Books by Gennaro Varriale
De Gruyter Oldenbourg, 2025
For decades historians argued for the downfall of communication, when early modern societies were... more For decades historians argued for the downfall of communication, when early modern societies were hit by a natural disaster. After all, earthquakes caused the destruction of infrastructure, which hindered the spread of news. Instead, the last investigations opened a new point of view about the political communication: every crisis was a catalyst for news. The book widens this reading through a comparative analysis of several earthquakes in the Hispanic Monarchy territories, from Asia to America.
However, the examination of communications provided in this volume is not an end in itself but is offered as a basis for reflection and to propose the notion that earthquakes trigger change in social and political dynamics. Earthquake-related crises exposed the underlying contradictions that the court of Madrid needed to address in the most effective way, and, if possible, swiftly.
Earthquakes not only destroyed buildings and infrastructure but also social norms. Urgency reduced the distance between interlocutors, to some extent blurring the boundaries of self-censorship. Tremors therefore offer a rare opportunity to observe the political and military crises faced by the Hispanic Monarchy, the global empire of the time.
Rome, Società Editrice Dante Alighieri, 2023
In the Sixteenth century, the Ottoman expansion causes an enormous tension in the Mediterranean a... more In the Sixteenth century, the Ottoman expansion causes an enormous tension in the Mediterranean area, where Italian peninsula is a principal link between West and Levant. The book focuses on Barbary corsairs’ activity through the eyes of outsiders: slaves, concubines, fugitives, spies, or eunuchs. Consequently, the first part examines the violence that is the hearth of piracy. The next aim is a specific analysis of Italian territories’ policy against the corsairs. The third considers the other side of the frontier with an especial emphasis on Constantinople, Northern African cities, and Levantine ports. The last section presents the connections amongst the coasts outlined by the corsairs.
![Research paper thumbnail of ¿Si fuera cierto? Espías y agentes en la frontera (siglos XVI-XVII) [Table of contents & Introduction]](https://attachments.academia-assets.com/57014174/thumbnails/1.jpg)
¿Frontera, otra vez? Sí… ese término, tan característico de los ensayos académicos, ha vuelto hoy... more ¿Frontera, otra vez? Sí… ese término, tan característico de los ensayos académicos, ha vuelto hoy en día a estar de actualidad en todos los medias a nivel internacional. No obstante, “las fronteras” de los periódicos poco tienen que ver con la imagen recogida por los historiadores; en efecto, los aspectos más llamativos, para la mayoría de los estudiosos, siguen estando vinculados al contacto, ora pacífico, ora conflictivo, entre los dos extremos de una encrucijada. Suavizados con palabras quizás doctas, en realidad, los protagonistas de nuestras páginas no se diferencian tanto de quienes se mueven a lo largo de las fronteras actuales: los refugiados sirios e iraquíes, con los andalusíes huidos hacia los cuatro rincones del mundo; las denominadas mafias de seres humanos, con los mercaderes de cautivos; o los exiliados de nuestra época, con los cortesanos de príncipes destituidos. Si hay un común denominador de todas las fronteras, es, sin duda alguna, que son espacios donde se generan una multitud de informaciones. Discordantes, estereotipadas y tal vez absurdas, las noticias desde la frontera guardan un valor trascendental para la sociedad que se asoma a ellas. Por todo ello, este volumen tiene la aspiración de presentar el binomio entre frontera e información durante la Edad Moderna con unos enfoques de análisis que examinan los aspectos más controvertidos y prestando una especial atención a espías y agentes informales.
![Research paper thumbnail of Detrás de las apariencias. Información y espionaje (siglos XVI-XVII) [Table of contents & Introduction]](https://attachments.academia-assets.com/37806630/thumbnails/1.jpg)
En los últimos años los espías han vuelto a los titulares de las grandes portadas, el descubrimie... more En los últimos años los espías han vuelto a los titulares de las grandes portadas, el descubrimiento de escándalos y escuchas han puesto en el centro del debate los límites de nuestra privacidad. Una narrativa de años en torno a la sociedad de la información abierta, hija de las nuevas tecnologías, ha chocado bruscamente contra la realidad del ajedrez mundial, tanto que la opinión pública se ha sentido traicionada por sus propios garantes. No obstante, los medios de comunicación enfatizan la excepcionalidad de la época en que vivimos, la captación de información por parte del poder no es en absoluto una prerrogativa del siglo XXI; al contrario, la adquisición de noticias reservadas está en los cimientos mismos de la Europa moderna. Igual que en el presente, también en la Edad Moderna la parte más sensible de la información –la geográfica de los descubrimientos, la comercial de nuevas mercancías o la militar de las innovaciones tecnológicas– está muy protegida y reservada, en principio, a las cortes y a los círculos financieros. Entonces las vidas de los espías están entrelazadas de forma especial con las necesidades económicas y militare de dos grandes poderes, la Monarquía Hispánica y el Imperio Otomano, que rigen el destino del Mediterráneo. Fronteras territoriales y hegemónicas, religiosas y culturales, económicas y sociales hacen que la información sobre el colindante, diferente y a menudo enemigo, se convierta en vital para su propia subsistencia. En efecto, los soberanos de la Casa de Austria y los sultanes de Constantinopla invierten sumas estratosféricas de dinero, a través de “cajas B”, sólo para anticipar las maniobras del adversario.
Nel Cinquecento, lo spionaggio acquisisce formule e metodi diversi rispetto al passato e, grazie ... more Nel Cinquecento, lo spionaggio acquisisce formule e metodi diversi rispetto al passato e, grazie allo sviluppo della diplomazia e delle poste, che agevolano la trasmissione delle informazioni dimezzandone i tempi, i sovrani europei dispongono ora di mezzi aggiornati per scoprire le intenzioni del nemico. Si qualifica, in tal modo, il profilo della nuova "spia": agente specializzato che conosce la criptografia e i codici segreti, oltre a saper individuare le rotte più rapide ed efficaci per spedire i dispacci. Protagonista delle ricerche di Gennaro Varriale è Napoli, dove la corte promuove la costituzione di un sistema difensivo e di un ben articolato "network" spionistico. Nella strategia degli Asburgo, infatti, lo spionaggio rappresenta uno sguardo confidenziale sui turco-barbareschi e uno strumento essenziale nell'ambito del conflitto con l'Impero Ottomano.
Journal articles by Gennaro Varriale
Nuevo Mundo. Mundos Nuevos, 2022
During the Early Modern period, the earthquakes become a topic of interest. The article focuses o... more During the Early Modern period, the earthquakes become a topic of interest. The article focuses on the news about the seismic activity of the Hispanic Monarchy. Besides the introduction and conclusions, the essay presents two paragraphs. While the first part scrutinizes the confidential communication by the Habsburg administration, instead, the second analyses public discussions on several disasters, that take place in the streets of Madrid during the summer of 1688.
Osmanli Arastirmalari - Journal of Ottoman Studies, LVIII (2021), pp.1-29, 2021
Abstract: Ottoman expansion into the Western Mediterranean in the sixteenth century created an in... more Abstract: Ottoman expansion into the Western Mediterranean in the sixteenth century created an intense rivalry with the Habsburgs. This article examines this conflict from a different aspect, i.e. that of espionage. While on the one hand analysing the political changes in the Mare Nostrum in the 1530s, on the other, it scrutinizes the Neapolitan intelligence, the most important information gathering at the service of Emperor Charles V. It furthermore specifically concentrates on the contribution of espionage to the Emperor’s campaign of Tunis against Khayr al-din Barbarossa.
Keywords: Mediterranean studies, early modern espionage, Habsburg-Ottoman rivalry, Kingdom of Naples, North Africa.
De emires en Túnez a refugiados en Nápoles y Sicilia. Las últimas generaciones de la dinastía Hafsí (1535-1642)
Algerian Review of Ottoman and Mediterranean Studies, 2021
in "Algerian Review of Ottoman and Mediterranean Studies", 1 (2021), pp. 76-112.
Abstract :
T... more in "Algerian Review of Ottoman and Mediterranean Studies", 1 (2021), pp. 76-112.
Abstract :
This study pays special attention to the fate of the last members of the Hafsid dynasty, which ruled Tunisia from 1229 to the mid-16th century, at a time when it was part of the conflict between the Spanish Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire in the western Mediterranean Sea in general and the Maghreb region in particular. The collapse of the Hafsid dynasty and the end of its period of rule took place in the 16th century as a result of geopolitical changes around the perimeter. This research aims to analyse the consequences of Charles V's expedition to Tunisia in 1535 and the latter's accession to Ottoman rule after Sinan Pasha's expedition in 1574. We also seek to investigate the issue of the political asylum of the last Hafsid members in Naples, which led them to abandon Islam and become Christianised, citing as a clear testimony the tomb of Mulây Aḥmad al-thâlith al-Hafṣî found in one of the churches of Naples.
Keywords: Ottoman Tunisia; the Hafsid dynasty; the expedition of Charles V; the Spanish-Ottoman conflict; Mulây Ahmad al-thâlith al-Hafsî; Naples; the Mediterranean Sea.
http://www.lerpoa.univ-alger2.dz/index.php/%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%B1
Mediterranea. Ricerche Storiche, 2021
"Mediterranea. Ricerche Storiche", 51(2021), pp. 151-180.
ABSTRACT: During the early modern age,... more "Mediterranea. Ricerche Storiche", 51(2021), pp. 151-180.
ABSTRACT: During the early modern age, the earthquakes become a topic of interest for the Habs-burg administration, because the dynasty rule areas with high seismic hazards. The article focuses on the collection and transmission of the news about the earthquakes with a global viewpoint thanks to the structure of the Hispanic Monarchy. In addition to the introduction and conclusions, the essay is formed of three paragraphs. The first part examines the communication system within Hispanic administration; the second presents the formal features of the disaster writings. Finally, the last section shows the leitmotifs in the documentation on the earthquakes .
Cuadernos de Historia Moderna 45(1), 81-109., 2020
Abstract. The article focuses on the Imperial espionage against the Ottoman Empire during the 16 ... more Abstract. The article focuses on the Imperial espionage against the Ottoman Empire during the 16 th century. After the introduction, the text presents the Mediterranean frontier that is experiencing political and military changes, nevertheless the emphasis is on the management of secret information. The second part examines the structure and the protagonists of intelligence. However, the conclusions highlight the connections between Mediterranean and America, which contradict a traditional vision promoted by Anglo-Saxon historiography. Finally, the work proposes the possible transfers of the models, generated by Mediterranean espionage, from the Old to the New World.
Studi Storici, 4 (2019), pp. 781-809., 2019
This paper focuses on the Phlegrean eruptions in 1538, when close to Naples arises a volcano, jus... more This paper focuses on the Phlegrean eruptions in 1538, when close to Naples arises a volcano, just called Monte Nuovo (New Mountain). The investigation presents a new viewpoint on a well-known event, linked to History of Emotions and Communication. In addition to the introduction and conclusions, the essay consists of three paragraphs. The first part considers the previous years, when take place some events, later the scholars read as signs of the subsequent disaster. Instead, the second exposes the reactions of current society and the imperial administration. The last part investigates the interpretations of the academics connected to the viceroy and the local aristocracy, which have an enormous diffusion at European level.
Keywords: Environmental history, disaster, eruption, Kingdom of Naples, Renaissance.
Abstract: the article analyses the Kingdom of Naples in the time of Ferdinand the Catholic with a... more Abstract: the article analyses the Kingdom of Naples in the time of Ferdinand the Catholic with a Mediterranean viewpoint, in which the king's action is conditioned by the advance of the Ottoman Empire. In the first part, it focuses on the Ottoman expansion after the conquest of Constantinople. The second examines the Neapolitan context, where the reminiscence of Otranto always reopens old wounds. Finally, it investigates the intelligence's innovations in this period, when the Kingdom of Naples is emerging as the rearguard of espionage.
ABSTRACT: In the Sixteenth century, the Ottoman expansion into the West caused an enormous tensio... more ABSTRACT: In the Sixteenth century, the Ottoman expansion into the West caused an enormous tension in the Mediterranean area, where the House of Austria was the main opponent of the Porte. The essay focuses on the conflict in a different view: the central side of the warfare was the control of information. Therefore, the first part examine the governance of Habsburg intelligence in the Mare Nostrum; the second aim is a specific analysis of the Sicilian intelligence against the Turk. The last section presents the first results of an investigation in which it examined the spy's contribution beyond the war.
This present essay focuses on the information that Hispanic spies collected in the Levant during ... more This present essay focuses on the information that Hispanic spies collected in the Levant during the sixteenth-century. Based on archival and literary sources, the study is built around the typical structure of a lyric opera to show the worth of the secret correspondence such as archetype of European perception about the Ottoman Empire and, more generally, about all the Islam.
KEY WORDS: Intelligence; Secret information; Ottoman Empire; Hispanic Monarchy; Eastern Mediterranean; Otherness.
