Linguistic Norms

This paper examines lexical and semantic calques in the columns Jezičke pouke (1932–1975) and Naša pošta (1932–1939), published in the journal Naš jezik (since 1932). The study aims to investigate the origin of the identified lexical and semantic calques found in these sections, to describe the methods used for their identification, and to present the prescriptive attitudes expressed in the lessons and responses. Furthermore, the analysed calques are cross-checked with normative manuals and descriptive and etymological dictionaries of the Serbian (or Serbo-Croatian) language, in order to determine the extent to which they are marked as calques. Out of 36 lexical and semantic calques (21 lexical and 15 semantic), excerpted from 35 lessons and responses, a German source was identified for nearly all analysed lexemes.

The relevance of this article determines the need to study the changes occurring in the Ukrainian language under the influence of digital technologies. The aim of the article is to determine the extent of changes in the Ukrainian language caused by the development of digital technologies. To achieve this goal, a substantial body of scholarly works on the subject was reviewed, the empirical data sources were identified, and linguistic units were collected and analyzed. The study employs a set of theoretical research methods, including Computer-Mediated Discourse Analysis. It was found that the most significant changes occur in the language of computer-mediated communication, particularly in social media, and these changes influence other spheres of human interaction as well as the norms of standard literary language. The most noticeable dynamics were recorded in several linguistic subsystems: lexical, syntactic, and stylistic systems. The specific features of computer-mediated communication also manifest in the disregard of standard Ukrainian orthographic norms, such as the use of capital letters, and in punctuation, as evidenced by the minimization of punctuation marks. The study demonstrates that digital technologies intensify the development of the Ukrainian language by activating processes in various subsystems and expanding the domains of its functioning.

L'article analyse les fondements logiques et culturelles des défenseurs modernes de la langue française contre certains "dangers" menaçant d’en finir une fois pour toutes avec sa pureté, sa beauté et sa clarté. Dans le cadre de ces problématiques, nous tenterons d'identifier les caractéristiques clés de l'idéologie de la langue chez les grammairiens français. Cela nous permettra de voir la force de leur enseignement langagier et de comprendre pourquoi la linguistique scientifique n'a pas été en mesure de démystifier leurs erreurs. Les principales caractéristiques de l'idéologie de la langue moderne des grammairiens français ont été décrites, ainsi que la base idéologique de divers mouvements de “protection et de défense” de la langue. Leurs liens généalogiques ainsi que leurs prédécesseurs ont aussi été identifiés. Les postulats des grammairiens sur la langue forment, à notre avis, une sorte de religion laïque. Pour eux, la langue n'est pas seulement un moyen de communiquer et d'exprimer sous forme verbale sa pensée, mais aussi une expression de l'esprit et de l'unité nationaux, un objet d'admiration esthétique dans les chefs-d'œuvre littéraires. Pour les grammairiens français, le postulat de F. de Saussure affirmant la non observabilité de la langue est inacceptable en principe. La langue française peut et, historiquement, doit non seulement être observée mais aussi réglementée et fixée (par l'Académie française).

Prezentarea de față își propune să observe eforturile făcute în lingvistică spre a afla dacă baza de articulație este un concept viabil, util și dacă—mai presus de orice—reflectă realitatea. Întrucît, după știința noastră, cea mai bună dezvoltare a conceptului se petrece în spațiul științific românesc, prin A. Philippide și G. Ivănescu, vom încerca să urmărim direcția deschisă la mijlocul secolului al XIX-lea, sub influența perspectivei evoluționiste, și urmată de către cei doi mari teoreticieni ai conceptului. În partea a doua a studiului nostru vom încerca o sinteză a chestiunii, din perspectivă actuală, mai cu seamă întrucît, după cei doi învățați români, lingvistica românească nu s-a mai ocupat de acest concept, deși premisele existente sînt solide, valoroase, adică de mare sprijin.

