Learning and Memory (Neurosciences)

Introduction: Cerebral ischemia is one of the leading causes of global mortality and disability in many countries. Damage caused by reperfusion is due to the inflammatory function of the injured tissue. Ischemia-reperfusion causes the formation of oxygen free radicals and other oxidants. The CA1 region of the hippocampus is one of the highly sensitive parts of the brain in ischemia and hypoxia. The Nigella sativa plant, with its antioxidant properties, can remove free radicals and cell-damaging compounds to prevent cell death and damage to viable cells. To determine the effects of hydroalcoholic extract and nano-hydroalcoholic extract containing N. sativa on the CA1 region of the hippocampus in male Wistar rats following transient global ischemia/reperfusion. Methods: Four groups of 32 male Wistar rats were randomly formed: Control, ischemia, hydroalcoholic extract of black recipient seed, and nano-extract of hydroalcoholic black seed recipient. Ligation of bilateral common carotid arteries induced an ischemia model. Following the behavioral test, brain removal was completed and prepared for Nissl staining and stereological evaluations, along with the expression levels of Bax and Bcl2, using the realtime PCR technique. Results: A considerable rise in the number of viable pyramidal cells was observed in the hydroalcoholic extract and nano-hydroalcoholic extract groups compared to the ischemia group. Bax expression was elevated, and the expression of Bcl-2 declined after transient global I/R in the CA1 region. The effects of transient global ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) on gene expression were reversed by the injection of hydroalcoholic and nano-hydroalcoholic extracts containing N. Sativa. Conclusion: Transient global I/R remarkably promotes cell death and morphological changes. It appears that the hydroalcoholic extract of N. sativa, particularly the nanohydroalcoholic extract, at a dose of 400 mg/kg, may be a suitable solution for treating ischemia-induced brain damage.

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether vitrification is an effective cryopreservation method for storage of human umbilical cord mesenchymal cells (HUCMs). HUCMs were vitrified using a two step method. The viability of vitrified HUCMs (v-HUCM) and non-vitrified HUCMs (n-HUCM) was determined by Trypan Blue staining. The expression of several markers was evaluated using flow cytometry. The osteogenic, adipogenic and chondrogenic differentiation potential of v-HUCMs and n-HUCMs was determined. The post-warming viability of HUCMs was 95.54 +/- 2.30. The expression of surface antigens (strong positive for CD44, CD90 and CD105; negative for CD34 and CD45) was similar in the above mentioned groups. The v-HUCM cells retained ability to differentiate into osteoblasts, adipocytes and chondrocytes under appropriate culture conditions. The analysis of these results showed that vitrification is a reliable and effective method for cryopreservation of human umbilical cord mesenchymal cells.

Болезнь Альцгеймера (БА) представляет собой с каждым годом «молодеющее» нейродегенеративное заболевание c характерным нарушением когнитивных функций. Впервые Алоис Альцгеймер выявил в мозге пациентов наличие бета-амилоидных белков. Актуальной проблемой является раскрытие нейрофизиологических механизмов развития БА. Цель - поиск природных антиоксидантов, способных регулировать развитие БА и восстановление памяти. Изучалась реабилитационная роль куркумы (К) и Гинкго Билоба  (ГБ) при создании экспериментального аналога БА. Применяли метод двусторонней бульбэктомии. После полного нарушения памяти мы использовали экстракт К (группа II) и экстракт ГБ (группа III).
Материалы и методы: Объектом служили крысы – альбиносы весом 180-270 гр. Животные были разделены на три группы: контроль (I); получавшие экстракт К(II); получавшие экстракт ГБ (III). Все группы обучались в водном лабиринте Морриса (G.Morris,1983). Платформа диаметром 12 см была ниже поверхности воды, закрашенной молоком. Обучение длилось 7 дней. Латентный период (ЛП) поиска наивных крыс: 90 – 120 с. К концу обучения ЛП всех групп сокращался до 10-12 секунд. Была сформирована зрительно контролируемая пространственная память. Модель БА создавалась двусторонней хирургической бульбэктомией. Через три месяца после бульбэктомии провели тестирование. Наблюдалось тотальное нарушение пространственной памяти (ЛП увеличился до 90 – 120 с.). Далее в течение 7 дней животные группы (II) получали экстракт К, а группы (III) - экстракт ГБ.
Результаты: Тестирование (I) выявило нарушение у крыс пространственной памяти. Следовательно, был получен аналог БА. Администрация экстракта К (II) приводила к уменьшению ЛП поиска (2 – 8 - 10 с.). Выявлено, что дминистрация экстракта ГБ (III) за 15-25 с. «К» оказывает более мощный эффект, чем прием «ГБ». Таким образом, в исследовании была показана реабилитационная роль К и ГБ на аналоге БА. Доказано сходство и различие восстановительных функций мозга от эффектов К и ГБ на модели БА. ЛП поиска платформы группой крыс после получения К в 3 раза короче, чем после администрации ГБ. Следовательно, экстракт К обладает более сильными реабилитационными свойствами по сравнению с экстрактом ГБ.

Amniotic fluid has been investigated as new cell source for stem cells in the development of future cell-based transplantation. This study reports isolation of viable human amniotic fluid-derived stem cells, labeled with multimodal iron oxide nanoparticles, and its effect on focal cerebral ischemia–reperfusion injury in Wistar rats. Middle cerebral artery occlusion of 60 min followed by reperfusion for 1 h, 6 h, and 24 h was employed in the present study to produce ischemia and reperfusion-induced cerebral injury in rats. Tests were employed to assess the functional outcome of the sensorimotor center activity in the brain, through a set of modified neurological severity scores used to assess motor and exploratory capacity 24 h, 14, and 28 days after receiving cellular therapy via tail vein. In our animal model of stroke, transplanted cells migrated to the ischemic focus, infarct volume decreased, and motor deficits improved. Therefore, we concluded that these cells appear to have be...

Formation and expression of memories are critical for context-dependent decision making. In Drosophila, a courting male rejected by a mated female subsequently courts less avidly when paired with a virgin female, a behavioral modification attributed to "courtship memory." Here we show the critical role of hormonal state for maintenance of courtship memory. Ecdysis-triggering hormone (ETH) is essential for courtship memory through regulation of juvenile hormone (JH) levels in adult males. Reduction of JH levels via silencing of ETH signaling genes impairs short-term courtship memory, a phenotype rescuable by the JH analog methoprene. JH-deficit-induced memory impairment involves rapid decay rather than failure of memory acquisition. A critical period governs memory performance during the first 3 days of adulthood. Using sex-peptide-expressing "pseudo-mated" trainers, we find that robust courtship memory elicited in the absence of aversive chemical mating cues also...