"I Tatti Studies in the Italian Renaissance", 18-1 (2015), pp. 233-259., 2015
This paper focuses on the first fifty years of a Neapolitan brotherhood, “Confraternita di Santa ... more This paper focuses on the first fifty years of a Neapolitan brotherhood, “Confraternita di Santa Maria del Gesù della Redenzione dei Cattivi”, while the Ottoman Empire reaches its apogee in the Mediterranean area. Especially, the Neapolitan court needs to respond to the sultan’s corsairs, which attack, each summer, the coasts of the kingdom. In response to this hard condition, Viceroy Pedro de Toledo supports the project of brotherhood in his correspondence with the Emperor Charles V. The Holy House of Naples is the first secular association with these ends in the Italian peninsula. Between 1598 and 1599, after many attempts, the brotherhood organizes a mission to Algiers, which is the most important slave market in the Barbary coast.
in "Studia Historica: Historia Moderna", 36 (2014), pp. 137-164.
Firstly, the essay focuses on the intelligence during Philip II’s age in Istanbul, showing new cl... more Firstly, the essay focuses on the intelligence during Philip II’s age in Istanbul, showing new clues about the «Renegades’ Conspiracy», organized due to the Hispanic defeat in the island of Djerba. Meanwhile, the second part focuses on the projects that emerged after the last clashes between the two empires of the Mediterranean. Mainly the attention is drawn to the group of secret agents planned by a Franciscan monk called Diego de Mallorca.
Key words: Mediterranean, Ottoman Empire, Hispanic Monarchy, Intelligence, Captives.
RESUMEN: En primer lugar, el artículo analiza la red de espías que opera dentro de Estambul durante la época de Felipe II, presentando bajo una nueva luz la conocida «Conjura de los Renegados», organizada al margen de la derrota hispánica en la isla de Yerba. Mientras, la segunda parte está dedicada a los proyectos surgidos después de los últimos choques entre los dos grandes imperios del Mediterráneo. En particular la atención está centrada en el grupo de agentes aglutinados en torno al franciscano Diego de Mallorca.
Palabras clave: Mediterráneo, Imperio Otomano, Monarquía Hispánica, espionaje, cautivos.
"The essay focuses on the Muslims in Naples during the Sixteenth century, when the capital is exp... more "The essay focuses on the Muslims in Naples during the Sixteenth century, when the capital is experiencing a deep urban transformation, which is linked to the massive immigration and the conflict against the Turk. The warfare between the House of Austria and the Porte affects the lifes of the Muslims, which belong to three categories: slaves, free-men or refugees. Depending of their condition Muslims occupy the urban spaces. The Muslims of Naples respond to social, political and religious pressures with individual solutions like the redemption, getaway or conversion to Catholicism. The reputation of the city, the war to the sultan and the big number of Muslims force the Hispanic authorities of the kingdom to a closer contact with the alien.
Keywords: Naples, Islam, slaves, refugees, neophytes, urban spaces."
Estudis: Revista de historia moderna, 2012
Resumen: En el siglo xvI la aparición de la flota otomana en la cuenca mediterránea determina una... more Resumen: En el siglo xvI la aparición de la flota otomana en la cuenca mediterránea determina una trasformación de equilibrios políticos y militares. Perteneciente a la casa de Austria, el Reino de Nápoles se ve involucrado en una guerra decenal que se desarrolla principalmente en dos espacios, el área iónico-adriática y canal de Sicilia, así el sur de la península italiana se convierte en el baricentro del conflicto. Siendo la ciudad más poblada de la Monarquía Hispánica, Nápoles llega a ser un imán para la sociedad fronteriza, que participa activamente en la contraposición entre Su Majestad y el sultán. Exiliados, espías, militares, esclavos y recién convertidos atraviesan la capital, estos flujos migratorios transforman radicalmente la estructura social y urbanística de Nápoles que pasa de ser la ciudad gentile de la edad aragonesa a la grande capital de la frontera mediterránea.
