Central European history

Levinas odnos prema Drugome ne vidi kao ontologiju, nego kao religiju u kojoj se Drugi priziva suštinom religijskog diskursa, što je za ovog autora molitva. Autor će u ovoj prezentaciji nastojati utvrditi i ispitati veze molitve kao jednog od transcendentnih puteva konceptom transcendentno postavljenog mentalnog ili, još preciznije, duhovnog Zdravlja. Ako se cjelokupna filozofija sagleda kao jedan metodo-ontološki put Zdravlja, molitva treba biti sagledana upravo levinasovski, kao misao koja je ustvari veza s osobom upućena u vokativu. Njezinim imenovanjem ono je prizivanje transcendencije koja sa sobom nosi tajnu, ali i otvara put ka Zdravlju onima koji tu transcendentno-imanentnu blagodat prizivaju za sebe i druge.
PRAYER AS A PATH TO (MENTAL) HEALTH
Levinas does not see the relationship to the Other as an ontology, but as a religion in which the Other is invoked by the essence of religious discourse, which, for this author, is a prayer. In this presentation, the author will try to establish and examine the connection between prayer as one of the transcendent paths and the concept of a transcendent mental or, more precisely, spiritual Health. Suppose the whole philosophy is seen as one methodoontological path of Health. In that case, prayer should be seen, according to Levinas’s idea, as a thought that is a connection with a person, directed in the vocative. The naming of which is invoking transcendence that carries a secret but also opens the way to Health to those who invoke this transcendent-immanent grace for themselves and others.

The study focuses on the conflict between King Béla IV of Hungary and his son Stephen, which occurred in 1262 and preceded the Hungarian civil war of 1264–1265/1266. Drawing on diplomatic documents and the previously overlooked second Supplement to Jans Enikel’s Fürstenbuch, the study reconstructs the political and military circumstances  surrounding the escalation of the conflict. Special attention is given to the question of possible military assistance from King Přemysl Ottokar II of Bohemia, as well as to the role of the Austrian knight Heinrich Prussl. The study concludes that the agreement reached in Bratislava in December 1262 was likely the result of external pressure, and although it temporarily stabilised conditions, it failed to prevent the conflict from flaring up again. The text expands knowledge of a little-researched period of Hungarian history and deepens understanding of the power structure of Árpádian Hungary in the mid-13th century.

Intercultural communication is pivotal in fostering cultural and citizen diplomacy, promoting mutual understanding, and reducing conflicts in an increasingly interconnected world. This review examines the significance of intercultural communication as an element of diplomatic efforts, analyzing its impact on international relations, cultural exchanges, and grassroots diplomatic initiatives.

Politics, Literature and Tertium Datur combines the transfer of ideas between historical turning points with a comparative reading of political literatures in the European East and West to address the disparity between the abundance of scholarly accounts of 1968 and the simultaneous forgetting of developments in the interwar period that peaked around 1928. It deepens scholarly awareness of the transnational spaces of interwar literature and explores their afterlives in the postWorld War II period.
The book troubles and corrects Western European theories of 1968 by tracing the post-war afterlives of shared interwar experiences that point towards a socialist third way, or Georg Lukács’ tertium datur, and thus out of the conventionally understood East-West binary. It testifies to the existence of a literature that throughout the last century self-consciously
oscillated between the exigencies of organized politics and the aesthetic task of helping to shape the humanity of tomorrow.
Examining case studies of works by Bertolt Brecht, Ivan Olbracht and August Cesarec among others, Politics, Literature and Tertium Datur excavates a series of problems, optics and styles characteristic of the forgotten episodes of 20th-century literary history. It shows that the proverbial Iron Curtain was not impenetrable, and that the walls and borders erected in the post-war period could not completely suppress the reverberations and revival of projects that flourished in the politicalliterary metropolises of the interwar period.

Význam slovanskej kultúry pre rumunské dejiny je téma, ktorou sa rumunská historiografi a zaoberá už dlhý čas, ale je známa aj iným historiografi ám, 1 samozrejme nie je neznáma ani slovenskej historiografi i. Vzťah k slovenskej historiografi i je o to zaujímavejší, že slovenská ako aj československá historiografi a sa témou slovanského vplyvu na rumunskú kultúru zaoberala už dávnejšie. V rokoch 1930-1940, slovenský jazykovedec Ján Stanislav študoval územie a jazyk, ktorým hovorili predkovia Slovákov (jazyk používaný na východných územiach Veľkej Moravy). On prvý poukázal jazykovými a toponymickými argumentmi na fakt, že územie ktoré ovládala a kontrolovala Veľká Morava sa tiahlo až do Bihoru, ak nie až po dnešné mesto Kluž. 2 To nám pomáha upresniť tradičné tvrdenia rumunskej historiografi e, podľa ktorej slovanská kultúra na rumunskom území má juhoslovanský (najmä bulharský) charakter, a tiež upozorniť na slovanské vplyvy zo západu (z kultúrneho prostredia Veľkej Moravy), 3 respektíve pre územie Moldavska -z východu (vo vzťahu s Haličou, Kyjevom a inými kniežactvami východných Slovanov). 4 1 Napr. PANAITESCU, Petre P.: Contribuţii la istoria culturii româneşti [Príspevky k dejinám rumunskej kultúry].

Dieser Band präsentiert die Ergebnisse des Konzeptforums Fraktalität. In Forschungen zum Alten Reich waren räumliche Strukturen bislang randständig. Indem sie den Raum des Reichs in einen direkten Zusammenhang mit seiner politischen und sozialen Ordnung bringen, suchen Falk Bretschneider und Christophe Duhamelle diese Lücke mit ihrem Konzept der "Fraktalität" zu schließen. Die von der Mathematik inspirierte Metapher erlaubt es, die hohe Zahl der inneren Grenzen, das Fehlen eines Zentrums oder einer Hierarchie der Zuständigkeiten sowie das Ineinander ießen der Handlungsebenen der Akteure hervorzuheben. Aus deutschen und französischen Traditionen entstanden, lädt die Methode dazu ein, allgemeine, Landes-, Reichs-und Sozialgeschichte gemeinsam zu denken. Basierend auf Falk Bretschneiders und Christophe Duhamelles Essay "Fraktalität. Raumgeschichte und soziales Handeln im Alten Reich" (2016) nehmen acht Beiträge das !ema in den Blick. Der Band schließt mit einem Kommentar von Falk Bretschneider und Christophe Duhamelle.

