Technology integration in higher education is increasing and is expected to continue to grow. The current stage of technological development in society is characterized by the dynamic integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in various fields, especially in science and education. In recent years, there has been a growing focus on integrating AI technologies into education, as they have become essential tools for enhancing the learning process. AI-driven programs, such as those that use natural language processing and machine learning, have been widely used in educational contexts, including general learning environments(Hwang & Chang, 2023; Io & Lee, 2017) and in teaching specific subjects, such as foreign languages (Annamalai et al., 2023; Chuah & Kabilan, 2021).However, despite this progress, limited research has explored how educators perceive and adopt AI technologies such as ChatGPT in higher education, particularly in the context of language teaching. This study addresses this gap by investigating teachers’ attitudes towards the integration of ChatGPT in language teaching and learning.

In recent years, language models such as the Generative Pretrained Transformer (GPT-4) have made significant progress in the field of natural language processing (NLP) (Floridi & Chiriatti, 2020). These models, which are trained in a large amount of text data, can generate human-like text, answer questions, and perform language-related tasks accurately. A key advance in this field is pre-training, where a language model is first trained on a large dataset and then fine-tuned for a specific task. This has been shown to be effective in improving performance in a variety of language tasks (Tan et al., 2023). Furthermore, the ability of large language models to learn in multiple rounds and adapt efficiently to subsequent or seemingly unrelated tasks, known as transfer learning, has been empirically observed and studied for various natural language tasks (Brown et al., 2020; Kasneci et al., 2023). This adaptability has been demonstrated, for example, in the context of the generation of synthetic yet realistic heterogeneous tabular data (Kasneci et al., 2023).

In this evolving educational context, ChatGPT and other similar language generative models enable students to efficiently produce texts for coursework and assignments. This capability has led to a division among academics and teaching practitioners, into two distinct groups: (1) those who adamantly oppose the use of ChatGPT in the classroom and (2) those who advocate for the judicious use of ChatGPT in students’ research endeavors. At this stage, it is no longer possible to universally prohibit students from using artificial intelligence technologies, including ChatGPT, in teaching and scientific research. A more nuanced and pragmatic approach, in our view, is to initiate discussions with students about the potential of ChatGPT. This approach aims to cultivate a balanced and informed perspective that recognizes the benefits of AI technologies, while instilling a sense of responsibility and preparedness in students to engage with ChatGPT in academic and research contexts.

This study aims to explore the theoretical frameworks that lay the foundation for the complex interaction between internal and external factors that influence the integration of technology in educational settings. This study aims to explore the theoretical frameworks that underpin the complex interplay between internal and external factors that influence the integration of technology in educational settings. The demand for teachers to incorporate technology into different teaching approaches has become imperative due to the rapid advancement of technology in the twenty-first century. Therefore, a great body of research has shown an increasing interest in investigating how teachers integrate technology into their teaching practices (Admiraal et al., 2017; Alenezi, 2017; Tanak, 2020). An important theoretical framework is the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), as discussed by Khlaif et al. (2023). TPACK represents a synthesis of technological, pedagogical and content knowledge, providing a comprehensive perspective through which educators can approach the integration of technology into their teaching practices. This model emphasizes the importance of intertwining these three knowledge domains to facilitate successful and purposeful technology integration in education.

Furthermore, this study examines the role of teachers’ beliefs and perspectives on technology integration as another important theoretical dimension. Teachers’ attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs about the role of technology in education significantly influence the choices they make in their teaching and instructional practices. Understanding these beliefs becomes important for developing interventions that are aligned with educators’ perspectives, thereby promoting a more harmonious and effective integration of technology into teaching and learning processes.

