Early Christianity

Resumo: Com a proposta dos Movimentos Socais Alain Touraine pretende superar tanto o liberalismo, com seu individualismo, com o socialismo marxista, com seu coletivismo. Os movimentos sociais dotariam os homens de um ethos que dispensaria partidos, parlamentos da parte liberal e revolucoes da parte marxista. O homem seria renovado interiormente passando a agir espontaneamente e nao forcado pelas leis. O movel da politica nao seria mais o Estado, mas o proprio povo. Em sintese, conforme Touraine, um regime nacional-popular caracteriza-se por um Estado guardiao da nacionalidade, contra a invasao de bens e de cultura estrangeira. Palavras-chave: Movimentos sociais; Liberalismo; Marxismo; Povo; Politica.

The purpose of the present paper is to revisit the interface between biblical studies, reception exegesis, and reception theory. In the first part of the paper, we discuss what we believe to be the most important lessons learned from recent scholarship on the relationship between these fields and highlight what we think is still an underestimated conclusion:  if we assume that “meaning” is contextual rather than essential, the full(er) capacity of a biblical text is not discoverable until we have examined how it has appeared in various contexts. Related to this is the question of why and how texts survive and even thrive in new contexts and in what way later authors utilize the “capacity” of the biblical texts, because even if “meaning” is ultimately brought to texts by their readers, texts are in some senses
agents as well. To exemplify these discussions and the connection between reception exegesis and biblical criticism, two short examples from the reception of Psalms 110 and 137 in medieval Christian Arabic and Judeo‑Arabic sources are presented. In the first example, we recapitulate findings on how inner‑biblical reception generates a complex web of potential interpretations but also how the ambivalence created in the process may be the greatest asset of that text. It is also an example of where interpretation may teach us about the life and thought of ancient and medieval communities and how they interacted with one another over the meaning of the biblical text. In contrast, the second example is more
centered on the “capacity” of the text and in what sense communities exploit that potential for their larger purposes.

In his book 'The Gospel from the School of Lazarus, An Inquiry into the Jewish origin of the Fourth Gospel' Peter van ’t Riet shows that the Fourth Gospel was not written by the apostle John, a companion of the apostle Peter, but by disciples of Jesus’ friend and follower Lazarus. Numerous details from the Fourth Gospel itself point in that direction. Lazarus has the strongest credentials to be identified as the 'disciple whom Jesus loved'.

In this article (the 11th chapter of the book mentioned), the author examines the position taken by the apostle Peter in the Fourth Gospel. Time and again it becomes clear that he is not the central disciple or apostle he is in the Synoptic Gospels. His role throughout is subordinate to that of Lazarus, alias the “disciple whom Jesus loved.”

With this portrayal of Peter in the Fourth Gospel, the School of Lazarus has clearly taken a position in opposition to the Synoptic tradition. For Christian readers this may be a shocking discovery, but within the Jewish circles to which the School of Lazarus belonged, such a choice of position was part of the ongoing discussion about the coming of the messianic age and the role that messianic figures would play in it.

The historical narratives in Acts 11 that relate the experience of the church in Antioch illuminate several intersecting themes that are of enduring concern to the mission of God. These include ethnic diversity, diaspora, the missionary calling of the church, and the call to fruitfulness and growth. Whilst the focus of this study rests upon the first two of these themes, the third and fourth of these themes will be seen to have particular relevance to the overall theme being explored in this Forum.

Christians sometimes speak of "finding Christ in the Old Testament." The phrase implies that he is indeed there to be found. But the New Testament doesn't quite speak in these terms, which I think is a sign that way of seeing the relationship between Jesus and the Old Testament is inappropriate. In this paper I think about the question more in terms of how far the Old Testament helps us understand Jesus, and how far Jesus helps us understanding the Old Testament In the New Testament, the works we call "the Old Testament" are simply "the Scriptures"; this other, rather sad title was devised later. I like to call them the First Testament rather than imply that they are antiquated and out-of-date. These Scriptures issued from the real relationship between God and Israel, as testimony to God's acts with Israel and documentation of God's speaking to Israel. The New Testament encourages us to let them illumine Jesus for us, but we are unwise to read Jesus into them and then miss what they have to say. We are wise to read the New Testament in light of them. And we do read the two Testaments in light of each other, as both comprise the Christian Scriptures.

“The Myth of the Mythical Jesus” was the title of a 2016 Patheos.com blog posting written by the prolific Christian apologist Philip Jenkins, the author of more than 25 books. It spawned an entire school of apologetics that seems ubiquitous throughout the Internet of 2025. It attempted to refute scholars who have argued that “Jesus of Nazareth” was not a historical figure. According to Jenkins, “The ‘Christ Myth Hypothesis’ is not scholarship, and is not taken seriously in respectable academic debate.” “The Myth of ‘The Myth of the Mythical Jesus’” is a slightly edited consolidation of the numerous postings made by Frank R. Zindler on Kathleen Johnson’s NoGodBlog in order to refute Jenkins. It is an exhaustive deconstruction of Jenkins’ blog, submitting every paragraph and nearly every sentence to logical and evidentiary analysis. It shows that Jenkins has produced no evidence at all to show the likely historicity of the New Testament Jesus and, for good measure, it presents an overwhelming amount of evidence in favor of the Christ-Myth Theory.
The Myth of ‘The Myth of the Mythical Jesus’” was rescued from Internet Oblivion by Martijn Linssen of Leiden University, to whom the author is deeply indebted.

