and reminders) and nudges that potentially influence motivation (e.g., social comparison and extrinsic motivating nudges). Zaqoot and Oh (2020) investigated the effectiveness of the nudging technique in addressing students'dropout problems and increasing completion rates in MOOCs environments. Khachan (2020) explored the potential of university career services in using nudging and machine learning to influence and support students in their career identity formation process. van Oldenbeek et al. (2019) examined whether specific nudges, delivered as personalized email-based feedback regarding students'online course viewing progress, had a measurable impact on the extent and intensity of their online learning behavior. Brown et al. (2023) used digital nudges in an online higher education setting to promote regular class attendance, timely task completion, and increased engagement with course materials among students. Research indicates that digital nudges significantly enhance student engagement in the learning process when delivered in a timely and individualized manner. Davis et al. (2017) developed a personalized feedback system to increase MOOCs completion rates through social comparison. The study concluded that social comparison cues significantly increased completion rates and that such feedback benefited highly educated students. Brown and Parnin (2021) investigated bot technology to nudge students toward better software engineering behaviors. The result of the study showed that bot technology is useful for improving student behaviors by increasing code quality and productivity. Lawrence et al. (2019) applied course-specific nudges with learning analytics to increase online student engagement. The study found that nudges helped students access critical resources to meet assessment requirements, align their expectations more realistically with course demands, and fulfill their learning obligations and responsibilities more effectively.

The evidence indicates that nudges positively impact student behavior and academic achievement by supporting them in reaching their goals. Nudges can promote students'active participation in online courses, while also supporting the achievement of learning objectives. Weinmann et al. (2016) highlight the field of education as a significant area within future trends in digital nudging and emphasize that it requires further investigation by researchers.

2.3 Types of digital nudging in education

Various types of nudges have been identified in the literature on nudging and digital nudging, each targeting at influencing a specific behaviors or decision-making processes (Jesse & Jannach, 2021; Mirsch et al., 2017; Thaler & Sunstein, 2008). However, when examined in the context of education and online/distance learning, the literature indicates that a more limited range of nudging types has been addressed. These types of nudging were determined in compliance with the needs of applications in the field of education.

In this context, Table 1 presents a summary of the commonly used types of digital nudges in education along with their basic definitions. These nudges are delivered through various channels, including learning platforms, mobile applications, gamification tools, e-mails, SMS or other digital tools (Damgaard & Nielsen, 2018; Özdemir, 2020; Weinmann et al., 2016). Depending on their design, digital nudges in education can be general or personalized, optimizing students'learning experiences (Damgaard & Nielsen, 2018; Davis et al., 2017; Karlsen & Andersen, 2019; Stone, 2017; van Oldenbeek et al., 2019).

Table 1 Selected nudge types from the digital nudge literature in education
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3 Method

This section outlines the research design (Fig. 2), adapted from Mirsch et al. (2017) and Schneider et al. (2018), and details the methodological steps undertaken in this study. The methodology began with the selection of the distance learning platform and the course where digital nudges would be implemented. Subsequently, the expectations of both the course and the instructor, as related to distance learning, were identified to establish the context for applying digital nudges. Based on these expectations, appropriate types and content of digital nudges were designed.

Fig. 2
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Research design (adapted from Mirsch et al. (2017) and Schneider et al. (2018))

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A digital nudging tool was then developed, and digital nudges were delivered to master's degree students enrolled in the selected distance learning course at a university. In order to evaluate the impact of the digital nudges on students'engagement, procrastination behaviors, and interactions with the distance learning platform, some student data from the Learning Management System (LMS) were tracked and analyzed. Additionally, the students'opinions were gathered through a focus group interview, a qualitative data collection method.

The collected qualitative data were analyzed using the thematic analysis method. The reason for choosing the qualitative data collection method in addition to quantitative results in the study is to focus on understanding student experiences in depth and exploring the complex dynamics behind these experiences (Creswell, 2015). As understanding student experiences in digital learning environments requires a research approach that extends beyond standard surveys and tests (Alhabeeb & Rowley, 2018; Arık, 2021; Rodríguez et al., 2022).