1 Literature review

AI-powered language models, such as OpenAI’s ChatGPT, have found applications in various language learning settings, covering areas such as language tutoring, language generation, and language translation (Mohamed, 2024). Huang et al. (2023) noted a growing interest in AI-enhanced language education. Significant developments have been made in the field of artificial intelligence-based language learning technologies, accompanied by a corresponding growth in associated research trends (Li et al., 2024). Gamper and Knapp (2002) reviewed 40 computer-aided language learning (CALL) systems evolving around natural language processing, automated speech recognition, and machine translation. The research findings emphasized the significance of automated writing evaluation and intelligent tutoring systems, as well as the increasing interest in personalized learning. A review of studies in language education has concentrated on AI technologies, including conversational AI (Ji et al., 2023), tutoring and virtual assistance (García-Méndez et al., 2024), and AI for creative writing (Bedington et al., 2024). The existing literature on the subject presents a fluctuating view of the advantages and disadvantages of incorporating AI into language teaching and learning. An increasing body of evidence from both practice and research indicates that ChatGPT, a sophisticated AI tool that emerged in 2022, has the potential to be a valuable tool for language learning (Li et al., 2024).

ChatGPT is currently the most technically advanced chatbot with significant didactic and instructional potential for language teaching. It allows students to use its capabilities to generate texts and write scientific papers. ChatGPT is a powerful tool with the potential to transform various aspects of academia. In the context of teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL), ChatGPT can be used as an efficient tool for designing a personalized, interactive and engaging learning environment. Moreover, positive results have been obtained in activities related to natural language processing, such as text generation and language translation (Maddigan & Susnjak, 2023; Su & Yang, 2023; Topsakal & Topsakal, 2022).

The integration of new technologies into educational practice is often challenging. In literature, theoretical models have been developed to help understand the internal and external factors that contribute to or hinder the integration of technology in educational settings. Through a synthesis of the relevant literature, we aim to review the theoretical foundations that inform current practice and provide valuable perspectives for educators, researchers and policy makers who are actively engaged in the ongoing discourse on the integration of technology in education.

To investigate and understand teacher knowledge, Shulman (1986), known for Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), proposed a framework based on pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge. To include technological knowledge, a new framework, Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), was introduced by Mishra and Koehler (2006). According to Mishra and Koehler (2006), TPACK represents the integration of technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge. The set of these integrated forms of knowledge includes Technological Knowledge (TK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), and Content Knowledge (CK) (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
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Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), signifying the integration of technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge

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The TPACK framework emphasizes integrating these three foundational domains: TK, PK and CK to effectively use technology in teaching. (Tanak, 2020). It helps teachers align technology with content and pedagogy, fostering engaging learning environments and preparing students for the digital age (Li et al., 2024).

2 Methodology

The primary aim of this study was to provide a comprehensive overview of the challenges and applications inherent in integrating ChatGPT into foreign language learning within higher education. Specifically, our investigation aimed to understand teachers’ perception regarding the utilisation of ChatGPT in the context of foreign language instruction. In recognition of the considerable impact of these technological developments, our study addresses the multifaceted applications of ChatGPT in language teaching and learning. Natural language processing models such as ChatGPT have the potential to transform language education. This study, therefore, aims to explore their application within the higher education sector.

The following research questions were posed:

RQ1. What are the attitudes of teachers towards the integration of ChatGPT in language teaching, with a view to enhancing the foreign language learning of undergraduates?

RQ2. What opportunities, challenges, and broader implications are associated with the implementation of generative AI technologies like ChatGPT in the realms of education, as outlined by Dwivedi et al. (2023)?

The rationale for a focus group methodology study is as follows. Although chatbots are extensively used across a range of sectors, including tourism, medicine, and language learning, their adoption in higher education, particularly in Romanian universities, remains limited. Consequently, a survey-based study was not a viable methodological approach, as a considerable proportion of university teachers, randomly surveyed, had no prior awareness of or experience with ChatGPT in their regular teaching practice. A focus group would facilitate the collection pertinent data in the event of experiencing ChatGPT.