Glutamatergic axons in the mammalian forebrain terminate predominantly onto dendritic spines. Long-term changes in the efficacy of these excitatory synapses are tightly coupled to changes in spine morphology. The reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton underlying this spine "morphing" involves numerous proteins that provide the machinery needed for adaptive cytoskeletal remodeling. Here we review recent literature addressing the chemical architecture of the spine, focusing mainly on actin-binding proteins (ABPs). Accumulating evidence suggests that ABPs are organized into functionally-distinct microdomains within the spine cytoplasm. This functional compartmentalization provides a structural basis for regulation of the spinoskeleton, offering a novel window into mechanisms underlying synaptic plasticity. Excitatory signals in the mammalian forebrain are transmitted mainly by glutamatergic axons that terminate onto dendritic spines of pyramidal neurons. Most spines are tiny. A typical spine in CA1 hippocampus has a volume of ~0.02-0.03 fl [1], making them difficult to resolve with the limited resolution provided by the standard tools of live-cell imaging. Recent dramatic advances in super-resolution light microscopy [2, 3, 4, 5] can provide important insights into sub-spine dynamics. However, the outstanding spatial resolution provided by transmission electron microscopy (EM) makes it the primary tool of choice for studying the fine structure of the spine, though it is unsuitable for visualization of living cells.

Objective: A majority of BCI systems, enabling communication with patients with locked-in syndrome, are based on electroencephalogram (EEG) frequency analysis (e.g., linked to motor imagery) or P300 detection. Only recently, the use of event-related brain potentials (ERPs) has received much attention, especially for face or music recognition, but neuro-engineering research into this new approach has not been carried out yet. The aim of this study was to provide a variety of reliable ERP markers of visual and auditory perception for the development of new and more complex mind-reading systems for reconstructing the mental content from brain activity. Methods: A total of 30 participants were shown 280 color pictures (adult, infant, and animal faces; human bodies; written words; checkerboards; and objects) and 120 auditory files (speech, music, and affective vocalizations). This paradigm did not involve target selection to avoid artifactual waves linked to decision-making and response preparation (e.g., P300 and motor potentials), masking the neural signature of semantic representation. Overall, 12,000 ERP waveforms × 126 electrode channels (1 million 512,000 ERP waveforms) were processed and artifact-rejected. Results: Clear and distinct category-dependent markers of perceptual and cognitive processing were identified through statistical analyses, some of which were novel to the literature. Results are discussed from the view of current knowledge of ERP functional properties and with respect to machine learning classification methods previously applied to similar data. The data showed a high level of accuracy (p ≤ 0.01) in the discriminating the perceptual categories eliciting the various electrical potentials by statistical analyses. Therefore, the ERP markers identified in this study could be significant tools for optimizing BCI systems [pattern recognition or artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms] applied to EEG/ERP signals.

Interaksi sosial merupakan bagian penting dalam kehidupan mahasiswa, baik dalam konteks akademik maupun non-akademik. Artikel ini membahas peran dua aspek kognitif utamayaitu memori biografis dan proses berpikir-dalam membentuk kualitas interaksi sosial mahasiswa. Memori biografis menyimpan pengalaman masa lalu yang menjadi dasar dalam merespons situasi sosial, sementara proses berpikir mengolah informasi dari ingatan tersebut untuk merumuskan keputusan, menyusun pesan, dan menilai konteks komunikasi. Berdasarkan tinjauan pustaka dari berbagai sumber terpercaya, termasuk buku Psikologi Komunikasi karya Jalaluddin Rakhmat, Effy Wardati, dan Alexander Indrakusuma Linggi, ditemukan bahwa sinergi antara memori dan berpikir berdampak langsung terhadap kemampuan komunikasi dan hubungan interpersonal mahasiswa. Mahasiswa yang mampu mengakses memori secara reflektif dan berpikir secara evaluatif cenderung memiliki keterampilan komunikasi yang lebih efektif, empatik, dan adaptif dalam membangun relasi sosial. Sebaliknya, miskomunikasi dan konflik seringkali muncul akibat kegagalan dalam memproses informasi secara tepat. Artikel ini merekomendasikan pentingnya pendidikan kognitif yang mendorong kesadaran akan cara kerja memori dan berpikir, guna meningkatkan kualitas interaksi sosial di lingkungan kampus. Temuan ini diharapkan dapat menjadi acuan bagi mahasiswa, dosen, dan pengelola institusi pendidikan dalam menciptakan suasana akademik yang komunikatif dan inklusif.

Altsheymer xəstəliyi qocalma ilə əlaqəli neyrodegenerativ xəstəlikdir və demansın ən çox rast gəlinən formasıdır. Bu xəstəlik ümumi demans hallarının 60-80 faizini təşkil edir. Altsheymer xəstəliyi sosial təcridin ən ümumi səbəblərindən biridir. Xəstəliyin müalicə inin məqsədləri xəstəliyin gedişatını yavaşlatmaq, sabitləşdirmək, zehni və davranış pozuntuları əlamətlərini azaltmaq və bununla da həyat keyfiyyətini yaxşılaşdırmaqdır. Bu məqsədlə Altsheymer xəstəliyinin müalicəsində təbii bioaktiv maddələrin istifadə olunması daim gündəmdə olmuşdur. Ginkgo Biloba (GB) ekstraktı isə antioksidant və antiinflamatuar təsirləri ilə idrak qabiliyyətinin yüksəldilməsində olduqca effektivdir. Apardığımız tədqiqat yaddaş və orientasiyanın bərpasını optimallaşdıran təbii bioaktiv birləşmə olan GB-nin Altsheymer xəstəliyinin inkişafının qarşısının alınmasına və neyrodegenerativ proseslərə qarşı istifadəsinin mümkünlüyünün yoxlanılmasına yönəlib. Bunun üçün Altsheymer xəstəliyinin analoqu yaradılmış və xəstəliyin müalicəsi üçün GB ekstraktı istifadə olunmuşdur.

Neural activity during ripples has attracted great theoretical and experimental attention over the last three decades. Perhaps one reason for such interest is that ripples occur during quiet waking moments and during sleep, times when we reflect and dream about what has just occurred and what we expect to happen next. The hope is that understanding such 'offline' activity may yield insights into reflection, planning, and the purposes of sleep. This review focuses on the mechanisms by which neurons organize during these high-frequency events. In studying ripples, broader principles have emerged that relate intrinsic neural properties, network topology and synaptic plasticity in controlling neural activity. Ripples, therefore, serve as an excellent model for studying how properties of a neural network relate to neural dynamics. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Memory reactivation: replaying events past, present and future'.