En este estudio, de tipo documental y descriptivo de corte sociolingüístico, se analiza la presencia de la variación diatópica, diastrática, diafásica y adquisicional en un corpus de 23 manuales de francés publicados entre 2006 y 2018, dirigidos a aprendices del III ciclo de la educación general básica, elaborados y publicados en Costa Rica. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar si la variación estaba presente en el corpus de manuales. Como resultado de este análisis, se describe una serie de características del francés de referencia, dentro de las que se encuentran un modelo de lengua con una gramática homogénea, basado en lo escrito, en el que prevalece la enseñanza de contenidos gramaticales y léxicos y en el que la cultura francesa es un importante referente. Se concluye que la variación diafásica es la que está más presente en el corpus de manuales de manera explícita. Las características del francés de referencia presentadas pueden constituir una base para futuras discusiones sobre los modelos de enseñanza de esta lengua en Costa Rica. Palabras clave: variación lingüística; variación adquisicional; francés de referencia; didáctica de lenguas extranjeras; manuales escolares de francés.

Depuis l’époque du Renouveau national au XIXe siècle où le tchèque fut réintroduit dans des usages littéraires, scientifiques et administratifs, la communauté philologique et linguistique tchèque réfléchit sur le concept de spisovný jazyk (et concrètement spisovná čeština) que nous traduisons vers le français comme langue littéraire-standard (et donc le tchèque littéraire-standard en particulier). Le Cercle linguistique de Prague (CLP) intervint dans ces réflexions en proposant un nouveau concept de la langue littéraire-standard, définie en premier lieu par ses fonctions. La langue y est comprise comme un ensemble de variantes qui dépendent de différentes fonctions, et qui possèdent des modes de réalisation différents au niveau de la structure phonique, grammaticale ainsi que de la composition lexicale. La fonction de la langue littéraire-standard est d’exprimer la vie de la culture, la pensée scientifique,
philosophique et religieuse, politique et sociale, juridique et administrative d’une
communauté linguistique. Sa vocation est d’être la plus précise possible, d’exprimer tous les contenus et toutes les pensées en subtilité. Sa genèse consiste en un processus reposant sur l’usage cultivé, l’étude de la norme implicite et son amélioration, qui permettent d’établir sa codification dans les divers ouvrages de référence. Conjointement avec l’enseignement scolaire de la langue (maternelle) et la pratique littéraire, l’amélioration de la norme de la langue littéraire-standard à l’aide de la linguistique théorique constitue la culture de la langue littéraire-standard. Ce concept, qui est au fondement de toutes les réflexions postérieures sur la langue littéraire-standard au sein de la bohémistique linguistique jusqu’à nos jours, s’inscrit
activement dans la constellation particulière de la Tchécoslovaquie multi-ethnique et
multilingue de l’entre-deux-guerres, et dans les relations complexes entre les communautés scientifiques tchèques, allemandes et est-européennes à Prague dans les années 1920 et 1930, à la veille du cataclysme de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale.
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Since the time of the National Revival in the 19th century, when Czech language was
reintroduced into literary, scientific and administrative uses, the Czech philological and
linguistic community has been reflecting on Spisovný jazyk (and specifically Spisovná
čeština), which we can translate as literary-standard language (and hence literary-standard Czech in particular). The Prague Linguistic Circle (CLP) intervened in these reflections by proposing a new concept of literary-standard language, primarily defined by its functions. Language is described as a set of variants which depend on different functions, which have different rules of achievement in terms of phonic and grammatical structure and lexical composition. The function of the literary-standard language is to express the cultural, scientific, philosophical and religious, political and social, legal and administrative life of a language community. Its vocation is to be as precise as possible and to express all contents and thoughts with subtlety. It is formed though a cultivated usage-based process, the study of the implicit norm and its improvement, which allow its codification in various reference works. The culture of
the literary-standard language results from the improvement of the literary-standard language through theoretical linguistics together with school teaching of the (mother) language and literary practice. This concept represents the basis for all subsequent reflections on the topic of literary-standard language within Czech studies to this day, and is embedded in the particular constellation of multi-ethnic and multilingual interwar Czechoslovakia and the complex relations between the Czech, German, and East European scientific communities in Prague in the 1920s and 1930s, on the eve of the cataclysm of the Second World War.

