Latvian History

After rebellion against the Tatars which took place in Tver in 1327, the local knyaz' Alexander had to flee from his principality. His place of refuge was Pskov, located in the northwest of Rus'. But even there, Alexander was not safe because Tatar's khan and muscovite prince wanted to catch and punish him. The people of Pskov declared Alexander their ruler and did not intend to hand him over to his enemies. In this situation, metropolitan Thognost spoke against Pskov and Alexander and threatened them with excommunication. The decision of the hierarch aroused the church separatism of Pskov, and Alexander, together with his ally Gediminas, began an activity to establish a new bishopric in Pskov. This article, based on the source information, presents the circumstances in which emerged plan to create a new eparchy. Discussing this problem the author focused on the figure of prince Alexander and pointed to his role in the whole matter.

In the second of our continuing series of interviews with charms researchers about their scholarly life and work, we present an interview with Andrey Toporkov conducted remotely (by e-mail) early in 2022 (subsequently updated in late 2023) by Jonathan Roper, who also made the translation from Russian. Andrey Toporkov is one of the earliest members of the Committee for Charms, Charmers and Charming, having first attended our meetings in London in 2005. Since then, he has been a familiar figure at our conferences.

Pierre wurde 1953 geboren, als "Produkt eines Betriebsfestes", wie er sich selbst bezeichnet. Den Vater hatte er bis auf eine flüchtige Begegnung, viele Jahre später beim Jugendamt im Zusammenhang mit dessen nicht geleisteten Unterhaltszahlungen, nie gesehen. Der Vater war, so wurde ihm erzählt, ins Krankenhaus gekommen, hatte festgestellt, daß er kein Mädchen war und verschwand aus seinem Leben. Pierre wuchs bei der Mutter und den Großeltern auf, als kleiner Prinz der Familie. Die Mutter war Arbeiterin bei einer großen Elektrofirma. Die Betreuung des Jungen lag in den Händen der Großeltern. Als die Großmutter 1961 starb, übernahm der früh berentete Großvater die Versorgung des kleinen Jungen. Pierre fehlte es an nichts. Er bezeichnet sich selbst als "verhätschelt und vertätschelt". Die Mutter ging nie wieder eine Bindung zu einem Mann ein. Auch sie stand ihm mit ungeteilter Aufmerksamkeit zur Verfügung. Als Einzelkind wurden ihm, wie er sagt, alle Wünsche von den Augen abgelesen. Er hatte Schwierigkeiten nie selbst meistern müssen. Er lebte "wie in Watte gepackt". Im Kindergarten war es schwer für ihn. Er konnte mit den anderen Kindern nicht viel anfangen. Er absolvierte die Hauptschule bis zur zehnten Klasse mit durchschnittlichen Leistungen. "Stromlinienförmig" habe er sich durchlaviert. Im Anschluß an die Schule begann er eine Buchdruckerlehre. Seine Leistungen in der Zwischenprüfung waren nicht ausreichend. So trat er zur Abschlußprüfung gar nicht erst an und brach die Lehre ab. Die Verführung, als Hilfsarbeiter schneller viel Geld zu verdienen, auch um mit seinen Freunden finanziell mithalten zu können, war groß. Er arbeitete manchmal zwei oder sogar drei Schichten in der Woche. Am Wochenende fand dann "das Leben" statt, d. h. für Pierre zu diesem Zeitpunkt: Kneipen, Diskotheken, Geld ausgeben und viel Alkohol trinken. Mit 18 Jahren lernte er seine zukünftige Ehefrau am Arbeitsplatz kennen. Sie ging offensiv auf ihn zu, für Pierre eine neue Erfahrung, denn er beschreibt sich als schüchtern Mädchen gegenüber. Schnell war die Entscheidung getroffen zu heiraten. Sein Leben zu zweit ging so weiter wie bisher: viel arbeiten, um viel ausgeben zu können. Die Substanz dieser Beziehung -jenseits gemeinsamer Vergnügungstouren und massivem Konsum von Alkohol -ist Pierre weder damals noch heute klar. Das Leben stand zunehmend mehr unter dem Vorzeichen von Alkoholexzessen. Nach einer Bauchhöhlenschwangerschaft mußte sich Pierres Frau einer Totaloperation unterziehen. Ihr gemeinsamer Traum von einem Kind war damit hinfällig geworden. Die Trauer über den Verlust konnte nicht thematisiert oder ausgedrückt werden und wurdewie vieles mehr -im Alkohol ertränkt. Im Jahre 1988, einige Monate vor der Tat, kam es zu tätlichen Auseinandersetzungen in der Ehe. Pierres Frau wollte aussteigen, hatte vermutlich einen Liebhaber und ging in eine andere Stadt. Der Alkoholkonsum hatte sich inzwischen so gesteigert, daß Pierre ohne größere Mengen harter Alkoholika den Tag gar nicht beginnen konnte. Er gibt an, ständig einen Spiegel von ca. zwei Promille gehabt zu haben.

Naděžda Filaretovna Melniková-Papoušková je podepsána pod velkým počtem prací a článků věnujících se ruské a české literatuře, rozmanitým formám lidového umění či postřehům ze života v sovětském Rusku ve 30. letech. Ani zdaleka však tento výčet témat nevystihuje šíři laických i odborných zájmů, kterým se během svého života věnovala. S jejím jménem se lze setkat v kontextu literárněkritických textů, dějin umění a divadla, folkloru či etnografie. Předkládaná monografie je vůbec prvním rozsáhlejším pokusem o reflexi života a díla ruské emigrantky Naděždy Filaretovny Melnikové-Papouškové v kontextu česko-ruských kulturních vztahů. Výklad sleduje především proměny autorčiny tvorby a činnosti zachycené na pozadí měnících se geografických a kulturních prostředí či historických událostí.

The Last Phase of Czechoslovakia's Independence in 1938: Latvian Diplomatic Documents about the Polish Factor The documents presented contain conversations between Latvian diplomats and Polish representatives, the Czechoslovak envoy Jaroslav Slávik, and various diplomats in Warsaw during the intensification of Nazi Germany's hostile campaign against Czechoslovakia in 1938. The documents come from the Latvian State Historical Archives and the Hoover Institution Archives at Stanford. Five reports from the Latvian legation in Warsaw, sent to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia in Riga between the beginning of May and the end of October 1938, provide insight into the Polish position towards Czechoslovakia and its territorial claims. The final report, covering a conversation with Foreign Minister Józef Beck from the end of October, includes, among other things, an expression of support for the Polish action by the Latvian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Vilhelms Munters.

New stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic analyses from medieval and early modern sites across Estonia demonstrate systematic differences in the dietary habits of people from various locations and social groups. These results are compared with previously published isotopic data from similar contexts to identify the type and origin of dietary items, specifically in terms of aquatic resource consumption. Distinction between protein sources is, however, complicated by the high degree of isotopic variation among aquatic ecosystems and the fact that resources from multiple habitats were routinely exploited, resulting in a mixing of the isotopic signal. Nitrogen isotopic ratios display variations in the consumption of higher trophic level protein (such as fish), differentiating between rural, urban and elite individuals, as well as between males and females. Carbon isotopic ratios show a clear distinction between humans from coastal and inland sites, likely reflecting the importance of Baltic Sea fish to coastal communities. However, the exact quantification of aquatic resources into the diets of historic period people in the region needs further work.

