Dedicated to Language Variations

9/5/2020 Vol. 3 No. 1 (2020): THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF APPLIED LANGUAGE STUDIES AND CULTURE (IJALSC) | The Internati… The International Journal of Applied Language Studies and Culture Home / Archives / Vol. 3 No. 1 (2020): THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF APPLIED LANGUAGE STUDIES AND CULTURE (IJALSC) Vol. 3 No. 1 (2020): THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk APPLIED LANGUAGE STUDIES AND CULTURE (IJALSC) provided by UGD Academic Repository brought to you by CORE Published: 2020-06-30 Full Issue  PDF Articles THE PLACE OCCUPIED IN ALBANIAN BY SCIENTIFIC TERMS SOURCED FROM GREEK Antela Voulis 1-3  PDF INFERENCING FAKE WORDS’ MEANING BY MOROCCAN EFL LEARNERS Fatima Zahrae El Malaki 5-10  PDF alscjournal.com/index.php/ALSC/issue/view/4 1/3 9/5/2020 Vol. 3 No. 1 (2020): THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF APPLIED LANGUAGE STUDIES AND CULTURE (IJALSC) | The Internati… DEDICATED TO LANGUAGE VARIATIONS Sashka Jovanovska 11-16  PDF Make a Submission Aims and Scope Publication ethics Open Access Policy Authors Guidelines Journal Policies Copyright Transfer Agreement Authors statements alscjournal.com/index.php/ALSC/issue/view/4 2/3 9/5/2020 Vol. 3 No. 1 (2020): THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF APPLIED LANGUAGE STUDIES AND CULTURE (IJALSC) | The Internati… Current Issue Information For Readers For Authors For Librarians  This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY) ISSN 2631-8946 (Printed) ISSN 2631-8954 (Online)  alscjournal.com/index.php/ALSC/issue/view/4 3/3 9/5/2020 Editorial Team | The International Journal of Applied Language Studies and Culture The International Journal of Applied Language Studies and Culture Home / Editorial Team Editorial Team Editor-in-Chief Assoc. Prof. Dr Isa SPAHIU, https://www.linkedin.com/in/isa-spahiu-phd-4a344611/? originalSubdomain=mk   Chief of technical support Dr. Lazar Stošić, Institute of management and knowledge, Regional coordinator for Republic of Serbia, Senior Researcher, Skopje, Macedonia, President of The Association for the Development of Science, Engineering and Education, Serbia   Editorial Advisory Board Dr Hasan Boynukara, Namık Kemal University as the head of English Language and Literature, Turkey Dr. Valentina Gulevska, University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, Faculty of Education, Bitola, Macedonia Dr. Łukasz Tomczyk, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Poland Dr  Astrit Memia, Albanian Diplomatic Academy  Dr. Bledar Toska, Department of foreign Languages, Faculty of Humanities, University of Vlora, Albania  Dr. Alla Belousova, Don State Technical University, Russian Federation Dr. Miodrag Smelcerović, Institute of management and knowledge, Regional coordinator for Republic of Serbia, Senior Researcher, Skopje, Macedonia   International Editorial Board members alscjournal.com/index.php/ALSC/about/editorialTeam 1/4 9/5/2020 Editorial Team | The International Journal of Applied Language Studies and Culture Dr.Abrosimova Larisa, Institute of Philology, Journalism and Intercultural Communication, Southern Federal University, Russian Federation Dr. Sklyarova Natalia, Institute of Philology, Journalism and Intercultural Communication, Southern Federal University, Russian Federation Dr. Gushchina Lyudmila, Institute of Philology, Journalism and Intercultural Communication, Southern Federal University, Russian Federation Dr.Elena Stakanova, Institute of Philology, Journalism and Intercultural Communication, Southern Federal University, Russian Federation Dr. Reza Kafipour, Department of English, Paramedical School Shiraz University of Medical Sciences Meshkinfam Street, Shiraz, Iran Dr. Edita Kamberi Spahiu, Lecturer at International Balkan University, Macedonia Dr. Marwa Essam Eldin Fahmy, College of Foreign Languages & Translation, MISR University for Science & Technology, Egypt Dr Mohammad Etedali (Finland) Mr. Troy Blankenship (USA) Dr. Jaroslav Veteška, Faculty of Education, Czech Rep. James Pearce PhDc (U.K.) Carla E Burton M.Ed. (Belize) Dr. Miroslav Krystoň, Faculty of education, Matej Bel University, Slovakia Tinatin (Tinna) Goletiani (Georgia) Acheme Oklobia Odeh, Girne American University, University Drive, Turkey   Make a Submission Aims and Scope alscjournal.com/index.php/ALSC/about/editorialTeam 2/4 9/5/2020 Editorial Team | The International Journal of Applied Language Studies and Culture Publication ethics Open Access Policy Authors Guidelines Journal Policies Copyright Transfer Agreement Authors statements Current Issue Information alscjournal.com/index.php/ALSC/about/editorialTeam 3/4 9/5/2020 Editorial Team | The International Journal of Applied Language Studies and Culture For Readers For Authors For Librarians  This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY) ISSN 2631-8946 (Printed) ISSN 2631-8954 (Online)  alscjournal.com/index.php/ALSC/about/editorialTeam 4/4  THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF APPLIED LANGUAGE STUDIES AND CULTURE (IJALSC) Vol. 3, No. 1, 2020. DEDICATED TO LANGUAGE VARIATIONS PhD Sashka Jovanovska, North Macedonia E-mail: [email protected] Abstract. We use languages for different purposes in everyday life. Most people use more than one language, and they may be considered as bilingual (speaking two languages) or multilingual (speaking more than two languages). In simple terms, as Wardhaugh elaborates, language may be defined as a code or system that is used by societies to communicate with other people. This system might be the same for two people or totally different, and therefore they are somehow forced to cooperate by working out their common code. Any changes in languages or speech are conditioned by communities and their culture. Sociolinguistics examines relationship between language and societies, and also deals with phenomena such as pidgins and creoles which are strictly bound with this science itself. Keywords: pidgin, creole, lingua franca, language © 2020 IJALSC. All rights reserved. 1. INTRODUCTION because it does not have native speakers and basically it is a first language to no one. It Pidgins, creoles, and lingua franca are forms as a consequence “of a multilingual often considered as unnatural and forgotten situation in which those who wish to languages (even Wardhaugh calls them communicate must find ... a simple language marginal) because researchers know very little system” (Wardhaugh 2010: 57-58). However, about their origins and themselves, whereas, it it is not possible because each person uses should be highlighted that they are a key feature different language and the only solution is to in understanding languages and many people find a new, common language for everybody. do use such languages on a daily basis. There Therefore, people have to improvise, adapt, is feasibility that without them some people and overcome a linguistic barrier by creating a could never communicate with others or have pidgin – a new code, system to communicate a chance to learn another language. Moreover, verbally. Worth mentioning is that pidgins are it is said that these languages are prejudiced, produced in a specific situation when there is used by poorer and darker members of society, no other possibility to communicate and the and most importantly that they are not separate need for this communication is really high. languages but only derivations of systems. Moreover, it often happens that speakers of Certain scholars use terms such “as one language dominate speakers of other ‘degenerate offshoots’, ‘linguistics dodos’, languages in social and economic context. As and ‘special hybrids’” to describe pidgins a general rule dominant languages are those and creoles, yet more and more of them start highly codified so pidgins may be treated as thinking about their prominence as it occurred an easier and simplified version of a normal that they are fundamental matters invaluable language, for instance characteristics of for people who use them as a necessity for a dominant language such as vocabulary, everyday living and markers of their own grammar, and pronunciation are reduced and identity. Due to pidgins and creoles people are simplified to meet the requirements of the aware of constant changes in languages and group (Wardhaugh 2010: 58-59). attractiveness of exploiting and using them Holmes, on the other hand, tries to (Wardhaugh 2010: 53-54). present the other definition of pidgins. They are compared to reduced languages with the 1.1. Pidgins result of being a product of contact between a group of people who do not share a common A pidgin is called a ‘contact language’ language. They become languages in a situation when people have need for verbal Corresponding Author communication, for example for trade, but PhD Sashka Jovanovska, North Macedonia it has to be remembered that people do not E-mail: [email protected] learn mother tongues of any person in the group, perhaps, for social reasons such as lack of trust or close contact. For instance on This work is licensed under a Creative Commons slave plantations West African people were Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY). The article is separated from others who could speak the published with Open Access at www.alscjournal.com same language “to reduce the risk of plotting http://www.alscjournal.com 1 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF APPLIED LANGUAGE STUDIES AND CULTURE (IJALSC) Vol. 3, No. 1, 2020. to escape or rebel” (Holmes 2013: 85). In that or English ‘they go’, Tok Pisin ‘ol’. However, situation people created a pidgin language pidgins tend to minimise grammatical signals which was based on bosses’ language and which is helpful for the speaker but, on the working people’s languages. A similar situation other hand, bothers a listener. Nevertheless, is presented with the example of traders who they are very difficult to learn as they are full travelled to different countries for business and of irregularities, and what is interesting one had to adjust their language to communicate word in a pidgin language may refer to many with Americans, Indians, Chinese, Spanish, things, for example “in Cameroon Pidgin etc. Some scholars believe that the term English the word ‘water’ can mean ‘lake’, ‘pidgin’ was used in communication between ‘river’, ‘spring’, ‘tear’, or ‘water’” (Holmes traders, derived from the very word ‘pidjom’ 2013: 87-88). from Hebrew, and meant ‘trade or exchange’ The most common yet false image of (Holmes 2013: 85-86). pidgins is widely discussed by people all over According to Waldhaugh, a pidgin may the world, not only researchers. Usually they be created on the condition of three or more are portrayed as a ‘bad’ version of a standard languages (one of them being dominant to or highly developed language or even called others) because in a situation in which there a ‘baby-talk’ language because of very are only two languages involved there might simplified forms of words which are difficult be a struggle for dominance. A perfect example to understand and divine their meaning. are English and French, in which the fight But after all, it has to be acknowledged that won inferior language but after more than two pidgins originate in the middle of a hard centuries of co-existence. In the case of three situation in which speakers need to manage or more languages, with one being dominant, to produce a language and also know how the other inferior languages play a salient role to use it correctly. As Holmes notices, even in the development of a pidgin. Speakers of sometimes pidgins are described as jargons these ‘weak’ languages have to communicate and negatively evaluated as Broken English. with each other but also with speakers of People, especially Europeans, “consider a dominant language. In order to do this pidgins to be a debased form of their own they need to produce their own rules based language” because many terms used in pidgin on process of simplification of a dominant languages come from European languages language as all speakers are separated from (Holmes 2013: 88). Therefore, speakers are each other because of language differences almost sure that they are able to guess the (Waldhaugh 2010: 58). meaning of the given words, and in that way Another point about pidgins is connected various misunderstandings occur which may with a structure of this artificially created have serious consequences, for instance in language. Speakers of different languages have Tok Pisin the word ‘baksait’ means back to combine their efforts to agree on rules of whereas hearing this term a listener instantly pronunciation, terminology, and grammar, and think of a word ‘backside’ meaning something sometimes there may occur additional features totally different, in this case ‘bottom, butt’. which are unique only for newly created Consequently, people who do not know a variety of languages. However, Holmes argues certain language should not guess the meaning that while a certain group speaks prestigious of terms or pretend to understand the message language and other group uses local or minor somebody tries to convey. By simplifying a language those prestigious endorse a pidgin dominant language they will not start using with more words and expressions, whereas a pidgin. To speak and understand someone local ones have more impact on grammatical correctly it is necessary to learn a certain structure of a pidgin. language even if it seems easy (Holmes 2013: Languages like pidgins do not have 88-89). many functions, they are rather restricted, and The very surprising yet interesting thing “tend to have a simplified structure and a small about pidgins is their life span as they have vocabulary compared with fully developed a short life. As it was said above pidgins are languages” (Holmes 2013: 87). For example, produced in a specific multilingual situation pacific pidgins have only five vowels, short and used for a special goal. Once they develop to words without inflections, and no tenses or help speakers to communicate “they disappear markers of gender either. Moreover, when when the function disappears” (Holmes 2013: English is compared to Tok Pisin on the basis 89). For instance, a pidgin which is used for of verb forms, it is easy to notice the process of communication between two groups of traders simplification: English ‘I go’, Tok Pisin ‘mi” disappears by the time trade between these http://www.alscjournal.com 2  THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF APPLIED LANGUAGE STUDIES AND CULTURE (IJALSC) Vol. 3, No. 1, 2020. groups dies out. There is also a feasibility that first language and it is developed to meet their even if trade increases it is more likely for one linguistic requirements. Moreover, there is a group to learn the other group’s language, and possibility for some languages such as West consequently a pidgin or a need to create a African pidgins or Nigerian Pidgin English to common language disappears. Nevertheless, exist as both pidgins and creoles. In this case, there is still a chance for a pidgin to develop speakers of those languages may use them only into a highly developed language or a creole as a second language in an extended version (Holmes 2013; 89). or only as a first language. The first option is Recently, some linguists point out the more probable in urban areas “in which there importance of a process called pidginization, is likely to be considerable contact among as opposed to creolization, in which a speakers of different languages” (Wardhaugh language is simplified, a word structure 2010: 59). together with a grammatical structure is Although some scholars claim that reduced to a minimum, pronunciation is certain languages may be considered as both adjusted to speakers. Additionally, there are pidgins and creoles, they do not share the not many functions for which pidgins can be same characteristics, have different functions, used (books are not written in pidgins) and grammatical structures, and even attitudes there are a great number of borrowings from a which are demonstrated towards them. Thus, dominant language. With so many changes in a creole is based on a developed pidgin with this process a pidgin still requires some kind evolved vocabulary and structure aiming at of innovativeness and creativity (Wardhaugh showing various meanings and functions of 2010: 59). a first language. It has a complex relationship All in all, to distinguish pidgins from with a standard language from which it arose other languages it is enough to have in mind and not every creole has its pidgin ancestor. three identifying characteristics. Initially, For instance, speakers using local varieties of pidgins are “used in restricted domains and languages rather than prestigious ones speak functions” (Holmes 2013: 89). Secondly, nonstandard form of languages which may be their grammatical structure is simplified and mixed randomly. That is why, pidgin English based on dominant languages. Lastly, pidgin is related to Standard English and Haitian languages have rather low prestige and thus Creole is associated with Standard French they attracts negative attitudes, particularly (Wardhaugh 2010: 59). from foreigners. However, although pidgins Creoles have different structure are perceived as limited and perhaps too from pidgins, and grammar is definitely simplistic, they still play an essential role in more complex which is underestimated changing and developing languages all over by foreigners. Words contain affixes and the world (89). inflections due to which creole languages are able to stress meanings of tenses, for instance in 1.2. Creoles Rover River Creole the past tense is expressed with the word ‘bin’: ‘im bin megim ginu’ A creole can be defined as an extended meaning ‘he made a canoe’ while the present version of a pidgin which has native speakers. form of a tense is as follows: ‘im megim Children learn creole languages as their first ginu’ (Holmes 2013: 90). Other characteristic language and use it in various domains of life. focus on phonology in which, similarly to Creoles are created when a new generation English language, there is a morphophonemic of speakers appear and, as Aitchison argues, variation. It describes phonological correlation “when pidgins become mother tongues” so between terms which are in a close relation, a creole may be treated as a common and for example “the first vowel in words ‘type’ somehow natural language (Wardhaugh 2010: and ‘typical’, and the different sounds of the 59). Hence, there seems to be an endless ‘plural’ ending in ‘cats’, ‘dogs’, and ‘boxes’” consideration on in what situation a pidgin (Wardhaugh 2010: 66). can be actually a creole. Therefore, a creole Additionally, in creoles transitive verbs may be named like this when it originates may be distinguished from intransitive ones from the original pidgin which develops in and speakers have ability to form embedded a fully-fledged language. Many researchers clauses such as relative clauses. Particles are believe that various pidgins are in fact frequently used and it is not complicated to creoles, for example Tok Pisin, which was stress a negation by using, for instance “a aforementioned as a pidgin, is acquired as a simple negative particle ‘no’ as in the English- creole because many speakers learn it as their based Krio – ‘i no tu had’ [meaning] ‘It’s not http://www.alscjournal.com 3 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF APPLIED LANGUAGE STUDIES AND CULTURE (IJALSC) Vol. 3, No. 1, 2020. too hard’” (Wardhaugh 2010: 67). foreigners, speakers of creole languages Many creolists also point out that creole seem to appreciate them. The aforementioned languages use the exact syntactic methods as Tok Pisin (a perfect example of a pidgin, an slightly different standard languages. When expanded pidgin, and a creole language at it comes to vocabulary, more terms and once) “has status and prestige”. Inhabitants of expressions are similar to a standard language Papua New Guinea “recognise its usefulness but still they are limited and presented in a as a means of communication with a wide condensed form which results in often having range of influential people as well as in getting different shapes. Sometimes speakers use a decent job” (Holmes 2013: 94). Tok Pisin is reduplication or repetition of words to reduce even used during business meetings of one of a risk of misunderstanding or confusion, companies though all members speak other for example Tok Pisin uses a pair like ‘talk’ common language (94). meaning ‘talk’ and ‘talktalk’ meaning ‘chatter’ Worth remembering is that although or ‘cry’ meaning ‘cry’ and ‘crycry’ meaning creoles sometimes seem similar to pidgins, ‘cry continually’. But there are many terms they are more complicated, have more rather of complicated encoding like ‘gras bilong functions and different structures. Still, they pisin’ meaning ‘moustache’ and surprisingly, a both undergo changes yet for creoles certain “creole may draw on the vocabulary resources changes are slower because of complexity of of more than one language” (Wardhaugh structures. Moreover, there is a feasibility that 2010: 67). without pidgins creoles may not exist. Pidgins In addition, Aitchison argues that people have a linguistic and social background speak creole languages faster than pidgins and whereas creoles have only historical one but notices that they do not speak them word by on the condition that they have arisen from word. As creoles are constantly changing and pidgins. However, some creoles may become developing, new terms are reduced in form, a common language in certain areas used in for example ‘man bilong pait’ (man of fight) town, in church, at work, or at home, and even is used as ‘paitman’ (fighter). Also, there are in that kind of a situation a creole may become many technical borrowings from English a lingua franca (Holmes 2013: 93). language. The salient point is addressed to 1.3. Lingua Francas creolization, a process in which a pidgin’s structure becomes more regular and as a Lingua franca, as Samarin believes, is consequence a pidgin is transformed into a a very intriguing phenomenon as it may be creole. When words have regular structure it described by a variety of terms such as a trade is easier to learn and understand these forms language (Swahili), a contact language (Greek and it is clearly visible in the example of Tok koine), an international language (English or Pisin and English – the adjective ‘bik’ means French), an auxiliary language (Esperanto), or ‘big, large’ whereas the verb is formulated by even a mixed one (Michif). adding ‘im’, so ‘bikim’ means ‘to enlarge, to The reason, or more likely the make large’. Following this rule, if a speaker consequence, for so many kinds of lingua knows that the term hot in Tok Pisin is ‘hat’, francas “is population migration (forced there is no doubt that he is able to create a or voluntary)”, or trade purposes. A lingua verb ‘to heat’ or ‘to make hot’ by adding the franca, then, might be defined as a language aforementioned affix ‘im’, so ‘hatim’ is the used for communication between speakers searched word (Holmes 2013: 91). who have different mother tongues. The The process also includes growth difference between a lingua franca and pidgins of grammatical and sentence structures, and creoles is that lingua francas usually use regularities in pronunciation, expansion in the existing, standard languages which were earlier number of functions in which a creole can be established as official languages for certain used, and evolution of a stable and sensible countries. However, sometimes, especially system for constantly increasing terminology in multilingual societies where people use and expressions. Moreover, creoles were many different languages and accents, lingua formed due to a procedure of second language francas are so helpful as they may eventually acquisition in unique conditions and children replace minor or local languages (Wardhaugh had an ability to help with the process of 2010: 55). regularization of grammatical structures. Throughout the centuries there were Although attitude towards creoles many lingua francas including Vulgar Latin or mirrors that negative one to pidgins by Sabir. However, this term was first introduced http://www.alscjournal.com 4  THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF APPLIED LANGUAGE STUDIES AND CULTURE (IJALSC) Vol. 3, No. 1, 2020. by Italians in 17th century, used for trade, and result, they improve their comprehension skills it means ‘Frankish language’. Now, the most and are aware of other varieties of English widespread and known lingua franca in the language. Duran also notices that non-native world is English language. It is used in many speakers do not use prestigious terminology various situations, for instance in business, while speaking with other non-native speakers. travel, or trade (Khodorkovsky). Speakers use Interestingly, “English is being shaped at least languages differently and depending on their as much by its non-native speakers as by its abilities to use them English serves either as a native speakers” (Duran 2016: 181). Despite mother tongue, a second language, or a foreign the fact that native speakers are the ones who one. Therefore, for example Italian, Spanish, correct mistakes made by non-natives, in Polish, and English scientists having a debate most conversations native speakers are not on a new vaccine use English to communicate involved. All in all, lingua francas are helpful and understand each other. Some researchers in raising awareness about language changes claim that this common language for all and perceiving languages as useful ones by aforementioned scientists is different from speakers. the standard version of English and they call it ‘Englishe’. Its form is slightly changed and even if people are able to communicate freely, CONCLUSION they often make mistakes while speaking spontaneously, and that is why a lingua franca Despite the fact that studies on pidgins, will never be acknowledged as a ‘pure’ English. creoles, and lingua franca are underestimated, Consequently, Jenkins argues that there is an they are very useful for people who do not European variety of English, called ‘Euro- share the same language yet and would like English’, which may serve as an European to participate actively in various everyday Lingua Franca in the distant future. There is activities. Those languages help speakers to not much data about it as the language is in its find their own way of communication and early stage of development. Yet, English “is understanding of people from all over the likely to be a kind of European-English hybrid world. Moreover, the way in people interact which, as it develops, will look increasingly with each other shows changes in languages to continental Europe rather than to the UK – how people pronounce words, what or the US for its norms of correctness and grammatical structure they use, and what kind appropriateness” (Jenkins). This fact is based of vocabulary they produce depending on a on a relationship and interaction among non- situation they are in. Languages are constantly native speakers of English language who show changing, ones are born, and the other ones that, for instance pronunciation may cause die out because people do not need to use intelligibility problems (even if speakers them anymore, but it happens also that they present a high level of language proficiency). are reborn in slightly changed form. The As mentioned above, English as a relationship between languages and societies lingua franca can be used in various everyday (speakers) is that both phenomena including situations. The best example of its use, different structure, culture and history are extremely from universal ones including business, trade, complicated hence incredibly fascinating. or tourism, may be education, strictly speaking In simple terms, people are influenced by an Erasmus programme in which students languages and vice versa. Because of this have a chance to study abroad. English, then, on-going process languages are in constant is the only language due to which students development as well as people are (Holmes communicate with other students, teachers, 2013; Wardhaugh 2010). and also inhabitants of a chosen country. English as a lingua franca is the only possible REFERENCES way to achieve goals and overcome problems by students. Although there may be attempts Duran, D. (2016). Use of lingua franca in student to learn a language of a country students live mobility: A study of Turkish Erasmus students. in, using a lingua franca is more practical and pp. 178-183 should prevent misunderstandings. Moreover, Holmes J. (2013). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Fourth Edition. Routledge Publishing. pp. 82- more students admit that they do not mind 99, 439-450 if other students make mistakes as long as Jenkins J. & Seidlhofer B. (2001). Be proud of your they understand a message. 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