3 Participants

The study sample comprised 15 female educators, all of whom held doctoral degrees (the mean age (x̅) of 45.20 and a standard deviation (SD) of 9.35 The participant specializes in teaching foreign languages, specifically English (N = 9), French (N = 4), and German (N = 2), at the National University of Science and Technology POLITEHNICA Bucharest, Pitești University Centre. The participants’ teaching experience varied considerably, ranging from five to over 25 years. Of the participants, three had between 6 and 15 years of experience (N = 3), seven had between 16 and 25 years of experience (N = 7), and five had over 25 years of experience (N = 5). The participants were selected based on their responses to a questionnaire designed to assess their use of information and communication technology (ICT) in foreign language instruction. This deliberate approach ensured that the participants had a substantial background in using technology in their teaching practices. Although there were 15 teacher participants in the study, each of the teachers’ contributed observations from their respective classes, which included a total of approximately 100 students. This approach allowed us to collect diverse and rich data on the potential of ChatGPT in different classroom contexts.

4 Data collection on teachers’ perception of using ChatGPT as a tool in foreign language learning

A qualitative method, namely a focus group, was employed to collect data on teachers’ perceptions of utilising ChatGPT as an instructional tool in foreign language education. Considering the novelty of the topic, our objective was to obtain a comprehensive and holistic representation of teachers’ attitudes toward the use of ChatGPT as a tool in foreign language learning. Participants in the quantitative study declared that they had not used ChatGPT as an ICT tool for teaching foreign languages. During the organized focus group, teachers had the opportunity to test the functionality and utility of ChatGPT in specific language teaching activities, including translation, vocabulary, grammar, and evaluation.

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Mohamed, 2024; Qasem et al., 2023) informed the focus group’s primary areas of inquiry. In accordance with the model, the usage behaviour of technology is contingent upon the affective response elicited by the perception of the utility and ease of use of the technology in question. The interview was conducted over a period of approximately 60 min.

5 Data analysis procedure

The following procedure was employed in the analysis of the data collected regarding the competence of teachers in the use of ICT in teaching activities. The data was gathered using a questionnaire comprising three sections (see Supplementary material). Section A was designed to obtain demographic data, including gender, teaching specialty, and teaching experience in foreign language instruction. Section B was focused on identifying the use of ICT in foreign language instruction, exploring the digital tools employed, and examining specific activities where ICT is utilized in language learning. Section C: Teachers’ Perceptions of ICT Use in Language Instruction. Section C utilized closed-ended questions to assess teachers’ perceptions of ICT use in foreign language teaching across three dimensions: (I) Competence in Using Digital Tools (3 items; α = 0.74); (II) Frequency of ICT Use in Teaching (3 items; α = 0.82) an (III) Effectiveness of ICT on Student Outcomes (2 items; α = 0.77). Responses were measured on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (“to a very small extent”) to 5 (“to a very small extent “).

6 Results

The following section presents the findings of the study, with a particular focus on the analysis of the questionnaire concerning the utilisation of information and communication technology (ICT) in foreign language teaching activities.

6.1 Analysis of the questionnaire on the use of ICT in foreign language learning

Table 1 illustrates the composition of the teacher sample, providing a breakdown based on gender, teaching specialty, and teaching experience in foreign language instruction. The table provides insights into the diversity of the sample, which consists of a range of languages and represents teachers with varying levels of experience in foreign language instruction.

Table 1 Sample structure (section A)
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6.2 Perception of teachers regarding ICT competence in language teaching

Section B of the questionnaire inquired about the respondents’ proficiency in utilising ICT tools in the context of foreign language instruction. The analysis entailed an evaluation of responses pertaining to three pivotal dimensions: competence in the utilisation of digital tools, the frequency of ICT integration, and the perceived efficacy of ICT on student language learning outcomes. The objective of this section was to provide a comprehensive overview of teachers’ perceptions and practices concerning the integration of ICT in foreign language teaching.

The response rate of teachers regarding the use of ICT in foreign language teaching is positive, with teachers using digital resources to a very high extent, ranging from 83.33 to 100% (see Table 2). The findings indicate a favourable trend among the participating teachers about the integrating of ICT into their foreign language teaching practices. Most teachers reported that they utilise digital resources to a considerable and regular extent in their instructional activities (see Table 3). This high response rate serves to illustrate the extensive acceptance and adoption of ICT tools by language educators. The data indicate that teachers are proactively integrating a range of digital resources with the objective of optimising the learning experience for their students. The favourable response rate indicates a recognition of the value and efficacy of technology in language education. Factors that may contribute to this positive response may include the increasing accessibility of digital tools, a growing awareness of their benefits, and the continuous professional development opportunities provided to teachers. The data not only reflect the current state of ICT integration but also emphasize the necessity for continued support and resources to further empower teachers in using technology for effective language instruction. The data indicate that teachers are receptive to the integration of ICT into their pedagogical practices, thereby establishing a foundation for ongoing discourse and initiatives aimed at optimising the utilisation of technology in language education and foreign language teaching.