Leksikonos un biogrifiskajas vardnicas teololija, valodnieciba, etnografija rn vesturiski feogdfija parasti ir nosauktas ka Baltijasvacu zinatnieka, Dobeles vZcu draudzes mdcftija Augusta BilenSteina (i826-1907) galvenis pEtniecibas jomas, bet [rdzdstim nozimTgs ir ariviqa devums Latvijas afieolo$ja. Sabiedribas apzi11i arheologa darbs lieldkoties saistis ar izrakumiem, tom6r arheololijas atUstibaitikpat svan-gs irgan sagatavoiands posmsarheolofisko piemineklu okalizeiana un apzin-Sana,gan af pdtllumu nobeigums kabinetS, kur notiek iegnto materidlu izvertelana un rezultatu apkopoiana. A. Bllen5teina veikums attiecas uz visiem trim arheolofiskEs izpEtes posmiem, laigan ieguldi]ums katra notiem bijis atSkings. A. B'ilenSteina pievErianis Latvijas arheolofijai bija likumsakafga. Lldztekus n acitaja darbam vipS nodarbojSs ar valodniecfuas studij6m, un 1863. -1864. gada Ber[rnE iznaca vi4a divselumu monografija parlatuieSu valodu "Die lettische Sprache nach ihren Lauten und Formen" (Latvieiu valoda tis skapbs unformbs). VScot materiElus 5im darbam, A. BilenSteins devis vairakas ekspefrcijas, ieguva daudzfolkloras pierakstu un vienlaikus ieinteresEj6s pardzimtiszemes senatni. izv6rtdjot izlokir;ru un vietvirdu izplatibu un sa[rdzinot iegltos datus arsenakajos rakstitajos avotos min6tajim zirjim, A. Bileniteinam pamaz6m tapa plais apkopojols darbs parsenlafuieSu maztautu apdzrvoto teritoriju untas robeiim (Bielenstein 1892).A. Bileniteins pirmais konstatOjatEdus 5odien vispEninimus faktus, ka seno zemgalu 13. gs. apdzrvota teritorija iestiepusies Ziemellietuv6 (i9. gs. -Kau4asgubemas ziemeldala)un latgali, sprieiot pec valodas, irlatvielu tautas dala. Vi4a izteiktais pie46mums, ka senlatuielu zemju robeia 13. gs. kluva par viduslaiku Livonijas politisko robeiu un [rdz pat jaundkajiem laikiem saglabijusies ki etnogrifiska robeia, nav apstridEts lidz pat mlsdienam.

As the Commissar for Nationalities’ Affairs, Stalin claimed that he was following Lenin’s policy of self-determination for ethnic groups within the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic (RSFSR). While paying lip-service to the principle of self-determination in permitting ethnic groups to maintain their own language and culture, he did not want to follow the principle to its logical conclusion, that is, national independence from Russia. Instead he invoked the concept of “autonomous republics” with a federation of Soviet Republics under the central rule of the Communist Party and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) after 1922. But the degree of “autonomy” of the “republics” was limited, because real power resided in the Community Party.

Even though Stalin was an ethnic Georgia, after he succeeded Lenin in 1924 he divided one ethnic group against another, as in the case of Muslim Abkhazis and Ossetians against the Orthodox Christian Georgians. In the 1930s Stalin began to suppress ethnic languages and promote the Russian language and culture. He also began a policy of “ethnic cleansing” by forcibly relocated ethnic populations, such as the Tatars from the Crimean Peninsula. The Ukrainians felt that Stalin’s forcible collectivization of agriculture was a form of genocide in which millions of Ukrainians starved to death.

After the Munich Agreement in 1938 and the dismembering of Czechoslovakia, Stalin took advantage of the situation to annex the Ukrainian region west of the Carpathian Mountains. In 1939 he signed a non-aggression pact with Germany and immediately invaded Norway, the Baltic States, and eastern Poland. But in June 1941Hilter invaded Russia as he said he would in Mein Kampf.  Suspecting that the Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Estonians, and Latvians were collaborating with the Germans, he escalated his policy of forcible relocation. The Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Estonians, and Latvians were divided between those who welcomed the Germans as liberators and those who celebrated their eventual defeat on the eastern front. The Jews were a different matter. Both the Germans and some Ukrainians participated in their extermination during the war. Stalin felt that they were not a legitimate nationality, because they had no territory of their own in Russia. He also suspected their Zionist aspirations as a threat to their loyalty to Russia.

By the end of the war, the USSR had annexed Bessarabia and Bukovina from Romania; Ruthenia from Czechoslovakia; the Karelian peninsula in eastern Finland; the Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania; and Königberg in East Prussia. The United Nations was established to prevent another world war, but gave the victorious powers (the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China) permanent seats on the Security Council with veto power over major issues. Russia insisted on having three seats in the General Assembly (for Russia, Ukraine, and ). With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Baltic Republicans and Ukraine obtained their independence and became members of the UN General Assembly, and in 2004 the Baltic States became members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European Union. Today, the Baltic States has a Russian-speaking minority, but in eastern and southern Ukraine the majority of the population is Russian-speaking. Under the UN charter aggression is defined as any forcible change in the national boundaries, and precluded the UN from interfering in internal affairs of member nations. Ironically, these conditions have worked against peaceful resolutions of conflicts today in places like Ukraine and Chechnya by allowing a legalistic definition of aggression to trump the principle of self-determination. The result has been the use of military force instead of UN-sponsored plebiscites to address issues of national identity.

Latvijas drošības barometrs: 2/2025 (2025. gada aprīļa vidus – jūlija sākums).
Pēdējo trīs mēnešu laikā starptautiskajā politikā dominējis hiperaktīvais un neprognozējamais ASV prezidents. Karš Tuvajos Austrumos izpletās ārpus Gazas joslas un Izraēlas ziemeļu kaimiņvalstīm un pārtapa pilnā karā ar Irānu, iesaistoties arī ASV. Sekas vēl nav paredzamas. Šis periods noslēdzās ar neierastu NATO samita formātu, kas tika organizēts atbilstoši prezidenta Trampa vajadzībām. Krievijas karš pret Ukrainu kļuva asiņaināks, bet tā noslēgums vēl nav prognozējams. Krievijas militārās aktivitātes pieaugums un stingrā retorika arī Latvijai neliecina par drošības situācijas uzlabošanos.

The unit named after Leons Paegle was one of the largest Latvian units formed within the International Brigades. However, its composition remained unclear even after recollections of some of the unit's members were published during the Soviet occupation. The aim of the article is to analyse the composition of the unit named after Paegle and its characteristics, focusing on its motivation for being in Spain. The battle experience of its members has been described only briefly. Most of the unit members had communistic beliefs and saw their time in Spain as useful for political purposes of the party, however, their experience relating the Spanish Civil War was not uniform and the unit had difficulties to keep up morale, leading to a high percentage of deserters.

Nu jau savu ilgstošo nozīmīgo darbību valsts kultūras un politikas laukā diemžēl un diezgan negaidīti beigušais žurnāls "Rīgas Laiks" 2022.-2023. gadā aizsāka un realizēja arī īsu, bet samērā veiksmīgu izdevējdarbību būtisku neliela apjoma darbu izdošanā. Tā ir sērija "Rīgas Laika mazās grāmatiņas", un tajā kopumā tika izdoti pieci darbi-arī krievu rakstnieka Īzaka Bābela ("Odesas stāsti"), literāta un aktiera Andra Kalnozola ("Eiropas stāsti"), Kanādas žurnālista Batlera Brina-Džonatana ("Pasažieris"), kā arī "Radio Happenings" sarunas. Tā ir kopumā diezgan atšķirīgu lasošajai latviešu auditorijai nozīmīgu literāri filozofisku tekstu kopa, kura jau ieņēmusi noteiktu vietu arī mūsu literārajā mantojumā un publicistiskajā telpā. Tomēr pirmajam sērijā izdotajam darbam ir nozīmīga vieta arī mūsu vēstures zinātnē. Diemžēl tā iznākšana Latvijas sabiedrībā nepelnīti "pazuda" pēcpandēmijas, karsto starptautisko un iekšpolitisko norišu atmosfērā. Runa ir par faktiski aizmirstam, taču ļoti ievērojamam latviešu revolucionāram-Ivaram Smilgam-un viņa darbībai veltīto, no krievu valodas tulkoto Jurija Sļozkina darbu. 1

One might ask why a book on ethnicity, self-determination, and the American empire would contain a chapter on this complicated history of the rise and fall of empires in the Baltic region. The reason is that in order to understand the relationship between ethnicity and empire one cannot limit one’s view to the rise of nationalism in the nineteenth century, but in some cases one must look back to Ancient History, Medieval, and Pre-Modern History. Contrary to what some post-modernist historians have argued, namely, that ethnicity is  solely a matter of self-identification that does not exist prior to use of the term “ethnic,” we have seen with the Germans (the Prussians and the Saxons), the English (the Angles and Saxons), the Scandinavians (the Vikings, the Danes, the Swedes, and Norwegians), and the Slavs (the Russians, Poles, Estonians, Latvian, Lithuanians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians) that what I call proto-ethnicity is rooted in linguistic and religious differences in the distant past. 

We also have seen that ethnicity is related to empires and empires are best seen in relationship to geography. While history isn’t often written in terms of geographical regions, some historians have shown that geography is the best perspective to see how empires seek to dominate geographic regions through control of resources and transportation and trade routes.  In the case of the Baltic region water passage ways connecting the Baltic and the North seas (the Great Belt, Øresund, and the Little Belt), the rivers that drain into the Baltic Sea (the Elbe, the Oder, the Vistula, and the Neva), the gulfs off the main the sea (the Gulf of Finland, the Gulf of Riga, and the Gulf of Bothnia), and land routes between bodies of water, such as the Isthmus of Karelia (between the Gulf of Finland, Lake Ladoga, and the White Sea) were essential for imperial conquest and control. Denmark and Sweden fought for control of the straits at the western end of Baltic Sea; and Sweden, Poland-Lithuania, and Russia fought for control of the eastern reaches of the sea. At first, Poland-Lithuania was dominant in the east and Denmark in the west, then Sweden became the dominant power in both east and west, and finally Russia took control of the east and Prussia (Germany) along the southern shore of the Baltic.

Prior to the modern age the leaders of empire were monarchs, who established dynasties through the secession and intermarriage. This resulted in the rulers of empires not necessarily being of the same proto-ethnicity as the people they ruled. We have seen this with German Hanovians ruling England and Swedish Vasas or Russian Romanovs ruling Prussia, Poland, and Estonia. Yet differences in proto-ethnic groupings based on linguistic families (Slavic-speakers, Baltic or Ural Altaic-speakers, Germanic-speakers) and religious denominations (Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Lutheranism) have been a factor in pre-modern imperial wars, such as the Thirty-Years War or the Northern Baltic wars.

Overall, by viewing the history of the Baltic Sea region through the lenses of geography, ethnicity, and empire lays a foundation for understanding later historical developments, such as the partition of Poland by Austria, Prussia, and Russia in the late eighteenth century;  the development of nationalism in Germany, Poland, and Russia and the unification of German in the nineteenth century; the borders  settlements and nations (i.e., Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland) re-created by the Treaty of Versailles after World War I; the pact between Germany and Russia to invade Poland prior to World War II;  Germany’s invasion of Russia and Russia’s invasion of Finland during the war; and Communist Russia’s annexation of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Belarus and its domination of Poland and East Germany after the war. All this reinforces the conclusion that in the global world we live in today, one must understand not only American History and European History, but also World History.

This article is devoted to a rarely used property rights institute in Latvian practice -real burden (real charge), where the attention is drawn to the concept, essence and content of this institute. The purpose of the article is to describe the current and potential importance of the real burden in modern private legal circulation, illustrating it by typical examples from practice, which demonstrates, at the same time, the diversity and practical usefulness of the application of this property rights institute. atslēgvārdi: reālnasta, reālnastas izpildījumi, mūsdienu privāttiesiskā apgrozība Keywords: real burden (real charge), performances of real burden, modern private legal circulation ievads Civillikuma (turpmāk -CL) 1260.-1277. panta noteikumi, kas regulē reālnastas institūtu, pēc būtības negrozītā veidā ir tikuši pārņemti no attiecīgajiem 1864. gada Vietējo civillikumu kopojuma (turpmāk -VCL) 1297.-1321. panta noteikumiem. 1 Pati "reālnasta" (Reallast, поземельная повинность) CL 1260. pantā definēta kā "uz nekustamu īpašumu gulošs pastāvīgs pienākums atkārtoti dot noteiktus izpildījumus naudā, graudā vai klaušās". Raksturojot šo lietu tiesību institūtu, līdzšinējā Latvijas juridiskajā literatūrā ticis uzsvērts, ka reālnasta ir viduslaikos radies ģermāņu tiesību institūts, 2 kas spilgti raksturo feodālo tiesību sistēmu, kuras centrā bija lietu tiesības, jo viduslaikos dažādas nodevas, klaušas un maksājumus bija ērtāk un izdevīgāk piesaistīt nekustamam īpašumam, nevis kādai personai. Reālnastas subjekta pienākuma pozitīvais raksturs vēsturiski ir 1

The depiction of the ethnocultural territories of Latvia and Ukraine in Vatican documents in 1918. (Translation of the report "Russia - Restitutio di Diecesi") The translated document was created in 1918 for the needs of the Secretary of State of the Holy See and reflects Rome's opinion and level of knowledge about the situation in the territories of the former Russian Empire occupied by Austria and Germany, as well as the possibilities of restoring the influence of the Catholic Church in these territories.

In 1778, plans were approved for three modern cities of Latgale: Daugavpils, Ludza, and Rēzekne. The location of the original Rēzekne (Režica) plan is unknown, but copies of it are available to researchers, having been created at different times, and they contain a plan of the situation in addition to the project. The purpose of the study is to draw conclusions about the course of the first stage of the city’s development. By comparing the plans, conclusions were formulated about the approximate course of the creation of Rēzekne city houses and street network in the 18th/19th centuries. Today, the central street of the Old Town and the initial stages of some of its outgoing streets approximately correspond to the 1778 plan, but regular planning continued in the following stages of the city’s formation.

This paper examines how Latvian communities abroad reacted to and were influenced by a change of the first magnitude in the political life of their homeland, namely, the proclamation of the Republic of Latvia on November 18, 1918. News of the proclamation, first of all, necessitated diaspora Latvians choosing attitudes towards the new phenomenon, which highlighted the political predispositions of the different groups within the diaspora. Polarisation of opinions was followed shortly by a wave of activities both in support of and against the new Republic. These activities included gathering financial resources for war victims and state institutions in Latvia, public relations campaigns in diaspora host countries, political lobbying etc. The establishment of the Republic of Latvia also profoundly influenced and intensified the internal formation processes within the diaspora. A marked increase of activity is observable in all fields of engagement that are characteristic of an active ethno-national diaspora: the internal organisational structure was further developed; contacts with the homeland intensified; mutual links between geographically distant diaspora groups became closer. The great political changes in the homeland gave the Latvian diaspora the push necessary to fully develop and become an active ethno-national diaspora.

Eiropas Cilvēktiesību tiesas 2012.gada 5.jūnija sprieduma lietā Spīdzināšana ir uzskatāma par vienu no sliktas apiešanās veidiem. Sliktas apiešanās pamatā ir cietsirdīga (jeb nežēlīga), necilvēcīga, pazemojoša izturēšanās un arī jau iepriekš pieminētā spīdzināšana. 1 Satversmes tiesa ir norādījusi, ka "[a]tšķirība starp spīdzināšanu, necilvēcīgu apiešanos vai sodīšanu un pazemojošu apiešanos vai sodīšanu galvenokārt izriet no nodarīto ciešanu intensitātes atšķirībām". 2 Necilvēcīga izturēšanās ir tāda ar nodomu veikta izturēšanās, kas veikta nosacīti ilgtermiņā radot personai intensīvas ciešanas vai miesas bojājumus, taču pazemojoša izturēšanās ir tāda izturēšanās, kas grauj personas godu un cieņu, rada tajā bailes u.tml. 3 Spīdzināšanas jēdziena saturu atklāj Konvencijas pret spīdzināšanu un citiem nežēlīgas, necilvēcīgas vai pazemojošas izturēšanās vai sodīšanas veidiem (turpmāk -KPS) 1.panta pirmā daļa, nosakot, ka spīdzināšana ir tāds akts ar kuru personai tīši tiek nodarītas stipras fiziskas vai garīgas sāpes vai ciešanas, lai no tās iegūtu ziņas vai atzīšanos, lai sodītu par kādu darbību, kuru šī persona ir veikusi vai par kuras veikšanu šo personu tur aizdomās. 4 Spīdzināšanas, necilvēcīgas un pazemojošas apiešanās un sodīšanas aizlieguma princips izriet no cilvēka cieņas 5 kā augstākās konstitucionālās vērtības. Vēsturiski spīdzināšana ir tikusi izmantota kā sodīšanas un disciplinēšanas instruments un tās esamība ir cieši saistīta ar sodu sistēmas evolūciju. Tas, vai konkrētajā tiesību sistēmā spīdzināšana ir atzīta par legālu un izmantojamu sodīšanas līdzekli, atspoguļo sabiedrības un pastāvošās varas vērtību sistēmu un izpratni par vērtībām un morāli kā sociāli-tiesiskiem fenomeniem. Piemēram, līdz

The article addresses the general concept of life writing, which refers to the creation of a text that focuses on the life and life experiences of a writer or another person. It centres on the poet Veronika Strēlerte's self-reflection in her childhood recollections and on two people's, who are close to her-her son Pāvils Johansons and the poet Margita Gūtmane, memories. The concepts of memory, experience, and identity offered by American scholars, Sidonie Smith and Julia Watson, proved instrumental in addressing life writing and its realisation through depictions and memories. The article explores the motivations that prompted Strēlerte to revisit the images of her childhood memories, describes the relationship between the real and the fictional, and the narrative strategies (author's and protagonist's voices). In discussing the two memoirs, the commonalities (belonging to the same generation) and differences (a sense of family, motherhood, and home) that define authors' perspectives on the poet's personality are examined. Johansons' memoirs provide an insight into his family: his mother, a poet, and his father Andrejs Johansons, a cultural historian, religious studies scholar, essayist, and their relationship with him. They also vividly describe his parents' inner circle, the Latvian intelligentsia in exile, and as such are important cultural and historical source. In her memoirs, Gūtmane portrays Strēlerte as a poet and as a "mere mortal," thus creating a vibrant and versatile account of Strēlerte's personality. She elaborates on the theme of exile,

Raksta mērķis ir sniegt ieskatu galvenajās Latvijas PSR rūpniecības attīstības iezīmēs un problēmās pēckara gados, ilustrējot to ar vienas no republikas rūpniecības “šaurajām vietām” – būvmateriālu ražošanas nozares – piemēru. Pētījumā, kas kļuva par pamatu šīs publikācijas tapšanai, balstoties uz arhīva materiāliem, tika apzināta Latvijas PSR tautsaimniecības struktūra un tās atjaunošanas procesi no Otrā pasaules kara beigām līdz 1953. gadam, šim mērķim padziļināti izpētot vienu no tās nozarēm – būvmateriālu rūpniecību, īpašu uzmanību pievēršot ražošanas procesam, ražotajai produkcijai un galvenajiem darbības rādītājiem.  Pētījuma rezultāti parāda – lai gan būvmateriālu ražošanai bija piešķirta stratēģiskā nozīme un tā bija strauji jāattīsta, realitātē tās stāvoklis pētāmajā laika posmā bija prioritārai tautsaimniecības nozarei neatbilstošs.

The purpose of this paper is to introduce the main trends and problems of industrial development in the Latvian SSR after World War II, which is illustrated by the example of the building materials industry as one of the bottlenecks in state industry. The present paper was preceded by research on the structure of the national economy of the Latvian SSR and the process of its recovery during the period from the end of World War II to 1953, conducting in-depth research of one of its sectors – the industry of building materials, paying special attention to the manufacturing process and products, as well as to the key performance indicators. The result of the study shows that, although strategic importance was given to the production of building materials, as it had to be developed rapidly, its condition was discrepant from the claimed priority during the study period.

Defining Latvia. Recent Explorations in History, Culture, and Politics. Hrsg. von Michael L o a d e r, Siobhan H e a r n e und Matthew K o t t. CEU Press. Budapest 2022. 270 S. ISBN 978-963-386-445-6. (€ 71,-.) Dieser auf eine 2018 an der Universität Uppsala anlässlich des Hundertjährigen Bestehen des lettischen Nationalstaates abgehaltenen Tagung zurückgehende Sammelband vereinigt zeitgenössische Forschungen internationaler Forschender zur Geschichte Lettlands. Übergreifende Klammer, wie im Bandtitel angedeutet, ist die Frage, was Lettland, bzw. das Lettisch-Sein, ausmacht. Bekanntermaßen existiert ein lettischer Nationalstaat erst seit 1918, und der Begriff "Latvija" wurde erst im Zuge der sich im 19. Jh. herausbildenden

Promocijas darbā “Vidzemes muižu bibliotēku vēsturiskais mantojums
(18. gs.–20. gs. 20. gadi)” pirmo reizi apzinātas, sistematizētas un pētītas
Vidzemes latviešu daļas muižu bibliotēkas, akcentējot tās kā muižas un tās sabiedrības ikdienas dzīves būtisku sastāvdaļu. Promocijas darbā atspoguļots šī temata Eiropas konteksts, kā arī īpaši izcelti muižu vēsturisko kolekciju pētniecības teorētiskie aspekti un ietverti aktuālie metodoloģijas jautājumi.
Pētījums balstīts nepublicētos un publicētos avotos, pārskatāmībai un analīzei sagatavojot kvantitatīvo rādītāju pielikumus, kā arī izpētes gaitā izveidojot Vidzemes muižu reģistru, kurā atbilstoši izpētes pakāpei atzīmēta informācija par muižu bibliotēku esamību un to krājumiem trīs gadsimtos. Promocijas darbā atspoguļotas ne tikai Vidzemes muižu bibliotēkas un to vēsturiskais mantojums, bet padziļināti analizēti procesi, kas ietekmēja pārmaiņas Latvijas muižu vēsturē kā tādā, pētot bibliotēku vietu un lomu sabiedrības attīstības procesos, kontaktu un informācijas apritē, izceļot un akcentējot lokālo problemātiku.

In the doctoral dissertation “Historical heritage of Vidzeme manor libraries (18th century–1920s)”, for the first time the libraries of manor estates in the Latvian part of the historical region of Vidzeme are identified, systematized and studied, highlighting them as essential parts of the daily economic and social processes of the manor estates. The dissertation provides a wider European context of this topic and highlights the theoretical aspects and questions of methodology on the research of historical collections belonging to manor estates. The research is based on unpublished and published sources, creating appendices of quantitative data for improved overview and ease of analysis. During the process of research, an index of manor estates in Vidzeme has been created, marking information on the existence of manors and their historical collections, covering a period of three centuries. The doctoral dissertation reveals not only the libraries of manor estates in Vidzeme and their historical heritage, but also deeply analyses the broader processes which effected change upon the course of manor estate history in Latvia, researching the role of libraries in the development of society, the circulation of connections and information, emphasizing and accentuating the local issues.

This is a collaborative study on how, and by whom, the discourse of folklore authenticity was developed in Latvia in the 1970s-1980s and how it affected and still affects the Latvian folklore revival and post-revival practices. Influential positions and vital discussions have arisen in search of meaningful (authentic) folklore practices, such as honouring an unattainable ideal and practicing political resistance, creative ancientness, and spiritual empowerment.

ThE CULTURAL SOCIETy IN SARKANDAUGAVA (1931-1934): ThE SOCIAL  ASPECT
SUMMARY
In Latvian historiography, the suburb of
Sarkandaugava in Riga was rather an industrial area, therefore, also a working class district. The history of this region deals with the history of such manufactures as Russian–French factory society “Provodņiks”, the brewery “Waldschlösschen” (related to the history of “Dauderi”), the chemical plant of Rutenberg, the woodworking company “Vērmanis un dēls”, the sugar factory “Rāve”. Moreover, the suburb of Sarkandaugava is associated with the temperance society “Ziemeļblāzma” and the psychiatric hospital. Establishment of different groups, organisations, and associations became a specific phenomenon of the interwar period related to the genesis of the freedom of association in the Baltic provinces of the Russian Empire. Therefore, almost every occupation, school, region,
or hobby, etc. had their own association in Latvia. The Cultural Society in Sarkandaugava was one of the examples. Interestingly, Pāvils Puzinas, one of the scholars of the renowned Latvian painter Vilhelms Purvītis, was also one of the members. Although, the Society was socially, politically and culturally passive (out of 177 registered members, only 8 were active) and it worked for three years only (before the authoritarian regime). The questionnaires filled in by the members of the Society, found at the Latvian State Historical Archive, were very useful. Regardless of the fact that Sarkandaugava was a working class suburb and assumption that working class citizens mainly supported the ideas of Socialism, many active
nationalists, who were members of the Society, were also present and got involved in anti-political activities. There were also communists living in Sarkandaugava. This allows us to observe the changes of ideologies and see the strong influence of the ideas of Socialism and resistance against them.

Nonviolent resistance of ethnic minorities migrated to Latvia to the Soviet regime reflected by the criminal cases of the LSSR KGB (1956 – 1968)

During the second-half of the 1950s, excessive industrialization and urbanization was organized in Latvia. This promoted inward migration from different parts of the USSR. Considering nonviolent resistance to the Soviet totalitarian and bureaucratic authoritarian regime, many who came to Latvia by means of this migration were also involved. This paper aims to analyze the studied cases on nonviolent resistance while paying particular attention to the aforementioned groups. This issue has not been reflected in Latvian historiography. Therefore, as a main source underlying this research, this study will examine the criminal cases concerning nonviolent resistance involving Latvian inhabitants who were not born in Latvia and with no blood relatives living in Latvia. This group can be categorized as an ethnic minority. The criminal cases are selected on the basis of the qualification of crimes according to the norm of ‘anti-Soviet propaganda and agitation’, which also covered nonviolent resistance
activities and which were punished on the basis of Article 5810 of the Criminal Code of the Russian SFSR and Article 65 of the Criminal Code of the LSSR. The chronological borders of this research start from 1956 when, during the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev denouncing the excesses of Stalinism as ‘a personality cult’, and end at 1968, which is linked to the end of the democratization elements in the satellite countries of the USSR.

ANOTĀCIJA
Darbā apkopoti statistiskie dati par parlamentārisma posmā dzīvojušo sievieti tautības aspektā, salīdzinot dažādu tautību sieviešu nodarbošanās veidus un situāciju augstākās izglītības jomā, lai sniegtu ieskatu dažādu
etnocitāšu sieviešu sociālajā portretā. Pētījums realizēts sociālās vēstures virziena ietvaros, atspoguļojot sociālo, kulturālo un dzimuma faktoru mijiedarbi aroda izvēlē un augstākās izglītības jautājumā.
Atslēgas vārdi: herstory, sociālais portrets, minoritātes, identitāte, sociālā vēsture, statistiskā metode.