The first part of the article is devoted to the study of the teachings of the Eastern holy fathers about the inherited consequences of the original sin. The purpose of the article is to determine: 1) what exactly is inherited and 2) what exactly is not inherited by each person from the ancestors. The reasons of Adam and Eve’s sin as their personal choice are investigated. The consequences of the original sin, transmitted to each person from birth, are considered, namely: passion, mortality, corruption of the physical body, called «corruption of nature». It is noted that a reasonable human soul is created by God immaculate and sinless. Unlike the body, the intelligent soul does not inherit anything from its parents or grandparents. She also does not directly inherit any inclination, predisposition to sin, or any kind of moral sinfulness. But the «corruption of nature», and through it the fallen spirits, incline and predispose the rational soul of man to commit sin, but do not predetermine its choice. When committing a personal sin, a person acquires the «corruption of will». In turn, the «corruption of will» generates the following changes in the rational soul: passion as its susceptibility to reproachful (sinful) passions (i. e., a stable sinful habit), voluntary enslavement to the devil and spiritual death, i. e., cutting off from the saving Divine grace. Eastern Patristic theology also clearly and definitely asserts that a person does not inherit 1) guilt for the personal sin of the ancestors, 2) sinful natural will, 3) sinful (reproachful) passions of a rational soul, 4) «substantial» evil or any kind of moral «spiritual impurity». Evil as «corruption of will» is a consequence of an exclusively personal choice of the person himself.

The article provides an overview of the formation of modern theological discourse as a section of scientific knowledge. As a result of understanding the sociocultural aspects of the dramatic events of the twentieth century, as well as as a result of heated discussions, recognition of theology as one of the humanities was achieved in the domestic scientific and educational space. The author raises the question that Orthodox theology, touching on the deep issues of human existence and, therefore, relating to the humanities «by definition», can at the same time be considered as an «exact science» — due to the fundamental «distinction» of its discursive means, conceptual apparatus, experimental and anthropological base (ascesis). Moreover, the indicated characteristics of the Eastern Christian tradition allow us to consider it as a scientific episteme. At the same time, the historical transformations of the theoretical foundations of such recognized exact sciences as mathematics, physics, and astronomy give reason to question their recognition as «exact».

The article offers a general overview of the Montanist ideas that Tertullian expresses in his works, after joining the sect of the Cataphrygians. A number of works of a moral-practical and theological-polemical nature are considered, such as: «On the Warrior’s Crown», «On Flight in Persecution», «On Modesty», «On Monogamy», «On Fasting», «On the Soul», «Against Praxeas» and others. Sectarian influence in these writings was expressed in Tertullian’s support of «spontaneous martyrdom», rigorism in the discipline of repentance, severity in relation to marriage and fasting, citing of «new prophecies» as authoritative statements, disdain for members of the Church, whom he called «psychici», who were inferior to the Phrygian «spiritales», conviction that the schismatics are guided by the Holy Spirit as an Hypostasis, that revealed the fullness of Revelation throgh Montanus in the present final age or era of the Paraclete.

This article takes a fresh look at Ṭabarī’s Salmān al-Fārisī narrative: The Mosul–Jerusalem episodes reflect a Persian–Jewish campaign (614–617) rather than a hagiographic seeker’s journey. Motifs—kanīsa, bayʿa, “sixty men,” hunts, and a court feast—read as military assembly, oath, detachment, maneuvers, and politics. A two-column alignment (Ṭabarī vs. reconstruction), philological notes (kenishta/kanīsa, al-madīna), and synchronization with Sebeos, Benjamin of Tiberias, and Kalb support the case. The reading explains anomalies (Mosul rally, unit size, banquet defiance, expulsion threat, Arabian corridor) and yields testable predictions (prosopography, variant recensions, Syriac/Aramaic parallels). It addresses objections (semantics, Sebeos dependence, isnād ecology, parsimony) and reframes early Muslim–Jewish–Sasanian entanglements and apocalyptic vectors toward Arabia.

Dieses Skript behandelt die Frage nach der Ausdehnung des Universums aus zwei Perspektiven: aus naturwissenschaftlicher Sicht und im Licht biblischer Aussagen. Ausgangspunkt sind aktuelle astronomische Daten, insbesondere die Supernova-Beobachtungen des Pantheon+-Katalogs, die sehr deutlich die sogenannte Hubble-Relation zeigen: Je weiter eine Galaxie entfernt ist, desto schneller entfernt sie sich von uns. Diese Messungen werden in einfachen Modellen nachgerechnet und mit der Vorstellung eines „Nachhalls“ der Schöpfung verglichen, wie es die Bibel im Bild vom „Ausspannen des Himmels“ beschreibt.
Ein besonderer Schwerpunkt liegt auf anschaulichen Modellen wie dem „Tropfenmodell“, das von Wassertropfen in der Spüle bis zu Schwarzen Löchern reicht. Es macht verständlich, warum Planeten und Sterne rund sind, wie Druck und Gravitation im Inneren zusammenwirken und weshalb es Grenzen gibt, an denen jede Form von Gegendruck versagt. Von einfachen Rechnungen zu Zentrumsdruck, Bindungsenergie und Expansionsgeschwindigkeit bis hin zu faszinierenden Übergängen wie der Chandrasekhar-Grenze oder der Bildung Schwarzer Löcher werden Größenordnungen greifbar gemacht.
Stichworte: Kreationismus, Ceationism, Creation, Young Earth, Genesis, Bible, Black holes, heaven and earth. Cosmology, Sun moon and stars.

We present new epigraphic discoveries from Saranda that illuminate its historical and socio-economic role in ancient Epirus. Our findings, including three newly identified inscriptions, reveal insights into local administration, trade networks, and civic life, emphasizing Saranda's importance within regional and Mediterranean contexts. We invite you to read our paper and share your thoughts!​

La place que la notion de justice occupe dans les Pythagorica dorica n’a pas encore pu être étudiée de manière exhaustive. Il ne nous appartient pas ici d’entamer une telle recherche, qui dépasserait largement les limites que nous nous sommes fixées dans cette étude. Nous tenterons plutôt de montrer que les Pythagorica écrits en dialecte dorien contiennent une doctrine qui associe la notion de justice à celle d’harmonie, en attribuant à la justice-harmonie un domaine tripartite d’application englobant l’âme, la cité et le cosmos.On soutiendra l’idée que cette doctrine s’inspire d’une lecture combinée de la République, du Timée et des Lois de Platon mise en perspective avec la théorie des vertus et la théologie aristotéliciennes .