3.1 Context, Selection of Nudges and Participants

The implementation of digital nudges was carried out in the"Project Management in Information Systems"course, offered as part of the non-thesis master's degree program in Management Information Systems (Distance Learning) at the Graduate School of Business, Sakarya University in Türkiye, during the 2023–2024 Fall Semester. The international platform Moodle was utilized as the distance learning platform.

Based on the course syllabus, students were expected to fulfill various tasks throughout the semester (Fig. 3). These tasks were divided into two categories: course expectations and instructor expectations. Course expectations included the submission of assignments and participation in the final exam, while instructor expectations included attendance at live classes, following course materials, and engagement in live class chat.

Fig. 3
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Tasks expected to be completed based on the syllabus of the distance learning course

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The types and content of the digital nudges to support these expectations were determined based on the input of three subject matter experts. As a result, six types of digital nudges were selected: reminder, informational, feedback, extrinsic motivation, reinforcement, and deadline.

At the beginning of the semester, the 50 students enrolled in the course were informed about the study. Of these, 21 students volunteered to participate, forming the study sample. Written consent was obtained from these participants through Informed Consent Forms, ensuring adherence to ethical research practices.

3.2 Design of the digital nudging instrument

A mobile application for course notifications was developed using the Flutter Dart programming language as a tool for delivering nudges in the study. The application utilized Google's Firebase Cloud Messaging (FCM) service to send notifications, while the Firebase Database service was employed for data storage.. To ensure the delivery of personalized notifications, the Postman platform was also utilized. The application link was shared with the volunteer participants, enabling them to install it on their mobile devices. Participants were assigned a username and password, which they used to log in. It was also communicated to the users that they needed to enable notification permissions for the application in order to receive the nudges.

3.3 Implementation of digital nudging

During the 14-week course period, digital nudge notifications were sent to the students starting from the 8 th week (halfway through the term) of the course, which began at 6:30 PM each week. The nudges sent were general or personalized. The personalized nudges were sent by reviewing the student log records from the LMS. Table 2 shows the nudges delivered to the participants throughout the process. Accordingly, a total of 12 digital nudges were sent to students during the term.

Table 2 Nudges delivered to students
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3.4 Data collection: tracking of system data and conducting focus group interview

To evaluate the effectiveness of digital nudges, specific student behaviors within the distance learning system were tracked. Accordingly, students’ data from the Learning Management System (LMS) were monitored, including attendance at live classes, submissions of assignment, and engagement in the live class chat section. The tracking and collection of this data were conducted regularly before and after each nudge, from the first nudge sent to the last.

Additionally, a focus group interview method was chosen as the qualitative data collection technique. According to Thomas et al. (1995), a focus group interview is"a technique involving an in-depth group interview in which participants are selected because they are a purposive, if not representative, sample of a particular population, and this group focuses on a particular topic."The method aims to obtain in-depth and detailed qualitative information regarding participants'experiences, emotions, thoughts, perceptions, attitudes, and habits on a given topic. One of the defining features of focus group interviews is the group dynamic, which often leads to deeper and more diverse data through social interaction compared to individual interviews (Rabiee, 2004).

At the end of the semester, an invitation for a focus group interview was sent to all 21 participants involved in the experimental study. The focus group interview was conducted in January 2024 with 11 participants, who comprised the focus group sample by responding positively to the invitation. There are various views on the ideal number of participants for focus group interviews. According to Kitzinger and Farquhar (1999), 4–9 participants; Byers and Wilcox (1988), 8–12 participants; Goss and Leinbach (1996), 15 participants; Morgan (1997) and Gibbs (1997) 6–12 participants are ideal (Çokluk et al., 2011). Based on the literature, we can state that a participant count of 11 is appropriate for a focus group interview. The focus group, in which 1–2 h is sufficient (Krueger, 1998), was conducted online and lasted approximately 1.5 h. Written consent was obtained from all participants for the recorded interview.