The present study introduces affective norms for a set of 3022 Croatian words on five discrete emotions: happiness, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust. The words were rated by 1239 Croatian native speakers. Each participant rated 251 or 252 words for one discrete emotion on a five-point Likert scale. The analyses revealed a significant relationship between discrete emotions, emotional dimensions (valence and arousal), and other psycholinguistic properties of words. In addition, small sex differences in discrete emotion ratings were found. Finally, the analysis of the distribution of words among discrete emotions allowed a distinction between "pure" words (i.e., those mostly related to a single emotion) and "mixed" words (i.e., those related to more than one emotion). The new database extends the existing Croatian affective norms collected from a dimensional conception of emotions, providing the necessary resource for future experimental investigation in Croatian within the theoretical framework of discrete emotions.

Most research on the relationship between emotion and language in children relies on the use of words whose affective properties have been assessed by adults. To overcome this limitation, in the current study we introduce SANDchild, the Spanish affective database for children. This dataset reports ratings in the valence and the arousal dimensions for a large corpus of 1406 Spanish words rated by a large sample of 1276 children and adolescents from four different age groups (7, 9, 11 and 13 years old). We observed high inter-rater reliabilities for both valence and arousal in the four age groups. However, some age differences were found. In this sense, ratings for both valence and arousal decreased with age. Furthermore, the youngest children consider more words to be positive than adolescents. We also found sex differences in valence scores since boys gave higher valence ratings than girls, while girls considered more words to be negative than boys. The norms provided in this database will allow us to further extend our knowledge on the acquisition, development and processing of emotional language from childhood to adolescence. The complete database can be downloaded from https://psico.fcep.urv.cat/exp/files/SANDchild.xlsx.

This study presents subjective ratings for 3,022 Croatian words, which were evaluated on two affective dimensions (valence and arousal) and one lexico-semantic variable (concreteness). A sample of 933 Croatian native speakers rated the words online. Ratings showed high reliabilities for all three variables, as well as significant correlations with ratings from databases available in Spanish and English. A quadratic relation between valence and arousal was observed, with a tendency for arousal to increase for negative and positive words, and neutral words having the lowest arousal ratings. In addition, significant correlations were found between affective dimensions and word concreteness, suggesting that abstract words have a tendency to be more arousing and emotional than concrete words. The present database will allow experimental research in Croatian, a language with a considerable lack of psycholinguistic norms, by providing researchers with a useful tool in the investigation of ...

Spanish is the official language of almost four hundred million speakers in twenty-one countries on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The central variety of the Iberian Peninsula has always been considered a literate and exemplary model of the language. However, the plurality and fragmentation of this language have led to the establishment of different morphosyntactic uses in the different regions, uses that match the standard in each area. In such a panorama, authors of manuals it is difficult to decree what is right and what is not and, above all, to decide which diatopic variety bring to their classes. The present study analysis six ELE didactic works used in Italy. Its aim is to find out the treatment of differences of use, present throughout the Hispanic world, of the contrast between simple and compound past, to verify the presence of mentions of geographical varieties different from the central peninsular one and the consideration transmitted to the student of such varieties....

Semantically ambiguous and emotional words occur frequently in language, and the different meanings of ambiguous words can sometimes have different emotional loads. For example, the Spanish word heroína (heroin/heroine) can refer to a drug or to a woman who performs a heroic act. Because both ambiguity and emotionality affect word processing, there is a need for normative databases that include data on the emotionality of the different meanings of such words. Thus far, no bases of this type are available in Spanish. With this in mind, the current study will present meaning-dependent affective (valence) ratings for 252 Spanish ambiguous words. The analyses performed show that (a) among ambiguous words, those words with meanings that have distinct affective valence are quite frequent, (b) ambiguous words rated as neutral in isolation can have meanings of opposite valence (i.e., negative-positive or positive-negative), and (c) the valence estimated for ambiguous words in isolation is b...