Special attention was given to the presentations Famille monténégrine pleurant ses morts après un combat à l’entrée du monastère de Cettigne, Les Monténégrins se rendant au marché de Kotor and Le prêtre monténégrin en uniforme de combat, portant le drapeau de l’eglisé, created during the seventh decade of 19th century by the French artist Théodore Valério. Valério’s drawings and copper etchings modelled after them, as well as aquarelles, paintings on canvas and illustrations published in popular European magazines, display Montenegrins in a truthful manner, but also in accordance with concepts shaped within the Orientalist discourse. This is why it is emphasised that these presentations must be perceived as constructions unifying the documentary precision and imagination of the Western European understanding of the so called Orient. The analysed presentations, said in the language of contemporary literary and visual theories, are re-presentations, i.e. representations expressing a complex relation between the observed and the observer, the connection between the truthful, the presented and what is expected from the presented. Within such a methodological framework, this text strives to answer the question asked already in 1940 by a professor and once the Director of the Historical Institute of Montenegro, Andrija Lainović: did Valério really see what he presented or are these “exotic” curiosities?

Despite of the aversion to the given status quo Hungary applied for responsible policy represented by the Huszár's coalition-and-Entente-oriented government and sent the delegates to the peace conference. However, the Hungarian society was reflecting the expected peace treaty unambiguously as unacceptable and unjust. The think pieces, considerations, and commentaries published on the eve of the peace talks in newspapers representing the main political streams in the country by the turn of 1919–1920 documented general denial of the treaty by all political parties from monarchy-oriented National-Christian Party through liberal, republic-oriented smallholders party and civic-liberal opposition to left social democracy. However, regardless of the results of the peace conference, the necessity to sign the treaty with victorious powers was not questioned in Hungary.

Zsófia Bocsi
Thoughts on the Writing of Local and/or Settlement History from an Archaeological Perspective Defining the place of local and settlement history within the field of historical studies has been a topic of intense emotion and debate since the genre's inception. This paper focuses on the section of local history writing that deals with the early and late Middle Ages, as well as the processing of specialized sources related to this period. The study takes as its starting point a fundamental methodological study published almost half a century ago, and in comparison to it, seeks to present new trends and methods that have emerged in recent decades. In the spirit of interdisciplinarity, particular attention is given to the results of archaeological and natural sciences, which have highlighted the importance and indispensability of environmental history research. The experiences – and the still untapped opportunities in local historical research – are presented through the example of recent settlement history research conducted in the vicinity of Berettyóújfalu.

Among the three defeated „member countries” of Central Powers Hungary lastly was summoned to send its delegates to the peace conference in Paris by the end of 1919. Prior place was given to Austria and Germany and Hungary (then the Hungarian Soviet Republic) was invited only thanks to the Lloyd George ́s initiative during the meetings of the Supreme Council of the peace conference in April 30 and May 1, 1919, which accepted this invitation. However the invitation for the representatives of the Hungarian socialist-communist government was withdrawn and the next one was issued in December 2, 1919, when the new acceptable cabinet was formed by the prime-minister Károlyi Huszár. The expected clauses of the peace conference were not acceptable for Hungary ho- wever main politicians were aware of the significance of the conference and decided to sent the delegates. This was manifested during the sessions of the Hungarian council of ministers where the necessity to send the delegates to Paris was negotiated and agreed (with the majority of one voice), just the term was discussed since the council wanted to postpone the departure of the delegates to gain some more time; finally the delegates were sent without any other delays. The Hungarian government tried to qualify the arrival of its delegates to the peace conference by evacuation of the Romanian occupational troops behind the given line (border) and sending of commissions searching the state of Hungarians on the territories under the Czechoslovak, Romanian, and Yugoslav administration, however this effort failed. Hungarian delegates for the peace conference left for Paris on January 5, 1920, roughly one month after receiving the invitation. The article also includes an appendix in the form of the original invitation to the Paris Peace Conference addressed to Károly Huszár's cabinet, which the author found in the Hungarian National Archives.

The study comments on internal policy of the monochromatic social-democratic Trade Union Cabinet of Gyula Peidl, which was in power for a mere six days, from the 1st to the 6th August 1919. It maps principles of legislative steps performed by the third standard post-war Budapest civil cabinet. It elaborates on the nature of the regime’s transformation and examines the likelihood of Hungary ruled by Gyula Peidl and right-wing centric social democrats, who were “discredited” by their participation in the Hungarian Soviet Republic, to reassume Károlyi’s era and restore a civil democratic society in line with a political course of the “chrysanthemum” republic. Legislative steps taken by Peidl’s government document that alteration of the Bolshevik regime performed by the centrist right-wing social democrats truly restored fundamentals of civil democratic principles founded by Károlyi’s people’s republic and pursued the pre-31st March 1919 period. In August 1919, however, Hungary was unable to accomplish permanent restoration of civil democratic principles based on western democracies.

This session concentrates on computational methods for analysing archaeological and natural scientific data on burial records, focusing on the Protohistoric and Early Medieval periods in Europe (though relevant contributions from other regions and periods are also encouraged). These transitional eras exhibit diverse mortuary practices and extensive burial grounds that greatly benefit from data-driven analysis. The session aims to demonstrate how modern computational archaeology can offer new insights into burial evidence, whether shedding light on social hierarchy, ritual variations, demographic trends, population health standards, or cultural connections across regions. Addressing longstanding questions (e.g., new frameworks to measure prehistoric grave wealth) deepens understanding of how the living world has influenced and extended into the perception of the ‘beyond’ within past societies. In addition to established tools and techniques, the application of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning in archaeology can pioneer new frontiers in funerary archaeology, enabling researchers to recognise complex patterns and make predictions that were previously impossible.