The focus group consisted of the following stages: In the first stage, brief information was provided about the study's purpose and objectives, the aim of the focus group interview, and how it would be conducted, along with a statement ensuring the confidentiality of participants'information. In the second stage, the participants were asked to introduce themselves to obtain information about themselves briefly. In addition to basic information such as name, surname, age, graduation, occupation, and employment sector, they were asked whether they had any previous distance learning experience. Furthermore, participants were asked how they manage the balance between work, family, and distance learning, as well as whether they are able to allocate sufficient time and attention to their education. In the third stage, participants were asked whether they found the course notification application beneficial in meeting the time, attention and responsibilities required by distance learning. Participants were also asked more specific questions about the nudges sent, and their opinions were gathered about the timing and frequency of the nudges. In the final stage, the participants were asked for suggestions on what to add to the topic or how to improve the study. They were also asked if they would recommend such an application for distance learning platforms.

4 Analysis and results

4.1 Analysis of system data

Digital nudges were delivered to 21 students before each live class to increase their attendance. Students received different types of these nudges from the eighth to the fourteenth week. Figure 4 illustrates the number of students attending the live class every week. The first six weeks did not deliver nudges, and there was no live class during the seventh week due to the university's exam week. The average attendance for the weeks without nudges was 16.5. Although attendance was relatively low at 14 in the eighth week, when the first nudge was sent, the graph shows a consistent increase in attendance following the introduction of the digital nudges, culminating in full participation from all students (21) in the final weeks.

Fig. 4
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Weekly student attendance for live classes

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Digital nudges were sent to students regarding the assignment they were responsible for as part of the course. Students were given a two-week period to upload their assignment files to the system. The first nudge was delivered five days before the assignment deadline, and the second nudge was delivered one day before the deadline. Figure 5 shows the number of assignment submissions following each of these nudges. Before the nudges, only 2 students had uploaded their assignments to the system independently. After the first nudge, 10 students submitted their assignments. Following the final nudge delivered one day before the deadline, the remaining 9 students completed their submissions. As a result, all 21 students in the participant group submitted their assignments.

Fig. 5
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Cumulative assignment submission after each digital nudging

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Before the live class, two digital nudges were sent to the students during weeks eleven and twelve, encouraging them to be active in the live class chat. Figure 6 shows the number of messages sent by students in the session chat. While the average number of messages in the chat was 51 during the first ten weeks, it increased to 137 after the first nudge in week eleven. Another nudge was delivered in week twelve, resulting in 114 messages in the chat. Although this slightly decreased from the previous week, the number of messages remained significantly higher than in the first ten weeks. No nudges were sent in the last two weeks, with the number of messages decreasing to 55 in week thirteen and further to 22 in week fourteen.

Fig. 6
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Weekly number of messages in live class chat

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In addition, it was observed that 100% of the students who were expected to participate in the final exam. It was also noted that all students accessed the course documents, fulfilling one of the teacher's expectations regarding engagement with the course materials.

4.2 Analysis of focus group interview

The focus group interview was recorded with participants'consent and transcribed verbatim, ensuring that participants’ identities were anonymized. The transcripts were uploaded into MAXQDA software and thematically coded using an inductive approach. To enhance the reliability of the coding process, both authors reviewed and coded the transcript independently. The authors conducted an iterative process to review and compare the codes (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The coding highlighted the following five themes (1) reminding, (2) motivating, (3) triggering, and (4) guiding, and (5) challenges of distance learning. Each theme is explained in detail below.

4.2.1 Characteristics of focus group participants

The demographic characteristics of the focus group participants, obtained as a result of the questions asked in the second stage of the focus group interview, are presented in Table 3. Participants’ ages ranged from 29 to 48, with an average age of 36. The group consisted of eight male and three female participants. Seven participants worked in the private sector, four in the public sector, and most of them had jobs related to information technology. Out of the participants, seven have prior experience of distance learning, while four do not.

Table 3 Characteristics of focus group participants
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4.2.2 Reminding

According to the analysis results under the theme of reminding, digital nudges appear to have various impacts on students. Overall, most participants emphasized that digital nudging function was helpful in their work and social life schedules. The sub-themes under this main theme included paying attention to classes/exams/assignments to prevent forgetfulness, functioning as a course-specific alarm to support time management, supporting task management busy pace of work life, and maintaining awareness of the course to avoid omissions.