Dual-process theory, which holds that recognition decisions can be based on recollection or familiarity, has long seemed incompatible with signal detection theory, which holds that recognition decisions are based on a singular, continuous memory-strength variable. Formal dual-process models typically regard familiarity as a continuous process (i.e., familiarity comes in degrees), but they construe recollection as a categorical process (i.e., recollection either occurs or does not occur). A continuous process is characterized by a graded relationship between confidence and accuracy, whereas a categorical process is characterized by a binary relationship such that high confidence is associated with high accuracy but all lower degrees of confidence are associated with chance accuracy. Using a source-memory procedure, we found that the relationship between confidence and source-recollection accuracy was graded. Because recollection, like familiarity, is a continuous process, dual-process theory is more compatible with signal detection theory than previously thought.

Structural dynamics of dendritic spines is one of the key correlative measures of synaptic plasticity for encoding short-term and long-term memory. Optical studies of structural changes in brain tissue using confocal microscopy face difficulties of scattering. This results in low signal-to-noise ratio and thus limiting the imaging depth to few tens of microns. Multiphoton microscopy (MpM) overcomes this limitation by using low-energy photons to cause localized excitation and achieve high resolution in all three dimensions. Multiple low-energy photons with longer wavelengths minimize scattering and allow access to deeper brain regions at several hundred microns. In this article, we provide a basic understanding of the physical phenomena that give MpM an edge over conventional microscopy. Further, we highlight a few of the key studies in the field of learning and memory which would not have been possible without the advent of MpM.

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Je me suis orienté vers la psychologie parce que ma motivation était de mieux comprendre comment faire du cinéma ou de l'audiovisuel, de comprendre comment fonctionne un personnage, comment s'adresser à autrui pour obtenir un effet déterminé. Je suis devenu réalisateur, homologué par la Commission paritaire de la Télévision française. Mes formations m'ont servi. Actuellement à la retraite, je vous présente ici un article décrivant une expérience de psychologie expérimentale sur la mémorisation d'un récit par l'image (des photogrammes), conçue, préparée et réalisée en 1979-82, dans le cadre d'un diplôme de l'EPHE, sous la direction bienveillante et attentive de Madame Geneviève Oléron 1 . Elle a suivi et contrôlé toutes les étapes de l'expérience. Une fois par semaine, je la voyais dans son bureau, elle m'a fait lire et rendre compte de lectures de son choix, elle m'a aussi fait suivre des cours magistraux de professeurs renommés et parfois participer à leur séminaire de recherche. Je garde envers elle mes pensées de gratitude les plus chaleureuses. Le résultat de l'expérience a confirmé l'hypothèse initiale dans la limite de précision requise dans les sciences humaines. Je développe par la suite, sur la base du résultat de cette expérience, une modélisation singulière du système nerveux d'inspiration computationnelle : le Modèle Fonctionnel Dynamique (M F D) qui soulève en passant la question de la « conscience » ; cela sera illustré par des explications détaillées. Tout au long de l'article, au moment opportun, je rappelle, dans une optique de vulgarisation scientifique, à l'intention du grand public, des données bien connues par les professionnels parce qu'elles m'ont servi pour élaborer et argumenter cette approche originale du système nerveux, le Modèle Fonctionnel Dynamique (M F D). L'article se terminera par l'

The teleost Mauthner (M-) cell mediates a sound-evoked escape behavior. A major component of the auditory input is transmitted by large myelinated club endings of the posterior VIIIth nerve. Paradoxically, although nerve stimulations revealed these afferents have mixed electrical and glutamatergic synapses on the M-cell's distal lateral dendrite, paired pre-and postsynaptic recordings indicated most individual connections are chemically silent. To determine the sensory information encoded and the relative contributions of these two transmission modes, M-cell responses to acoustic stimuli in air were recorded intracellularly. Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) evoked by both short 100-to 900-Hz "pips" and longer-lasting amplitude-and frequency-modulated sounds were dominated by fast, repetitive EPSPs superimposed on an underlying slow depolarization. Fast EPSPs 1) have kinetics comparable to presynaptic action potentials, 2) are maximal on the distal lateral dendrite, and 3) are insensitive to GluR antagonists. They presumably are coupling potentials, and power spectral analysis indicated they constitute a high-pass signal that accurately tracks sound frequency and amplitude. The spatial profile of the slow EPSP suggests both proximal and distal dendritic sources, a result supported by predictions of a multicompartmental model and the effects of AMPAR antagonists, which preferentially reduced the proximal component. Thus a second class of afferents generates a portion of the slow EPSP that, with sound stimuli, demonstrate that the dominant mode of transmission at LMCE synapses is electrical. The slow EPSP is a dynamic, low-pass representation of stimulus strength. Accordingly, amplitude and phase information, which are segregated in other systems, are faithfully represented in the M-cell.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Various stressful stimuli have different effects on memory and learning. With technology development, the human exposes to different stressful factors. The aim of this study was to investigate the combined effects of handling-injection stress with noise stress in the passive avoidance task in rats.
METHODS: Twenty-four male Wistar rats (22 days aged) with weight of 55gr were used. Male Wistar rats were divided into 4 groups, of 6 animals for 4 weeks: subcutaneous injection of sodium chloride 0.9% and handling stress (I+H), subcutaneous injection of sodium chloride 0.9% and handling with noise exposure (I+N), noise exposure (N) and control (C). After 4 weeks, we studied passive avoidance conditioning test in a shuttle box.
FINDINGS: The step-through latency after training animals significantly increased in (I+H) group as compared with (I+N) and (N) groups (p=0.001). But using noise stress with handling-injection stress significantly attenuated learning and memory in the (I+N) group than other 3 groups (p=0.01).
CONCLUSION: The data suggested that using moderate stress with sound stress decreases learning and memory in the early life of male Wistar rats.