Emotion lexicons are useful in research across various disciplines, but the availability of such resources remains limited for most languages. While existing emotion lexicons typically comprise words, it is a particular meaning of a word (rather than the word itself) that conveys emotion. To mitigate this issue, we present the Emotion Meanings dataset, a novel dataset of 6000 Polish word meanings. The word meanings are derived from the Polish wordnet (plWordNet), a large semantic network interlinking words by means of lexical and conceptual relations. The word meanings were manually rated for valence and arousal, along with a variety of basic emotion categories (anger, disgust, fear, sadness, anticipation, happiness, surprise, and trust). The annotations were found to be highly reliable, as demonstrated by the similarity between data collected in two independent samples: unsupervised (n = 21,317) and supervised (n = 561). Although we found the annotations to be relatively stable for...

Este trabajo tiene como objetivo contribuir al desarrollo de la subdisciplina de la estandarología comparada (Joseph 1987, 13), entendiendo por tal el estudio comparado de los procesos y fundamentos sociohistóricos, culturales e ideológicos por los que una determinada variedad, que se consagra como ‘lengua estándar’, se impone al resto del continuo dialectal y se establece como norma superordinada. Son necesarias todavía muchas investigaciones que nos permitan profundizar en nuestra comprensión de los mecanismos y los agentes en la difusión de las normas y su impacto en el cambio lingüístico, así como hacer frente a los retos que plantea la estandarización en entornos cada vez más multilingües (cfr. Ayres-Bennet y Bellamy 2021), como es el territorio español. La normatividad como hecho prescriptivo se relaciona con el establecimiento de las llamadas lenguas o variedades estándares, cuya normativización y normalización están muy vinculadas en el ámbito lingüístico románico a la labor de instituciones de reglamentación lingüística, como las academias de la lengua (Lebsanft y Tacke 2020, 3). Este es el caso de las lenguas románicas peninsulares a las que prestamos atención en este trabajo (español, catalán, gallego), pero también del euskara, lengua no románica que comparte el marco glotopolítico español y también una tradición de estandarización formal (cfr. Costa Carreras y Amorós 2021). 
A este respecto, cabe poner de relieve que el español es una lengua mayoritaria y plenamente estandarizada que cuenta con una variedad estándar madura. Es lo que se conoce como un ‘early standard language’, porque su emergencia fue previa a la puesta en marcha de un proceso de cambio lingüístico deliberado característico de estándares más tardíos, como el catalán, el gallego y el euskara, cuya codificación fue mucho más tardía y su implementación es todavía deficitaria. No fue hasta la modernidad cuando la conversión de vernáculos en lenguas estándares obedeció a un proyecto sociopolítico y filosófico de gran envergadura: la instauración del estado-nación, cuya cohesión debía reforzarse con el explícito desarrollo de estándares ‘nacionales’ (Valle 2020, etc.). No es casualidad que sea precisamente en el siglo XVIII cuando se documenta el término ‘estándar’ (Joseph 1987, 3) para aludir a los usos lingüísticos considerados ejemplares y modélicos, prestigiosos y asociados a las élites y grupos hegemónicos (Milroy y Milroy 1985). En este contexto, la fundación de las academias de la lengua fue impulsada también por el espíritu ilustrado de ensalzar la identidad de la lengua y controlar el uso lingüístico (cfr. Esposito 2011).
A partir de la época moderna, por tanto, triunfó y se difundió esta construcción sociocognitiva de una forma particular de lengua cultivada, una idea de lengua como entidad discreta, claramente delimitada y muy dependiente del plano escrito, una variedad resultante de un proceso de planificación y estandarización lingüística (cfr. Deumert y Vandenbussche 2003) que, desde el siglo XX, se ha popularizado. No obstante, a pesar de que la existencia del constructo ‘lengua estándar’ es absolutamente central en la historia y evolución de las ‘standard language cultures’ (Milroy 2001) y de la lingüística occidental (Linn 2013), llama la atención la imprecisión y falta de unanimidad en torno al alcance, delimitación y definición de las variedades estándares.
A pesar de la existencia de denominadores comunes (Amorós Negre 2018) en la emergencia, desarrollo e implementación de los estándares español, catalán, gallego y euskara, las idiosincrasias advertidas en los respectivos procesos de estandarización, así como el marcado carácter ideológico de la propia noción de ‘estándar’, explican su falta de normalización y desigual empleo en el metadiscurso académico y especializado. En efecto, el examen de las obras lexicográficas, gramaticográficas y terminográficas contemporáneas, incluso las elaboradas por parte de instituciones encargadas de la gestión y reglamentación lingüística de las lenguas española, catalana, gallega y euskara, muestra una desigual atención a la caracterización y uso del término estándar. Así pues, en el presente trabajo se examinará el alcance de este término en los diferentes códigos normativos que las academias de la lengua española, catalana, gallega y vasca emplean para la descripción y prescripción de modelos lingüísticos y la interrelación que este guarda con otros conceptos estrechamente vinculados a la estandarización, como los de lengua o norma común, prescrita, general, culta y formal (cfr. Amorós Negre 2009, a partir del trabajo previo sobre los códigos normativos de las academias de la lengua española y catalana de Costa Carreras (en prensa a/b).