It is widely believed that nudges would be beneficial for working individuals who need to remember class, exams, and assignments and who tend to forget. Besides, during the focus group interview, positive opinions were expressed about the timing of the reminder notifications. Students stated that notifications received close to the start times of classes increased attendance. For instance, one student said, “Notifications that come close to the lessons were more advantageous for me. Because if I forgot at that moment, I immediately participated in the lesson if I was available at that time”, Another student emphasized that the notifications received close to the exams were effective in participating in the exams: “Notifications for the final exams were effective because there was no class during the last week. The week before that, we had the last class on Thursday.” Students stated that the notifications helped them participate in the classes: “Notifications were very useful. I really saw the notification very close to the class time, said, ‘Oh yes, it's time’ and attended the class.”

The students stated that they worked hectic schedules and had many responsibilities in their personal lives, and digital nudges helped them remember their class times. For example, one student said, “Since we work at a busy schedule, the notifications you sent were really useful for me”. Another student mentioned that he confused class times while trying to balance work and personal lives, and that the notifications were helpful in this regard: “‘It has been a really tiring period for me with work, home, school and kids all together. … Because of the work environment, we get distracted, we cannot check, we forget. So the reminders were good.”

Another opinion of the students about the reminder effect of the digital nudging notifications was that the nudges functioned as an alarm, helping them to remember their class times. One student stated, “This application allowed me to cancel my alarm for this lesson. It worked as an alarm, it is good.” In addition, digital nudges made students aware of the course. One student said, “There was a lesson awareness. I found it useful, honestly.”, expressing this effect.

4.2.3 Motivating

Another important main theme that emerged based on the analyses was the motivating effect. It was revealed that digital nudges have a motivational effect on students and create various positive emotions. It was emphasized that extrinsic motivation and feedback type nudges are particularly motivating factors. The sub-themes under this main theme included creating a sense of belonging, adding vibrancy to the distance learning experience, enhancing intrinsic motivation evoking positive emotions, stimulating enthusiasm, and capturing attention and stimulating interest.

The participants stated that during the 14-week course they sometimes lost motivation to complete their course-related tasks because they had work and personal life responsibilities. They thought the nudges as beneficial in enhancing their intrinsic motivation. One student said, “We have been in a motivating process. … I received a notification that you participated 100%. Since 2023, I have been your student for 1 year, I have not missed any course. That's why I thought of these notifications as feedback from the institute. So, it was very motivating.” and explained how motivation increased.

It was also expressed that digital nudges created a sense of belonging to the course in distance learning processes. One student explained this situation with the following statement: “I mean, really, half an hour before or especially your assignment reminders and so on, it created a sense of belonging for me”. Another student said, “It all developed a sense of belonging for me. Belonging is the main theme for me here” and emphasized the importance of this feeling.

Another student, who stated that the notifications sent for digital nudging were capturing attention and stimulating interest, said, “It was very useful for me. You gave really valuable feedback about participation rates. That was very remarkable for me. Because notifications are truly remarkable.”

Moreover, participants emphasized that digital nudges had many motivational positive effects. One student who indicated that the nudges stimulated enthusiasm said, “I always felt this on the notification side; I mean, it was really well thought out in the first moment. This project actually got me excited; I find it useful”. Another student shared a similar feeling: “It created excitement in me”. A participant who received digital nudges said: "The notifications were very good. To be honest, most people had already said that when the notification came on the screen, I had a smile on my face" and explained that the notifications evoked positive emotions. One of the participants, who expressed feeling happy after receiving the notifications, said, “Being part of it was nice for me. I mean, I was happy to be part of the project overall; it was nice for me.”. Another student said that the digital nudges added vibrancy to the distance learning experience: “It actually added color to my distance learning process.”

4.2.4 Triggering

Participants also stated that digital nudges have different triggering effects. The sub-themes that emerged within this main theme were encouraging timely action by countering procrastination, promoting faster task completion, functioning as a driving force to trigger and activate behaviors, and serving as a tracking and control mechanism.

The students stated that the nudges related to assignment and exam deadlines were a driving force in triggering and activating assignment submission and study behaviors. One of the students explained this situation by saying, “When I saw the notification for the last five days, four days, it was a trigger. I was very pleased with it.” Another student indicated that digital nudges were a driving force factor in completing the tasks with the statement “It was actually a driving force.”