This paper focuses on the issue of making historical legal literature in the Czech Republic accessible. For historical and structural reasons, the accessibility of old legal literature in Czech libraries is inadequate. One possible solution to this long-term problem is the systematic digitisation of this old literature. The primary objective would not be preservation digitisation, otherwise the most common type in library digitisation projects, but rather both supplementary digitisation intended to supplement the book and periodicals fund with additional titles, and also ‘opening digitisation’, meaning digitisation to enable new ways of working with texts and information. The paper also concisely introduces the basic principles and technological, software and licence parameters of the National Legal Heritage project, which is an attempt at the practical application of these conclusions. This pilot project is primarily focused on the interwar period of the First Czechoslovak Republic...

This encyclopedia entry on Save the Children presents the historical evolution of this child-focused development NGO and its contribution to the development of children’s rights and child rights-based approaches to development practice. It reveals that Save the Children has clearly left its mark by making three main contributions to the field of national and international support for children’s causes. First, the organization made a historic contribution to the codification of children’s rights through initiating the Geneva Declaration on the Rights of the Child. Second, through developing the child sponsorship model, Save coined another important contribution to the field. And third, the work of Save the Children became increasingly characterized by a comprehensive child rights-based approach that served as a source of inspiration and information to others.

Considerable growth of the fortification activities in mining area of the Middle Slovakia region occured in the 15 th century. This caused establishment of so called town castles – fortified parish churches. Additional objects inside the complex were adherent to public life of the town (town hall) or to the parish church (vicarage, ossuary, cemetery). Town castle in Banská Bystrica was built in the 14th cent. It was established around the Castle of Translation of Virgin Mary from the 13th cent. Gate tower in the area was supplemented with resident tower, called Mathew’s house. Bastions, town hall and Church of the Holy Rood were another components of the complex. Castle was rebuilt in the era of Ottoman incrusion, but afterwards lost its importance. Town castle in Kremnica arised in the 15th cent. around the Church of St. Catherine. The ossuary of St. Andrew holy originated in 1430 and it subsequently served also as an armory. tower gates and former town hall were also situated in the castle. Town castle in Banská Štiavnica accrued within rebuilding of Basilica of Virgin Mary, which arised before the incrusion of Tartars. In short distance away, there stood an Ossuary of St. Andrew. Citizens integrated bastions to castle at turn of the 14th and 15th century. Drastic proceed of reformation in 1546-1559 flow into building activities and the oldest town temple became a heart of the town defense. The aisles, for example, were divided into operations and residential rooms. Town castle in Ľubietová wasn’t situated around the Church of Mary Magdalene. Fortification of this sacral area consisted probably from poor stone wall. The castle of Ľubietová is more likely associated with fortified town hall from the time before 1382, which was built in the time of Ottoman incrusion. Castle with four corner bastions also served as protection for treasury, town archive and stores. Fortified churches in Krupina, Brezno, Zvolen and Banská Belá are in same
cases also considered as town castles. Romanesque Church of Virgin Mary was built by German colonists, who arrived in Krupina at the turn of the 12th and 13th cent. Around 1440, troops of Ján Jiskra occupied and embattled the church because of contest for power after the death of Albrech von Habsburg. The fortification was reinforced with four bastions. Church of St. Anne in Zvolen originated around 1238. Its fortification was built around the time of year 1500, hovewer the subtle construction probably indicates it never served as town castle. Nevertheless, the wall apparently served as watch point during Ottoman incrusion. Ossuary inside the fortification was built around the half of the 14th cent., which founded Chapel of Corpus Christi. Chapel was centre of hospital in the late medieval period. Town hall with prison, which is mentioned in written source from 1465, was attached to northern wall od the parish church. Connection of town government and sacral building is rare in the said area. Another building inside the complex of church was clock tower. There are known also some less effective, or in some cases less researched fortifications in the mining area. Writing sources include mention of fortalitium in town Brezno, but evidence of this fortification is unknown. We can suppose a wall around the Church of Blessed Virgin Mary from 1517. There exists some variation of wall around the Church of St. John the Gospeller in Banská Belá, but its purpose and dating are ambiguous. Church of Nová Baňa was illustrated at the 2 Military Mapping Survey. In the middle of the sqare of Nová Baňa stood a tower building, which served as residence location. It was built probably in the 14th century. Town castles in mining area of the Middle Slovakia region (mainly castles in Banská Bystrica and Kremnica) present specific types of fortification architecture and they’re regarded as exceptional type of fortifications in the Upper Hungarian Empire. Analogies can be found in the fortified churches in Transylvania. Similarities are in architecture and construction, but chuches from both countries were also symbols of dignity.

Study and analysis of hydrophilic flora diversity are important parts of environmental research due to various functions of vascular macrophytes in freshwater ecosystems, which deteriorate under the influence of anthropogenic activity and climate change. The aim of this study is to analyze the hydrophilic flora diversity (taxa, biology, ecology, and conservation status of species) and current population trends in the Sluch River basin, the largest tributary of the Horyn River (the Pripyat River basin), within the Polissya Lowland in the northern-west region of Ukraine. The list of hydrophilic flora is based on materials of the authors' field researches in 2014-2020 within the upper and middle parts of the river basin, herbarium materials, and archive data. The study shows that the natural flora consists at least of 105 species of vascular plants belonging to 66 genera, 36 families, and 22 orders. Structural analysis shows the predominance of a few families in the systematic structure of the flora (Cyperaceae, Potamogetonaceae, Poaceae, Ranunculaceae, Plantaginaceae, and Typhaceae) and genera (Potamogeton, Carex); the dominant categories are hemicryptophytes and geophytes, entomophiles and anemophiles, heliophytes and hygrohelophytes. C-and S-strategists are dominant. This is the generally typical taxonomic and ecological structure of the hydrophilic flora of water bodies in the Pripyat River basin. The list of rare species includes 20 species from 15 genera and 12 families, for instance, species listed as vulnerable in The Red Book of Ukraine (Juncus bulbosus, Utricularia intermedia, Nymphoides peltata). Even rare and vulnerable species can form numerous populations in some localities, for example, Nymphoides peltata and Calla palustris. Five alien species were identified (Acorus calamus, Elodea canadensis, Zizania latifolia, Bidens frondosa, and Echinocystis lobata), some of which tend to expand and displace aboriginal species. In the future, it will be important to further study the structure and changes in the hydrophilic flora of the region under conditions of anthropogenic impact, to monitor the dynamics of populations of alien species, and to develop conservation measures for rare species and communities.

Radioactive isotope tritium ( 3 H) and stable isotopes of hydrogen ( 2 H/ 1 H) and oxygen ( 18 O/ 16 O) were measured during 2010 in the Sava River, precipitation and groundwater at 3 monitoring wells and 1 production well of the Petruševec aquifer, close to the Sava River in the Zagreb area. Significant increase of 3 H activity in the Sava River was observed in June, (200 ± 20) TU, and in groundwater of all wells with damped response (maximum 60 TU) and with delay of 3-5 months related to the Sava River. This increase was explained by release of tritiated water from the Krško Nuclear Power Plant, 30 km upstream from Zagreb in the beginning of June 2010. Stable isotope analyses showed similar range of δ 2 H and δ 18 O values for the Sava River and groundwater samples with higher variations in surface water. Differences in monthly variations of δ 18 O values between particular monitoring wells, together with 3 H values, indicated different infiltration times of surface water of the Sava River to different wells of the Petruševec aquifer.

The standardization of uncontrolled postwar revolutionary internal life and constitutional form of Hungary between two wars belong to the second half of 1919 and the first quarter of 1920 roughly. The internal basis of new Trianon Hungary were established under the counter-revolutionary cabinets of the Prime Minister István Friedrich, and were Consolidated under the concentration government of the Prime Minister Károly Huszár. The first regular postwar parliamentary election in January 1920, subsequent acceptance of the Act on the reconstitution in the state and the Act on provisory head of the state and his competences by Hungarian legislative assembly, and finally the election of the head of the state even if ad interim, represented the completion of internal life standardization.

The standardization of uncontrolled postwar revolutionary internal life and constitutional form of Hungary between two wars belong to the second half of 1919 and the first quarter of 1920 roughly. The internal basis of new Trianon Hungary were established under the counter-revolutionary cabinets of the Prime Minister István Friedrich, and were Consolidated under the concentration government of the Prime Minister Károly Huszár. The first regular postwar parliamentary election in January 1920, subsequent acceptance of the Act on the reconstitution in the state and the Act on provisory head of the state and his competences by Hungarian legislative assembly, and finally the election of the head of the state even if ad interim, represented the completion of internal life standardization.

ENGLISH: As a result of the internal development and under the influence of interna- tional factors the united party of Hungarian socialists and communists came to power in Hungary on 21 March 1919 and the „Soviet Republic of Hungary“ was proclaimed. Inside the united party, there was a strong fraction of center-oriented and rightist social democrats who disagreed with the radical methods used by the Communists and tried to introduce standard civic forms of government. They also sought allies among the influential trade unions and in the army, and tried to gain support of the victorious Entente powers. There were difficult negotiations inside Hungary’s political structures and also with representatives of the Entente missions in Vienna under the conditions of the „Red Terror“ launched by the Communists and of the war with two neighboring countries, Czechoslovakia and Rumania. Finally, early in August 1919, the „Soviet Republic of Hungary“ collapsed, particularly under the influence of external forces, and after several days of existence of the „social democratic“ cabinet an antirevolutionary, Christian-nationalistic authoritarian regime was introduced that tried to draw on the traditions of old Hungary. --- GERMAN: Infolge der inneren Entwicklung und unter dem Einfluss der internationalen Lage übernahm die Macht in Ungarn am 21. März 1919 die vereinigte Partei der ungarischen Sozialisten und Kommunisten und es entstand die „Ungarische Räterepublik“. Innerhalb der vereinigten politischen Partei bildete sich eine starke Fraktion zentristischer und rechtsorientierter Sozialdemokraten, die mit den radikalen Methoden der Kommunisten nicht einverstanden waren und die sich bemühten, bürgerliche Standardformen von Regierung einzuführen. Sie suchten Verbündete auch in den einflussreichen Gewerkschaften sowie in der Armee, und bemühten sich auch, Unterstützung der Entente-Siegermächte zu erreichen. Es gab komplizierte Verhandlungen innerhalb der politischen Strukturen Ungarns sowie mit Vertretern der Entente-Missionen in Wien unter den Bedingungen des von Kommunisten entfesselten „roten“ Terrors und des bewaffneten Konflikts mit zwei Nachbarstaaten, der Tschechoslowakei und Rumänien“. Anfang August 1919 fiel schließlich die „Ungarische Räterepublik“ und nach der mehrere Tage langen Wirkung des „sozialdemokratischen Kabinetts“ wurde ein konterrevolutionäres, christlich-nationalistisches autoritatives Regime installiert, das sich bemühte, an die Traditionen des alten Ungarn staatsrechtlich anzuknüpfen.

ENGLISH: In the first quarter of 1920 the foundations of the Hungarian state between the two world wars based on the Christian and national orientation of the new government were finally laid. Its seizure of power stopped the attempt of introducing the West European democratic principles in Hungary made during Károlyi's Republic. The new political orientation was based on Hungary’s constitutional system prior to 31st October 1918. The basic legal document of the new „Horthyan Hungary", the Act 1920:I., complied with this political orientation. By the above Act, Hungary rejected not only from the „Soviet Republic“ but also the „democratic“ form of government. Hungary proclaimed a monarchist form of state and introduced regency as its provisional head. The Regent’s role was steadily increasing and, step-by-step, he acquired the full authority of Royal Majesty. At the same time, the Regent’s Office was more and more identified with Regent Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya, and the evolution in the matter of provisional office continued toward the use of dynastic principles in this top constitutional institution. --- GERMAN: Im ersten Viertel des Jahres 1920 wurden die Fundamente Ungarns in der Zwischenkriegszeit entsprechend dem christlich-nationalen Kurs der neuen Regierung endgültig gelegt. Infolge der Machtübernahme scheiterte der Versuch aus der Ära der Republik Károlyis, demokratische Prinzipien nach dem westeuropäischen Muster einzuführen. Der neue politische Kurs knüpfte staatsrechtlich an das Ungarn vor 31. Oktober 1918 an. Im Einklang damit war auch das grundlegende Rechtsdokument des entstehenden „Horthy-Ungarn“, nämlich das Gesetz 1920:I., mit dem sich Ungarn nicht nur von der „Sowjetrepublik“ sondern auch von der „demokratischen Republik“ distanzierte. Ungarn bekannte sich zu der monarchistischen Staatsform durch die Einführung des Regentenamtes als vorläufiges Staatsoberhaupt. Die Rolle des Regenten stieg und es wurde ihm allmählich die Kompetenz der Königsmajestät in voller Höhe eingeräumt. Das Amt des Landesregenten wurde immer mehr mit der Person des Regenten Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya identifiziert und das provisorische Amt entwickelte sich in Richtung Einführung der dynastischen Prinzipien bei der Besetzung dieser höchsten verfassungsrechtlichen Institution.

ENGLISH: In the first quarter of 1920 the foundations of the Hungarian state between the two world wars based on the Christian and national orientation of the new government were finally laid. Its seizure of power stopped the attempt of introducing the West European democratic principles in Hungary made during Károlyi's Republic. The new political orientation was based on Hungary’s constitutional system prior to 31st October 1918. The basic legal document of the new „Horthyan Hungary", the Act 1920:I., complied with this political orientation. By the above Act, Hungary rejected not only from the „Soviet Republic“ but also the „democratic“ form of government. Hungary proclaimed a monarchist form of state and introduced regency as its provisional head. The Regent’s role was steadily increasing and, step-by-step, he acquired the full authority of Royal Majesty. At the same time, the Regent’s Office was more and more identified with Regent Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya, and the evolution in the matter of provisional office continued toward the use of dynastic principles in this top constitutional institution. --- GERMAN: Im ersten Viertel des Jahres 1920 wurden die Fundamente Ungarns in der Zwischenkriegszeit entsprechend dem christlich-nationalen Kurs der neuen Regierung endgültig gelegt. Infolge der Machtübernahme scheiterte der Versuch aus der Ära der Republik Károlyis, demokratische Prinzipien nach dem westeuropäischen Muster einzuführen. Der neue politische Kurs knüpfte staatsrechtlich an das Ungarn vor 31. Oktober 1918 an. Im Einklang damit war auch das grundlegende Rechtsdokument des entstehenden „Horthy-Ungarn“, nämlich das Gesetz 1920:I., mit dem sich Ungarn nicht nur von der „Sowjetrepublik“ sondern auch von der „demokratischen Republik“ distanzierte. Ungarn bekannte sich zu der monarchistischen Staatsform durch die Einführung des Regentenamtes als vorläufiges Staatsoberhaupt. Die Rolle des Regenten stieg und es wurde ihm allmählich die Kompetenz der Königsmajestät in voller Höhe eingeräumt. Das Amt des Landesregenten wurde immer mehr mit der Person des Regenten Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya identifiziert und das provisorische Amt entwickelte sich in Richtung Einführung der dynastischen Prinzipien bei der Besetzung dieser höchsten verfassungsrechtlichen Institution.

lthough Karl Habsburg's first attempt of restoration in Hungary in the spring of 1921 was eliminated as a result of the Budapest government's policy, it strengthened the geopolitical isolation of the country in Central Europe. The unexpected course of events in Hungary was employed by Edvard Benešov, the Czechoslovak minister of foreign affairs, who convinced Romania to accept the conclusion of the "Little Entente" alliance treaty signed on 23 April 1921. Also Take Ionescu, the Romanian accession to Little Entente was influenced not only by Czechoslovak foreign policy and, in a negative sense, by Karl Habsburg. There were some significant geopolitical circumstances, namely the conclusion of the Polish-Romanian alliance treaty (March 3, 1921) which made new partner for Romania in its effort to defend itself against the possible Soviet threat, and then also the French support of the Little Entente.

The postwart co-existence of Czechoslovakia and Hungary after the disintegration of Austria-Hungary was definitely not under the sign of a friendly relationship. The foundation of the Czechoslovak-Hungarian co-existence between the two World War was laid already at the very beginning of their existence in the newly build Central Europe. One of the serious obstacles of a possible friendly co-existence of both states was the question of the state system, or more precisely the kingdom question in Hungary, that the Czech diplomacy followed very carefully from the very beginning of the existence of the new Hungary. The temporarily solved kingdom question represented one of the serious obstacles of the successful continuation of the consolidation in Hungary because it became the biggest obstacle to togetherness of the Christian-national governmental course, resulted from the first postwar elections, dividing it into two camps: the supporters of free election of the king and the legitimists. Although this discrepancy had paralyzed many times in bigger or smaller measure the activity of the government, the resulting internal crisis was always successfully warded. In spring 1921, the former emperor Charles I, or the former Hungarian king Charles IV, respectively, tried to solve the kingdom question, through his personal arrival to Hungary, with the aim to let the country confront a fait accompli and to attain the solution of the kingdom question to his profit through enforcing the re-installation of himself on the empty Hungarian throne. However, the first restoration attempt of Charles the Habsburg scared very seriously the international situation of Hungary, or more precisely its position in Central Europe. Hungary nevertheless hold its own against this obstacle trying from the beginning very actively to eliminate the former king from the country as quickly as possible. The Czechoslovak diplomacy tried to take maximal use of the unexpected development of the events in Hungary in order to strengthen the position and justifiability of the existence of the Central European allied block, the Little Entente. That's why the Czechoslovak diplomacy was extraordinarily active in the matter, in order to unite the allies Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania into a consistent demonstrative proceeding against Hungary during the first restoration attempt of Charles the Habsburg.

ENGLISH: The talks between representatives of Czechoslovakia and Hungary taking place from April to June 1921 in Mariánské Lázně closed the first stage of establishing official relations between the two Central European countries. Step by step, the financial, economic, legal and transport problems were settled that had blocked the establishment of normal relations. The Czechoslovak party was successful in putting through its version of agenda for the negotiations according to which the practical and economic matters were to be discussed first, while the Hungarian party initially considered the political questions to be decisive. Thus, the needs of economic reconstruction after World War I finally prevailed over the mutual disputes and the representatives of both countries could primarily concentrate on negotiating a trade agreement. Hungary, however, did not give up its revision-aimed efforts, only adopted a more cautious attitude in order not to jeopardize its international po- sition, Czechoslovakia, on the other hand, strongly opposed any restoration of the Habsburgs in Hungary. In spite of the difficulties the official talks represented a milestone in the mutual relations between the two countries that could, at least partly, obtain a correct form. --- GERMAN: Die in Marienbad vom April bis Juni 1921 stattfindenden Gespräche zwischen tschechoslowakischen und ungarischen Vertretern schlossen die erste Etappe der Anknüpfung von Staatsbeziehungen zwischen den beiden Ländern Mitteleuropas ab. Während dieser Verhandlungen wurden die finanziellen, ökonomischen, rechtlichen und Verkehrsprobleme schrittweise geklärt, die die Anknüpfung normaler Beziehungen bisher hinderten. Die tschechoslowakische Seite war dabei erfolgreich darin, dass sie ihr eigenes Verhandlungsprogramm durchsetzen konnte, wonach in erster Linie die praktischen und ökonomischen Fragen besprochen werden sollten, während die ungarische Seite zunächst die politischen Fragen für entscheidend hielt. Die Bedürfnisse der Wiederherstellung der Wirtschaft m Mitteleuropa nach dem ersten Weltkrieg überwogen also schliesslich die gegenseitigen Streitigkeiten, sodass sich die Vertreter der beiden Staaten auf einen Handelsvertrag konzentrieren konnten. Ungarn verzichtete jedech nicht auf seine Revisionsziele, nur wahlte eine besser durchdachte Vorgehensweise, um seine internationale Stellung nicht umsonst zu kompromittieren. Die Tschechoslowakei stellte sich dagegen resolut gegen die eventuelle Restauration der Habsburger in Ungarn. Trotz der Schwierigkeiten stellten die offiziellen Gespráche bereits einen Durchbruch in gegenseitigen Beziehungen dar, die dann mindestens teilweise eine korrekte Form aufweisen konnten.

ENGLISH: After the First World War and the disintegration of Austro-Hungary a number of new states appeared in Central and Eastern Europe. They included Czechoslovakia, which belonged to the victorious countries, and Hungary, which was in the position of defeated country. The situation was complicated by deep political, social, ethnic and economic problems in the region. This affected the relations between the two countries and caused much tension. Realistically thinking politicians in Czechoslovakia and Hungary tried to solve the problems by direct negotiations aimed at settling the mutual disputes and stabilizing the general situation in Central Europe, which was also in the interest of the western Powers, particularly France. After a series of secret contacts representatives of both governments finally met in March 1921 on the neutral Austrian territory. During the talks highly sensitive questions were mostly discussed, such as those of the border, the position of ethnic minorities, possible restoration of the Habsburg dynasty in Hungary, and the financial and economic contacts. However, the chances of solving the problems disappeared with the attempt of Ex-Emperor Karl to restore his kingdom in Hungary, which produced new tension between the two countries. --- GERMAN: Nach dem ersten Weltkrieg und dem Zerfall von Österreich-Ungarn entstanden in Mittel- und Osteuropa viele neue Staaten, unter ihnen auch die Tschechoslowakei, die zu den Siegerstaaten zahlte, und Ungarn, eines der besiegten Lander. Dazu kamen auch vertiefte politische, soziale, nationale und ökonomische Probleme in dem Gebiet. Das alles spiegelte sich auch in den sehr gespannten Beziehungen zwischen den beiden Staaten wider. Realistisch denkende Politiker in der Tschechoslowakei und in Ungarn versuchten, die Probleme durch direkte Verhandlungen zu lösen, um die gegenseitigen Beziehungen zu normalisieren und die allgemeine Lage in Mitteleuropa zu beruhigen, was auch im Interesse der Westmächte war, insbesondere von Frankreich. Nach einer Reihe geheimer Kontakte trafen die Vertreter der beiden Regierungen schlieBlich im Marz 1921 auf dem neutralen osterreichischen Boden zusammen. Die Gesprachsthemen waren uberwiegend sehr heikJe Fragen, wie die Staatsgrenzen, die Lage der Nationalminderheiten, die erstrebte Restauration der Habsburger in Ungarn als auch die Finanz- und Wirtschaftsbeziehungen. Die Hoffnung auf ihre Losung wurde jedoch bald verloren, als der ehemalige Kaiser Karl versuchte, den Königsthron in Ungarn wieder zu gewinnen. Infolgedessen haben sich die Beziehungen zwischen den beiden Landern wieder zugespitzt.

This article aims to analyse the education system in the city of Cluj during the postwar period, after World War 2, with a close focus on the period of time between 1944 and 1948. It's a period characterized by a series of successive crises resulting from political decisions. These decisions affected all levels of education, all ethnic and religious groups in the region, as well as the political opponents to the newly established communist regime of the Romanian Communist Party, primarily represented by these three political parties: the National Peasants' Party, the National Liberal Party, and the Socialist Party. Throughout the research into education within this time period, a combination of methods were used, including historical, comparative and statistical methods, and the sources used refer to both official and unofficial archived documents, contemporary press, and edited documents.

John/Hansman Eisenrinkel, originally a citizen of Banská Štiavnica, is documented in 16 source references over a period of 30 years, from a tax list dated 1364 to inheritance negotiations in 1393 after his death. During his career, he held the office of mining count (royal official)) as head of the Mining Chamber in several mining centres in central Slovakia in various periods: Banská Štiavnica (1386-1387, 1390-1392), Kremnica (1390-1391 and 1393) and Nová Baňa (1391). As such, he looked after the regulation of mining, the collection of royal mining tax (the so-called urbura) and co-decided in miners' disputes. In Kremnica, he owned at least two mining mills and did business as a co-shareholder of the Municipal Hereditary Adit (1385). He also acquired burgher rights in Nová Baňa, where he ran a hereditary adit (german Erbstollen) in 1383 and became a (sworn) member of the town council. In addition, he founded, managed and financed a hospital in the town. He died in 1393, survived by his daughter and heir Margaret.

In the Middle Ages, the Cathedral Chapter of Győr possessed an extensive system of estates. A significant segment of these estates was located in Győr and its immediate vicinity, while the canons also held numerous benefices in the more distant counties of Győr, Moson, Pozsony, Sopron, Zala, and Baranya. In addition to geographical dispersion, the types of incomes also varied significantly. Besides the census payments from chapter estates, substantial sources of income included vineyards, fishponds, mills, tolls, and the quarter-share of the episcopal tithe allocated to the canons.
To manage this vast complex, the cathedral chapter elected officials annually: the dean, responsible for economic affairs, and the divisors, entrusted with managing revenues and expenditures. Traditionally, their election took place in Győr on the feast of Saint George, and after one year, they were required to report on their activities. The divisors' duties included maintaining records of income and expenses as well as documenting intra-year revenue distributions ("divisions"). The dean reviewed these accounts and made corrections when necessary. These records are preserved in the so-called account books.
The oldest surviving account book of the Cathedral Chapter of Győr, covering the years 1495 to 1528 and comprising 784 pages, is currently housed in the Archives of the Collection Center of the Diocese of Győr. The last numbered page is 775, but pages 32, 34, 36, 43, and 499 each contain additional pages distinguished by letters of the alphabet. Seventeen pages of the volume are blank and contain no text. Within the book, 32 smaller slips of paper have been bound in, 26 of which can be unequivocally associated with specific annual divisor accounts.
The accounts for each year were generally maintained by one of the divisors, though in some cases, the handwriting of other individuals can also be identified. The dimensions of the individual paper sheets and the watermarks found on them (such as a unicorn, scales, anchor, or ox head) indicate that the book is not a continuously kept register but rather a collection of documents bound together at a later date. One of the most valuable pieces of evidence supporting this conclusion is the notation on the first page, which informs us that the volume—found scattered ("sparsim reperiuntur")—was rebound on January 26, 1748, along with two other books. This is further corroborated by the disrupted sequence of pages in the account book and the fact that the second and third account books share an identical leather binding with the first.

Diplomacy is a crucial factor that sustains a state in the international arena. Embassies are the exclusive entities that conduct diplomatic processes overseas in bilateral relations. The Ottoman Empire initiated diplomatic contacts with the principalities and states on its periphery since its inception, albeit not in an institutional manner. The establishment of embassies, driven by political and commercial motivations, commenced with mutual connections with Venice with the conquest of Istanbul, then extending to Poland, Russia, France, Austria, England, and the Netherlands. Under Selim III, a permanent embassy was established in France. This was the initial phase of institutionalisation. Following the reconciliation between the Ottoman Empire and France, and the subsequent development of this process, Galip Efendi assumed the position of extraordinary envoy (ambassador of the Devlet-i Aliyye) in Paris. Galip Efendi's primary difficulty during this period will be to effectively implement a policy of equilibrium in relation to the diplomats of France, Russia, and England. The Ottoman Empire needed to assert itself diplomatically with these states, with which it had engaged in conflict across various regions of the empire. The primary focus of this microhistorical study is to highlight the diplomatic connections of Mehmed Galip Efendi, the Ottoman ambassador to Paris, who significantly contributed to the evolution of Ottoman diplomacy. Alongside archive sources, secondary sources and images are employed to enhance the arguments presented in the text.

PAVLÍČEK, Tomáš W. Between Secularisation and Revitalisation. ʻWavesʼ of Religiosity in the Czech Lands (1918-1925), in: Christian Churches and Postwar Society. European and North American Perspectives on the Impact of the First World War. Eds. Martin Baumeister – Michael Snape – Kristien Suenens. Leiden: Leuven University Press, 2025, p. 121–141 (KADOC-Studies on Religion, Culture and Society, 33)

Hörbeispiellink: https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/fileadmin/0400-mfn/Bauernkrieg/Palakt_JH/QRCode_Berlichingen_1.mp3
Professor Joachim Hamm und ich haben im Rahmen der Würzburger Ausstellung 'Aufruhr oder Freiheitskampf? Deutungen des "Bauernkrieges" bis in die Moderne' einen kleinen Ausschnitt des Bauernkriegskapitel aus dem Tatenbericht Götzens von Berlichingen ausgewählt. Ich habe den Ausschnitt aus dem Frühneuhochdeutschen ins Neuhochdeutsche übersetzt. Herr Hamm hat meine Übersetzung korrigiert und eingesprochen. Alle etwaigen Fehler und Unstimmigkeiten in der Übersetzung stammen von mir. Ich danke der Stadt Würzburg für die finanzielle Förderung der Ausstellung und Herr Hamm für die Möglichkeit, meine mediävistische Übersetzungskompetenz unter Beweis zu stellen.

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Eu nuăsuntădecâtăunăintermediar.ăV ăvaăexplicaăelăînsuşiă despre ce este vorba. -Eă unaă dintreă celeă maiă bizareă conversa iiă peă careă le-am avut. L sa i-m ăs ăm ăgândesc.ăCumăpotăs ăv ăcontactez? Odat ătelefonulăpusăînăfurc ,ăMikaelăr maseăprivindăgr madaădeă pe biroul lui.ă Îiă veneaă greuă s ă în eleag ă pentruă ceă voiaă Henrikă Vangeră s -l întâlneasc .ă Mikaelă nuă aveaă niciă ună chefă s ă pleceă laă Hedestad,ădarăavocatulăFrodeăreuşiseăs -iătrezeasc ăinteresul. Deschiseăcomputerulăşi-l conectaăpeăwww.Google.com,ăapoiăb tuă "întreprinderile Vanger". Erau sute de pagini disponibilegrupul Vangeră seă aflaă poateă laă urmaă plutonului,ă dară figuraă aproapeă înă fiecareă ziă înă pres .ă Îşiă salv ă oă duzin ă deă articoleă deă analiz ă asupraă grupuluiă şi trecu pe urm ă s ă cauteă informa iiă despreă Dirchă Frode, Henrik VangerăşiăMartinăVanger. Martin Vanger figura foarte des, în calitate de actual director al grupului. Maestrulă Dirchă Frodeă r mâneaă destulă deă înă umbr ,ă eraă membruăalăasocia ieiădeăgolfădinăHedestadăşiănumeleăluiăeraăasociată cu Rotary. Henrik Vanger nu figuraădecâtăînătexteleălegateădeăgrupul Vanger, cu o singur ă excep ie.ă Cuă doiă aniă în urm ,ă cândă împliniseă optzeci de ani, Hedestads-Kuriren, jurnalulă local,ă îlă s rb toriseă peă fostulă magnată f cându-i un portret rapid. Mikael scoase pe imprimant ă câteva dintre textele care-iă p reauă maiă consistenteă şiă adun ă astfelă ună dosară deă vreoă cincizeciă deă pagini.ă Apoi,ă termin ă deă aranjatăbiroul,ăumpluăcartoaneleăşiăplec ăacas .ăNuăştiaăcândăşiădac ă se va mai reîntoarceălaăredac ie. Lisbeth Salander petrecu ajunulă Cr ciunuluiă laă casa-spital Äppelvik din Upplands-Väsby.ăAduseseăcadouri,ăunăflaconădeăap ădeă toalet ă Dioră şiă ună puddingă englezesc,ă cump rateă iaă magazinulă Åhléns.ă Beaă cafeaă privindă femeiaă deă patruzeciă şiă cinciă deă aniă careă încercaăcuădegeteăneîndemânaticeăs ădesfac ănodul cadoului frumos împachetat.ăSalanderăaveaăînăochiătandre e,ădarănuăîncetaăs ăseămireă cumăaceast ăstr in ăputeaăs ăfieămamaăei.ăOricâtăîncerca,ănuăputeaă distingeă niciă ceaă maiă mic ă asem nareă înă aspectulă fizică sauă înă personalitatea ei.

The care of deaf-mute children involves multi-layered care, namely health, social and school care. Only the collaboration of experts from all fields led to setting up to the right direction for comprehensive care –new institutes were created, the procedures of work in teaching, communication and preventive care were unified. The aim of the paper is to introduce the reader on the basis of a historical analysis of primary and secondary sources the significant steps in the development and changes that led to the improvement of care for deaf-mute children in the period of the First Czechoslovak Republic, when the foundations of modern health and social care for the population were laid.

Wyostrzyć obraz. O metodzie analitycznej OSW Wojciech Konończuk Między wiedzą a polityką. Jak być analitykiem-doradcą w czasach kryzysu ekspertyzy Adam Eberhardt "Swetry", "garnitury" i sztuczna inteligencja, czyli dramat w trzech aktach Olaf Osica 49 Sztuka pisania: jak stworzyć analizę, aby dotrzeć do odbiorcy Marek Menkiszak 69 Jak analizować politykę bezpieczeństwa: pasja i systematyczna praca z Polską jako punktem odniesienia Justyna Gotkowska Zmagania z tarczą i mieczem. Służby specjalne jako wyzwanie analityczne Piotr Żochowski Sztukowanie brakujących puzzli, czyli jak badać wojnę Andrzej Wilk 107 Ćwiczenia z myślenia -o analizie energetyki Agata Łoskot-Strachota Czy da się przewidzieć przyszłość? Foresight strategiczny w służbie analizy międzynarodowej Karol Wasilewski Niemcy na kozetce, czyli jak analizować i nie zwariować Anna Kwiatkowska Przereklamowana zagadka. Rosja jako wyzwanie analityczne Maria Domańska "Ukrainie sława", ekspertom biada: wyzwania i dylematy analizy ukraińskiej Tadeusz Iwański, Sławomir Matuszak Analityczna konfrontacja z dyktaturą. Próby zrozumienia Białorusi Kamil Kłysiński 207 Magiczna, a jednak realna -jak badać Litwę Joanna Hyndle-Hussein 223 Czechy -sąsiad lubiany i pozornie znany Krzysztof Dębiec Słowacka kultura strategiczna i jej podłoże historyczne. Kilka uwag o rusofilstwie Mateusz Gniazdowski Środkowoeuropejski "inny": jak badać Węgry Orbána? Andrzej Sadecki Niepozorna kraina pozorów, czyli jak badać Mołdawię Kamil Całus Rumunia: łacińska wyspa tajemnic Kamil Całus Bałkany Zachodnie, czyli jak badać peryferie peryferii Marta Szpala Zrozumieć Kaukaz, czyli kilka uwag o metodzie reporterskiej w analityce Wojciech Górecki Turcja -kanarek w kopalni porządku międzynarodowego. Dwugłos analityczny Karol Wasilewski, Krzysztof Strachota Azja Centralna -w pogoni za nieuchwytnym Krzysztof Strachota To (nie) Chinatown -analizować politykę Izraela na swoich warunkach Marek Matusiak Zerkając za "bambusową kurtynę": analizowanie Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej Michał Bogusz, Jakub Jakóbowski Biogramy autorów

Dokument odpustowy kardynała Zbigniewa Oleśnickiego dla katedry płockiej z 1455 roku* Odpusty i dokumenty je przyznające nie wzbudzały dotychczas większego zainteresowania historyków 1 . Nie dziwi więc fakt, że również dokumenty odpustowe dla kościołów mazowieckich nie znalazły swego badacza, tym bardziej, że ich liczba nie jest imponująca 2 . Ograniczona jest również liczba ośrodków, które takie przywileje otrzymały. Należą do nich: Dominikanie płoccy 3 1253 Hugo, kardynał św. Sabiny, legat papieski; odpust dla przyczyniających się do zbudowania klasztoru (ZDm. Pł., t. 1, nr 14) 1253 Hugo, kardynał św. Sabiny, legat papieski (ibid., nr 15) 1402 Mikołaj Kurowski arcybiskup gnieźnieński oraz biskupi: krakowski, płocki, włocławski, poznański, tebryski (Tebrisu w Iranie) i lidoryceński; odpust objął także wspierających nowo wybudowany szpital (ibid., nr 62) * Pani Profesor Marii Koczerskiej serdecznie dziękuję za udostępnienie odpisów i fotografii dokumentów Zbigniewa Oleśnickiego oraz za wskazówki dotyczące pisarzy kancelarii biskupiej, zaś Pani Doktor Agnieszce Bartoszewicz za uwagi na temat świąt i kalendarzy. 1 Podstawowe informacje o odpustach podają m.