Table 2 ICT Tools Used in Teaching Foreign Languages
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Table 3 Language learning activities using ICT
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Section C presents the findings pertaining to teachers’ perceptions of the utilisation of ICT in the teaching of foreign languages. The data were collected using closed-ended questions, the objective of which was to capture teachers’ perspectives on various dimensions related to the use of ICT in language education. The questionnaire administered to the participating teachers included a dedicated section, Section C, which explored their perceptions regarding the integration of ICT tools in foreign language teaching. The objective was to gain insights into how educators perceive the role and efficacy of technology in language instruction.

Table 4 presents a summary of the key findings derived from teachers’ responses to Section C of the questionnaire. This section was designed to investigate three key areas: the extent of educators’ competence in utilising digital tools in their teaching practice, the frequency with which ICT is employed in teaching activities, and the perceived impact of ICT on students’ language learning outcomes.

Table 4 Teachers’ Perception Regarding the Use of ICT in Foreign Language Teaching
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The analysis of variance (ANOVA) of subjects’ responses regarding their competence in using ICT tools in teaching (m 6−15 years= 5, m 16−25 years = 4.71, m over 25 years= 3.80) reveals significant differences based on the variable of teaching experience. The results indicate a statistically significant difference between the groups, with a p-value of less than 0.005. The effect size is considerable, with r² = 0.54It can be observed that teachers with limited teaching experience (6–15 years) perceive themselves to possess high levels of competence in the utilisation of ICT in teaching activities, as evidenced by an average rating of 5 on the scale. With regards to the frequency of ICT use in teaching, significant differences are evident among the analysed groups of teachers (m6 − 15 years= 4.67, m16 − 25 years = 4.71, mover 25 years= 3.40), F(2,15) = 10.26, p ≤ 0.005. The effect size is high with r2 = 0.57. The frequency of ICT use in teaching activities is higher for teachers with teaching experience in the 16–25 years interval (m16 − 25 years= 4.71) compared to those with experience over 25 years (mover 25 years= 3.40). The analysis of variance of the perception of the use of ICT on students’ performance in learning foreign languages is significant with regard to teaching experience (m6 − 15 years= 5, m16 − 25 years = 4.71, mover 25 years= 3.80), F(2,15) = 9.43, p ≤ 0.005. The effect size is high with r2 = 0.54. It is noteworthy that teachers with 6 to 15 years of teaching experience perceive that the use of ICT in teaching has a significant positive effect on students’ learning performance (m6 − 15 years= 5), in comparison to teachers with over 25 years teaching experience (mover 25 years= 3.80). No significant differences were observed regarding the competence in the use of ICT in teaching, the frequency of use of ICT in teaching, and the effectiveness of the use of ICT on students’ performance in learning foreign languages, irrespective of the specific foreign language taught (English, French, and German).

6.3 A qualitative analysis of attitudes towards the use of ChatGPT in foreign language teaching

The focus group discussions were directed towards the utility and ease of use of ChatGPT as a working tool in foreign language teaching. The utility of ChatGPT was discussed in terms of its ability to complete tasks rapidly, its impact on teaching performance, productivity, and the efficiency of its use. In terms of the ease of use of ChatGPT in the context of foreign language teaching, the discussions centred on the simplicity of operating ChatGPT, the ease of interaction, flexibility and the learning functionality. The following examples illustrate the points discussed:

“ChatGPT offers the ability to provide instant feedback on pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary usage, facilitating immediate correction and improvement. Students can learn from mistakes in real-time. Unlike traditional classrooms, ChatGPT is available 24/7, allowing students to practice at their own pace and schedule. Students have access to language learning support at any time, which encourages continuous learning. ChatGPT can provide students with a platform for real-time, interactive conversation in the target language. ChatGPT can introduce students to a wide range of vocabulary and expressions through contextualised discourse. It can provide immediate translations, elucidations, and exemplifications, thereby facilitating students’ comprehension of linguistic subtleties.” - MT, English teacher.