In Naples the last heir of the Hafsid dynasty converted to Catholicism, he was baptized in the Pa... more In Naples the last heir of the Hafsid dynasty converted to Catholicism, he was baptized in the Palatine Chapel of St. Sebastian. His godparents were Don Juan de Austria and Donna Violante Osorio. His Christian name was Don Carlos of Austria. He took part in the wider phenomenon of emirs’ conversion, exiled in the lands of the Catholic Monarchy. But his new city had peculiar characteristics, Naples was an exception compared to other capitals of the Spanish Empire. Others Muslims lived in Neapolitan capital. Don Carlo was the prototype of the baroque noble: fervent believer, loyal vassal and proud soldier. The Tunisian Prince fought against Protestants and rebels in Flanders, but in the last period of his life he entered the Franciscan Order. His life became an example, his tomb was built in the Church of Santa Maria la Nova."
In 1535 Barbarossa’s ships landed on Tunisian coast, Ifriqiyya entered in a new political and his... more In 1535 Barbarossa’s ships landed on Tunisian coast, Ifriqiyya entered in a new political and historical season. The raiders drove, in fact, the Hafsid dynasty into the arms of the Catholic Monarchy. The emirs travelled to Christian land, the facing between Muslim rulers and Renaissance’s culture was surprising. The Hafsids settled in the South of Italy, here they started new lifes.
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Books by Gennaro Varriale
However, the examination of communications provided in this volume is not an end in itself but is offered as a basis for reflection and to propose the notion that earthquakes trigger change in social and political dynamics. Earthquake-related crises exposed the underlying contradictions that the court of Madrid needed to address in the most effective way, and, if possible, swiftly.
Earthquakes not only destroyed buildings and infrastructure but also social norms. Urgency reduced the distance between interlocutors, to some extent blurring the boundaries of self-censorship. Tremors therefore offer a rare opportunity to observe the political and military crises faced by the Hispanic Monarchy, the global empire of the time.
Journal articles by Gennaro Varriale
Keywords: Mediterranean studies, early modern espionage, Habsburg-Ottoman rivalry, Kingdom of Naples, North Africa.
Abstract :
This study pays special attention to the fate of the last members of the Hafsid dynasty, which ruled Tunisia from 1229 to the mid-16th century, at a time when it was part of the conflict between the Spanish Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire in the western Mediterranean Sea in general and the Maghreb region in particular. The collapse of the Hafsid dynasty and the end of its period of rule took place in the 16th century as a result of geopolitical changes around the perimeter. This research aims to analyse the consequences of Charles V's expedition to Tunisia in 1535 and the latter's accession to Ottoman rule after Sinan Pasha's expedition in 1574. We also seek to investigate the issue of the political asylum of the last Hafsid members in Naples, which led them to abandon Islam and become Christianised, citing as a clear testimony the tomb of Mulây Aḥmad al-thâlith al-Hafṣî found in one of the churches of Naples.
Keywords: Ottoman Tunisia; the Hafsid dynasty; the expedition of Charles V; the Spanish-Ottoman conflict; Mulây Ahmad al-thâlith al-Hafsî; Naples; the Mediterranean Sea.
http://www.lerpoa.univ-alger2.dz/index.php/%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%B1
ABSTRACT: During the early modern age, the earthquakes become a topic of interest for the Habs-burg administration, because the dynasty rule areas with high seismic hazards. The article focuses on the collection and transmission of the news about the earthquakes with a global viewpoint thanks to the structure of the Hispanic Monarchy. In addition to the introduction and conclusions, the essay is formed of three paragraphs. The first part examines the communication system within Hispanic administration; the second presents the formal features of the disaster writings. Finally, the last section shows the leitmotifs in the documentation on the earthquakes .
Keywords: Environmental history, disaster, eruption, Kingdom of Naples, Renaissance.
KEY WORDS: Intelligence; Secret information; Ottoman Empire; Hispanic Monarchy; Eastern Mediterranean; Otherness.
Key words: Mediterranean, Ottoman Empire, Hispanic Monarchy, Intelligence, Captives.
RESUMEN: En primer lugar, el artículo analiza la red de espías que opera dentro de Estambul durante la época de Felipe II, presentando bajo una nueva luz la conocida «Conjura de los Renegados», organizada al margen de la derrota hispánica en la isla de Yerba. Mientras, la segunda parte está dedicada a los proyectos surgidos después de los últimos choques entre los dos grandes imperios del Mediterráneo. En particular la atención está centrada en el grupo de agentes aglutinados en torno al franciscano Diego de Mallorca.
Palabras clave: Mediterráneo, Imperio Otomano, Monarquía Hispánica, espionaje, cautivos.
Keywords: Naples, Islam, slaves, refugees, neophytes, urban spaces."