THE STATISTICAL DATA ON WOMEN OF THE LARGEST ETHNIC MINORITIES IN LATVIA (1921–1934): OCCUPATION AND HIGHER EDUCATION

ABSTRACT
The paper presents the statistical data on the occupation and higher education of women of different ethnic minorities in Latvia, thus giving an insight into the social portrait of the woman in the period of parliamentarianism from the ethnic perspective. The paper represents one field of social history that became popular in the academic discussion within Latvia’s historiography only after the restoration of independence, when it became possible for Latvian historians to use the research findings and the methods developed in Western Europe and the USA.
Keywords: herstory, social portrait, minorities, identity, social history, statistical method
SUMMARY
Social history is a field of history, which became popular in the USA and in Western Europe during the 1960s and 1970s. Social history addresses the history of “average” people versus the history of political or military leaders. The “average” people, however, represent the majority of population. The New Social History School had an analogue in the French Annales School. The research addresses women of different ethnic minorities with the help of the structural method, thus also representing a study in social history. In the context of the paper by an “average” woman is understood the woman from that part of society, the physical and financial needs of which are satisfied. The term “average” corresponds to what E. Giddens describes as “middle class”, i.e. the middle layer in the social stratification system. The aim of the paper is to analyse the statistical data on the occupation and higher education of the women of the largest ethnic minorities in Latvia during the period of parliamentarianism. It is important to mention that almost all of the relevant statistical data have not been researched before and the author faced the task of accessing such data. The data were drawn from three different statistical reviews from the period that concerns us. They allowed the author to find out the number of women per each ethnic group and, based on this, to establish the percentage and concrete number of women in each concrete occupation. The obtained data were processed to analyse three different aspects: 1) the correlation of women and men in the concrete field of occupation, 2) the correlation of the total number of women and the number of women working in the respective field; 3) the correlation of the total number of women and women officially working in the respective field per each ethnic minority. The first review revealed that the highest proportion of working women were among the Belorussian (49%) and Latvians (48%) while the highest proportion of working men were from the ethnic groups with the lowest proportion of working women (the Jews with 70% and Germans with 55%). The third review showed that
the majority of women worked in the fields of catering and hospitality (90%) and agriculture (60%). The statistical data reveal that the highest proportion of intellectual workers were among the German (18%) and Jewish (12 %) women (in turn, the proportion of agricultural workers among the Jewish women was the lowest), while the respective proportion among the Latvian women was only 6%. As concerns education, women had interest in higher education, however, only one third actually graduated from universities. Russian women preferred receiving education in their own language. Russian women married young and their marriages were the most stable, and they also had larger families than women from other ethnic groups. One of the main conclusions is that for the most part women accepted the choices that their husbands or fathers made for them and worked in fields that were traditional for their respective ethnic group.

Raksts veltīts līdz šim mazpētītai tēmai Latvijas mūzikas vēsturē-ērgeļpozitīviem Vidzemes baznīcās. Lai arī dažos dievnamos ērģeles bija iegādātas jau 16. gadsimta beigās, plašāka ērģeļu būve un arī to iegāde Vidzemē faktiski sākas 18. gadsimta otrajā pusē, kad vispārējie vēsturiskie un ekonomiskie apstākļi bija labvēlīgāki straujākai pilsētu un lauku draudžu attīstībai. 18. gadsimta beigās apmēram trešā daļa no visām Vidzemes draudzēm varēja lepoties ar saviem ērģeļpozitīviem un ērģelniekiem, kuri lielākoties veica arī skolmeistara pienākumus. Rakstā atspoguļotas gan zināmas, gan aizmirstas, gan arī jaunatklātas ziņas par ērģeļpozitīviem Vidzemes baznīcās, kā arī par ērģeļbūvētājiem, kuri būvēja, pārdeva vai arī remontēja šos mūzikas instrumentus.

The focus of the presentation is emphasized on the international political manifestations of the community of Russian emigres in Latvia in the first half and in the middle of 20s. Despite a huge number of different obstacles, the representatives almost of all countries, where Russian exiles settled, were able to gather at the "Russian Conference Abroad" in Paris in 1926. The organization of the event and the elections of the deputies resonated in Latvia, where the processes had local peculiarities. The elected Latvian delegation participated in the different commissions of the conference and voted for the resolutions. In some cases, it had a certain scandalous consequences in Latvia. The conference was held for one week, more than 500 deputies and participants accepted a number of different resolutions. Some of them -the complete and irrevocable de iure recognition of the Baltic States, Finland and Poland, the "agrarian issue" in Russia, position towards the Soviets, Soviet citizens, servicemen of Red Army and the future of Russia. Despite the large expectations, emigres were not able to establish the representative organ of Russians abroad and the conference became the last largest manifestation aimed towards the consolidation of Russian anti-bolshevik political forces in exile 2 .

Šajā publikācijā aplūkoti notikumi pēc Ziemeļrietumu armijas sakaušanas, internēšanas un likvidācijas 1919. gada beigās–1940. gada sākumā. Smagie ekonomiskie, sociālie un politiskie apstākļi kļuva par iemeslu bijušo militārpersonu un bēgļu masveida emigrācijai uz tuvākajām valstīm, to skaitā arī uz Latviju. Tomēr, neraugoties uz to, ka daudzi Ziemeļrietumu armijas karavīri potenciāli varēja pretendēt uz Latvijas pilsoņa statusu, repatriācija parasti izvērtās par birokrātiski sarežģītu procesu. Repatriācijas sekmēšanu veicināja pazīšanās Latvijā un Latvijas armijā. Reģiona militāri politiskās situācijas mudināti, daļa emigrantu uzskatīja par labāku turpināt cīņu pret lieliniekiem Latvijā un Igaunijā, bet vēlāk Polijā.

Anotācija

1903. gadā dibinātā nespējnieku patversme Rīgā, Telts ielā 1, bija īpaša, jo tā bija sociālās aprūpes iestāde, kas deva iespēju saņemt arī medicīniska rakstura palīdzību ar dažādām slimībām sirgstošiem sabiedrībā visvairāk apdraudētajiem pieaugušajiem – “hroniski slimiem” (jeb neārstējamiem) nespējniekiem. Medicīniskās aprūpes funkciju patversme zaudēja1926. gadā. Tā bija vecākā šāda veida iestāde Rīgā. Netālu esošā 1913. gadā dibinātā nespējnieku patversme Ģimnastikas ielā 1, atšķirībā no Telts ielas patversmes, uzņēma tos hroniski slimos nespējniekus, kuri varēja par sevi samaksāt. Patversme Ģimnastikas ielā kļuva par lielāko sociālās aprūpes iestādi pieaugušajiem Rīgā līdz 1940. gadam, bet patversme Telts ielā bija otrā lielākā sociālās aprūpes iestāde pieaugušajiem pēc aprūpējamo skaita. Raksta mērķis ir analizēt Telts ielas patversmes darbību Latvijas Republikā tās pastāvēšanas pirmajos desmit gados, galvenokārt balstoties uz Latvijas Nacionālā arhīva Latvijas Valsts vēstures arhīvā (turpmāk LNA LVVA) saglabātajiem dokumentiem par laiku no 1919. līdz 1929. gadam. Šajā rakstā pirmo reizi Latvijas historiogrāfijā detalizēti tiek analizēta 20. gadsimta sākuma sociālās apgādības iestādes darbība.

Atslēgvārdi: sociālā aprūpe, Rīgas pašvaldība, 20. gadsimta 20. gadi, sociālā politika, nespējnieku patversme, nespējnieki.


ENG The operation of the Chronically Ill Asylum on Telts Street 1, Riga: the overview of the social milieu

Summary
The Chronically Ill Asylum on Telts Street 1, opened in 1903, was a unique institution by uniting the function of the social care institution and also the possibility to gain medical help. The institution was aimed at the most vulnerable groups of society – the “chronically ill” disabled adults with different kinds of uncurable diseases. An institution on Telts Street was the oldest institution of this kind. Another similar institution was established in 1913 near the Telts Street asylum – on Ģimnastikas Street. Compared to the asylum on Telts Street it was an institution for the chronically ill, who could pay for themselves. The institution on Ģimnastikas Street was the biggest, but on Telts Street – the second biggest asylum in Riga by the number of dependents. In 1926, Telts Street Asylum lost the function of the medical institution. The meaning of the word “disabled” (“nespējnieks”) in Latvian is complicated and can relate to every type (or complex) of disability to work. The Paper aims to analyse the operation of the asylum on Telts Street for the first years in the Latvian Republics – from 1919 to 1929 on the basis of the available protocols and other documents on the operation of the asylum on Telts Street in the State Historical Archive of the National Archive of Latvia. Also, periodical materials and statistical data were used. The documents of the operation of the asylum are unique and previously not researched sources. The analysis allowed us to look not only into the operation of one of the institutions of the Social Care department in Riga and to “hear the voices” of the disabled, their opinions, and emotions, which however, were not always justified and valid. In most cases, documents are complaints (both from staff and disabled), which is a contradictious document, because the aim of those documents was not to show the good practices, but to highlight the violations and malpractices. However, the fact that both the employees and those dependent on them – the disabled had an opportunity to complain and those complaints were heard, indicates a democratic management model in the institution subordinated to the Social Welfare Department of Riga – the disabled asylum.
The paper shows, that after complaints there were inspections of the responsible persons, and it influenced and improved the work in the asylum. Both employees and dependents wrote about emotional burnout and unstable mental health issues. For example, after 10 years on duty in Telts Street asylum, the medical commission concluded, that the health of the fifth manager had deteriorated and his work abilities as a manager decreased to 50 %. Other employees of the asylum were characterized as “nervous”. The data about the social milieu or social environment in the asylum on Telts Street asylum correlates with the data about the Latvian society in the researched period – when the level of social welfare began torise and the number of disabled in Telts Street asylum started slowly to decrease, the employees stayed longer and there was a sense of stability. Here we can conclude that war and innumerable changes of the political powers traumatized Latvian society. In the first decade of the existence of the Latvian state, difficult conditions of the Telts Street asylum were determined by many circumstances – lack of inventory, food supplies and staff. The work in an asylum, regardless of the position was physically and emotionally hard, and the salaries were small and work was done by the people who were not suitable for this work, or lacked previous experience. Disabled had different social backgrounds, age groups, diseases and tempers. There were lot of suicides or attempts by the disabled. The main reason for suicides was the pain and lack of proper treatment and care.

Keywords: social care history, municipality of Riga, 1920ties, social policy, disabled asylum, disabled.

²íâåíòàð ìÿñòý÷êà Ñàïîöê³í 1704 ãîäà Ó 1924 ã. óëàäàëüí³ê ìà¸íòêà Ñâÿöê ó À¢ãóñòî¢ñê³ì ïàâåöå (öÿïåð Ñâÿöê çíàõîäç³ööà ¢ Ãðîäçåíñê³ì ðà¸íå) Þçàô Ãóðñê³ çðàá³¢ Ãðîäçåíñêàìó ìóçåþ âûêëþ÷íà êàøòî¢íûÿ ïàäàðóíê³. ¨í ïåðàäࢠñòâàðàëüí³êó ³ çàõàâàëüí³êó ìóçåÿ Þçàôó ßäêî¢ñêàìó êàìåííóþ ñÿêåðêó, äâàööàöü ïÿöü ñòàðàaeûòíûõ ìåäà븢 (ç ³õ äâà çàëàòûõ) ³ äîñûöü âÿë³ê³ àðõ³¢ óëà-äàëüí³êࢠäîáðࢠÑàïîöê³í Ðàäç³â³ëê³ Òýàë³í Ñâÿöê. Àðõ³¢ ñêëà-äà¢ñÿ áîëüø ÷ûì ç äâóõñîò äàêóìåíòà¢, ÿê³ÿ ìåë³ äà÷ûíåííå äà øëÿõåö-ê³õ ðîäࢠÂàëîâ³÷à¢, ×ûaeî¢, Ãàñå¢ñê³õ 1 . Ñïðàâà ¢ òûì, øòî Ãóðñê³ÿ âà-ëîäàë³ Ñâÿöêàì òîëüê³ íà ïðàöÿãó òðîõ ïàêàëåííÿ¢, äçåä Þçàôà Ãóðñêàãà, òàêñàìà Þçàô, ó ïà÷àòêó Õ²Õ ñò. àaeàí³¢ñÿ ç àïîøíÿé óëàäàëüí³öàé Ñâÿöêà ç ðîäó Ãàñå¢ñê³õ, Êàðàë³íàé, ÿêàÿ, àäíàê, ïàìåðëà, íå ïàê³íó¢øû íàø÷àäêࢠäëÿ Þçàôà Ãóðñêàãà (ÿãîíûÿ ñïàäêàåìöû ïàõîäç³ë³ àä äðóãîãà øëþáó) 2 . Ãàñå¢ñê³ì aeà Ñâÿöê ïåðàéøî¢ ó ðóê³ àä ìàãóòíàãà øëÿõåöêàãà ðîäó Âàëîâ³÷à¢. Òàê ó ðóêàõ íàø÷àäêࢠíå àñàáë³âà âÿäîìàãà ñóäîâàãà âûêàíà¢öû ç Ëîìaeû Þçàôà Ãóðñêàãà àêàçàë³ñÿ íå òîëüê³ ñàìûÿ âÿ-ë³ê³ÿ çÿìåëüíûÿ ¢ëàäàíí³ íà òýðûòîðû³ ¢ñ¸é Ñóâàëêà¢ñêàé ãóáåðí³ ³ öó-äî¢íû ïàëàö, ïàáóäàâàíû íàïðûêàíöû XVIII ñò., àëå òàêñàìà àðõ³âû ïà-ïÿðýäí³õ óëàäàëüí³êࢠÑâÿöêà ³ íàâàêîëüíûõ àáøàðà¢. Ñÿðîä ³íøûõ ö³êàâûõ äàêóìåíòࢠXVI-XIX ñòñò. ó àðõ³âå çàõàâà¢ñÿ ²íâåíòàð ìÿñòý÷êà Ñàïîöê³í, ñêëàäçåíû ¢ 1704 ãîäçå. Ãýòà àäç³í ç íàéáîëüø ö³êàâûõ äàêóìåíòà¢, ÿê³ äàå íàì ìàã÷ûìàñöü óÿâ³öü ÿê âûãëÿäàëà ìÿñòý÷êà ¢ ñàìûì ïà÷àòêó XVIII cò. (êàìåíòàð äà ³íâåíòàðà ³ ñàì äàêóìåíò çìåø÷àíû ¢ äàäàòêó). Äàòàé çàñíàâàííÿ ìÿñòý÷êà ïðûíÿòà ë³÷ûöü 10 ë³ïåíÿ 1519 ã., êàë³ êàðîëü ïîëüñê³ ³ âÿë³ê³ êíÿçü ë³òî¢ñê³ AEûã³ìîíò äࢠáàÿðûíó Ñàïîöüêó Ñòýöêîâ³÷ó (Ñîïîòêó Ñòåöêîâè÷ó) ïðûâ³ëåé íà âàëîäàííå çÿìë¸é Ðà-ìàíà¢ø÷ûíà ¢ Ãðîäçåíñê³ì ïàâåöå 3 . Àäíàê í³ÿê³õ ïðàìûõ äîêàçࢠòàãî ôàêòà, øòî äàäçåíàÿ çãàäêà òû÷ûööà ìåíàâ³òà ìåñöà ¢çí³êíåííÿ Ñà-ïîöê³íà, íå ³ñíóå. Áîëüø äàêëàäíóþ ³íôàðìàöûþ çíàõîäç³ì ó àäíûì ç àêòࢠãðîäçåíñêàãà çåìñêàãà ñóäà çà 1634 ã. Ó ãýòûì äàêóìåíöå çìåø-÷àíà âûòðûìêà ç àï³ñàííÿ çÿìåëü ñÿëÿí-ïàääàíûõ Ãðîäçåíñêàãà Áàðû-1

Ik pa pieciem gadiem gatavojoties Dziesmu un deju svētkiem, kā to neatņemama sastāvdaļa tiek organizētas latviešu tautas lietišķās mākslas
izstādes. Bet tas tā nav bijis vienmēr. Laika posmā no pirmajiem līdz devītajiem Dziesmu svētkiem (1873–1938) tautas lietišķās mākslas izstādes svētkiem par godu netika rīkotas.

Until the founding of the Republic of Latvia, women were practically excluded from law studies and work in the justice system. The territory of Latvia was part of the Russian Empire and thus subject to the 1864 judicial reform and its laws, which required a law degree and experience to be eligible for working in the justice system and prohibited women from these positions. Following the founding of the Republic of Latvia in 1918 and, more specifically, the establishment of the University of Latvia which had a stronger focus on gender equality in 1919, Latvian women finally had the opportunity to earn the necessary degrees and pursue careers in the judiciary. However, to gain the required experience and be admitted to practice in the court, Bar association, or notaria, women initially needed someone to employ them. In this regard, specific well-known men with liberal worldviews played a significant role.

In 19th century Latvia, as elsewhere in Europe, peasants' dress featured ornamental motifs. In the initial decades of the 20th century, some specific visual symbols were extracted from these ornaments and designated as latvju raksti (Latvian ornaments). This subset gained widespread adoption in later periods of 20th and 21st century Latvia, establishing a tradition of usage.
Similar to folk songs, the collection of old textiles became an important activity at the end of the 19th century. The collected items were used to create appropriate outfits for song festivals or, in the case of Rihards Zariņš, to showcase Latvian art style, which was to become a model for young artists. In 1911, Matīss Siliņš published the most popular symbols of Latvian ornaments-sun (saulīte), star (zvaigznīte), swastika (uguns krusts), and fir needle (skujiņa)-contextualizing them within the Latvian or Livonian (Livs) identity, thus imbuing them with a nationalistic significance. Subsequently, Latvian ornaments played an important role in the newly formed country-they became part of national symbolism (national flag variants, the national coat of arms, ornamentation of premises in the President's palace, etc.). In 1923, Jānis Sudmalis and Ernests Brastiņš published brochures in which they attempted, in their own words, an explanation of Latvian ornament symbolism.
For Sudmalis, Latvian ornaments were an essential part of national culture and art that represented long-lost traditions. Traditions that needed to be awakened and brought a renaissance of Latvian art, true to Latvian style, as he imagined it. For Brastiņš, Latvian ornaments encompassed the worldview of the (imagined) nation and were part of the religious rituals of Latvian ancestors. He used Latvian ornaments to create a folksong based nationalistic Latvian religion.
The tradition of depicting and interpreting Latvian ornaments could be regarded as an invented tradition in Eric Hobsbawm’s sense. It served to create the Latvian nation and unify it in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Целью данной статьи является представление книги В. С. Великанова и С. Л. Мехнева, которые сосредоточили свое внимание на курляндской кампании 1705–1706 гг. и битве при Гемауэртофе (лат. Мурмуйжа). Авторы рецензируемой работы рассматривают фрагмент Великой Северной войны, который был неизвестен до сих пор.

Rocznica stulecia Bitwy Warszawskiej jest okazją do przypomnienia żołnierzy Wojska Polskiego z Wielkopolski, którzy polegli w walce o Gliniankę 17–18 sierpnia 1920 r. i spoczęli w bratniej mogile na tutejszym cmentarzu, a także żołnierzy pochodzących z parafii Glinianka, którzy walczyli w wojnie bolszewickiej.

When contemplating Evgeny Pashukanis’s immense contributions to the materialist theory of law via his positing of the ‘legal form’, there is much insight to be gained by connecting Pashukanis’s efforts to the material composition of his formative context. Towards this end, this chapter focuses on Pashukanis’s Lithuanian heritage in relation to how the ‘Lithuanian Question’ of his day invoked deep histories that spoke to numerous contemporary issues concerning law, rights, and identity. To uncover these histories is to engage in the type of historical sociological inquiry into ‘the juridical’ that Pashukanis advocated in his General Theory of Law and Marxism. On this point, approaching Pashukanis through his background provides immense insights into his theoretical disagreement with his fellow Soviet jurist Pēteris Stučka, the leader of the short-lived Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic, on the nature of law. While Stučka disagreed with Pashukanis that ‘law’ was reducible to the commodity-exchange facilitating bourgeois legal form, I argue that diverging historical sociological consciousnesses as a result of their differing Latvian versus Lithuanian backgrounds can, at least partially, explain their jurisprudential disagreement.