This study takes its cue from archaeologist Giovanni Battista de Rossi’s ground-breaking, “analytical, not synthetic” approach to ancient cemetery investigation. His research on ancient Christian institutions in Rome would define the state of the field in the second half of the nineteenth century and the century to come. Here, the historiographical discourse focuses on an ancient catacomb for Jews in southeast Rome on the historic Randanini estate. The purpose is to examine not only the remains themselves but also why they mattered and to whom. It reveals what their enduring presence has signified to later generations up to the present day.
The catacomb of Vigna Randanini remained in use for interment throughout much of the late Roman era (third through seventh centuries CE) before its apparent loss to recorded history as a distinctly Jewish site. In light of this strange omission—we are talking about not just a handful of objects but several thousand tombs—this study seeks to identify the circumstances in which generations of Christians visited, studied, and ultimately preserved a Jewish site. It offers new perspectives on site formation by integrating unpublished archival data with deep knowledge of the site. Addressing complex layers of setting, identification, interpretation, and presentation from antiquity to the present sharpens our image of the catacomb, of which significant areas remain undocumented and purposefully obscured.
How this situation fits within the larger picture of archaeological activity and site preservation in Rome underscores a distinct and enduring relationship between Jews and Christians in the Roman Catholic imagination. This association underwent profound changes in de Rossi’s lifetime and helped shape his fundamental conclusions about catacomb development and utility beyond a primarily theological perspective. In a startlingly vivid way, a new consideration of de Rossi’s pivotal role in identifying Jewish catacombs in Rome transforms the canonical account of the founding father of Christian Archaeology. This book reassesses de Rossi’s deep personal commitment to the study of Christianity and something equally dear to the Roman-born: the pursuit of the city’s past and its renewed significance to the modern world.

Este artigo propõe uma metodologia crítica para identificar práticas farisaicas antigas a partir da análise cruzada entre os evangelhos e a literatura rabínica. Evitando tanto a reconstrução acrítica do farisaísmo quanto o ceticismo absoluto, o estudo aplica o paradigma indiciário e a análise do discurso para investigar tradições criticadas por Jesus, mas que reaparecem normatizadas nos textos rabínicos sem defesa ou polêmica. A proposta se estrutura em três categorias analíticas — convergência afirmativa, reação polêmica e continuidade silenciosa — sendo esta última o foco principal. Através de exemplos como os juramentos pelo templo, a oração pública e o dízimo minucioso, argumenta-se que os evangelhos preservam ecos reais de disputas religiosas do Segundo Templo, e que a literatura rabínica manteve práticas farisaicas mesmo diante da crítica cristã, revelando uma continuidade não confrontada dessas tradições.

This volume is an adaptation of my PhD thesis, Vessel glass from the Late Roman burials of Pannonia, completed and defended in 2013. The glasses discussed and catalogued here are essentially based on the research conducted for the dissertation. One of the main goals of my work was to create a new typological scheme for Pannonian vessel glass based on a meticulous study of form, colour, glass quality, ornamentation and the finer details of workmanship.

The catalogue comprises almost a thousand glass vessels from the late Roman period in Pannonia. While it is hardly exhaustive, it does offer a representative picture of the period’s typical forms and of the role of glass vessels in the province during the late Roman period. Pannonia was an important glass-producing centre within the Roman Empire, reflected also in the blend of influences from both the western provinces and the Empire’s easterly regions.

The principal goal of this volume and of the catalogue was to systematically review the glass types used in the fourth and fifth centuries, as well as their regional distribution. The vessel glass surveyed here offers important insights into the glass consumption of late Roman Pannonia and also sheds light on the differential use of glass on various settlement types: for example, different types were preferred in the military forts along the limes and on the settlements in the province’s interior. The spatial and chronological distribution of various glass types has also enabled the identification of certain workshops, alongside outlining the main trends in Pannonian glass production.

Recent epigraphic discoveries from Saranda, a small yet strategically significant port in ancient Epirus, provide fresh insights into its historical and socio-economic role. Three newly identified inscriptions shed light on aspects of local administration, trade networks, and civic life, highlighting Saranda’s integration into broader regional and Mediterranean dynamics. These findings not only enrich our understanding of the settlement’s political and economic significance but also contribute to the broader study of port towns in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The inscriptions underscore the potential of continued archaeological and epigraphic research in revealing the nuanced history of lesser known yet pivotal sites in ancient Epirus.

En este documento presento al Israel de Dios, desde la historia Bíblica de Israel, hasta su identidad actual, resuelvo algunas de las ridículas controversias que han causado división en el Cuerpo de Creyentes por siglos y propongo soluciones para las tres funciones mencionadas basadas en la reciente tecnología de registro distribuído DLT.

Desidero condividere con voi alcune considerazioni svolte in questo periodo sotto la spinta del dramma della pandemia del COVID-19 che tutti stiamo vivendo. Ciò che sta accadendo in questo tempo ci porta a ridare maggiore spazio a un aspetto della ricerca teologica biblica che in realtà non è mai venuto meno, ma che oggi forse viviamo con una consapevolezza rinnovata, soprattutto per le condizioni in cui ci troviamo. Dalla fine della Seconda Guerra Mondiale questa è forse la prima volta che tutte le nazioni avvertono di essere sottoposte a una minaccia che potrebbe essere fatale e che sta avendo conseguenze devastanti anche a livello economico 2 . Certamente dovranno cambiare tante cose, a partire dal nostro modo di pensare la vita e di relazionarci con gli altri. Ci sorprendiamo a riflettere sul perché non ci siamo ammalati e questo immeritato, ulteriore giro di giostra che ci è stato concesso dovrebbe spingerci a riflettere molto seriamente e a portarci a una vera conversione. Il 27 marzo, in quella sera buia e piovosa, i cristiani hanno pregato con Papa Francesco per chiedere la fine della pandemia 3 . Dal 27 marzo al 22 aprile, Papa

There is no consensus within biblical scholarship regarding the meaning or identity to "the sign of Jonah" in Matthew's Gospel.  That typological "sign" is an unresolved, exegetical puzzle. Might the solution be found with the image on the Shroud of Turin?  This paper reveals why (1) the author of Matthew’s Gospel knew the identity of “the sign of Jonah” and why (2) the image on the Turin Shroud serves as the best solution to puzzle (the one with the least number of assumptions or problems). This passage in the New Testament demonstrates the plausibility and probability of the Shroud’s authenticity and, therefore, its very existence in the first century.