“It may be beneficial in teaching\ and learning foreign languages, as well as in self-study and learning.” - VT, French teacher.

“ChatGPT can provide immediate feedback on pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary usage, facilitating immediate correction and improvement.” - CD, French teacher.

“ChatGPT can assist in organizing teachers’ work.” - LT, English teacher.

” The teaching of foreign languages can be made more engaging with the use of ChatGPT.” - AM, German teacher.

Teachers have expressed the view that the utilisation of ChatGPT can prove beneficial in enhancing students’ proficiency in foreign languages: “Students may enhance their academic performance by having an option available non-stop to seek clarification on challenging concepts; they can also practice and revise their knowledge as often as necessary.” - SM, English teacher

“The interactive and dynamic nature of Chat GPT can make language learning more engaging and enjoyable. It can motivate students by offering a novel and interactive approach to language practice.”– CD, French teacher.

“ChatGPT can assist students in their preparations for the examination. It can provide an overview of the topics, detect mistakes in writing, suggest improvements to students’ answers.” - MT, English teacher.

A summary of the results regarding teachers’ opinions about using ChatGPT in the language learning process is presented in Table 4. The following table presents an overview of the perspectives of teachers on the use of Chat GPT in the teaching of foreign languages. The data were gathered through qualitative methods, particularly focus group discussions, with the objective of obtaining a comprehensive understanding of teachers’ attitudes towards the effectiveness and ease of use of ChatGPT as a teaching tool.

The responses presented in Table 5 provide valuable insights into how teachers perceive the role of ChatGPT in enhancing their work, lesson dynamics, information retrieval, personal enjoyment, and time management.

Table 5 Teachers’ Perception Regarding the Use of ICT in Foreign Language Teaching
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7 Discussions

The investigation into teachers’ attitudes towards incorporating ChatGPT in language teaching (RQ1) revealed a predominantly positive response. Educators recognised the potential of ChatGPT to facilitate the development of language skills in undergraduate students. The tool’s capacity to provide immediate feedback, facilitate real-time practice, and offer sustained language support garnered favourable reviews. This positive outlook aligns with the increasing acceptance of AI technologies in the field of education, and it demonstrates the willingness of educators to adopt innovative tools for improved pedagogical outcomes. The results of our investigation indicate that ChatGPT has the potential to significantly improve the learning experience in foreign language by offering several advantages. Such advantages include the provision of constant support, immediate feedback, personalised learning paths, and access to an extensive knowledge repository. These findings are consistent with those of earlier research conducted by Mohamed (2024) and Qasem et al. (2023), thereby reinforcing the consistent recognition of the benefits associated with the use of ChatGPT for language learning.

Teachers demonstrated a variety of ways in which they were using ChatGPT, including designing lectures, creating assignments, and fostering a creative learning environment. The tool was perceived as a versatile asset, facilitating tasks such as language translation, vocabulary building, and grammar exercises. Qasem et al. (2023) reported positive outcomes in developing vocabulary (business English terms) based on the use of chatbots and the integration of digital and technological software and applications. The findings suggest that ChatGPT contributes to the diversification of teaching methods, providing educators with a dynamic tool to enrich the learning experience. Another aspect reported by teachers is the opportunity of using ChatGPT as a tool that could assist in organizing their work, facilitating the management of language-related tasks and assessments with greater efficiency. These findings are consisted with other studies (Mohamed, 2024; Zhao, 2023). There are a few studies that report positive results in enhancing writing skills in foreign languages (Alharbi, 2023; Chang et al., 2022; Zhao, 2023). Teachers can explore ChatGPT for academic writing purposes, including but not limited to, outlining, structural organization, and reference guidance (Kasneci et al., 2023). This suggests that ChatGPT can serve as a valuable tool for both teachers and students in the enhancing of academic writing quality. It does so by offering insightful support and guidance in these critical areas (Ansari et al., 2024).