Interpersonal connections in Internet communication presuppose an increase in the level of freedom and realization of written communication, which affects the requirements for all styles of the Ukrainian literary language. Conversational and formal business styles have gained a special influence in the Internet environment, which requires compliance of certain rules and it is a sign of a conscious attitude to the language system.

Based on the method of experiment and observation on the basis of Google Forms, a survey of 247 respondents (first- and second-year students of the Lviv Polytechnic National University (hereinafter LPNU)) aged 17 to 20 years was conducted. The study examines how students of humanities and technical specialties adhere to punctuation in online communication. It has been proven that formal business and conversational styles in the Internet environment have undergone transformations, punctuation in online communication has also changed in use and in some speech situations ceased to comply of the language laws, which encourages communicators aged 17-18 to consider punctuation at all is not mandatory for informal communication and partially mandatory in formal business online communication.

The results of the study confirmed that the hypothesis of the need for punctuation marks in formal business communication and the hypothesis of numerous deviations from the norms of punctuation in informal, are characteristic of online communication of students. The hypothesis of punctuation literacy among students is not confirmed by the research materials.

Keywords: Internet communication, сomputer-mediated communication, сomputational linguistics, linguistic norm, punctuation marks, experiment method, official business style, conversational style.

Studies of semantic variables (e.g., concreteness) and affective variables (i.e., valence and arousal) have traditionally tended to run in different directions. However, in recent years there has been growing interest in studying the relationship, as well as the potential overlaps, between the two. This article describes a database that provides subjective ratings for 1,400 Spanish words for valence, arousal, concreteness, imageability, context availability, and familiarity. Data were collected online through a process involving 826 university students. The results showed a high interrater reliability for all of the variables examined, as well as high correlations between our affective and semantic values and norms currently available in other Spanish databases. Regarding the affective variables, the typical quadratic correlation between valence and arousal ratings was obtained. Likewise, significant correlations were found between the lexico-semantic variables. Importantly, we obtained moderate negative correlations between emotionality and both concreteness and imageability. This is in line with the claim that abstract words have more affective associations than concrete ones (Kousta, Vigliocco, Vinson, Andrews, & Del Campo, 2011). The present Spanish database is suitable for experimental research into the effects of both affective properties and lexico-semantic variables on word processing and memory.