A student who indicated that digital nudges encourage timely action by countering procrastination said, “It was useful. In fact, when I was doing the assignment, I was postponing the upload, I mean, I would upload it today, I would upload it tomorrow. The notification came that there was one day left. When it came, I said that the notification came; now we are close to the end, and I need to upload it. I uploaded it that day”. Another student said, “I usually do my assignments on the last day. When I saw that notification, I said, ‘I need to upload it as soon as possible’.” and shared a similar experience.

In addition, a student who stated that digital nudges promoted faster task completion said, “Actually, I am preparing the homework, but it affected my speed.” Another student said, ‘I received a notification saying ‘Last one day’. I said, ‘Come on, we need to speed up’.” and stated this effect.

Furthermore, digital nudges served as a tracking and control mechanism for the students. One student expressed, “Actually, it is like a parent. It actually acts as a parent who follows up on their children's homework. It is a control mechanism.”

4.2.5 Guiding

Participants also emphasized the guiding effect of nudges. Students reported that the informative nudges sent to direct their behavior in the direction thought to be beneficial for them were effective. The sub-themes that emerged within the main theme of guidance effect were providing explanation to support improved understanding and action, facilitating decision-making by providing guidance and direction, and providing enlightening and insightful support.

Students stated that digital nudges supported their learning processes by providing explanations to foster better understanding and action. One student said, “I was going to say the same things about the notifications. Friends pointed them out. I can say that it was incredibly effective. Because in the last weeks, sometimes more detailed notifications started to come. I think it would be better for exams to follow the last three weeks in an explanatory way. The nudges were incredibly effective for me.”

Digital nudges guided and directed, facilitating students'decision-making about lessons and assignments. One student stated, “The guidance in the notifications was useful for me. I was confused about which one of the lessons of the 9 th, 10 th, or 11 th week to check. It was direct guidance.” Another student shared a similar feeling by saying, “It was guiding for me.”

Digital nudges also provided enlightening and insightful support for students'learning processes. One student expressed this situation by saying, “Notifications were very good, they enlightened us a lot.”

4.2.6 Challenges of distance learning

As a result of the analyses, the participants also mentioned some challenges they encountered during their distance learning period. The difficulties experienced by working individuals in distance education emerged in the form of the following sub-themes: forgetting classes/exams/assignments, confusion of live class times, difficulty in following the class, difficulty in staying focused.

Students stated that they could forget classes, exams, and assignments due to distractions caused by the work environment. One student explained this situation: “We are distracted due to the work environment, we cannot look at it, we forget.” Another student emphasized that notifications coming close to class hours helped prevent forgetfulness: “The notifications that came closer to the classes were more advantageous for me. Because at that moment, if I forgot immediately, I immediately participated in the class if I was available at that time. Or when it came close to the exams, it was also very effective.”

Students indicated that they could confuse the class times because of their busy work schedule. One of the students explained this situation by saying, “When there are no notifications, we have to check on the internet every time to see which class is on.” Another student mentioned that sometimes they confuse the class times and that their busy schedule makes this situation even more complicated: “I sometimes confused the class times because we were working so busily that I was wondering whether the class was at 6:00 or 6:30 pm.” It was also stated that the days could be confused because of the busyness: “It was very good for me because sometimes we can confuse the days because of the intensity.”

Students emphasized the challenge of following the classes that start at a certain time on a regular basis. One of the students said, “I realized how difficult it is to have a class start at a certain time and to be able to attend that course every period of the week in a 14–15 week adventure. This was a complicated subject, and it was a little difficult to work during the day and follow it in the evening.” Another student stated that their company had previously provided distance courses, but distance learning was a very different and challenging experience: “Our company used to give English courses, etc. before, they were also distance. But this is a completely different experience. It is both very enjoyable and difficult to follow.” Students also stated that it is challenging to stay focused in distance learning. One student said, “It is a difficult subject staying focused.”

5 Discussion, Conclusion and Implications

The findings of this study, conducted to influence students'system interactions in distance learning, reveal that digital nudges positively impact student behavior and increase their system interactions and participation. These findings align with prior research on the role of digital nudging in education (Frankfort et al., 2012; Blumenstein et al., 2018; Lawrence et al., 2019; Damgaard & Nielsen, 2020; Brown et al., 2023).