В настоящее время болезнь Альцгеймера (БА) является чрезвычайно коварным нейродегенеративным заболеванием, характерным, в основном, для людей старшего поколения (старше 80 лет). В данное время во всем мире таких пациентов насчитывается более 40 млн. человек. По данным ВОЗ, БА составляет более 70% всех случаев проявления деменции. Болезнь относится к тяжелым формам нарушения когнитивных механизмов и характеризуется катастрофическими изменениями целостности пирамидных и промежуточных нейронов, нарушением функции амигдалы, гиппокампа и обонятельных луковиц, образованием бета – амилоидов и нарушением структуры тау – белка. БА может вызывать дегенерацию сетчатки и зрительного нерва либо непосредственно, в результате отложения бета-амилоида, либо вторично, в результате нарушения структуры зрительной коры. Эти эффекты повышают вероятность того, что отслеживание офтальмологических изменений в сетчатке может быть использовано для оценки нейродегенерации при БА. В формировании пространственной памяти непосредственно участвует девятый слой сетчатки, представленный аксонами ганглиозных клеток, которые по пути к зрительной области коры головного мозга, сплетаются и образуют зрительный нерв. Визуальные сигналы, которые воспринимаются зрительным анализатором при запоминании пространственных ориентиров (источник света, окна, дверь, картины на стенах, передвигающиеся объекты и другие) дифференцируются посредством фоторецепторов, фиксируются, затем конвертируются в нервные импульсы, и по зрительному нерву, поступают в соответствующие центральные структуры мозга. При БА наблюдаются серьезные нарушения когнитивных процессов, в том числе и нарушения зрительной системы. По этим и многим другим причинам раскрытие нейрофизиологических механизмов развития БА является одной из самых актуальных проблем во всем научном мире. Впервые в Азербайджане в 2016 году в лаборатории «Физиология зрения и нейродегенеративных процессов» института физиологии имени акад. А.Гараева были начаты исследования нейрофизиологических механизмов БА на экспериментальных моделях. Целью наших экспериментов послужило выявление протективной роли природного антиоксиданта - шафрана (Crocus sativus) - при создании экспериментальной модели БА на животных. Для того, чтобы выявить и доказать протективную роль шафрана, главным условием эксперимента являлось создание аналога БА на крысах - альбиносах. С целью исследования экспериментального аналога БА был использован всемирно известный метод формирования визуально контролируемой пространственной памяти у крыс – альбиносов – метод водного лабиринта Морриса. Используемый водный лабиринт Морриса представлял собой бассейн диаметром 102 см. Бассейн был наполнен водой, закрашенной молоком. В лабиринте была зафиксирована невидимая (скрытая) платформа диаметром 12 см, которая располагалась на 1,5 см ниже поверхности воды. Невидимая платформа была зафиксирована по середине одного из четырех равных квадрантов, на которые бассейн был условно разделен двумя плоскостями. В качестве объекта эксперимента были использованы крысы-альбиносы, возраста 2 – 2,5 лет. При проведении всех этапов эксперимента в сравнении рассматривались 3 группы животных: I – контрольная группа (чистые животные), которые не получали экстракт шафрана; II - группа животных, которые получали экстракт шафрана в течение 14 дней; III - группа животных, которые получали экстракт шафрана в течение 21 дня. Во время экспериментов был измерен латентный период поиска животными скрытой платформы. Обучение в водном лабиринте проводилось в течение 7 дней. В начале обучения латентный период поиска скрытой платформы составлял 60-120 секунд. С каждым днем наблюдалось сокращение длительности латентного периода поиска скрытой платформы и длины траектории плавания животных в водном лабиринте. В конце обучения наблюдалось значительное сокращение латентного периода поиска скрытой платформы до 5-10 секунд. Это свидетельствовало о том, что у крыс - альбиносов сформировались пространственная память и зрительно контролируемое пространственное поведение. После формирования у крыс-альбиносов пространственной памяти, с целью создания экспериментальной модели БА нами была проведена хирургическая операция по двусторонней тотальной бульбэктомии. Операция заключалась во вскрытии поверхности черепа и полном разрушении обонятельных луковиц путем внедрения иглы в соответствующие участки, где согласно стереотаксическому атласу мозга крысы, были расположены обонятельные луковицы, подвергшиеся деструкции. Спустя 3 месяца после операции проводилось тестирование бульбэктомированных животных в водном лабиринте Морриса. Результаты тестирования бульбэктомированных крыс контрольной группы показали значительное увеличение длительности латентного периода поиска скрытой платформы и длины траектории плавания крыс в водном лабиринте. Это являлось доказательством того, что у крыс контрольной группы удалось создать экспериментальную модель БА. У групп животных, получавших экстракт шафрана в течение 14 и 21 дня до обучения и операции, наоборот, наблюдалось значительное сокращение латентного периода поиска скрытой платформы и длины траектории плавания. У них не наблюдалось выделения болюсов и отсутствовал груминг и реаринг, в отличие от крыс контрольной группы. Отсюда следует, что экспериментальную модель БА на крысах – альбиносах, получавших экстракт шафрана в течение 14 и 21 дня до обучения и операции, создать не удалось, что является прямым доказательством наличия протективных свойств экстракта шафрана (Crocus sativus). Было установлено, что под действием активного вещества экстракта шафрана – кроцина - несмотря на оперативное удаление обонятельных луковиц, пространственная память крыс – альбиносов не нарушилась и крысы до сих пор помнят местонахождение скрытой платформы в водном лабиринте Морриса. Всвязи с аналогией генома крысы с геномом человека, указанные сведения служат основанием для экстраполирования полученных результатов о влиянии шафрана на течение БА на человека и получения широкого применения в нейрологической клинике.

Visually controlled spatial memory is closely related to the visual system. The ganglionic layer of the retina is involved in the formation of visually controlled spatial memory. In glaucoma, as well as in Alzheimer's disease (AD), destruction of the neuronal apparatus of the ganglionic layer of the retina is observed. Recently, close attention has been paid to the role and importance of natural antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of these diseases. Our experiments were carried out on old male albino rats. Two groups of rats were studied: 1st group of naive rats did not receive curcuma (curcuma administration); the 2nd group of rats received curcuma for 30 days before the training. The first part of the experiment involved training albino rats in the Morris water maze. The pool filled with water and milk had a diameter of 102 sm. During the training, we recorded the duration of the latent period of the search for a hidden platform and the trajectory of movements relative to each trained animal. At the initial stage of navigational training, the latent period of searching for a hidden platform in both groups of trained animals was 90–120 s. Navigation training was carried out for 7 days. With each day of training, a reduction in the duration and trajectory of movements in the search for a hidden platform was observed. At the end of training, the duration of the latent period decreased from 120 s. up to 2–5 s. In order to create an experimental model of AD at the second stage of the experiment, we performed a surgical operation on bilateral bulbectomy (BB). The third stage of the experiment consisted of testing all experimental groups of animals 1.5 - 2 months after BB in the water maze. The results recorded during the testing showed that the latent period of the search for a hidden platform in the rats of the control group increased to 120–180 s. This fact was consistent with the results that had previously been obtained in naive animals. This fact reliably indicates that the animals forgot the location of the platform. In the behavior of rats, manifestations of such reactions as grooming, rearing, and the release of 2–5 boluses (characteristic of the initial stage of learning) were again observed. These data indicate that the visually controlled spatial memory was completely impaired in the rats in the control group. This indicates that the AD model was created. Testing a group of animals that received curcuma before training and surgery for BB allowed us to record a significant reduction in the duration of the latent period of searching for a hidden platform to 3–5 seconds. These rats were characterized by accelerated search behavior, lack of grooming, rearing, and bolus release. Therefore, spatial memory in curcuma-treated rats was not impaired. This means that it was not possible to create an experimental model of AD on them, in contrast to the control group of animals.