A volume edited by Gilles Siouffi, Le sentiment linguistique chez Saussure, indisputably ranks among the 2021 publications in language sciences that matter within the Frenchspeaking realm. As the title suggests, the book aims to discuss Ferdinand de Saussure's longneglected ideas on linguistic feeling, that is, as Vincent Nyckees, one of the contributors, emphasizes, "the acquired capacity, inherent to every speaker of a definite language and which manifests itself through his or her linguistic practice, to spontaneously analyze the forms of such a language" and that "result[s] from his or her long-lasting immersion in the corresponding linguistic community [...]" (p. 48). Here Siouffi and five other authors (Vincent Nyckees, Bruno Courbon, Emanuele Fadda, Loïc Depecker, and Philippe Monneret) strive to revisit the centrality of "meta-" or "epilinguistic" concerns in Saussure's thought by providing substantial conceptual, terminological, genealogical, and contextual clarifications about the issue of sentiment linguistique and reassessing the place and significance of this issue in his oeuvre. The outcome of such a joint effort is clearly successful, not only because of the quality of individual contributions, but also because, taken together, they form a consistent whole that provides, for the first time, an encompassing overview of the issue at stake. Depending on the case, the authors discuss the Saussurean concept of linguistic feeling from a comparative, contextual, or genealogical perspective, although the exegetic approach remains, in most chapters, instrumental. Notably, as Siouffi highlights in the introductory part (p. 12), his intention, as an editor, was not simply to revisit Saussure's developments on linguistic feeling from a philological and historical point of view, but also to envision their theoretical and methodological implications for current research in language science. The book largely meets these two objectives.

Spanish is the official language of almost four hundred million speakers in twenty-one countries on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The central variety of the Iberian Peninsula has always been considered a literate and exemplary model of the language. However, the plurality and fragmentation of this language have led to the establishment of different morphosyntactic uses in the different regions, uses that match the standard in each area. In such a panorama, authors of manuals it is difficult to decree what is right and what is not and, above all, to decide which diatopic variety bring to their classes. The present study analysis six ELE didactic works used in Italy. Its aim is to find out the treatment of differences of use, present throughout the Hispanic world, of the contrast between simple and compound past, to verify the presence of mentions of geographical varieties different from the central peninsular one and the consideration transmitted to the student of such varieties....

Subjective ratings of perceptual and motor attributes were obtained for a set of 750 concrete concepts in Spanish by requiring scale-based judgments from a sample of university students (N = 539). Following on the work of Amsel, Urbach, and Kutas (2012), the seven attributes were color, motion, sound, smell, taste, graspability, and pain. Normative data based on the obtained ratings are provided as a tool for future investigations. Additionally, the relationships of these attributes to other lexical dimensions (e.g., familiarity, frequency, concreteness) and the factorial organization of concepts around the main components were analyzed. The pattern of results is consistent with prior findings that highlight the relevance of dimensions related to survival as being crucially involved in conceptual processing.

Prezentarea de față își propune să observe eforturile făcute în lingvistică spre a afla dacă baza de articulație este un concept viabil, util și dacă—mai presus de orice—reflectă realitatea. Întrucît, după știința noastră, cea mai bună dezvoltare a conceptului se petrece în spațiul științific românesc, prin A. Philippide și G. Ivănescu, vom încerca să urmărim direcția deschisă la mijlocul secolului al XIX-lea, sub influența perspectivei evoluționiste, și urmată de către cei doi mari teoreticieni ai conceptului. În partea a doua a studiului nostru vom încerca o sinteză a chestiunii, din perspectivă actuală, mai cu seamă întrucît, după cei doi învățați români, lingvistica românească nu s-a mai ocupat de acest concept, deși premisele existente sînt solide, valoroase, adică de mare sprijin.

Asturiana (2012). Normes Ortográfiques [7ª edición revisada]. Uviéu: Academia de la Llingua Asturiana. Andrés, Ramón d' (2001). Cuestiones d'asturianu normativu. Uviéu: Publicaciones Ámbitu. Andrés, Ramón d' (2007). Incorrecciones y contravenciones llingüístiques na narrativa asturiana d'anguaño. En: Xosé Lluís Campal Fernández (coord.), La emancipación de la lliteratura asturiana. Crónica y balance de la narrativa contemporánea, [Uvieo]: Gobiernu del Principáu d'Asturies-Conseyería de Cultura, Comunicación Social y Turismu, pp. 159-178.