The quantitative results of our study indicate that digital nudges affect the fulfillment of course and instructor expectations within the scope of distance learning expectations. The first aspect where the effect of digital nudges is clearly observed is the weekly live class attendance. While attendance fluctuated in the weeks before the nudges, student participation steadily increased with the digital nudges sent, although attendance was low in the first week. Particularly towards the last few weeks, it was observed that all students participated in the live class and reached a constant level. This finding shows that digital nudges can help students develop habits of attending live classes. It has been emphasized in previous studies that digital nudges have the potential to increase students'participation in lessons (Lawrence et al., 2019; Rodríguez et al., 2022).

In addition to increasing live class attendance, digital nudging effectively ensured that students completed their assignments. A significant increase was observed in the number of students who submitted their assignments after the first nudge informing them of the assignment's due date. The second nudge reinforced the effect of the first nudge and ensured that all students submitted their assignments. This demonstrates that digital nudges encourage students to complete their tasks. Previous studies also show that digital nudges are an effective tool especially in homework submissions (Brown et al., 2019; Motz et al., 2021).

Another noticeable effect is that the nudges sent to the students to ask questions from the chat section during the live class and to answer the questions asked by the instructor increased the chat activity. Nudges were sent to the students in two different weeks for this purpose, and the number of messages in the chat section significantly increased during these weeks. This finding reveals that digital nudges play a stimulating role in encouraging students to engage in social interaction. Lawrence et al. (2019) stated that digital nudges effectively increase online interaction and encourage student communication. However, the fact that the number of interactions in the chat section significantly decreased when the nudge was stopped emphasizes the importance of the nudges'continuity in this subject. Previous studies have stated that digital nudges require continuity and that repeating them at certain intervals is useful for maintaining students'interest in a sustainable way (Brown et al., 2023; Dimitrova & Mitrovic, 2022).

Furthermore, it was observed that all students accessed the course materials and participated in the final exam. Digital nudges were found to increase students'preparedness and participation in key assessment moments such as exams by making regular reminders to students. In addition, it can be argued that digital nudges help students to follow the requirements of the learning process. Plak et al. (2023) emphasized the function of digital nudges in increasing students'participation in exams and supporting their preparation for important course activities. Brown et al. (2023) stated that digital nudges provide regularity in information access and learning processes by encouraging access to essential course resources. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that digital nudging is an effective tool for encouraging student participation in both in-class and out-of-class activities and for supporting students.

The qualitative results of our study reveal that digital nudges are an effective implementation in distance learning. The results show that the functions of digital nudges such as reminding, motivating, triggering, and guiding, contribute to student engagement in distance learning. The reminder function of digital nudges is extremely useful in preventing working-distance master's students from forgetting important academic tasks such as lectures, assignments, and exams in their busy work and social life schedules. It also significantly increased academic engagement. Martin and Bolliger (2018) found that reminders are a crucial academic engagement strategy. The effect of reminders in distance education has also been emphasized in other studies (Byrne, et al., 2022; Reimer et al., 2017; Rodríguez et al., 2022; Sulphey & Alkahtani, 2018; Weinmann et al., 2016). Researchers have highlighted that the reminding function of digital nudging is effective in student behaviors. It is concluded that if the timing and content of reminder nudges are correct, they will increase course awareness and positively affect course tracking.

Another significant effect of digital nudges on students is that they motivate them. According to Maehr (1984), motivation is one of the most important learning components in any educational environment. However, lack of motivation has been one of the severe problems experienced by students in distance education, and current studies show that it is necessary to develop motivational materials in distance learning (Ali et al., 2018; Kakuchi, 2021; Malik & Akkaya, 2021). Many researchers have underlined that digital nudges are a motivating factor (Dimitrova & Mitrovic, 2022; Rodriguez et al., 2019; Lawrence et al., 2019; Damgaard & Nielsen, 2020). In line with existing studies, our findings reveal that digital nudges are very beneficial for distance learning students who are busy working and living with their families and lack the motivation to fulfill some of their responsibilities related to the courses. Additionally, it has been determined that digital nudges support students with various positive effects, such as capturing attention and stimulating interest, evoking positive emotions, and stimulating enthusiasm. These features reveal that nudges are beneficial in creating more enthusiastic academic participation and creating a sense of belonging.

The triggering effect of digital nudges demonstrates the effectiveness of nudges in encouraging behavioral change and prompting action. Li et al. (2021) stated that digital nudges have a positive effect on reducing students'procrastination behaviors, which improves their performance. Similarly, our study's results reveal that nudges, especially those related to homework and exam deadlines, reduce students'procrastination behaviors and enable them to submit homework and prepare for exams on time. These results align with other studies (Levy & Ramim, 2013; Rodriguez et al., 2019; Damgaard & Nielsen, 2020; Rodríguez et al., 2022), which indicate the triggering effect of deadline nudges in education. Therefore, digital nudges can help students take the necessary steps and accelerate their progress toward a certain goal.

The guiding function of digital nudges is another result of the qualitative analysis. Our results reveal that digital nudges effectively inform and guide students to a specific behavior, especially in informational content. This result aligns with Thaler and Sunstein's (2008) ‘Nudge Theory’. Thaler and Sunstein argue that accurate information can help individuals make more conscious and effective decisions. Similar to our findings, Martinez (2014) also found positive effects of informational nudges on course engagement as measured by exams, grades, and course completion. Therefore, it is concluded that providing students with different information, such as various suggestions and tips, in the form of digital nudges in the distance learning process is enlightening and guiding for students.

Lastly, our study's findings mentioned the challenges encountered by working graduate students during their distance learning, such as forgetting classes/exams/assignments, confusion of live class times, difficulty in following the class, and difficulty in staying focused. Even though graduate students have sufficient maturity and a sense of responsibility to study and perform well (Nerguizian & Nerguizian, 2006), some challenges are inherent in distance education. This situation is also supported by the studies in the literature (Ali et al., 2018; Kara et al., 2019; Muilenburg & Berge, 2005), and it is stated that students need more support in time management and course tracking in distance learning. Thus, based on our findings, it would be accurate to state that digital nudges help to overcome these challenges in distance learning.

The theoretical contributions of this study are that digital nudging is an important support tool in distance learning and positively contributes to students'academic engagement. The reminding, motivating, triggering, and guiding functions of digital nudging help students better adapt to courses and fulfill their academic tasks more effectively. It was found that the sample group, made up of professionals, would benefit greatly from such digital tools to help them balance their busy professional and personal lives. These results support and extend existing theoretical frameworks investigating the effects of digital nudging on student motivation and engagement.

The practical implications of this study are that it provides guidance for educational organizations and education software practitioners on how to use digital nudges more effectively. Given that digital nudging technologies benefit graduate students'busy schedules in their professional and personal lives, it can be concluded that the integration of these tools into educational processes should be increased. With the development of educational technologies, the role of digital nudges in distance education is predicted to increase further.

The methodological implications of this study are that it makes an important contribution to the literature by analyzing the data collected through focus group interviews using qualitative analysis method. Using the qualitative analysis method in digital nudging research increases the methodological diversity of research in the field. In addition, to the best of our knowledge, no similar study has been conducted in Türkiye. This study is therefore expected to address this gap and serve as a methodological example for future research.

6 Limitations and future directions

The sample group for the study consisted of graduate students. To expand the understanding of digital nudging technologies, future studies should explore their effectiveness across different student groups and educational levels. In this way, how digital nudging technologies can be used in a broader range and how their effectiveness can be increased can be investigated more comprehensively.

In addition, although a holistic evaluation was made in terms of the effectiveness of digital nudges in this study, it would be useful to evaluate the effect of each type of nudge separately in future research. This approach would provide more nuanced insights into the specific contributions of different nudging strategies. Besides, to enrich the research results, it is suggested that an in-depth interview method should be used in addition to quantitative data.

On the other hand, more empirical research is needed on the effectiveness and sustainability of digital nudges. The design and implementation of digital nudging strategies in education should be supported by a structure that is sensitive to student differences, adaptive, and provides continuous feedback. In this context, the long-term effects of digital nudging strategies and their contribution to pedagogical outcomes should be the focus of future research.