Visually controlled spatial memory is one of the most important cognitive processes studied by physiology and neuropsychology. An important role in the formation of spatial memory is played by the visual system, exactly, the retina (its ninth layer, represented by axons of ganglion cells). Evaluation of spatial memory in laboratories is carried out through the use of special tests. In our laboratory, experiments were carried out on two groups of animals. I – control group (naive rats); II group – rats that have saffron administration before training. The first stage of the experiment consisted in the formation of visually controlled spatial memory in albino rats using the method of the Morris water maze (1982). During the experiment, we measured the latent period of searching for a hidden platform for each trained animal. The duration of the search for the hidden platform was shortened every day (in parallel with the trajectory of movement of the trained animals in the water space). At the second stage of the experiment, in order to create an experimental analogue of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a surgical operation was performed on bilateral total bulbectomy. 1.5-2 months after the operation, the rats were tested for the preservation of cognitive
functions and visually controlled spatial memory (the third stage). The test results showed that the rats of the control group searched for the platform for a longer time than even at the initial stage of training. During the search for the platform, the rats of the control group did not perform sectoral or diagonal movements. They only swam around the perimeter of the pool. In the behavior of the control animals, the same motor reactions (grooming, rearing, bolus release) were observed, the manifestation of which was characteristic of the initial stage of the trained rats. A conclusion is made about the violation of spatial memory in rats of the control group, in which it was possible to form a model of AD. At the same time, testing a group of rats that had saffron administration before train ing and bulbectomy surgery showed a significant reduction in the duration of the latent period of searching for a hidden platform and the swimming trajectory of these animals in the water maze. In rats of this group, there was no manifestation of behavioral anxiety reactions – grooming and rearing. There was also no allocation of boluses for memorizing the location of the platform. These observations confirm the fact that despite the surgical removal of the olfactory bulbs, spatial memory in rats that have saffron administration was not disturbed. On the basis of the generalization carried out, the following conclusion was made: it was not possible to create an experimental model of AD on albino rats that received saffron before training and surgery. On the basis of the generalization carried out, the following conclusion was made: it was not possible to create an experimental model of AD on albino rats that received saffron before training and surgery. It has been proven that under the influence of saffron, despite the operation of bilateral total bulbectomy (usually leading to the creation of an experimental model of AD), the spatial memory of albino rats was not disturbed. This is a direct confirmation of the presence of a protective role of saffron in the formation of an experimental model of AD in animals.

Alzheimer disease (AD) is now known as an extremely insidious neurodegenerative disease. Recently, cases have begun to appear when this disease affects even representatives of the younger generation. 
The characteristic symptoms of AD are: violation of spatial orientation, sudden changes in the mood of patients, memory loss, poor discrimination of smells, and sometimes even loss of smell, as well as other cognitive impairments in the body. At the moment, scientists around the world are conducting research on the mechanisms of action of natural antioxidants - saffron (Crocus Sativus) and curcuma (Curcuma Longa) on the course of AD.

Alzheimer xəstəliyi bütün dünyada geniş yayılmış neyrodegenerativ multifaktorial xəstəlikdir. 65-69 yaş arasında AX təxminən 1% təşkil edir və 85 yaşdan yuxarı insanlarda 50%-dən yüksəkdir. Son illərdə AX cavanlaşır": bütün xəstələrin 10%-i 33-60 yaş arasındadır, lakin AX-nin əksəriyyəti 80 yaş və yuxarıdır. 2030-cu ildə 65,7 milyon, 2050-ci ildə isə 115,4 milyon insanın demensiya ilə yaşayacağı təxmin edilir ki, bu da qlobal ictimai sağlamlıq və sosial rifah üçün son dərəcə ciddi bir yük deməkdir. Kimyəvi olaraq diferuloilmetan kimi tanınan Hindistan ədviyyatı sarıkökdə Curcuma longa) sarı piqment olan kurkumin ilk dəfə düz iki əsr əvvəl 1815-ci ildə iki Alman alimi Vogel və Pelletier tərəfindən təcrid edilmişdir. Kurkuminin təsiri insanlarda nevroloji xəstəliklərdə, xüsusilə AX və depressiyada tədqiq edilmişdir. Tədqiqat işi çəkisi 250-300 q olan 5 erkək albinos siçovulunun üzərində aparılmışdır. Morris su labirintinin içərisində hündürlüyü 45 sm, diametri 12 sm olan kiçik platforma yerləşdirilmişdir. Morris labirinti (diametri 102 sm) 25°C temperaturda su ilə doldurulmuşdur. Su albinos siçovulları üçün stres mənbəyidir. Az miqdarda süd tozu su ilə qarışdırılaraq Morris labirintinə əlavə edilmişdir. Süd tozu ilə qarışdırılmış suda görünməmək üçün ağ rəngli platforma istifadə edilmişdir. Platforma suyun səviyyəsindən 2 sm aşağıda yerləşməlidir. Siçovul hovuzun perimetri ətrafında üzür, çıxış yolu tapmağa çalışır. Platformanı tapdıqdan sonra siçovul “gruming” və “rearing” kimi davranış reaksiyalarını yerinə yetirir. “Rearing” zamanı siçovul məkan orientasiyası üçün və məkan yaddaşının formalaşması üçün pəncərədən gələn günəş işığını və divardakı şəkilləri yadda saxlayır. Bununla yanaşı, heyvanlar boluslarla feromonları ifraz edirlər. Morris metodunun yaddaşın öyrənilməsinin digər üsullarından fərqli üstünlüyü bundan ibarətdir: ifraz olunmuş boluslar eksperimentator tərəfindən hovuzdan çıxarılır ki, bu da feromonların axtarışını mümkünsüz edir. Beləliklə, məkan oriyentirlərə əsaslanan həqiqi məkan yaddaşı (naviqasiya) və davranış formalaşır. Təlimdən əvvəl siçovullara 20 gün müddətində sarıkökün məhlulu verilmişdir. Siçovullar suya baş vurduqda dərhal çıxış axtarırlar. Əvvəl perimetr boyunca daha sonra isə sektrorlara doğru hərəkət edirlər. Bir həftə boyunca keçirilən təlimin sonunda latent dövr 120 saniyədən 10-20 saniyəyə qədər qısalır. Tədqiqatımızın sonrakı mərhələsində ikitərəfli bulbektomiya cərrahi əməliyyatı yerinə yetirilmişdir. Əməliyyatdan üç ay keçdikdən sonra Morris su labirintində siçovulların məkan yaddaşının yoxlanılması üçün test aparılmışdır. Sarıkökün heyvanların beyninə prorektiv effekt göstərdiyi məlum olmuşdur. Nəticələr göstərmişdir ki, siçovulların təlimdən əvvəl sarıkökün məhlulu qəbul etməsi sarıkökün protektiv təsirinə görə Alzheimer xəstəliyini modelinin yaradılmasının qarşısını almışdır. Təbii antioksidantlar AX ilə əlaqəli zehni geriləmənin qarşısının alınması və müalicəsində ümumi proqramın bir hissəsi kimi böyük potensiala malikdir. Tərkibində böyük miqdarda selen olan təbii antioksidant sarıkökün qoruyucu funksiyaya malik olduğu və beyin neyronlarının məhv edilməsinin qarşısını aldığı təklif edilir.

1, 3, 7-Trimethylxanthine (Caffeine) is a natural alkaloid found in coffee beans, tea leaves, cocoa beans, cola nut etc. It is probably the most frequently ingested pharmacologically active substance in the world at large. This study was carried out to evaluate the effects of recreational intake of caffeine (methyl-xanthine) on sensorimotor and cognitomotor functions and fasting blood glucose in rat model. In this study, a total of twenty (20) wistar rats were randomly divided into 4 groups. After three (3) weeks of acclimatization, caffeine was administered to the rats as follows; Group1 (control) received normal water, group 2 was treated with 0.4g/ml of caffeine, group3-0.8g/ml of caffeine, and group4-1.6g/ml of caffeine, all for a period of thirty (30) days. Opaque maze (memory), elevated maze (intelligent and anxiety), beam walking (learning) and swimming/climbing test (learning), were used to evaluate sensory, motor, and cognitive performances of the rats in Original Research Article

Le concept d'Architecture est un concept de relation entre le corps humain et l'environnement réel, naturel et social. Le concept d'homme dérive des actions que le corps humain accomplit en interaction avec la nature dans laquelle il vit et dans laquelle est programmé son système génétique. L'architecture, en tant qu'artefact fabriqué par l'homme, manifeste la même programmation structurée dérivée de l'activité du cerveau humain avec la même programmation génétique que celle des êtres humains. En ce sens, il est possible de définir un concept de corps architectural comme un artefact dérivé de la relation entre le « corps humain » (vivant et physique) et l'environnement naturel et social qui s'identifie dans le « corps architectural ». Les pressions, dérivées des besoins de survie, génèrent des systèmes de besoins qui impliquent eux-mêmes des phénomènes perceptifs, comme les informations nécessaires au comportement humain lié à la survie avec les actions nécessaires à l'activation de comportements visant à la survie. Tous les comportements de perception et d'action sont générés par le système nerveux central en tant que gestion :  Du corps vivant (Leib) comme canal réceptif sémantico-sensoriel visant une fonction de survie sociale :  Du niveau culturel comme la capacité à interpréter le phénomène de perception ;  États d'attente dérivés du système de besoins qui pèsent sur le système nerveux central ;  Du corps physique (Korper) comme canal de contrôle du système moteur aux actions pragmatiques de survie biologique, les actions associées sont :  Des actions d'usage comme actions réelles d'usage de l'architecture,  Actions cognitives (y compris la mesure) comme confirmation naturelle et culturelle de la validité de l'architecture réelle. La réception sémantico-sensorielle du corps vivant (Leib) est composée de :  Réception sensorielle du type :

Recent theoretical advances viewing language aptitude as multi-faceted have led to accumulated evidence on certain constructs beyond the specifications of traditional aptitude tests. In this chapter, we consider the potential role of implicit statistical learning (ISL) mechanisms in second language acquisition (SLA). First, terminological and conceptual issues are examined with the goal of clarifying the processes and knowledge that ISL tasks are claimed to involve. Second, we consider justifications for research into the potential link between ISL and SLA by reviewing the argument for a default implicit processing mode in adult L2 learning. Third, we provide a synthesis of studies assessing the link between ISL and L2 outcomes based on the following research questions: (1) Which studies have examined the association between ISL tasks and L2 outcomes and what are their characteristics?, (2) Which measures have been used to investigate the construct of ISL?, (3) What are the accumulated findings of the studies? The overall results of a Bayesian meta-analysis confirmed a positive, albeit weak, link between ISL and SLA (r = .13, [.05, .22]). Moderator analyses and a critical review of ISL tasks suggest avenues for future research. The chapter concludes with caveats regarding measurement as well as discussion of the potential contribution of ISL to foreign language aptitude.

In adult mammals, the processing of complex odor mixtures is elemental or configural. Here, we challenged these processes in newborn rabbits, in evaluating their perception of a binary odor mixture for which perceptual blending occurs in humans. This model of newborn animal was interesting since general questions remain on how odor cues are processed in immature organisms, and since rabbit pups present abilities of rapid odor learning. In the present study, we first demonstrated (Exp. 1) that rabbit pups rapidly acquired the odor of the binary mixture through associative conditioning (when the mammary pheromone was used as unconditioned stimulus). Then, we compared how they responded to the mixture, its components and the mammary pheromone, after they had learned the mixture or one of its constituents. After they had learned the odor of the mixture, they responded to its odor and the odor of its constituents (Exp. 2). However, after they had learned one constituent's odor, they responded to this odor but not to the mixture's odor (Exp. 3). The response to the mixture appeared nevertheless when pups successively acquired the odor of the two components (Exp. 4). Therefore, both elemental and configural processing of the mixture seem to be displayed by rabbit pups, suggesting that neonatal perception of a simple odor mixture may involve more than the perception of its constituents.

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether vitrification is an effective cryopreservation method for storage of human umbilical cord mesenchymal cells (HUCMs). HUCMs were vitrified using a two step method. The viability of vitrified HUCMs (v-HUCM) and non-vitrified HUCMs (n-HUCM) was determined by Trypan Blue staining. The expression of several markers was evaluated using flow cytometry. The osteogenic, adipogenic and chondrogenic differentiation potential of v-HUCMs and n-HUCMs was determined. The post-warming viability of HUCMs was 95.54 +/- 2.30. The expression of surface antigens (strong positive for CD44, CD90 and CD105; negative for CD34 and CD45) was similar in the above mentioned groups. The v-HUCM cells retained ability to differentiate into osteoblasts, adipocytes and chondrocytes under appropriate culture conditions. The analysis of these results showed that vitrification is a reliable and effective method for cryopreservation of human umbilical cord mesenchymal cells.

Recent research suggests that syntactic priming in language comprehension-the facilitated processing of repeated syntactic structures-arises from the expectation for syntactic repetition due to rational adaptation to the linguistic environment. To further evaluate the generalizability of this expectation adaptation account in cross-linguistic syntactic priming and explore the influence of second language (L2) proficiency, we conducted a self-paced reading study with Chinese L2 learners of English by utilizing the sentential complementdirect object (SC-DO) ambiguity. The results showed that participants exposed to clusters of SC structures subsequently processed repetitions of this structure more rapidly (i.e., larger priming effects) than those exposed to the same number of SC structures but spaced in time, despite the prime and target being in two different languages (Chinese and English). Furthermore, this difference in priming strength was more pronounced for participants with higher L2 (English) proficiency. These findings demonstrate that cross-linguistic syntactic priming is consistent with the expectation for syntactic repetition that rationally adapts to syntactic clustering properties in surrounding bilingual environments, and such adaptation is enhanced as L2 proficiency increases. Taken together, our study extends the expectation adaptation account to cross-linguistic syntactic priming and integrates the role of L2 proficiency, which can shed new light on the mechanisms underlying syntactic priming, bilingual shared syntactic representations and expectation-based sentence processing.

Two main theories in new word learning were Phonological Loop Model and Lexical Restructuring Theory. The two main theories focused on different aspects of how long-term lexical knowledge affects word learning: Phonological Loop Model focusing on phonological working memory and Lexical Restructuring Theory focusing on phonological sensitivity in phonological processing. Previous studies showed that both phonological working memory and phonological sensitivity were important to new word learning, especially phonological working memory influencing word learning directly. However, how phonological sensitivity affects word learning is still not clear. Future studies could use a new method to investigate the mechanism of how phonological working memory and phonological sensitivity affect word learning or integrate the two aspects to investigate word learning.

Using MRI and PET methods, neuroscience has made significant progress in understanding the episodic
events of the human brain under varied cognitive situations throughout the last century. However, the
higher resolutions of the memory locus, which consists of a neuro-glial ensemble for episodic memory, are
unclear and must be clarified. Additionally, attempts have been made to create new nano technologies for
mapping complete brains and related engrams with single neuro-glial accuracy and resolution in the hopes
of unlocking the secrets of the brain by delving into Brain Activity Map (BAM). This hypothetical research
is the first of its kind to suggest a novel method for understanding episodic memory in mouse brains
by mapping brain activity at the functional connectome (engram) level and focused on neuro-glia-ECM
(Extracellular Matrix). I propose to paint the memory engram at the neuro glia-ECM canvas of the mouse
brain by engineering and inserting novel "Biologically Active Messengers: Bidirectional Messengers
(BM)s/ Alternative Clones (AC)s and Transcriptional/ Translational Messenger (TM)s" coupled with
different colour tags into transgenic mice via Transposon and Recombination, followed by behavioural
analysis and Clarity. The BMs will be produced in all neuro-glial cells via a bicistronic promoter (Neuroglia
specific promoter + Tetracycline Responsive Element) led by a tetracycline transactivator gene driven
by an immediate early gene (c-Fos/ Arc), whereas the TMs will be expressed via an endogenous promoter.
The viability of all constructions (BMs, ACs, and TMs) as well as the process of painting will be tested in
cortical/ hippocampal culture by chemically generating long term potentiation (cLTP). Fear consolidation
(Fear context and Recall by contextual cue) tests will be administered to adult transgenic mice, followed
by Clarity coupled Immunostaining to investigate the neuro-glia-ECM ensemble after whole brain imaging
using a Light Sheet Microscope. Finally, the steady state behaviour of normal mice will be compared
to the episodic picture of a colourful painted engram. At both the functional connectome and activity
levels, this holistic painting method will highlight cognition over multiple timelines of a working memory
region. Bidirectional Messenger (Biological Boomerang) has huge implications in neuropsychiatric illness,
generation of artificial blood, cancer treatment, and regenerative medicine in the near future, according to
my intuition.

T he present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of rosuvastatin (ROSS) on learning and memory on scopolamine (SCOP) induced amnesia in mice. Experiments were carried out on 20 adult albino mice, divided into 4 groups and the experimental animals were treated for 14 days with ROSS (10mg/kg.p.o).To induce amnesia, scopolamine 3 mg/kg ip was administered intraperitoneally. Cognitive skills of the animals were examined after the induction of amnesia by using elevated plus maze (EPM), Morris water maze (MWM). In EPM model, scopolamine received animals showed significant increase in transfer latency on day 7 and 14 when compared to control animals. Whereas piracetam and rosuvastatin received animals showed significant decrease (p<0.05) in transfer latency period when compared to scopolamine treated animals. In MWM test, rosuvastatin treatment showed significant decrease in escape latency period (p<0.05) when compared to scopolamine treated animals The results confirm that, scopolamine impaired learning and memory process in animals, whereas administration of ROSS significantly ameliorated scopolamine induced amnesia in both elevated plus maze and Morris water maze test as indicated by significant reduction (p<0.05) in transfer latency (TL) (p<0.05) and escape latency (EL) respectively, hence it can be concluded that, that rosuvastatin improves cognitive functions against scopolamine-induced amnesia in mice.

The Memory Studies Association invites proposals for its ninth annual conference, to be held from 14 to 18 July 2025 at Charles University and the Czech Academy of Sciences in the historic city of Prague. This on-site conference aims to carry over from earlier conferences a transdisciplinary conversation on memory and its social, cultural and public relevance. It welcomes scholars, practitioners, and activists from diverse fields to contribute to this vibrant exchange of ideas.

In 2025, we will globally commemorate many significant anniversaries, such as the end of World War II (1945) and the end of the Vietnam War (1975). We will mourn the victims of the Srebrenica genocide in Bosnia (1995) and the massacres in Sudan (2005). Additionally, we will be half a decade removed from the onset of the COVID-19 lockdowns. With the theme Beyond Crises: Resilience and (In)stability, the conference seeks to explore how the memory of these events and other critical turning points has led to new tensions but also generated new possibilities. What patterns of decisive change can we observe? What is the role of memory in these processes, and how have they been commemorated? How have such critical turning points and their actors been collectively remembered and commemorated? And what can memory teach us amid the ongoing polycrisis?

Pupillary dilation measured by eye-tracking can be useful source of implicit feedback for system adaptation and personalization. For example, cognitive load or emotional excitation can be inferred from it. However, practical exploitation of this phenomenon (e.g., in adaptive systems or user studies) has been limited due to other factors that influence pupillary dilation, namely changing luminosity of device screen. In this work, we present a personalized pupillary dilation model, which is able to predict the effects of screen luminosity on participant's pupil diameter. This information is useful for tracking true effects of cognitive load or emotional excitation of users. We demonstrate our model in a controlled eyetracking study with 73 participants. CCS Concepts • Human-centered computing~User models • Human-centered computing~Web-based interaction • Information systems~ Personalization.

This special issue focuses on the interaction of the disciplines of historical linguistics and psycholinguistics to obtain new insights into which cognitive factors are potentially relevant for language change. The contributions address questions related to the cognitive mechanisms at play, their evidence in historical data, who the agents of change may be, which experimental methods can be implemented to investigate language change, and how language change can be theoretically modeled in terms of cognitive mechanisms. In this introductory article, we first outline our aims by describing the call for papers and the workshop which laid the foundation for this special issue. We then provide a state of the art on the integration of research on cognitive mechanisms and language change before introducing the contributions and listing which of the central questions they address.