The epistolary tradition of monasticism produced some of the most relevant philosophical texts of the medieval centuries. The letter "De divina omnipotentia" by Pier Damiani (1007-1072) belongs to this milieu. A long historiographical tradition, established with Endres' studies in the early twentieth century, read in it the affirmation of an absolute conception of divine omnipotence, even in the face of the dilemmas it raised: can God restore virginity to a maiden who has lost it? Is divine omnipotence such that what has been has not been, and that Rome has not been founded? Despite the invectives against the “dialectical” and the limits of human discourse on the divine, Pier Damiani welcomes these questions within the reflection on the Sacra Pagina, as theology was defined at the time, and makes it a complete philosophical question, inaugurating a theme of which the virgin and omnipotence reconstruct genesis and historical development, through the philological comparison with the Damian text but also with the “contrast material” provided by the conceptual tools of the contemporary debate on the topic. The profile of "De divina omnipotentia" is therefore more complex than its own myth: not a dogmatic syllable or an a priori condemnation, but rather the eternalist conception of a divine power in the face of which the categories of human temporality prove inadequate, but which nevertheless does not renounce to intertwine dialectics, rhetoric and monastic tradition to give shape, before the return of the Aristotelian corpus to the Latin West, to a peculiar model of theological argumentation.

This paper proposes a reinterpretation of the time markers in the Book of Daniel, arguing that the prophet encoded references to the three Jewish pilgrimage festivals-Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles-as chronological anchors within his sealed prophecies. Rather than abstract units of time, Daniel's "eveningmornings" in Daniel 8, "weeks" in Daniel 9, and "days" in Daniel 12, are to be understood as cryptic allusions to specific festival observances. This approach restores the prophecies to their liturgical context and aligns them with historical events surrounding the life and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth.

The study aims to investigate the critical role of touch in Renaissance culture, focusing on its impact on human experiences and connections to the divine. The research addresses the tension between the value placed on touch for its reliability and the criticisms associated with its links to sensuality. By engaging with existing literature, particularly Joe Moshenska’s “Feeling Pleasures,” the study seeks to unpack how this complexity influences the works of key poets and theologians of the Renaissance, enhancing our understanding of the interplay between physicality, literature, philosophy, and religion. The methodology involves a literature review and textual analysis of literary and theological works from the Renaissance period. Key texts examined include the poetry of Edmund Spenser and John Milton, as well as theological writings by figures like Erasmus and Thomas Cranmer. The study consists of an analysis of Renaissance artifacts such as artwork, scientific texts, and historical narratives, with a particular focus on Michelangelo’s representation of divine touch in the Sistine Chapel. The findings reveal that discussions about touch are central to understanding Renaissance culture, particularly about personal identity, societal norms of femininity and masculinity, and the relationship between humanity and the divine. The analysis sheds light on how physical interactions express human dignity and moral responsibility, while also reflecting broader cultural views on creativity and spirituality. The discussion emphasizes that touch is not merely a sensory experience; it carries profound implications for human relationships and the pursuit of the divine. By situating the study within broader cultural and historical contexts, it challenges conventional perceptions of sensory experience in Renaissance thought, advocating for a re-evaluation of touch’s importance in shaping moral and philosophical understandings. This study is original in its comprehensive examination of touch as a significant yet often overlooked aspect of Renaissance culture. By bridging literary analysis with theological and artistic discussions, it contributes to current scholarly conversations about sensory perception and human experience, thereby enriching the understanding of the cultural and spiritual dimensions of the Renaissance.

D e mais de uma forma, o volume agora apresentado, contendo o primeiro número da Oriente Cristão -Revista do Grupo de Estudos sobre História do Oriente Cristão, é a realização de um sonho -ou, melhor dizendo, de uma série de sonhos encadeados, alimentados pela reflexão e empenho dos membros de seu Conselho Editorial. Além disso, por um lado, ela é o ponto de chegada do trabalho que temos desenvolvido no Grupo de Estudos em História do Oriente Cristão (GEHOC). Por outro, espera-se que seja primeiro movimento de uma conversação que desejamos seja tão rica quanto duradoura. De modo imediato, o GEHOC foi gerado nos intervalos e conversas de corredor que emolduraram dois cursos oferecidos por este que agora aqui escreve, no primeiro semestre de 2019, no Centro Dom Vital do Rio de Janeiro. Um destes cursos teve como tema as reações e acomodações cristãs à conquista islâmica do Egito e as interações entre as comunidades cristãs e muçulmana nos dias que se seguiram a este empreendimento notável. O outro, sugerido pelos alunos do primeiro, pretendeu revisitar a ruptura entre as Igrejas de Roma e de Constantinopla que foi formalizada pelas mútuas excomunhões de 1054, inventariando e discutindo algumas de suas causas próximas e distantes, assim como suas interpretações e consequências. Enquanto conversávamos nos interstícios das aulas, percebemos que alguns de nós já éramos conhecidos de outros cursos e eventos acadêmicos e paraacadêmicos, realizados nas dependências de espaços institucionais tão

This paper discusses the method by which Tertullian produced authorized examplars of his treatises and how these were then copied and distributed, including illegitimately so, and summarizes Tertullian's "Desk-Top" publishing on marriage and related topics both before and after becoming influenced by the New Prophecy movement (Montanism).

Commodian activity can be considered exemplary, since it fully reveals some peculiar traits of a transition era. Indeed, the origins of the poet is traditionally placed between two different geographical contexts: the East, where he is perhaps originally from, and the Roman Africa, where he wrote both Instructiones and Carmen de duobus populis. Commodian, thus, appears as a true “wandering poet”. Furthermore, his conversion to Christianity occurred in adulthood, in a learning environment characterized by marked Jewish roots which decisively influenced his thought. Then, his thinking is affected by the stratification of the many cultural settings with which he came into contact during his life. Commodian engaged in bitter disputes with different philosophical and religious traditions, belonging to pre-Roman, Latin, Greek and Jewish world: multiple intercultural contacts emerge from his works and it is also for this reason that both Instructiones and Carmen can be assessed as “hybrid” products, since they combine literary elements of autobiography, apologia, Jewish apocalypticism and didactic poetry. Commodian “ars poetica” crosses the cultural “melting pot” that distinguishes the Late Ancient West. He does not reject the literary and rhetorical models of the Latin tradition, but overcomes their inflexibility. Moreover, his prosody no longer rests on diligent respect for the classical one, and his language essentially adapts to popular needs. So, Commodian can be fully understood only in the light of a “multicultural world”, that is in an historical path that would lead the Latin West literature, a few decades later, to the so-called “Constantinian era”.

The fruit of a long history dating back at least more than three hundred years and, on the part of its author, of some fifty years of research and analysis of texts of both the Old and New Testaments, this work sets out to present systematically and in depth the principles of biblical rhetoric.
Belonging to the cultural area of the Semitic world, biblical rhetoric differs from Greco-Latin rhetoric, of which the modern West is the direct heir. However, it applies not only to texts written in Hebrew or Aramaic, but also to the Greek books of the Old and New Testaments. Knowledge of the laws of this specific rhetoric is essential for a better understanding of the biblical writings.
The Treatise is divided into three parts: Composition, Context and Interpretation. The first part sets out the relationships between all the linguistic elements used to construct texts, followed by the successive levels of their organisation, afterwards the figures of composition and finally the rules of rewriting.
The part devoted to context looks first at intratext, and even more importantly at intertextual relationships, before examining the function of the centre of concentric compositions and proposing rules for rewriting synoptic texts.
The third part first shows the usefulness of biblical rhetoric for establishing the text, its translation, its divisions and its punctuation. A presentation of the five hermeneutical rules for interpreting texts based on their composition follows. Next comes the role of intertextuality, which is often decisive in shedding light on these texts. The section concludes with a reflection on the gift of interpretation.
The first chapter traces the “history” of the discovery of biblical rhetoric. It is indeed indispensable to know the authors of the research and discoveries we have inherited.
This work is a grammar; it is accompanied by the book Exercises of Biblical Rhetorical Analysis, which provides practical exercises for anyone who desires to learn the craft.

B. TODlC le Christ est represente sur un lit, mais on dirait plutot qu'il y est assis. La Vierge etait peinte ä la droite du Christ, mais sa representation est actuellement tres endommagee. Le Christ et la Vierge etaient situes dans une grande mandorle que Ton discerne toujours bien. A cote du bord droit de celle-ci dix anges tendent les bras dans une attitude de priere (fig. ). L'Anapeson a ete figure aussi au monastere de Vatopedi, ä lAthos, au-dessus de l'entree principale de Texonarthex precedant le catholicon (fig. ). II appartient ä la couche de fresques qui, suivant rinscription repeinte, date de 1312/13 ('®). Sur cette fresque, inapergue, jusqu'ici dont rinscription est renouvelee ANAIIELQN EKOIMH0H(E) QE AEQN^ TEmmanuel est couche sur un matelas pourpre aux bords brodes, vetu d'un chiton et d'un himation qui lui couvrent les jambes jusqu'aux chevilles. De la main gauche, posee sur le genou, il tient un rouleau. La Vierge, assise ä gauche, enlace des deux bras le Christ qui a pose sa tete, appuyee sur son bras droit, dans le giron de sa mere. Derriere la Vierge se tient un prophete, probablement Jacob qui, penche sur le Christ, contemple celui-ci, en tenant un rouleau sur lequel on lit le texte suivant : ANAHEj EÜN EKOIj MHOHEj QEAEQNj KAI QEEKY/MNOE. TIE/ EEEPEI AYTON. / OYK EKAEI/PEI APXQN (Genese 49, 9-10). A droite, trois anges sont toumes du cote du Christ : le Premier portant un rhipidion somptueux, celui du milieu tenant entre les mains voilees une lance et un roseau avec une eponge et, le troisieme, presentant une croix entouree d'une couronne d'epines. Au catholicon du monastere de Chilandar TAnapeson fut peint dans la seconde decennie du xiv« siede, sur le cote Occidental du pilier nord, tout pres de l'iconostase (* •). Au meme endroit (cote Occidental du pilier nord-est), l'Anapeson est represente aussi dans l'eglise Saint-Nicetas, pres de Skoplje (vers 1320) (fig. 4) ('2). Au debut du xiv^ siede, entre

The impact of Christianity on the rural landscape and settlement patterns of the Southern Erei district is primarily known through a limited number of sites, including three places of worship dating to the 5th-8th/9th centuries AD (at Philosophiana, Piano Cannelle, and Contrada S. Ninfa), as well as via necropolises, scattered burials, and artifacts bearing religious symbols, notably a significant collection of oil lamps recovered from the Villa del Casale. Recent archaeological field surveys, conducted between 2020 and 2021 in the territories of Enna and Piazza Armerina, have led to the identification of two previously unknown early medieval single-nave churches and respective settlements, at Balatella and San Nicola. These places of worship have been placed in the context of their settlements, attempting the definition of patterns of diachronic evolution and development intertwining churches with their rural communities. In addition to this, the present study provides a chrono-typological interpretation of the burials identified in the area, including those at Montagna di Marzo, Polino, Gallinica, Balatella, and Philosophiana. This interpretation is based on an examination of masonry techniques combined with material evidence collected during the field surveys. The paper concludes with a reassessment of the dating of the single-nave church at Rossomanno, challenging the hypothesis of an early medieval foundation and instead proposing a chronology to the Later Middle Ages (ca. 13th century AD).

While researching ideas such as aeternitas, especially with regard to their role and status in Imperial self-representation, coins play a primary role. They are among the most representative means of expression that historians have an opportunity to deal with. The mere existence of coinage with different variants of the idea of eternity, and their continuity throughout a period of three centuries, is evidence of their significance in Imperial selfrepresentation and evolution in this regard. From the legends and from the iconography of aeternitas on coins, it is clear that the connection between the idea of eternity and the emperor was shaped individually by the individual emperors. Coins highlight the role played by the emperors in ensuring eternity for the empire.

Don't Betray Your Calling, but Be the Selfless Shepherd: A Scriptural Meditation and Leadership Reflection
By Matthews Bantsijang
- A Local Preacher in Methodist Church of Southern Africa (MCSA) – Local Preachers Association (LPA)
September 2025


Introduction

In an era marked by moral ambiguity and leadership crises, the call to remain steadfast in one’s divine vocation while embodying the selfless shepherd is more pertinent than ever. This paper explores the intersection of prophetic leadership, African spirituality, and Christian witness, emphasizing the necessity of guarding one’s calling and leading with sacrificial love. By examining foundational scriptural verses and contextualizing them within African cultural frameworks, this study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of what it means to be a selfless shepherd in today’s world.

Foundational Verses: Illuminating the Call

The Sacred Nature of Calling

The concept of calling is deeply rooted in the biblical narrative. Jeremiah 1:5 states, “Before I formed you in the womb I knew you…” This verse underscores the preordained and sacred nature of God’s calling. It suggests that each individual has a unique purpose, intricately woven into the fabric of their existence. Similarly, Romans 11:29 affirms that “For God’s gifts and his call are irrevocable,” indicating that one’s divine assignment cannot be undone, only neglected or betrayed.

Faithfulness to the Divine Assignment

The Apostle Paul’s declaration in 2 Timothy 4:7, “I have fought the good fight… I have kept the faith,” serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of faithfulness to one’s calling. This spiritual victory is not merely a personal achievement; it is a testament to the integrity of one’s leadership and the impact it has on the community.

The Model of Shepherd Leadership

Jesus Christ epitomizes the selfless shepherd in John 10:11, where He states, “I am the good shepherd. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep.” This sacrificial model of leadership challenges contemporary notions of power and authority, urging leaders to prioritize the well-being of their followers. Furthermore, 1 Peter 5:2-3 encourages leaders to “be shepherds of God’s flock… not pursuing dishonest gain, but eager to serve,” reinforcing the idea that true leadership is rooted in humility and service. Bishop Pumla Nzimande says: “Don't compete with a person with a salary when you are a person of stipend”.

Servant Leadership as a Paradigm

Mark 10:45 encapsulates the essence of servant leadership: “For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve…” This radical redefinition of greatness calls for leaders to embrace a posture of service rather than seeking status or recognition.

Theological Reflection: The Cost of Betraying One’s Calling

To betray one’s calling is to abandon the divine assignment, often in pursuit of comfort, power, or fear. This spiritual tragedy echoes the fate of King Saul, who lost his anointing through disobedience and self-serving actions. The consequences of such betrayal extend beyond the individual, affecting the community and the divine mission.

Conversely, embodying the selfless shepherd requires a commitment to kenosis, the self-emptying love exemplified by Christ (Philippians 2:7). This leadership style is characterized by empathy, compassion, and a deep conviction to serve others, rather than leading from a place of ego or ambition.

African Contextual Lens: Leadership as Covenant

In the Setswana worldview, leadership is inherently communal and spiritual. The term motlhanka wa Modimo (servant of God) transcends mere title; it signifies a covenantal relationship with the community. The shepherd is not merely a guide but a modiri wa kagiso (builder of peace), a mothusi (helper), and a moemedi (intercessor) for the people. This understanding of leadership emphasizes the interconnectedness of individuals within the community and the responsibility of leaders to nurture and uplift those they serve.

"Don't Betray Your Calling, But Be the Selfless Shepherd" - John Wesley Reflection

The core teachings of John Wesley on perseverance, selflessness, and faithful service. Wesley's emphasis on not abandoning one's spiritual calling and the importance of selfless love and service to others aligns with the sentiment of the phrase, making it a summary of his influential message rather than a precise quotation.

Wesley's Teachings on Calling and Service:

Perseverance in Calling: Wesley encouraged believers to remain steadfast in their heavenly calling and not give up, believing that spiritual loss only occurs when one quits.
Selfless Love and Service: His concept of "social holiness" meant that the depth of a believer's love for God was demonstrated through their love for others. This is expressed in his well-known advice to "Do all the good you can, by all the means you can, in all the ways you can, to all the people you can, as long as ever you can".
The Shepherd Metaphor: While not explicitly found in the quote, the image of a shepherd aligns with Wesley's teachings on caring for and guiding others, often seen in his emphasis on the communal aspect of faith and works of mercy.

'The Catholic Priesthood: A Call to Selfless Service' (Part A)

Priesthood is a call from God whereby a man regards everything as foolish in order to gain Christ and belongs completely to Him. The religious priests do this by taking the three vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, known as the evangelical counsels. The priests choose not to marry in order to devote themselves completely to the works of Christ and His Church, becoming eunuch for the sake of the kingdom, not as a result of castration. They are to love people, but not to lust after them; in other words, they are to live a healthy chaste love, and have unwavering compassion for the people.
They are so dedicated to solving others' problems, that sometimes, if not most times, their own problems are often left unattended, yet they find joy in this selfless service. 99% of things that make the priests have sleepless night, are the problems of the parishioners, the problems of those who are married, the unmarried, and of the poor. So they are actually ordained for our sake. A man would forgo one of the most pleasurable things, sex, for the sake of the kingdom. To me, there's no pleasure in priesthood, but there's joy.
The priests who are awake are called to wake up the sleeping world. But unfortunately, when they try to wake many of us up, many of us would attack them. When they rebuke those who try to deceive their sheep, some of their sheep would ask them to mind their business, but when they keep quiet, the same people would say that they want their sheep to perish in ignorance. When they are accused wrongly, and they defend themselves many people would say that they should allow God defend them, but if they keep quiet, the same people would say that their silence means that they are guilty. Nawaoo! Some would even say: this father is not called; that one is called by her mother; this one is not even qualified to be a priest.
Listen, my beloveds in Christ, God does not call the qualified, but He qualifies the called; He does not choose the perfect, but perfects those He calls. So, you didn't choose, but God chose them. John 15: 16.
May God deliver our priests from all evils, and may the grace of obedience, purity, humility, and detachment from materialism abound in their lives. Amen.
~ Ifeanyi Okoye

  “Don't Betray Your Calling, But Be the Selfless Shepherd” Matthews Bantsijang’s Position

"Don't Betray Your Calling, But Be the Selfless Shepherd" is a common theme in his ministry of MCSA, and all religious Leaders in MCSA who share this inspirational must adhere to and focus on themes of betrayal, faith, and living a purposeful life.
"Don't Betray Your Calling": This part of the message urges followers to remain true to their God-given purpose. Betrayal, in this context, can refer not only to betraying other people, but also to betraying one's own faith or spiritual destiny by giving in to temptations or distractions. It’s a call to perseverance and integrity, even when things are difficult.
"Be the Selfless Shepherd": This phrase evokes the Christian image of a shepherd who cares for their flock above all else. It emphasizes the importance of selfless service and putting others before oneself, especially for those in positions of spiritual leadership. The contrast is with those who seek personal gain or glory, as seen in biblical accounts of betrayal.

Practical Application for Today’s Leaders

Guarding Your Calling

Leaders must be vigilant in guarding their calling, resisting the temptation to dilute their prophetic voice for political convenience or institutional comfort. This requires a steadfast commitment to one’s divine assignment, even in the face of adversity.

Leading with Sacrifice

In the spirit of Christ, leaders should be willing to “lay down their lives”—their time, ego, and resources—for the flock. This sacrificial leadership fosters trust and loyalty, creating an environment where followers feel valued and empowered.

Empowering the Flock

A selfless shepherd does not merely protect; he equips. Leaders should focus on teaching, uplifting, and releasing others into their own callings. This empowerment cultivates a culture of growth and collaboration, enabling the community to thrive collectively.

Conclusion

The call to not betray one’s calling while embodying the selfless shepherd is a profound challenge for contemporary leaders. Rooted in scriptural truths and enriched by African spirituality, this dual mandate invites leaders to embrace their divine assignments with integrity and humility. As we navigate the complexities of leadership in today’s world, may we strive to be selfless shepherds, committed to serving our communities with love, sacrifice, and unwavering faithfu...

Il contesto contemporaneo sembra essere definito dal termine "crisi". Il vocabolo, attribuito ad una molteplicità di fenomeni, individua un significato uniformemente negativo. La questione esige un approfondimento: si è determinato nel tempo un capovolgimento di senso. Crisi significa infatti, in origine, giudizio. Il mutamento di accezione può essere esaminato tramite un sondaggio storico. La crisi non è forse un dato inerente al processo storico? In particolare, può essere interessante un'analisi sulla natura di questo concetto nella Tardoantichità. L'età che segna la fine dell'Impero romano d'Occidente è paragonata per tanti aspetti a quella postmoderna: entrambe sembrano costituire la fine di un'epoca. I saggi presentati nel volume approfondiscono taluni eventi di "crisi" in ambito religioso, filosofico e teologico di tale periodo. Ne emerge una comunicazione significativa e una riflessione utile anche al momento attuale.

La comprensione del metodo con cui i Padri della chiesa svilupparono il rapporto con la cultura classica e, più in generale, con il contesto socio-culturale del mondo greco-romano in cui le comunità cristiane si trovavano a vivere, può offrire contributi significativi di riflessione anche per gli uomini del nostro tempo, che, nell'attuale orizzonte di globalizzazione, hanno contatti sempre più ravvicinati e intensi con tradizioni profondamente diverse. In riferimento all'opera di Christian Gnilka, che da tempo ha messo in rilievo la centralità del concetto di "retto uso" (chrêsis) come chiave di volta del metodo patristico, questo volume presenta vari contributi di studiosi italiani e stranieri che, da differenti prospettive disciplinari, illustrano e verificano alcuni dei più importanti aspetti di tale fenomeno, mostrando come l'esercizio del discernimento (krisis) permetta ai Padri, alla luce della cognizione della natura umana, di vincere da una parte la tentazione dell'assimilazione e dall'altra quella opposta del rifiuto e della chiusura difensiva, per sviluppare invece un fecondo dialogo con le culture del loro tempo, valorizzandone in chiave cristiana gli apporti teorici ed esistenziali. AngelA MAriA MAzzAnti, già professore associato di Storia delle religioni presso l'Università di Bologna, si occupa di tematiche antropologiche e teologiche in ambiti religiosi dell'epoca immediatamente precedente e successiva agli inizi dell'era cristiana. Ha dedicato particolare interesse alla letteratura ermetica, al giudaismo della diaspora (più precisamente a Filone di Alessandria) e ai primi autori cristiani. Fra le numerose pubblicazioni si segnalano le curatele Il logos di Dio e il logos dell'uomo. Concezioni antropologiche nel mondo antico e riflessi contemporanei (Vita e Pensiero, Milano 2014) e Crisi e rinnovamento tra mondo classico e cristianesimo antico (BUP, Bologna 2015). È membro del Gruppo Italiano di Ricerca su «Origene e la tradizione alessandrina», dell'International Association for the History of Religion, dell'Associazione «Patres» e fa parte del Comitato di Redazione della Rivista «Adamantius». angela maria mazzanti (ed.) UN METODO PER IL DIALOGO FRA LE CULTURE La chrêsis patristica SUPPLEMENTI ADAMANTIUS-ix

Przemiany edukacyjne, następujące w Polsce w ostatnich latach, mają zarów no gorliwych zwolenników, jak i zdecydowanych krytyków. Do tych ostatnich należą komentatorzy reprezentujący konserwatywną opcję ideową1. Wyrażają przekonanie o kryzysie polskiej oświaty, którego przejawem jest, w ich prze konaniu, upadek autorytetu szkoły i nauczyciela oraz spadek poziomu wiedzy ogólnej uczniów. Jedną z przyczyn takiej sytuacji jest, według konserwatystów, odrzucenie przez reformatorów klasycznego modelu edukacji i zastąpienie go modelem edukacji pragmatycznej2, postulującym dostosowanie kształcenia do potrzeb

Przemiany edukacyjne, następujące w Polsce w ostatnich latach, mają zarów no gorliwych zwolenników, jak i zdecydowanych krytyków. Do tych ostatnich należą komentatorzy reprezentujący konserwatywną opcję ideową1. Wyrażają przekonanie o kryzysie polskiej oświaty, którego przejawem jest, w ich prze konaniu, upadek autorytetu szkoły i nauczyciela oraz spadek poziomu wiedzy ogólnej uczniów. Jedną z przyczyn takiej sytuacji jest, według konserwatystów, odrzucenie przez reformatorów klasycznego modelu edukacji i zastąpienie go modelem edukacji pragmatycznej2, postulującym dostosowanie kształcenia do potrzeb

Przemiany edukacyjne, następujące w Polsce w ostatnich latach, mają zarów no gorliwych zwolenników, jak i zdecydowanych krytyków. Do tych ostatnich należą komentatorzy reprezentujący konserwatywną opcję ideową1. Wyrażają przekonanie o kryzysie polskiej oświaty, którego przejawem jest, w ich prze konaniu, upadek autorytetu szkoły i nauczyciela oraz spadek poziomu wiedzy ogólnej uczniów. Jedną z przyczyn takiej sytuacji jest, według konserwatystów, odrzucenie przez reformatorów klasycznego modelu edukacji i zastąpienie go modelem edukacji pragmatycznej2, postulującym dostosowanie kształcenia do potrzeb

E dia 2 de febrer de 2001, en un talds situat entre 17Eix del Llobregat (entre el tdnel de BogunyP i la gasolinera) i l'empresa Marbres Decoratius, S. A. (Marbres de Portugal), de Castellbell i el Vilar, en terrenys de la finca agrPria els Abadals, un obrer d'aquesta empresa va observar la presencia d'un esquelet axial humii, que havia quedat a la vista per l'erosió del marge. Comunicat el fet a la policia judicial de la Guiirdia Civil, es va presentar aquesta per fer les diligencies, així com el forense de guiirdia, i la jutgessa del Jutjat número dos de Manresa. Van considerar que no eren restes humanes recents, i donada la molt probable prescripció judicial de qualsevol delicte, lajutgessa va autoritzar l'alcalde de Castellbell a retirar les restes i a traslladarles al cementiri. Aquests fets foren publicats el dia set del mateix mes pel diari local Repó 7, en portada i també en la piigina set. Assabentats per aquest mitjii informatiu, ensvam posar en contacte amb el forense, oferint-li la nostra col-laboració professional per a l'estudi acurat del cas i de les restes, la cronologia de les quals es basava en conjectures. Mentre es cursava aquestapetició, dos obrers designats a tal efecte, amb eines grans i el suport d'una retroexcavadora, van buidar la tomba, en la que van apartixer dos esquelets més. Segons informacions lliurades al mateix diari, i publicades per aquest amb data vuit de febrer de 2001, en la portada i també en la piigina vuit, la tomba era una fossa simple oberta a les argiles a pic i pala, soma, a poc més de 50 cm de la superficie, i els tres morts ocupaven un espai total de 1,70 m de llarg per 0,5 d'ample, aproximadament. No es va trobar cap resta de teixits ni de fusta. Segons inrormacions dels obrers, els altres dos esquelets apareguts estaven orientats en posició inversa respecte al primer, capiculats. La retroexcavadora va treure cap amunt uns tres metres cúbics d'argiles, situant-10s a lavora del camí d'accés a l'empresa, sobre la fossa i vora el marge. Del munt, els

This debate, between John Koster (the author of the book The Atheist Syndrome) and Frank Zindler (Director of the Central Ohio Chapter of American Atheists) aired on Christian radio on Nov. 14, 1989 on WMUZ-FM in Detroit, MI. Zindler had not been told the question to be debated until the show began. He had prepared to debate the thesis of Koster’s book, i.e., that famous Atheists such as Darwin, Huxley, Nietzsche, and Freud were mentally ill due to traumatic childhood interactions with their fathers!
When Zindler challenged Koster to define the god whose existence he claimed, Koster became rattled and repeatedly avoided the challenge by wandering into many other subjects. Among the topics debated were: A definition of “God” and Koster’s repeated unwillingness to discuss it | Koster’s digressions into neurophysiology | Evidence for souls, spirits, and an afterlife: can all the primitive peoples of the world be wrong? | Trying to get back on the subject— historic evidence for the existence of Jesus | Assuming Jesus did exist, was he a god-man? | What causes so-called religious feelings and experiences? | Is religious belief dangerous? | Who invented eternal torment? | Trying to deal with a caller who knew absolutely nothing about science | Darwin and Wallace: who really discovered natural selection? | Koster’s repeated use of the ad hominem fallacy.
The tape of the debate was transcribed by John Sikos of the Detroit Chapter of American Atheists. Zindler’s copious annotation of the transcript provides deeper insight into his own strategies as well as those of Koster that may be inferred. The notes provide a veritable textbook of logical and factual analysis—indeed, an analytical method with which to deconstruct apologetic tracts—of Koster’s claims, and they illumine many subjects quite unrelated to the topic intended to be debated.

Resumo: Este artigo examina o montanismo como movimento carismático do cristianismo primitivo, destacando a centralidade da profecia e o protagonismo das mulheres, em especial Prisca e Maximila. Analisa-se o papel do Espírito nas primeiras comunidades, a tensão entre a revelação espontânea e autoridade institucional, e a rejeição do movimento cunhado como heresia pela Igreja. Discute-se ainda a dimensão escatológica do montanismo e a sua proposta de renovação espiritual. Conclui-se que o montanismo oferece uma perspetiva alternativa sobre a organização eclesial e a participação feminina na vida da Igreja.