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### Linux入门概述 #### 一、引言本章节旨在为初学者提供关于Linux操作系统的全面介绍。Linux作为一款开源操作系统内核，自1991年发布以来，已经成为服务器领域的重要成员，并逐渐扩展到桌面计算机和个人设备。本书《Linux入门手册》由Machtelt Garrels撰写，Xalasys.com出版，旨在为用户提供一个实用的Linux入门指南。 #### 二、Linux是什么？ ##### 1.1 历史 **1.1.1 UNIX** Linux的诞生与UNIX密切相关。UNIX是由AT&T的贝尔实验室在1969年开始开发的一款多用户、多任务的操作系统。它以其高效稳定著称，被广泛应用于科学研究、工程计算以及商业应用等领域。 **1.1.2 Linus Torvalds与Linux** 1991年，芬兰赫尔辛基大学的学生Linus Torvalds基于MINIX（一种用于教学目的的类UNIX操作系统）编写了一个新的操作系统内核，这便是Linux的起源。起初，这个项目仅仅是为了满足个人兴趣和需求，但很快就吸引了大量开发者加入，形成了开放源代码社区，共同推动了Linux的发展。 **1.1.3 当前Linux系统的应用** 如今，Linux不仅在服务器市场占据主导地位，还广泛应用于嵌入式系统、移动设备（如Android操作系统）、超级计算机以及个人电脑等各个领域。Linux的成功得益于其高度定制化的能力、出色的稳定性以及强大的开源社区支持。 ##### 1.2 用户界面 **1.2.1 Linux是否难学？** 对于没有编程背景或计算机科学知识的新手来说，Linux可能看起来比较复杂。然而，随着图形用户界面（GUI）的发展，现在的Linux发行版提供了用户友好的桌面环境，使得新用户可以轻松上手。此外，丰富的在线资源和活跃的社区支持也为学习Linux提供了极大的便利。 **1.2.2 非经验用户如何使用Linux？** 为了适应不同用户的需求，许多Linux发行版都提供了易于使用的安装程序和配置工具。例如，Ubuntu提供了一款名为Ubiquity的图形化安装程序，能够引导用户完成整个安装过程。此外，大多数现代Linux桌面环境都类似于Windows或Mac OS X，用户可以快速掌握基本操作。 ##### 1.3 Linux是否有未来？ **1.3.1 开源** Linux作为一款开源软件，其发展受益于全球范围内的开发者贡献。这种开放的合作模式不仅促进了技术的进步，还确保了Linux能够持续改进并适应不断变化的技术需求。开源软件的透明性和可定制性也是其吸引力之一。 **1.3.2 十年的经验服务** 自从Linux首次发布以来，已经过去了近三十年。在这段时间里，Linux经历了不断的迭代和发展，积累了丰富的实践经验和技术积累。这些经验和积累使得Linux成为了一个成熟、可靠且灵活的操作系统。 #### 三、Linux的特点 ##### 1.4.1 Linux的优点 - **免费：** 大多数Linux发行版都是免费提供的，降低了用户的成本。 - **安全性高：** 由于其开源性质，安全漏洞可以迅速得到修复。此外，Linux的设计使得恶意软件难以运行。 - **稳定性强：** Linux以其出色的稳定性和可靠性而闻名，非常适合服务器和关键业务应用。 - **可定制性强：** 用户可以根据自己的需求定制Linux系统，无论是桌面环境还是服务器配置。 - **丰富的软件资源：** Linux拥有大量的开源软件，涵盖了从办公软件到专业应用的各个方面。 ##### 1.4.2 Linux的缺点 - **软件兼容性问题：** 虽然Linux支持大量的开源软件，但对于某些专有软件或游戏，兼容性可能存在问题。 - **硬件驱动问题：** 尽管情况正在改善，但在某些情况下，特别是最新的硬件设备，Linux可能会遇到驱动程序兼容性问题。 - **对新手不太友好：** 对于完全没有命令行操作经验的用户来说，Linux的学习曲线可能相对较高。 #### 四、Linux的变种 ##### 1.5.1 Linux与GNU Linux通常与GNU（GNU's Not Unix）项目紧密关联。GNU项目的目标是创建一套完全自由的UNIX兼容操作系统。尽管Linux内核不是GNU的一部分，但它经常与GNU工具和其他自由软件一起使用，形成完整的操作系统环境。 ##### 1.5.2 GNU/Linux GNU/Linux是一种常见的术语，用来强调Linux操作系统是由Linux内核和大量的GNU软件组成的。这一术语强调了GNU项目对构建现代Linux系统所做出的重大贡献。 ##### 1.5.3 应该安装哪个发行版？选择合适的Linux发行版取决于个人的具体需求。例如： - **Ubuntu**：适合新手，拥有强大的社区支持和丰富的软件包。 - **Fedora**：适合技术爱好者和开发者，因为它包含了最新的技术和软件。 - **Debian**：适合寻求稳定性的用户，常用于服务器部署。 - **Arch Linux**：适合高级用户，允许用户高度定制系统。 #### 五、快速入门 ##### 2.1 登录、激活用户界面和登出 **2.1.1 图形模式** 大多数现代Linux发行版默认使用图形界面。用户可以通过用户名和密码登录，然后访问桌面环境进行日常操作。图形界面提供了直观的菜单和图标，方便用户管理文件和应用程序。 **2.1.2 文本模式** 文本模式下，用户通过命令行界面进行操作。虽然对于新手来说可能不那么直观，但熟练掌握后可以大大提高效率。文本模式适用于高级用户和系统管理员。 ##### 2.2 绝对基础知识 **2.2.1 命令** 学习Linux的基本命令是入门的关键。一些常用的命令包括： - `ls`：列出当前目录下的文件和子目录。 - `cd`：更改当前工作目录。 - `mkdir`：创建新的目录。 - `rm`：删除文件或目录。 - `cp`：复制文件或目录。 - `mv`：移动或重命名文件或目录。 **2.2.2 一般说明** 了解Linux的文件结构是非常重要的。Linux采用分层文件系统，每个文件或目录都有特定的位置。熟悉基本的路径概念（如绝对路径和相对路径）可以帮助用户更有效地管理文件和目录。 **2.2.3 使用Bash特性** Bash（Bourne Again SHell）是Linux中最常用的shell。了解如何使用Bash的一些高级功能，如命令历史、别名定义和管道操作，可以极大地提高工作效率。 ##### 2.3 获取帮助 **2.3.1 man页面** 在Linux中，几乎所有的命令都有对应的man页面，这是一个文档系统，用于提供命令的详细用法说明。通过输入`man 命令名`即可查看相关命令的帮助文档。 **2.3.2 更多信息** 除了man页面之外，还有许多其他资源可用于获取Linux相关的信息和支持。在线社区论坛、邮件列表以及官方文档都是宝贵的资源。 #### 六、文件和文件系统 ##### 3.1 Linux文件系统的总体概览 **3.1.1 文件** Linux中的文件类型多种多样，包括普通文件、目录、符号链接、设备文件等。了解这些不同的文件类型及其属性对于有效管理文件系统至关重要。 **3.1.2 关于分区** 为了高效利用存储空间，Linux系统通常会将硬盘划分为多个分区。每个分区可以独立格式化，并安装不同的文件系统。理解分区的概念有助于更好地组织和保护数据。 **3.1.3 文件系统布局** Linux文件系统的布局遵循一定的标准，例如： - `/`：根目录，所有其他目录的起点。 - `/home`：用户主目录所在的位置。 - `/usr`：包含用户程序和库文件。 - `/var`：存储日志文件和动态生成的数据。 - `/etc`：存放配置文件。 - `/bin`：存放常用命令的执行文件。 ##### 3.2 在文件系统中定位 **3.2.1 路径** 路径是用来标识文件或目录位置的一种方式。路径可以是绝对路径，也可以是相对于当前工作目录的相对路径。 **3.2.2 绝对路径与相对路径** - **绝对路径**：从根目录`/`开始的完整路径。 - **相对路径**：相对于当前工作目录的路径。 **3.2.3 最重要的文件和目录** 了解关键文件和目录的位置有助于用户更高效地使用Linux系统。例如： - `/etc/passwd`：包含用户账户信息。 - `/etc/group`：包含用户组信息。 - `/etc/fstab`：定义了系统启动时自动挂载的文件系统。 - `/etc/shadow`：包含加密的密码信息。 #### 七、文件操作 ##### 3.3 操作文件 **3.3.1 查看文件属性** 查看文件属性可以帮助用户了解文件的详细信息，如所有者、权限设置、修改时间等。使用`ls -l`命令可以显示文件的详细列表。 **3.3.2 创建和删除文件及目录** 学会创建和删除文件及目录是基本的文件管理系统技能。例如： - `touch filename`：创建一个空文件。 - `rm filename`：删除指定的文件。 - `rmdir dirname`：删除空目录。 - `mkdir dirname`：创建新的目录。总结而言，Linux作为一款强大的操作系统，其灵活性和可定制性使其成为各种应用场景的理想选择。通过学习本书的内容，读者将能够掌握Linux的基础知识，并逐步深入了解其高级功能。

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Introduction to Linux

A Hands on Guide

Machtelt Garrels

Xalasys.com

Version 1.21 20060314 Edition

First published December 2002

Table of Contents

Introduction.........................................................................................................................................................1

1. Why this guide?...................................................................................................................................1

2. Who should read this book?.................................................................................................................1

3. New versions and availability..............................................................................................................1

4. Revision History..................................................................................................................................2

5. Contributions.......................................................................................................................................4

6. Feedback..............................................................................................................................................4

7. Copyright information.........................................................................................................................5

8. What do you need?...............................................................................................................................5

9. Conventions used in this document.....................................................................................................5

10. Organization of this document...........................................................................................................6

Chapter 1. What is Linux?.................................................................................................................................8

1.1. History..............................................................................................................................................8

1.1.1. UNIX.......................................................................................................................................8

1.1.2. Linus and Linux.......................................................................................................................9

1.1.3. Current application of Linux systems...................................................................................10

1.2. The user interface............................................................................................................................10

1.2.1. Is Linux difficult?..................................................................................................................10

1.2.2. Linux for non−experienced users..........................................................................................11

1.3. Does Linux have a future?..............................................................................................................11

1.3.1. Open Source..........................................................................................................................11

1.3.2. Ten years of experience at your service................................................................................12

1.4. Properties of Linux.........................................................................................................................13

1.4.1. Linux Pros.............................................................................................................................13

1.4.2. Linux Cons............................................................................................................................14

1.5. Linux Flavors..................................................................................................................................15

1.5.1. Linux and GNU.....................................................................................................................15

1.5.2. GNU/Linux............................................................................................................................16

1.5.3. Which distribution should I install?......................................................................................16

1.6. Summary.........................................................................................................................................17

1.7. Exercises.........................................................................................................................................17

Chapter 2. Quickstart.......................................................................................................................................19

2.1. Logging in, activating the user interface and logging out..............................................................19

2.1.1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................19

2.1.2. Graphical mode.....................................................................................................................19

2.1.3. Text mode..............................................................................................................................21

2.2. Absolute basics...............................................................................................................................21

2.2.1. The commands......................................................................................................................21

2.2.2. General remarks....................................................................................................................22

2.2.3. Using Bash features...............................................................................................................23

2.3. Getting help.....................................................................................................................................24

2.3.1. Be warned..............................................................................................................................24

2.3.2. The man pages.......................................................................................................................24

2.3.3. More info...............................................................................................................................26

2.4. Summary.........................................................................................................................................29

2.5. Exercises.........................................................................................................................................29

Introduction to Linux

Table of Contents

Chapter 2. Quickstart

2.5.1. Connecting and disconnecting...............................................................................................30

2.5.2. Passwords..............................................................................................................................30

2.5.3. Directories.............................................................................................................................30

2.5.4. Files.......................................................................................................................................31

2.5.5. Getting help...........................................................................................................................31

Chapter 3. About files and the file system......................................................................................................33

3.1. General overview of the Linux file system.....................................................................................33

3.1.1. Files.......................................................................................................................................33

3.1.2. About partitioning.................................................................................................................35

3.1.3. More file system layout.........................................................................................................38

3.2. Orientation in the file system..........................................................................................................41

3.2.1. The path.................................................................................................................................41

3.2.2. Absolute and relative paths...................................................................................................43

3.2.3. The most important files and directories...............................................................................43

3.2.4. The most important configuration files.................................................................................46

3.2.5. The most common devices....................................................................................................47

3.2.6. The most common variable files...........................................................................................48

3.3. Manipulating files...........................................................................................................................49

3.3.1. Viewing file properties..........................................................................................................49

3.3.2. Creating and deleting files and directories............................................................................52

3.3.3. Finding files...........................................................................................................................55

3.3.4. More ways to view file content.............................................................................................59

3.3.5. Linking files..........................................................................................................................60

3.4. File security.....................................................................................................................................62

3.4.1. Access rights: Linux's first line of defense............................................................................62

3.4.2. The tools................................................................................................................................63

3.5. Summary.........................................................................................................................................68

3.6. Exercises.........................................................................................................................................70

3.6.1. Partitions................................................................................................................................70

3.6.2. Paths......................................................................................................................................70

3.6.3. Tour of the system.................................................................................................................70

3.6.4. Manipulating files..................................................................................................................71

3.6.5. File permissions.....................................................................................................................71

Chapter 4. Processes.........................................................................................................................................72

4.1. Processes inside out........................................................................................................................72

4.1.1. Multi−user and multi−tasking...............................................................................................72

4.1.2. Process types.........................................................................................................................72

4.1.3. Process attributes...................................................................................................................74

4.1.4. Displaying process information.............................................................................................75

4.1.5. Life and death of a process....................................................................................................77

4.1.6. SUID and SGID.....................................................................................................................79

4.2. Boot process, Init and shutdown.....................................................................................................81

4.2.1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................81

4.2.2. The boot process....................................................................................................................81

4.2.3. GRUB features......................................................................................................................81

Introduction to Linux

Table of Contents

Chapter 4. Processes

4.2.4. Init.........................................................................................................................................82

4.2.5. Init run levels.........................................................................................................................84

4.2.6. Shutdown...............................................................................................................................85

4.3. Managing processes........................................................................................................................85

4.3.1. Work for the system admin...................................................................................................85

4.3.2. How long does it take?..........................................................................................................86

4.3.3. Performance...........................................................................................................................87

4.3.4. Load.......................................................................................................................................87

4.3.5. Can I do anything as a user?..................................................................................................87

4.4. Scheduling processes......................................................................................................................92

4.4.1. Use that idle time!.................................................................................................................92

4.4.2. The sleep command...............................................................................................................92

4.4.3. The at command....................................................................................................................93

4.4.4. Cron and crontab...................................................................................................................93

4.5. Summary.........................................................................................................................................95

4.6. Exercises.........................................................................................................................................96

4.6.1. General..................................................................................................................................96

4.6.2. Booting, init etc.....................................................................................................................96

4.6.3. Scheduling.............................................................................................................................97

Chapter 5. I/O redirection................................................................................................................................98

5.1. Simple redirections.........................................................................................................................98

5.1.1. What are standard input and standard output?......................................................................98

5.1.2. The redirection operators.......................................................................................................98

5.2. Advanced redirection features......................................................................................................101

5.2.1. Use of file descriptors..........................................................................................................101

5.2.2. Examples.............................................................................................................................102

5.3. Filters............................................................................................................................................102

5.3.1. More about grep..................................................................................................................103

5.3.2. Filtering output....................................................................................................................103

5.4. Summary.......................................................................................................................................104

5.5. Exercises.......................................................................................................................................104

Chapter 6. Text editors...................................................................................................................................106

6.1. Text editors...................................................................................................................................106

6.1.1. Why should I use an editor?................................................................................................106

6.1.2. Which editor should I use?..................................................................................................106

6.2. Using the Vim editor.....................................................................................................................108

6.2.1. Two modes..........................................................................................................................108

6.2.2. Basic commands..................................................................................................................108

6.2.3. The easy way.......................................................................................................................109

6.3. Linux in the office.........................................................................................................................109

6.3.1. History.................................................................................................................................109

6.3.2. Suites and programs............................................................................................................110

6.3.3. Remarks...............................................................................................................................110

6.4. Summary.......................................................................................................................................111

6.5. Exercises.......................................................................................................................................111

Introduction to Linux

iii

Table of Contents

Chapter 7. Home sweet /home.......................................................................................................................112

7.1. General good housekeeping..........................................................................................................112

7.1.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................112

7.1.2. Make space..........................................................................................................................112

7.2. Your text environment..................................................................................................................115

7.2.1. Environment variables.........................................................................................................115

7.2.2. Shell setup files...................................................................................................................117

7.2.3. A typical set of setup files...................................................................................................118

7.2.4. The Bash prompt.................................................................................................................120

7.2.5. Shell scripts.........................................................................................................................121

7.3. The graphical environment...........................................................................................................124

7.3.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................124

7.3.2. The X Window System.......................................................................................................124

7.3.3. X server configuration.........................................................................................................126

7.4. Region specific settings................................................................................................................127

7.4.1. Keyboard setup....................................................................................................................127

7.4.2. Fonts....................................................................................................................................127

7.4.3. Date and time zone..............................................................................................................127

7.4.4. Language.............................................................................................................................128

7.4.5. Country−specific Information.............................................................................................128

7.5. Installing new software.................................................................................................................128

7.5.1. General................................................................................................................................128

7.5.2. Package formats..................................................................................................................129

7.5.3. Automating package management and updates..................................................................130

7.5.4. Upgrading your kernel.........................................................................................................132

7.5.5. Installing extra packages from the installation CDs............................................................133

7.6. Summary.......................................................................................................................................134

7.7. Exercises.......................................................................................................................................134

7.7.1. Shell environment................................................................................................................134

7.7.2. Graphical environment........................................................................................................135

Chapter 8. Printers and printing...................................................................................................................136

8.1. Printing files..................................................................................................................................136

8.1.1. General................................................................................................................................136

8.1.2. Formatting...........................................................................................................................137

8.2. The server side..............................................................................................................................138

8.2.1. General................................................................................................................................138

8.2.2. Graphical printer configuartion...........................................................................................138

8.2.3. Buying a printer for Linux...................................................................................................138

8.3. Print problems...............................................................................................................................139

8.3.1. Wrong file............................................................................................................................139

8.3.2. My print hasn't come out.....................................................................................................139

8.4. Summary.......................................................................................................................................141

8.5. Exercises.......................................................................................................................................141

Chapter 9. Fundamental Backup Techniques..............................................................................................142

9.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................142

9.1.1. Preparing your data.............................................................................................................142

Introduction to Linux