Most research focuses on determining the correlates of pupil dilation and constriction to changes in light intensity in contrast to bright and grey images of a visual interface and found that pupil response is highly correlated to high cognitive response related to problem-solving, which is the same as the response to strong light intensity. An experiment was conducted with the consent of forty participants whose pupil response was recorded in video frames in response to image stimuli, the aim was to generate response data while comparing their pupil response to bright and colored images to its greyscale version. The result indicates that bright and colored pictures are more appealing and preferable to their grey version and the pupil tends to dilate in reaction to comprehension. This is as opposed to using changes in light intensity and gives a novel definition to the cognitive response of users to a simple stimulus through pupillary response. The proposed model would help in generating response data that would be used in designing prototypical analytics for accessing and predicting users' responses to visual images and optimisation of visual aesthetics and cognitive elucidations.

There have been various studies on the effects of emotional visual processing on subsequent non-emotional auditory stimuli. A previous study with EEG has shown that responses to deviant sounds presented after presenting negative pictures collected more attentional resources than those for neutral pictures. To investigate such a compelling between emotional and cognitive processing, this study aimed to examined pupillary responses to an auditory stimulus after a positive, negative, or neutral emotional state was elicited by an emotional image. An emotional image was followed by a beep sound that was either repetitive or unexpected, and the pupillary dilation was measured. As a result, we found that the early component of the pupillary response to the beep sound was larger for negative and positive emotional states than the neutral emotional state, whereas the late component was larger for the positive emotional state than the negative and neutral emotional states. In addition, the pe...

has shown that the eyes are the windows to the soul, and the pupils are the gateway to the brain. When a person's eyes set sight on things around them, they normally track different features around them ; both the corneas of the eyes and tissues surrounding the lenses adjust to focus on the light that conveys a scene visible to the scene around them. The pupil changes are also a measure of the cognitive load in a person and this paper tends to address the level of cognition in a person based on gender effects and the cognitive level in visual perception from static contents of the visual scene to area of interest. The cognitive level is based on the average, complex, neutral, relaxed, and stressful mood of a person and these are measured based and sequential values assigned as classes of cognitive level that represent the cognition level of a person. An error was computed for each trial and the result shows that the Average and complex mood of the user in reaction to the static contents is more predicted in the other set class of cognitive level both on the male and female gender than when the gender is mixed. These results can be reflected in the response pupil behaviour of the eye movement on the static contents.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of genistein and exercise on the spatial memory and expression of microRNA-132, BDNF, and IGF-1 in the hippocampus of ovariectomized rats. Sixty animals were divided into six groups of control, sham, ovariectomy (OVX), ovariectomized with 8 weeks of genistein administration (OVX.G), with 8 weeks of swimming training (OVX.E), and with 8 weeks of both of them (OVX.G.E). The effect of genistein and/or exercise was evaluated by measuring microRNA-132, BDNF, and IGF-1 expression levels in the hippocampus tissue. Grafts were analyzed using Real-time polymerase chain reaction for microRNA-132, BDNF, IGF-1, and spatial memory via a Morris water maze (MWM). Our findings showed that ovariectomy decreased the expression of microRNA-132, BDNF, and IGF-1 in the hippocampus (&lt;0.05) in comparison with the sham group as well as performance in the water maze (&lt;0.05). Also according to results ovariectomized groups that were treated wi...

has shown that the eyes are the windows to the soul, and the pupils are the gateway to the brain. When a person's eyes set sight on things around them, they normally track different features around them; both the corneas of the eyes and tissues surrounding the lenses adjust to focus on the light that conveys a scene visible to the scene around them. The pupil changes are also a measure of the cognitive load in a person and this paper tends to address the level of cognition in a person based on gender effects and the cognitive level in visual perception from static contents of the visual scene to area of interest. The cognitive level is based on the average, complex, neutral, relaxed, and stressful mood of a person and these are measured based and sequential values assigned as classes of cognitive level that represent the cognition level of a person. An error was computed for each trial and the result shows that the Average and complex mood of the user in reaction to the static contents is more predicted in the other set class of cognitive level both on the male and female gender than when the gender is mixed. These results can be reflected in the response pupil behaviour of the eye movement on the static contents.

It has recently been remarked that the argument for physicalism from the causal closure of the physical is incomplete. It is only effective against mental causation manifested in the action of putative mental forces that lead to acceleration of particles in the nervous system. Based on consideration of anomalous, physically unaccounted-for correlations of neural events, I argue that irreducible mental causation whose nature is at least prima facie probabilistic is conceivable. The manifestation of such causation should be accompanied by a local violation of the Second Law of thermodynamics. I claim that mental causation can be viewed as the disposition of mental states to alter the state probability distribution within the nervous system, with no violation of the conservation laws. If confirmed by neurophysical research, it would indicate a kind of causal homogeneity of the world. Causation would manifest probabilistically in both quantum mechanical and psychophysical systems, and the dynamics of both would be determined by the temporal evolution of the corresponding system state function. Finally, I contend that a probabilistic account of mental causation can consistently explain the character of the selectional states that ensure uniformity of causal patterns, as well as the fact that different physical realizers of a mental property cause the same physical effects in different contexts.

In early multiple sclerosis (MS) patients, cognitive changes and fatigue are frequent and troublesome symptoms, probably related to both structural and functional brain changes. Whether there is a common cause of these symptoms in MS is unknown. In theory, an altered regulation of central neuropeptides can lead to changes in regulation of autonomic function, cognitive difficulties, and fatigue. Direct measurements of central neuropeptides are difficult to perform, but measurements of the eye pupil can be used as a reliable proxy of function. Methods: This study assesses pupil size during problem-solving in early MS patients versus controls. A difference in pupil size to a cognitive challenge could signal altered activity within the autonomic system because of early functional brain changes associated with cognitive load. We recruited MS patients (mean disease duration: 2.6 years, N = 41) and age-matched healthy controls (N = 43) without eye pathology. Neurological impairment, magnetic resonance imaging, visual evoked potentials, depression, and fatigue were assessed in all of the patients. In both groups, we assessed processing speed and retinal imaging. Pupil size was recorded with an eye-tracker during playback of multiplication tasks. Results: Both groups performed well on the cognitive test. The groups showed similar pupillary responses with a mean of 0.55 mm dilation in patients and 0.54 mm dilation in controls for all the tasks collapsed together. However, controls (N = 9) with low cognitive scores (LCS) had an increased pupillary response to cognitive tasks, whereas LCS MS patients (N = 6) did not (p < .05). There was a tendency toward a smaller pupillary response in patients with fatigue. Conclusions: This is the first study to investigate pupillary responses to cognitive tasks in MS patients. Our results suggest that MS-related changes in cognition and fatigue may be associated with changes in arousal and the autonomic regulation of How to cite this article: de Rodez Benavent SA, Nygaard GO, Harbo HF, et al. Fatigue and cognition: Pupillary responses to problem-solving in early multiple sclerosis patients.