Although the study highlighted the advantages of integrating ChatGPT, it also identified challenges (RQ2). The teachers indicated a necessity for further training and identified time constraints as a potential obstacle. To address these challenges, comprehensive training programs can be developed to equip educators with the requisite skills, as also recommended by Yeşilçınar (2023). Additionally, the provision of ongoing assistance and the cultivation of a collaborative atmosphere can assist educators in surmounting the initial challenges and integrating ChatGPT in a seamless manner into their pedagogical activities. These challenges have also been reported in other studies (Ansari et al., 2024; Grassini, 2023; Kasneci et al., 2023).

In response to RQ 2 (Opportunities, Challenges, and Broader Implications), teachers identified several opportunities and challenges during the exploration activity. These included enhanced student engagement (Sahu et al., 2023; Yeşilçınar, 2023), improved learning outcomes, and organizational efficiency (Almusaed et al., 2023). However, challenges such as the need for adequate training and concerns about time management were identified, findings consistent with those reported by Sahu et al. (2023). These challenges can be addressed through the implementation of strategic training programs, the provision of continuous support, and the development of user-friendly interfaces.

Teachers discussed the potential of ChatGPT to simplify grammar rules, enhance vocabulary retention, improve pronunciation, and provide cultural and conversational support customized to each language, even for languages others than English, e.g., French and German. Specific difficulties associated with French and German language learning were also discussed, including complex grammar rules, pronunciation challenges, and cultural nuances. For example, the results indicate that ChatGPT’s capacity to provide immediate feedback and adapted and personalized learning materials renders it especially beneficial for addressing the complexities of French and German languages, which are frequently perceived as more challenging than English. ChatGPT can simplify grammar explanations by breaking them into manageable parts and providing examples customised to the learner’s level (an example of simulations done by a German teacher, for a student Query: „How do German cases work?”, ChatGPT can explain when to use “der,” “die,” or “das” with tips for remembering genders). For learning French vocabulary, ChatGPT can create personalized flashcards, quizzes, and mnemonic devices to aid vocabulary memorization. It can also provide word usage examples in different contexts.

The results from the cumulative analysis of quantitative and qualitative data at the teacher group level revealed the following insights. Teachers employ a range of ICT tools in their pedagogical activities, including online dictionaries such as Google Translate and MondlyAR, language learning applications such as Duolingo, Babbel, or Rosetta Stone, as well as language learning websites such as Quizlet, Memrise, or Lingodeer. These tools are perceived as having a significant impact on students’ performance and the development of listening, reading, vocabulary, and grammar skills. Significant differences were identified based on teaching experience. Significant differences were observed in the perception of ICT usage competence, frequency of ICT use in teaching, and the effectiveness of ICT on language learning outcomes among teachers with varying teaching experience. Teachers with 6 to15 years of teaching experience showed a preference for using ICT tools.

The teachers in the analysis group had the opportunity to test the functionality of Chat GPT’s during a working session. They expressed appreciation for its utility and ease of use in foreign language teaching. However, they indicated that the tool was used infrequently, citing the need for time and specialized training to fully grasp its functionality. It was stated that further training would facilitate the effective integrating of Chat GPT into language teaching methodologies. One of the concerns raised by teachers in the focus group interviews was the potential impact on academic integrity when using AI tools to prepare assignments, in particular the risk of students relying too heavily on AI-generated content without proper understanding or critical engagement, which is consistent with other findings highlighting the need for clear guidelines and ethical frameworks to ensure responsible use of AI in education (Gao et al., 2024).

These findings highlight the diverse landscape of ICT tool usage among language teachers, with experience playing a role in shaping preferences (Wang & Chen, 2023). Additionally, while teachers recognize the potential of innovative tools such as Chat GPT, they identify the importance of dedicated training to effectively use these tools in language education. The study’s findings contribute to the ongoing discourse on the integration of AI technologies into language education. The favourable attitudes and diverse applications observed among teachers suggest that ChatGPT has the potential to be a valuable tool in language teaching (Ulla et al., 2023). Nevertheless, the successful integration of ChatGPT requires a strategic approach, encompassing training, ongoing support, and consideration of educators’ time constraints.