Traducerea de la 1816 efectuată de Petru Maior, insuficient studiată, ne oferă un material prețios în privința normelor limbii literare din Transilvania primelor două decenii ale secolului al XIX-lea. Ne-am concentrat atenția asupra trăsăturilor fundamentale ale limbii literare, fără a scăpa însă din vedere nici trăsăturile secundare care ni s-au părut relevante pentru norma promovată de cărturarul ardelean. Se observă că materialul lingvistic extras din această traducere reflectă, pe lîngă normele fonetice și morfologice specifice graiului autorului, și norme stabilite după alte criterii decît cele ilustrate de tradiția locală, și anume criteriul apropierii de etimonul latin sau de norma muntenească promovată de tipăriturile religioase de la mijlocul veacului al XVIII-lea. În ceea ce privește lexicul neologic utilizat în această traducere, s-a realizat o clasificare semantică, urmărindu-se atît vocabularul de cultură generală, cît și lexicul de specialitate (terminologia medicală)....

In line with the concept of usage-based language, cognitive linguistics has begun a new turn, from exploring the experience and universality of cognition to the study of semantic variation centered on cognition and social interaction, ushering in the integration of research methods and theoretical frameworks of cognitive linguistics and sociolinguistics, giving birth to a new paradigm of language research-cognitive sociolinguistics. This paper discusses the emerging challenges and highlights the prospect for the further development of the new paradigm.

This doctoral dissertation aims at studying how linguistic norm is established and how it is conceptualized through an in-depth analysis of Varro, Cicero and Quintilian’s treatises. It studies how the concept of Latine loqui, more expanded than Latinitas, originates a new norm which includes grammar and rhetoric. This study also revisits the links between latin and Greek norms, and how pedagogy has a role to play in the definition of linguistic norms.

Emotion lexicons are useful in research across various disciplines, but the availability of such resources remains limited for most languages. While existing emotion lexicons typically comprise words, it is a particular meaning of a word (rather than the word itself) that conveys emotion. To mitigate this issue, we present the Emotion Meanings dataset, a novel dataset of 6000 Polish word meanings. The word meanings are derived from the Polish wordnet (plWordNet), a large semantic network interlinking words by means of lexical and conceptual relations. The word meanings were manually rated for valence and arousal, along with a variety of basic emotion categories (anger, disgust, fear, sadness, anticipation, happiness, surprise, and trust). The annotations were found to be highly reliable, as demonstrated by the similarity between data collected in two independent samples: unsupervised (n = 21,317) and supervised (n = 561). Although we found the annotations to be relatively stable for...

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Confucianism, Daoism, arte marțiale (Wushu), Go (Weiqi) sau ascensiunea şi expansiunea Chinei prin cultură. Toate acestea pot fi legate de conceptul și atitudinea practică de cedare (rang), aparentă sau reală. Acest concept se poate traduce și în temenii culturii occidentale contemporane prin soft power, sinagmă care îi aparţine lui Joseph Nye. Iată cum îl definește Nye (2004): ,,Este abilitatea de a obține ceea ce vrei
prin atracție, mai degrabă decît prin coerciție sau cumpărare.
Vine din atractivitatea culturii unei țări, din idealurile ei politice
și din politici”. Și, mai jos: ,,Seducția este totdeauna mai
eficentă decît coerciția și multe valori ca democrația, drepturile
omului și oportunitățile individuale sînt în mod profund seducătoare”...
Ce poate oferi la rîndul ei China ?
Istoria se schimbă sub ochii noştri, dar nu prin expansiune militară,
ci prin ofensivă culturală, sprijin financiar şi investiţii cu
bătaie lungă. Pentru a cunoaște China de ieri şi de azi,
înțelegerea noţiunii de cedare (rang) poate fi o cheie.

This study is about the differences in articulations between men and women in Libyan Arabic from Tripoli and the social power structure of these differences. The corpus used is a list of words with consonants having strong distinctive values to a social point of view between men and women, i.e., pharyngealized consonants / s ˁ, t ˁ, d ˁ/and nonpharyngealized consonants /s, t, d/. