1 Introduction

There have been noticeable changes in higher education (HE) pedagogy since the technological revolution (Deroncele-Acosta et al., 2023; Jimenez & Kabachnik, 2023). One mentionable introduction attracting attention in the educational systems of both developed and developing economies is that of Micro-credential Courses (hereafter MCs) in Higher Education (hereafter HE) (Ahmat et al., 2021; Ahsan et al., 2023; Desmarchelier & Cary, 2022; Fischer et al., 2022). MC extends beyond traditional academic structures, finding application in career and professional development and offering individuals formal recognition of skills, achievements, and accomplishments (Ahmed & Jassim, 2021; Batool et al., 2023; Ghasia et al., 2019a, b; Olcott Jr., 2022; Selvaratnam & Sankey, 2021). MCs can be enrolled in standalone courses or stacked together into more extended qualifications (Ponte & Saray, 2019) and offered online, face-to-face, or via blended learning in short, flexible courses (Brown et al., 2021). As certified documents, MC offers tangible proof of learning outcomes through comparatively shorter educational or training activities (McGreal & Olcott, 2022b). MCs convert expertise into practical information immediately applicable to daily professional life. Moreover, those seeking continuing education options without completing a multi-year program become customers of MCs (LaDuca et al., 2023; Maina et al., 2022). Lastly, MCs represent a broader shift towards digitized education, meeting the increasing demand for quality education and skilled human capital (HC) tailored to the contemporary industry landscape (Yilik, 2021).

MC has gained global interest in HE (Ahmat et al., 2021). Introducing MCs can revolutionize how HE institutions deliver degrees and how students learn and achieve their tertiary qualifications (Ahsan et al., 2023). Studies report that learning challenges, cognitive hurdles, difficulty with reading materials, instructional difficulties, language barriers, time management, assignment burdens, and cultural differences in the HE environment increased the relevance of MC (Pirkkalainen et al., 2023). Inadequate academic training, inconsistency between prior training, and the lack of counseling services significantly impacted students' academic journey in HE. These are just some reasons for MC uptake in HE (Stăiculescu & Ramona, 2018). However, the landscape of MC is evolving, with changing priorities along a credentials continuum that historically focused on formal degrees and certificates (Olcott Jr., 2022). To comprehend the implications for HE, this study extends our understanding of the affordances offered by HE.

A psychological theory—perception of affordance, proposed by Gibson (1979), highlighted the interaction between environments and the actor or agent (Wang et al., 2018). The theory, commonly known as affordance theory, explains what the environment affords to an actor/agent and how the actor/agent acts accordingly by exploring the environment's and agents' characteristics (Pozzi et al., 2014a, b). An affordance carries the connotation of offering and limiting possibilities and actions. Actors/agents are organisms perceiving and behaving in the environment and building up a linkage between them (Wang et al., 2018), whereby the linkage enables interaction that includes both the properties of the actor and the environment (Gibson, 1986). Although significant studies focused on the advantages and the applicability of MC courses, few studies have utilized a theoretical framework in the case of MC—which thus forms a research gap; this study hence investigates the affordances of MC and their implications on guardians, students, employees, universities, and other HE providers, and utilizes Gibson’s (1979) theory of affordances. The advantage of affordance is that it enables one to understand the finite advantages of a product or service and can be used to design the related product or service (Maier et al., 2009). Previously, affordance theory was also applied by McCarthy et al. (2022) to understand the gap between open e-learning platforms and their design. In Australia, D'Ambra et al. (2022) applied affordance theory to understand the digital transformation of HE, while Dhiman et al. (2022) presented insight into users’ attitudes toward e-learning platforms. Affordance theory allows us to split the advantages of MC into finite affordances for students, guardians, employees, and providers. The utilization of affordance theory in this study has two primary outcomes: MC course advantages can be shifted to HE providers; secondly, the theory contends what actions should be taken to offer MC in a HE context. Interest in MC is growing among HEs worldwide (Ahmat et al., 2021); thus, the study presented here posits the following research questions:

  • RQ1: What are the affordances of MCs for students, guardians, employees, and providers in the HE context?

  • RQ1: How can MC be implemented in the HE context?

This paper offers significant value from practical, theoretical, and national-level perspectives. From a practical point of view, this study explores the affordances of MC for students, guardians, employees, and providers, which are expected to extend the horizon of education. Secondly, utilizing the affordances presents how MCs can be implemented in the HE sectors. Thirdly, education stakeholders are expected to obtain valuable information about the importance of MC courses. Lastly and most importantly, the findings may be helpful for countries interested in recruiting international students via MC courses.

2 Literature review

Our literature review consists of two broad sections. First, we introduce affordance theory and then proceed to studies of various MC course affordances.

2.1 Theory of affordances

Gibson (1979) introduced the concept of affordance theory, emphasizing the dynamic interplay between environments and individuals (Wang et al., 2018). The initial stage of the theoretical framework (see Fig. 1) involves the cognitive process of acknowledging the existence of affordances; this step highlights that affordances arise from the interplay between the characteristics of the artifact and the organization within a particular context. The cognition process remains unaffected by the organization's perception. In the realm of information systems (IS), the focus often centers on groups within the organization rather than individual perceptions. The second phase involves the perception of affordances, highlighting the organization's necessity to acknowledge these affordances based on the initial step. The third stage involves the actualization of affordances, signifying the organization's utilization of perceived affordances to fulfill its objectives. In the final stage, affordance effects encompass the outcomes stemming from the organization's implementation of these affordances (Pozzi et al., 2014a, b).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Theoretical framework of affordances theory in the information systems discipline

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(Pozzi et al., 2014b).

2.2 Studies focused on MC affordances

The first studies focused on MCs in the HE context to report on the potential of MCs to provide specific learning experiences while tackling academic challenges. Among them, Ahmat et al. (2021) and Varadarajan et al. (2023) presented a comprehensive analysis of MCs, discussing the challenges and opportunities associated with using digital badges for certifications globally. Ahmat et al. focused on how such badges impact a graduate’s ability to gain employment, highlighting the significance of MCs in improving graduate employability. Additionally, their study offered suggestions for MC providers in HE to enhance the value in this aspect. Moreover, a systematic review was conducted by Ahsan et al. (2023) that significantly contributed to the field by underscoring the growing focus on MCs within HE. Their study revealed the diverse possibilities and challenges in integrating MCs, advocating for further exploration into technological influences and diverse perspectives of MC providers. The study also proposed a conceptual framework for MC implementation in HE, providing a roadmap for future research and application. However, Fook and Sidhu (2015) investigated the learning challenges in HE that highlighted the importance of active interaction between instructors and students to overcome certain obstacles. Analysis of their data identified eight critical learning difficulties experienced by students in HE, which include cognitive difficulties, encouraging participatory learning, managing reading materials, instructional issues, language barriers, time management, assignment workload, and cultural differences in HE. Their investigation collectively emphasized the benefits of MCs. It highlighted the need for a more comprehensive exploration of the technological impact on MC providers and the enhancement of the potential of MCs to improve active learning approaches for tackling the challenges faced by HE students.

The second group of studies sheds light on MC course adoption, implementation potential, trends, and the comprehensive interpretation of MCs within the educational landscape. Among the studies conducted, Pirkkalainen et al. (2023) offered insights into the global adoption of MCs that emphasized the strategic role of MC providers in this process. Interestingly, Ghasia et al., (2019a, b) conducted an in-depth exploration within Tanzanian universities, focusing on educators' perceptions, readiness, and strategies. Interviews with lecturers, students, and technologists across four universities revealed optimism about the role of MCs in lifelong learning and university expansion. Their study proposed a multilevel intervention that included the establishment of an MC ecosystem, policy formulation, infrastructure deployment, and skill development to enhance understanding of MCs in HE. Additionally, Olcott Jr. (2022) explores the growing trend of MCs in the United States, encouraging universities to reconsider conventional education methods to meet the demands of students and workforce demands. Moreover, Yilik (2021), whose study was conducted with semi-structured interview data gathered from students, uncovered student-centric experiences, unveiling the enablers, barriers, and adaptable behaviors related to MCs, which were complementary to traditional university degrees. Yilik’s (2021) study highlighted the possibilities of MCs, strategic planning, practical implementation, and participant experiences in HE, encouraging further research to understand and capitalize on the complexities of MC integration into HE.

Another group of researchers explored various aspects of implementing MC within HE, focusing on skill development and innovative teaching methods. Their studies collectively highlighted the versatile nature of MCs' impact on students, instructors, and the evolving landscape of universities. Ahmed & Jassim (2021) and Batool et al. (2023) thoroughly investigate the practical implementation and the impact on attitudes resulting from the incorporation of MC Courses (MCs). Their studies underscore the positive response exhibited by students and the significant role of MCs in nurturing professional advancement. Concurrently, Maina et al. (2022) concentrated on the Employability Skills MC (ESMC) methodology, demonstrating how the methodology encourages innovative teaching methods and embeds employability skills within universities across East Africa. These studies underscore MCs' multi-dimensional influence, emphasizing their capacity to positively influence student perspectives, cultivate employability skills, and promote educational adaptability to meet evolving workforce demands. Their contribution to the field of MC in HE highlights integrating practical skills, aligning educational methodologies with industry demands, and enhancing collaboration between universities and industries to address the changing landscape of HE and the job market. These findings underline the necessity for ongoing exploration and the potential implementation of MCs in HE to bridge the skills gap while adjusting to the evolving educational and industry requirements.

3 Framework development

3.1 Affordance of communication

The capacity for communication in MCs represents a key affordance. MCs have revolutionized the possibility of new forms of dialogue and communication, including diverse discussions, collaborative projects (Bragg et al., 2021), team-based tasks, and information exchange through various online platforms; thus, this study posits:

  • Proposition 1: MCs create dynamic virtual environments by enhancing communication.

3.2 Affordance of ubiquity

Typically, MCs tend to be offered online. Ruddy and Ponte (2019) suggested that ubiquitous learning facilitation through MCs leads to the creation of project-related activities, enabling students to be more productive in situations where access to necessary data was traditionally limited, such as during travel or remote work. The nature of MCs ensures ubiquitous access to educational resources, enabling learners to delve into course materials, collaborate on projects, and access learning platforms from many locations (Ruddy & Ponte, 2019); this universal accessibility empowers students to enhance their skills and knowledge, while engaging with educational content and resources, regardless of their physical location or time zone. These factors were none more important than for people, particularly the disadvantaged and elderly, during COVID-19 (Choi et al., 2022). Therefore, this study presents the following proposition:

  • Proposition 2: Ubiquitous access to learning resources is an affordance of MCs.

3.3 Affordance of connectedness

Rienties et al. (2023) purported that MC significantly enhances connectivity and information sharing among peers and providers. MCs facilitate diverse networking forms, enabling seamless communication and collaboration among students, instructors, and industry experts. Moreover, through these courses, MC providers engage in meaningful interactions, share their expertise, and establish valuable connections that help students perform better in the future. As a result, our study suggests that:

  • Proposition 3: Affordance of connectivity among students, instructors, and industry professionals enriches collaborative learning experiences and knowledge exchange.

3.4 Affordance of flexibility

Rienties et al. (2023) claimed flexibility as a fundamental affordance of MC, allowing students to learn at their preferred time and location. Wong (2021) highlighted flexibility as a unique and appealing feature of MC's ability to grant students freedom and independence in choosing courses, determine timing, and thereby setting their own pace for learning, including the ability to select specific components of MCs deemed relevant and meaningful to them, thus determining the manner and timing of their study participation (Elliott, 2017; Yurkofsky et al., 2019). This flexibility affordance of MC empowers individuals, students, professionals, and lifelong learners to overcome physical and temporal barriers, enabling them to access education remotely and at their own pace. Hence, this study suggests the following statement:

  • Proposition 4: MCs allow students to access educational content irrespective of geographical, temporal, or contextual constraints.

3.5 Affordance of educational outcome

Studies by (McGovern & Gogan, 2022; Fitzgerald & Huijser, 2021 Ali & Khan, 2023, and Kumar et al., 2022) suggested the pivotal role of MC in strengthening agile learning environments and enhancing workforce capabilities (Ali & Khan, 2023). These credentials are now acknowledged as a viable means to authenticate a job applicant's competencies and expertise. Ali and Khan (2023) also mentioned that MC offers validation and recognition of specialized skills upon completion. McGovern and Gogan (2022) suggested that the agility characteristics of MCs encourage and support a culture of continuous learning. Realizing the educational outcomes of MC, we posit the following preposition:

  • Proposition 5: MC validates specialized skills that meet industry demands, promoting ongoing learning and adaptability and offering concrete recognition. This ultimately boosts employability and facilitates career advancement.

3.6 Affordance of guardians' financial governance

In many countries, guardians are responsible for paying the university tuition fees of their offspring. Private universities, often esteemed for their quality of education and specialized programs, typically require higher tuition fees than government-sponsored institutions. This financial burden can pose challenges for guardians, especially those with limited financial means. However, MC offers a gradual step towards a full degree. MC offers a flexible and cost-effective approach to learning by providing shorter, targeted learning experiences leading to specific skills or qualifications. Due to their shorter duration and focused curriculum, MCs generally entail lower tuition fees than traditional degree programs, which offer improved governance of the guardians' finances. The impact of MC in promoting guardians' governance has also attracted significant interest among guardians; thus, we posit:

  • Proposition 6. MCs offer an affordance for guardians' financial governance.

3.7 Affordance of reduced cost

Compared to traditional long courses universities provide, MCs are more affordable for students. However, traditional degree programs can be costly and time-consuming and may not be feasible for everyone (Ali & Khan, 2023). The compact nature of MCs results in decreased tuition fees and reduced expenses for materials, housing, and transportation, in contrast to more extended educational programs. By concentrating on specific skills or knowledge areas, MCs reduce the overall cost of education. The study by Ali and Khan (2023) supports the idea that MC programs can be completed relatively quickly and at a lower cost than traditional university programs; this is particularly advantageous for recent graduates preparing to join HE programs and potentially facing financial limitations or other obstacles. Candlefox (2020) similarly describes MC as short courses that enable learners to access specific knowledge and skills quickly and promote MC credentials as an efficient method in terms of both time and cost to upgrade skills or to enter a new industry. Moreover, students can choose courses or modules aligning with their budgets, enabling them to manage their expenses effectively while achieving valuable skills. Based on these investigations, this study proposes:

  • Proposition 7: MC offers cost-effective education by providing targeted and affordable learning modules and shorter durations, which enables individuals to acquire essential skills or knowledge without the financial constraints associated with traditional long courses offered by universities.

4 Methodology

This study uses a qualitative methodology for conducting exploratory research to investigate human behavior and intricate educational systems. For example, Gallagher and Savage (2023) applied a qualitative methodology to explore challenges in HE. Grieve et al. (2021) adopted a qualitative methodology to understand student fears of oral presentations and public speaking in HE. Iqbal and Bhatti (2020) qualitatively explored teachers' perspectives on smartphone use in HE in developing countries. Two focus groups were carried out here to explore the affordances of MC; the following sections discuss the focus group approaches:

4.1 Focus group study

Focus groups are recommended when understanding of a subject is insufficient. They also encourage participants to deliver information. Of the two groups, one consisted of students and guardians, while the other consisted of teachers, MC providers, and instructors.

4.2 Selecting the members of the focus group

Focus group participants were chosen by the researchers or chief investigators (CIs) based on their knowledge and experience, ensuring the qualitative information for this study. University students, teachers, guardians, MC providers, and instructors from Dhaka, Bangladesh, were chosen to participate in the focus groups. The focus group study was conducted in February 2024. The researchers individually engaged with the participants, establishing a rapport. The researchers conducted an informal discussion to evaluate the appropriateness of potential participants for the selected focus group, ensuring a cohesive and relevant group dynamic. Each of the focus groups included ten members. This number was selected based on the practical consideration that managing ten people was feasible. The setup process encountered no logistical challenges. Tables 1 and 2 summarise the details of the focus group participants.

Table 1 Focus group participants – students and guardians
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Table 2 Focus group participants—teachers, MC providers, and instructors
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4.3 Focus group

An interview instrument can comprise structured, semi-structured, and unstructured questions. In this focus group study, semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions were employed. Husband (2020) recognizes the impact of semi-structured interviews for ethical data collection on research respondents. To test interview questions, the investigators formed a small group of three members chosen from the university and an MC provider organization, including one teacher, an instructor, and a student. The members were selected from the personal contacts of the primary researcher. The main purpose of this process was to check if the research questions were answerable and understandable to the participants and to ensure the questions captured the required phenomena and produced the most helpful information.

4.4 Focus group discussion process

The focus group study adopted the semi-structured interview approach, enabling participants to express themselves in their own words freely and lead the focus group without restricting the conversation. The questions were not accompanied by predetermined answers, allowing for a broad exploration of the issue. Similarly, Adeoye-Olatunde and Olenik (2021) used semi-structured interviews to enhance understanding, and Ruslin et al. (2022) also conducted a semi-structured interview process to determine in-depth information. Some of the information provided by the participants was surprising. The questions asked in the focus groups consisted of familiarity with MCs, the process of MCs, improvement of skills through MCs, and comparison between MCs and HE education.

The focus group participants were selected based on their insights, experiences, and thoughts, which are valuable for the research (Yin, 2011). The Principal Investigator selected the representatives based on their experiences and work expertise. The participants were selected from students with no MC experience, previous MC courses, Guardians of students, teachers, MC instructors, and MC providers. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the details of the focus group participants.

Following the final selection of participants, the researchers introduced themselves. The investigators dedicated some time to interacting with participants before commencing the interview because, in Bangladesh, social conversation and interaction play a crucial role in building rapport. These informal conversations helped participants feel more at ease and, in turn, become better acquainted with the study. One researcher contacted each focus group participant via phone after the final selection of the group. After confirmation of participants, they were informed about the venue and the discussion time. The venue was thoughtfully chosen to provide privacy to the participants and ensure they were not preoccupied. To that end, the researchers booked a conference room.

Before the interview commenced, participants were briefed about the research and provided background information about the study. Additionally, the researcher addressed any concerns from participants to ensure clarity. A consent form outlining the purpose, policies, interview recording procedures, participant privacy, and avenues for complaints was presented. The participant was requested to read the consent form and encouraged to ask questions. Once participants agreed to participate and expressed their understanding, they were asked to sign the consent form, and the interview commenced.

This interview was two hours long. Previously formulated and tested questions were employed to explore the discursive structures shaping the affordances of MC in HE. Such an open discussion encouraged participants to answer. A focus group has different dynamics than an interview and discussion. In this research, the researcher managed the focus group dynamics and played a non-judgmental role (Powel & Single, 1996; Yin, 2011). A focus group provides a consensus on a topic. It jogs the person's memory. However, group thinking can be problematic if participants hesitate to express their views. Fostering an environment that values diverse perspectives and minimizes conformity pressures, encouraging participants to analyze topics from multiple angles individually before discussing as a group, ensuring each voice is heard without immediate group influence. Additionally, techniques such as private voting or one-on-one feedback further reduce vocal individuals' dominance, ensuring balanced participation and diverse insights. Including a diverse demographic also helps counter groupthink by introducing varied viewpoints. There is a precaution that a focus group may provide superficial information if participants are not involved in an in-depth discussion (Powel & Single, 1996), as interaction is the central part of the focus group. However, the responses were recorded on a voice recorder with their permission. The chief researcher also noted details such as body language, facial expression, or concern not necessarily recorded via voice recording. The audio file was transferred to a computer for safety and security. Interview responses were converted into text data. At the end of the interview, participants were given the researcher’s contact details and informed that they could further contact the researcher.

4.5 Thematic analysis process

The thematic analysis process was used in this study, following Braun & Clarke’s (2006) 6-step framework (see Table 3). This is arguably the most influential approach because it offers a clear and usable framework for thematic analysis. Moreover, the phases in the framework are not linear, meaning the analyst has the freedom to move forward and back between them. The following sections describe how the phases are utilized in the study:

Table 3 Thematic analysis process adopted in this study
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  1. Step 1:

    Become familiar with the data: Maguire and Delahunt (2017) suggested that the first step is familiarity with the entire body of data. Therefore, two focus group transcripts were read and re-read carefully. Notes were taken, such as Note 1: … Participants expressed positive opinions in favor of affordance. Note 2: … Some participants are new to the MC process. In note 1, the participants' code/s is presented as evidence; however, in note 2, the participants' views and comments were not considered suitable for the study.

  2. Step 2:

    Generate initial codes: After finishing step 1, the investigators had initial ideas about codes that could subsequently answer the research questions. The CIs made sure codes or comments were meaningful. The codes can reduce significant data into smaller chunks of meaning.

  3. Step 3:

    Search for themes: A pattern captures something significant or interesting about the data and research question (Braun & Clarke, 2006). A theme was created in this study when several codes were meaningful and distinctly categorical (see Table 4).

    Table 4 Examples of emergent themes using thematic analysis
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  4. Step 4:

    Review themes: In this phase, emerging themes that could answer the research questions were explored carefully (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

  5. Step 5:

    Here, the CIs identified the essence of each theme and defined the theme. Time criticality in the HE system is defined as a moment in which a task needs to be accomplished, as there is urgency in the process.

  6. Step 6:

    Writing-up: A study's endpoints can include conference papers, journal articles, and, for students, the writing of a dissertation.

5 Focus group data coding and results

In this study, thematic analysis was selected as a means of data coding for the focus group study. The themes were generated using NVivo, as it assisted in revealing and explaining the affordance components of an MC. The themes were categorized into five sections. Firstly, the micro-level guardian-centric affordances; second, the micro-level student-centric affordances; third, the meso-level employee-centric affordances; fourth, the meso-level university-centric affordances; and finally, the macro-level country-centric affordances addressed by the focus group members. We first start with the micro-level guardian-centric affordances:

5.1 Micro-level guardian-centric affordances

5.1.1 The financial governance of the guardian

As highlighted in the comments, the financial governance of MC offers a flexible and cost-effective solution, which helps students complete their HE more easily and adapt to changes without facing substantial financial pressures immediately while making learning easier and more available for everyone. The comments of StuG02 and StuG03 paint a picture:

… My situation can change anytime, so (what you told me) …is interesting. My son can keep doing short courses or, as you said, MCs, and then when he gathers the necessary credit, he can finish his BSc.

I do a private job. It is a serious and long-term commitment in such a situation (paying for a university degree). What happens if I cannot continue? I have seen other parents struggle to pay tuition fees.

5.1.2 Flexibility in education without a long-term commitment to continuous educational costs

MCs are not a continuous education enrollment as opposed to a university-provided long-term course. Students can enroll in an MC depending on their guardians’ financial situation, making it easier for their parents to pay the tuition fees. One student (Stu03) painted a picture of flexibility, stating:

I am a fourth-year student and have seen them (guardians) struggling to pay tuition fees. On top of late fines, exam and lab fees are suddenly added…... It was difficult for them (guardians).

The flexibility also extends to the commitment to education. Stu04 commented:

The financial flexibility that MC offers cannot be expected from a university. In my student life, the university puts more pressure on me to pay tuition and other fees continuously than MC courses. The flexibility of paying the fees helps my parents ensure my education.

Lastly, a guardian, StuG01, also commented:

…. I was not aware of such a course facility you (CI) informed…... It is fantastic and provides flexibility in my commitment to my son’s education.

5.1.3 Parents’ affordance to pay lower course fees than a university fee for the same knowledge

Generally, MCs are more affordable than a university-provided course. Therefore, every middle-class and lower-class parent can afford the course fee of an MC. A student (Stu07) stated:

I want to become a software engineer. ………. my parents’ financial condition is not good enough, so I cannot afford a degree from any university. However, I did not drop my hopes. I joined an MC course that helped build my knowledge of required skills and affordability. As a result, I become a software engineer in ……. company without any formal CSE degree.

A parent, StuG02, who is the father of a student pursuing an MC course, commented:

When my daughter told me she wanted to learn Python, I did not know; I suggested checking online……… I am not in the education field ………... but I know the internet offers some courses.

5.2 Micro-level student-centric affordances

5.2.1 More certificates and recognition through MCs within a short time

Pursuing MC courses offers the opportunity to acquire multiple certificates and gain recognition within a short time frame, which enhances one's professional profile by adding additional qualification proof to a regular resume. Student Stu07 supports the idea by commenting:

I have done some extra MCs from …… branch, which gave me some certificates, and with this sort of additional expertise, I get preference in getting my current job.

Universities have many formal educational activities that require extra time, and this extra time can be saved while a student acquires the same knowledge in MC courses. Stu06 supported this idea and commented:

University formal activities such as assignments, presentations, class tests, etc., consume most of the time in a specific semester. However, MCs do not have these sorts of activities, which save time and utilise learning.

5.2.2 Affordance to gain in-depth industry-related knowledge through MC

MC courses allow individuals to delve into in-depth, industry-specific knowledge that provides them with a focused and targeted approach to skill development. Moreover, MC teachers are more practical and industry-oriented than university faculties, allowing learners to acquire specialized expertise relevant to their field, enhancing their practical understanding and proficiency within a specific industry context. A student (Stu01) enrolled in an MC course commented:

When taking an MC class, I saw that most of the teachers come from industrial backgrounds, and they know real-world industry problems and how to solve them. This kind of in-depth knowledge helps me now in my professional life.

A student cannot garner real-world knowledge by solely studying a university curriculum. A university student, Stu02 explained:

As we know, all students' final destination is entering the professional world. So, we need to prepare ourselves like that. So, MCs are more beneficial than universities for doing that.

5.2.3 More support in MC than in the university

MC courses offer increased support compared to traditional universities. The accessibility of MC instructors, with fewer formal procedures and more flexible communication, makes it easier for students to seek assistance and engage in discussions, providing a more responsive and supportive learning environment than the structured processes often found in universities. These statements are supported by Stu04, saying:

I remember that once, I had difficulties in my registration process, and to solve this problem, when I went to my advisor's office, he was often busy, and I needed to make an appointment, which was time-consuming. However, I did not face problems like this during my MC course.

One student, Stu05, raised her concerns about not obtaining industry-based counseling from the university teachers; she mentioned that:

During my time at university, most of the teachers I met came from educational backgrounds, which is why they did not have any industry knowledge. As a result, they could not give us industry knowledge, leaving a gap in our professional field.

5.2.4 Affordance to specialization in a specific domain or learning area

Regarding the teaching of MCs, teachers tend to come from industry-related specific domains, so they know everything about that field and technology. This ensures learners acquire in-depth knowledge and skills directly relevant to their chosen field.

Sometimes, getting someone who knows my career field and the technology that the field requires is helpful. During my MC course, I found a teacher from my desired field and got much good advice and help from him.

5.2.5 Allows industry networking and expansion of job opportunity

As MC course teachers come from industry, they also typically have good networks. Moreover, the instructors can easily facilitate students regarding industry networking and create opportunities for individuals to expand their professional connections. Thus, MC programs often involve collaboration with industry professionals, providing participants with valuable networking opportunities that can contribute to career growth and advancement. A fourth-year student (Stu03) commented:

In four years, a university only gets a chance in the final year to go to an industry for research or industry placement. However, MCs are more attached to the industry.

“By connecting with industry-related teachers, I joined an industry network. This network helped me to get a job after finishing my graduation.

5.3 Macro-level employee-centric affordances

5.3.1 Affordance of MC to fulfill employer's specific need

If we explore the employee-centric affordances, it is seen that although courses are completed in different subjects at university, these may not help students obtain their desired job—for employers may not fully understand how many courses a student completes, but rather how skillful a student is.

We have seen many university graduates complete…. they have various subjects…but we need knowledge only on python…………not on database….. (Principal investigator).

5.3.2 Rapid skill acquisition for existing employees

For existing employees, MC offers the affordance of rapid skill acquisition; these courses enable individuals to rapidly gain specific skills aligned with industry demands, ensuring quick adaptation to evolving job requirements and effectively contributing to their roles.

University has four actual long course periods, but MCs do not have this kind of long course period, and these are only focused on specific technology, so learning any technology can be faster in MCs. I realize this from my personal experience.

5.3.3 Affordance of a lifelong learning system for employees

MC offers an opportunity for lifelong learning, which is essential for job prospects. One technology student (Stu04) commented on the need to remain current:

… it is very competitive when you study computer science. Computer science requirements continuously change. After I finish my four-year bachelor's degree, even if I complete my PhD, it is not enough; we need to do MC for concurrency ………… It is a lifelong opportunity.

5.4 Macro-level university-centric affordances

5.4.1 Competitive advantages

Integrating MCs into the university’s curriculum is an emerging initiative in Bangladesh. A few universities are considering such programs. If MC integration is successful, a university can gain additional advantages over competitors.

My friend …….. study in ……… university. His university does not have this sort of program. If our university succeeds in this program, I believe it can progress by falling behind its university in educational diversity.

5.4.2 Improvement of University course outcomes and program outcomes

The overall program outcomes and individual university course outcomes stand to be enhanced by integrating MCs within universities. By incorporating the targeted MC modules, universities can improve the relevance and effectiveness of their courses, ensuring students acquire practical skills aligned with industry needs. A student supports this idea by saying:

I am a third-year student of ……………. University. I have completed many courses, and I sometimes feel that some of these courses cannot bring any benefits to my professional knowledge. However, if university authorities gather some ideas from MCs, I believe it can help improve the university’s program.

5.4.3 Industry-university collaboration

Integrating MCs into the university curriculum strengthens relationships with organizations, aligning academic programs with industry needs. By involving industry experts in the design and delivery of MC courses, universities can bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, preparing students more effectively for real-world challenges and enhancing the relevance of their curricula.

It would be great if the university integrated some MCs into its curriculum. As a student, I am feeling excited by hearing this fantastic news.

MCs can help to develop the professional expertise of the university’s faculty.

As a faculty member, I believe having the opportunity to engage with industries regularly would be beneficial. This experience enhances my understanding of the industry and provides valuable insights that can be directly applied to benefit my students.

5.5 Macro-level country-centric affordances

5.5.1 Affordance of country-wide education

Integrating MCs into the curriculum can enhance a university's reputation. The university can gain global recognition.

After our university integrated MCs into the curriculum, it has continuously gotten more recognition from global organizations, which has helped enhance its reputation.

5.5.2 Build a dynamic learning environment in the country

Moving from the era of traditional learning, MCs can hail a new era with a dynamic learning environment for students. Adding MC courses can make learning more exciting, for such courses offer flexible and specific learning options, help students quickly adapt to changes in industries, and contribute better to the nation's educational growth.

I had to bind myself to a traditional learning method during my university studies. However, when I joined an MC course, I realised I did not need to bind myself to a traditional learning method; I could choose a dynamic one.

5.5.3 Affordance of joint research opportunities among MC-HE

Integration of MCs in universities is seen as good news—as MCs cross over with different organisations, it also gives opportunities to enrich a university's research environment. By facilitating joint research initiatives, MC-HE encourages sharing knowledge and expertise among institutions, fostering a collaborative environment that benefits academic and industry-related research efforts.

“I researched several plant leaf diseases during last semester, but I always feel that I can enrich my research work if I get more resources, and I think these sorts of organizations can help me much.”

6 Implementation

While investigating the optimal process to implement MC higher education in the Bangladeshi context, participants PC01, PC02, PC03, PC04, and PC05 suggested adopting a project management concept to implement MC. Their study suggested a strategic management policy to spread micro-credentials to complement traditional higher education (see Fig. 2). Their suggestions can be categorised into the following sub-projects:

  • Step 1: Policy formulation for MC implementation

Fig. 2
figure 2

Implementation process of MCs in Higher Education

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The participants PC01, PC02, and PC03 informed that Bangladeshi higher education providers can only provide bachelor’s and master’s degrees. The concept of MC or MC leading to a bachelor’s degree is not recognised by the University Grant Commission (UGC). The UGC is the apex body of all Bangladesh's affiliated public, private, and international universities. PC01 commented in this regard.

We need to follow UGC's guidelines while developing a course. MC is not within the rules and regulations of UGC. We need some policies to be developed if a university wants to offer MC.

PC02 added:

UGC regulations need to change to include MC at HE. A student will take a course if the course is not approved. Rules and regulations are essential for the students, universities, and industries to provide the framework of MC.

  • Step 2: SWOT analysis

The SWOT analysis that emerged from the focus group participants is provided in Fig. 3. Not surprisingly, our SWOT analysis reveals similar findings to the work of others in this space (e.g. Cedefop, 2022; Orman et al., 2023), with strengths such as flexibility, personalization of courses, optionality concerning flexibility where learners may be time poor, having the omnichannel ability to access material asynchronously, supporting both individual and peer-based learning, being modular and stackable, increasing employment opportunities for the less advantaged both academically and financially, reducing training costs both at the level of the institution providing the qualification and for the individual paying the reduced fees, that MCs are known for and last but not least enabling lifelong learning, rather than just talking about such learning being a thing. Orman et al. (2023) also note weaknesses of MCs for higher education, including as yet missing confidence in the HE sector toward such qualifications, a focus on adding value in areas that matter – although it must be said many MCs tend to be in technology-related disciplines, less so in humanities, etc. Another weakness, more generally, that the HE sector is seeking to address, which is also a weakness currently in MCs, is the area of sustainability – e.g., how to do the goals of HEs with MCs tie into the 17 UN sustainable development goals (UNSDGs).Footnote 1

Fig. 3
figure 3

SWOT analysis of MCs in higher education

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  • Step 3: Execution

This study proposed a feasible execution model to recommend implementing MCs in higher education. Being conscious of the challenges and SWOT analysis, educationalists can decide whether MCs fit into their curriculum (see Fig. 3). For execution (see Fig. 4), an authority needs appropriate planning for long-term sustainability.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Execution of strategic management and policies

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6.1 Strategic action planning

A time frame is mandatory, with the time details of a starting and closing event, to implement a new method alongside traditional course outlines. A higher education source can quickly determine further policies and strategic management by focusing on the scope and objectives. Specifically, a university must focus on innovative and creative manifestos to grab the added stakeholders and implement MCs as a future revolution.

6.2 Policies for students

All focus group members highlighted the importance of developing a policy for testing and validating certification processes. Students with MC certificates must familiarise themselves with evaluation and verification to integrate policies. The value of the credit/hour system needs to be re-designed based on course outcomes. Participants emphasized that specific micro-credential courses have already covered all course outcomes. Higher education providers should change their course rates by comparing them with their traditional curriculum. A participant supported this point by stating:

I have already finished a course at a private company. However, in the time of my bachelor's, I am doing that course again with the same course outcome. If there were a system of converted course values for MC holders, this would also be a better deal for me.

Educationists also suggested introducing scholarships depending on the capabilities of students who had already been certified by MC institutions. In developing economies, there are financial issues in many families, so if a student has skills, a scholarship is recommended to give candidates a head-start to complete their higher education. Proposals for Industry Collaboration:

Universities need to collaborate with leading organizations to update curricula. Based on such collaboration, HE providers can make MCs more accessible and acceptable, ensuring companies' indirectly validated certification process. Industry experts claimed they would love to share their knowledge and experience with students; however, they cannot engage with pupils in person if they are short on time. If higher educational institutions provide their platforms, experts can offer courses online, which opens the possibility for MCs in HE. An industry expert supported these points, stating,

We can offer courses with our materials and share experiences with students who want to be the next industry expert. However, making time for physical classes is challenging as we do jobs. If there are online platforms, we can make this happen.

The head of the company emphasized that MCs are being demanded for their updated and in-depth curriculum. To make courses more attractive, they design the courses with industry experts; however, they require promotions to promote their business ideas. Educational institutions can open their channels to promote courses, encouraging a company to collaborate. An MC provider comments,

…… we need promotions, webinars, and campaign engagement from students. Educational institutions can give us these facilities. We will be happy to collaborate if we will see our profit margin.

6.3 Policies for educational institutions:

The group focused on traditional curricula critical to making education feasible and highlighted the importance of updated technologies. Educational sectors must be reshaped by focusing on faculty training and regularly updated curricula. The head of IT also emphasized that as technology constantly updates, regulators should make suitable policies for IT upgrades when selecting technologies. The policy should also indicate the feasibility and sustainability of who is involved in the system to ensure a win–win situation for all stakeholders. One participant commented:

…… universities are not providing the much technological support we need as computer science and engineering students. We use computers with i3 4th generation, sometimes intel ‘Celeron’ processors and 4 GB of RAM. Mouses are not working, and sometimes, PCs shut down automatically.

  • Step 4: Review and Improvement

Sometimes, students join MCs in external institutions, and such establishments do not maintain the quality of education; to solve this problem, universities can take efficient steps to ensure the quality of MC courses.

One of my friends joined an MC course outside the university to gain knowledge in a specific field, but he failed. His failure is because his institute does not ensure its quality. If the university takes steps to integrate this sort of course, the university will ensure its quality according to university specifications.

An educationist highlighted that the duration of courses should be at least a short period to get accepted into a university. Because the minimum course durations are permanently fixed by the university grant commission. So, suppose a student has completed any course in which the period is less than the minimum duration. In that case, adapting MC courses in universities with quality assurance will be challenging.

…. If a student came with a course certificate and just for an assumption, he or she completed a crash course whose duration is 90 days. Ensuring his or her ability in this course will not be very easy.

7 Discussion

The discussion is based on the two (2) RQs posited.

  • RQ1: What are the affordances of MCs for students, guardians, employees, and providers in the HE context?

The focus group participants highlight the following affordances (Table 5):

Table 5 Identified affordances of MC
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In the landscape of HE, an MC course has the potential to be a dynamic learning method. Utilizing the lens of affordance theory, this study explored the opportunity of MC for students. We used a focus group to present critical micro-level, student-centric, and macro-level affordances HE can adopt (see Fig. 5). This study, using two focus groups, explored certificates and recognition, training under industry experts, real-world knowledge, flexibility in education, there being more support for MCs than at university typically, specialization in a specific domain, the opportunity for real-industry networking, expansion of job opportunities, rapid skill acquisition, and lower course fees than a HE. These represent just some of the affordances for micro-level student perspective affordances. For universities, MC offers advantages such as a competitive advantage over other regular universities. An MC can improve a university’s program, and joint research opportunities exist among MC providers and HE.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Micro-meso-macro level affordances

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This study found that MC offers micro-meso-macro level affordances (see Fig. 2) and that the prepositions laid out in Sect. 3 are supported through this study. MCs provide more certificates and recognition; this affordance is also supported by McGreal and Olcott (2022a). Some employers do not require university degrees but rather the knowledge of a specific area; in such cases, MC is more effective. The application of MCs in career and professional development offers individuals formal recognition of skills, achievements, and accomplishments—this affordance is also supported by Ghasia et al. (2019a, b). However, this knowledge also presents a solution to the specific demands of the job market. Maina et al. (2022) note the need to enhance graduates' employability skills, coupled with transparent mechanisms for their recognition through in-depth, real-world knowledge offered by MC courses.

Our findings on the flexibility of the education affordance of MC is that it is an opportunity for students and their guardians, universities, and MC providers, allowing them to gather knowledge for their specific needs and career goals. These findings support the study by Bates (2015), who suggested that this opportunity is helpful in today's era, as the demand for personalized learning experiences is very high nowadays. Other affordances include time-saving opportunities, rapid skill acquisition, and employees gaining real-world knowledge—these affordances are supported by Redecker (2017a, b).

MCs help individual learners acquire new skills quickly. MCs also benefit students and working professionals, as they can upskill quickly without the need for traditional lengthy degree programs. MCs are designed based on industry needs; experts typically conduct such courses. This industry-driven approach is beneficial for achieving the practical applicability of desired skills (McGreal & Olcott, 2022b). MCs are also helpful in gathering specific skills over time due to their ‘stack-ability’; this quality helps obtain recognition for an individual's skill set, which in turn helps them benefit over others in terms of competencies (Siemens & Gasevic, 2012a, b). MCs also present a culture of lifelong learning through their modular nature. Professionals can update themselves by taking regular new MCs, which help them to stay current with evolving industry trends (Boland & Hazelkorn, 2022a, b). MCs are also offered on online platforms, making them accessible to a broader audience; this accessibility is beneficial for learners facing geographical or time constraints globally (Dabbagh & Kitsantas, 2012). The structure of MCs also enables specific competencies that can enhance the engagement of new students by providing the targeted and immediate applicability of knowledge; this approach can engage more learners and provide them with strengthened motivation to complete their studies (Conceição & Howles, 2023).

Macro-level university-centric affordances relate to competitive advantage, and the improvement of the university by creating a competition program means there is room for improvement here. Rarely mentioned in previous studies are those affordances of faculty development opportunities and macro-level country-centric affordances, such as affordance of country-wide education, building a dynamic learning environment in the country, building partnerships and collaborations among MC and HE Integration of MC and affordance of joint research opportunities among MC-HE are.

Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation Theory suggests innovation is driven by its relative advantage, compatibility, and observable benefits (Rogers, 2003). For adults, MCs can be considered as educational innovations and exemplify these characteristics. For adult learning, MC’s flexibility, affordability, industry-relevant skills, and opportunities for specialization make MC a preferred choice. The practical applicability of MCs, facilitated by expert-led instruction and real-world networking opportunities, also underscores their compatibility with the evolving demands of the job market (McGreal & Olcott, 2022a; Redecker, 2017a, b). Furthermore, their modular, stackable structure fosters lifelong learning and enables rapid skill acquisition, which aligns with Bates’ (2015) observation that personalized adult learning experiences are increasingly vital. Lastly, since mobile phones are becoming a choice of technology, MC delivery will be easier (Ahad, 2016; Ahad et al., 2021a, b; Ahad & Busch, 2024).

Pozzi et al. (2014a, b) outlined that the affordance theory framework provides a lens to examine how cognition, recognition, and behavior interact in adopting and utilizing innovations like MCs. Cognitively, MCs enable learners to perceive their potential for rapid skill acquisition, specialization, and career advancement, aligning with Pozzi et al.’s emphasis on the mental processes that underpin innovation uptake. The recognition level, which involves acknowledging the value and applicability of MCs, is reflected in findings that highlight industry alignment, employer preference for specific skill sets, and the formal recognition of competencies (McGreal & Olcott, 2022b). However, the study could more explicitly connect this recognition to Pozzi et al.'s social validation processes, such as how MCs reshape perceptions of traditional higher education credentials. At the behavioral level, which Pozzi et al. associate with action-oriented responses to affordances, the study’s findings demonstrate the uptake of MCs for lifelong learning, professional development, and institutional competitiveness. These behaviors align with learners and organizations capitalizing on MCs' practical and systemic benefits.

8 Academic and practical contributions

MC offers several significant academic and practical contributions, as follows:

8.1 Theoretical contributions

This study establishes the theoretical relationship between MC in the HE context. Though the advantages of MC are discussed in prior studies, the finite advantages are yet to be explored using theories. This study emphasises how important it is to use MC in higher education by examining conceptual elements. Our established MC affordance framework is based on the creation of mid-range theories. It is acknowledged that mid-range theory is essential for fields based on practice, especially in the social sciences (Carpenter, 2023). The findings of this study make a valuable contribution to the body of knowledge in the field, specifically shedding light on the affordances of MC within the context of HE.

8.2 Methodological contributions

We elaborate on selecting a foundational model within affordance theory as our methodological contribution. Data was gathered through focus groups by selecting participants based on their relevant experiences, which ensured that data possessed an adequate variation range.

8.3 Practical implications

This study highlights the critical and essential affordances of MC, and it emphasises the significance of MC beyond its characteristics and capabilities. The identified affordances can aid the education system in contemplating how MC can be created and used to promote engagement and smooth integration into current HE systems.

8.4 National implications

The framework presented in this study is expected to offer substantial implications of MC for HE. Rahman (2021) identifies that the Bangladeshi government has set out to achieve specific sustainable development goals, emphasising high-quality education. This study carries at least national Bangladeshi significance by using the MC system, which is a pivotal force in fortifying the entire national education system.

9 Limitations of the research

With the focus on qualitative methods and data collected from people through focus group studies, there are also several limitations. Firstly, in a focus group study, participants must provide individual thoughts rather than group thinking. Group thinking limits the usefulness of focus group studies. Though group thinking may strengthen an agenda, individual contributions are required. The moderator and note-taker were encouraged to contribute to the discussion to overcome this challenge. Secondly, comments were their thoughts and, therefore, may differ from those of the participants or focus group members themselves; nonetheless, the comments were validated by other members of the focus group member. Lastly, since data was collected from only one region (Dhaka), the response may differ in other regions of Bangladesh.

10 Future research and conclusion

In future, longitudinal studies can be conducted to observe the impact of MCs on students’ lives in the long term, which would shed light on the efficiency and sustainability of these credentials. The acceptance and effectiveness of MC in various fields, organisations, or geographical areas, along with factors influencing their adoption, can also be examined. Naturally, quantitative or mixed-method research data would enrich the findings. The data can be enriched by approaching stakeholders and collecting their perspectives. Diversified perspectives can help understand the challenges and opportunities in integrating MC credentials. The impact of MCs in traditional degree programs, how the institutions can adopt MCs, and what changes they need to make in the way of their educational offerings can also be investigated in the future. Multidisciplinary research collaborations may be implemented within relevant domains such as technology, education, and psychology to address the complex problems associated with MCs and adequately tackle the complex problems associated with MCs, to name but a few.