8 Limitations

It should be noted that the findings presented in this study are subject to certain limitations, particularly in terms of the sample size and the extent to which they can be generalized. The study involved a relatively small sample size of 15 teachers, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. A larger and more diverse sample would allow a broader perspective on the use of ICT in language teaching to be obtained. The data collected, particularly in the context of the quantitative analysis, are based on self-reported responses from teachers in question. This introduces the possibility of response bias, whereby participants may provide answers that align with their perceived expectations rather than their actual practices. Another limitation of this study was that it did not distinguish between different age groups, which could potentially influence teachers’ attitudes towards integrating ChatGPT in language teaching and learning. Future research could explore how attitudes vary across different age cohorts to gain a deeper understanding of age-related factors in technology adoption. Although the teachers had the opportunity to explore Chat GPT during a working session, the duration of the interaction may not have been sufficient to facilitate a comprehensive understanding of its full potential. Further, the infrequent and limited use of Chat GPT by teachers suggests a need for more extensive training and practical experience.

The study was primarily focused on teachers of English, French, and German. The narrow scope of the study in terms of language may limit the applicability of the findings to teachers of other languages, each of them with its unique challenges and opportunities. The research focused on teacher perceptions, excluding the valuable perspective of students. Including student feedback could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of ICT tools on language learning outcomes. The study did not undertake a detailed examination of the specific functionalities and features of the various ICT tools mentioned. A more detailed investigation of the tools’ specific impacts on different language skills could yield more nuanced insights, which would be beneficial for future research in this field. It is recommended that these limitations be addressed in future studies, with a view to contributing to a more comprehensive and robust understanding of the role of ICT in language teaching.

9 Conclusion and future research directions

This study investigated the perceptions of teachers regarding the use of ChatGPT in teaching foreign languages, and its effectiveness in enhancing language skills development in undergraduate students. The findings of this study contribute to the existing literature on the use of AI, particularly ChatGPT, in education and provide evidence of its potential to enhance student engagement and improve learning outcomes. The study yielded implications for practice. Firstly, the teachers surveyed acknowledged the potential of ChatGPT to enhance student engagement, a finding that aligns with the results of a recent study by Wang et al. (2024), which highlighted the ability of AI-driven tools to foster greater participation and motivation in language learning contexts. The provision of immediate feedback, the facilitation of interactive conversations, and the accessibility of language support were identified as factors that contribute to an increase in student participation. Secondly, the findings suggest that the integration of ChatGPT into language teaching can have a positive impact on learning outcomes. The tool was perceived as beneficial for the immediate correction of errors, real-time practice, and continuous learning, which may ultimately lead to improved academic performance. Furthermore, teachers have indicated that ChatGPT provides a versatile platform for a range of language learning activities, including translation, vocabulary expansion, grammar exercises, and assessment. This diversification is in accordance with contemporary pedagogical approaches, which cater to diverse learning preferences. Finally, teachers recognized ChatGPT as a potential instrument for the organisation of their work, offering an effective solution for the management of language-related tasks and assessments. This may contribute to the streamlining of teaching processes.

Further research could investigate the long-term impact of integrating ChatGPT into language teaching. A more comprehensive understanding could be achieved by assessing sustained student engagement and monitoring learning outcomes over an extended period. Moreover, further studies should focus on a detailed examination of specific features of ChatGPT, with a view to elucidating their respective contributions to the advancement of language skills and investigate whether there are age-related differences in teachers’ attitudes towards the integration of ChatGPT in foreign language teaching. This could provide valuable insights into the age-related factors influencing technology adoption in educational settings. This could inform as to how they might optimise the tool’s potential. As teachers expressed a need for more training on ChatGPT, future research can investigate effective training strategies. Understanding how to equip educators with the necessary skills to integrate AI tools seamlessly into their teaching methods may be of interest for practitioners.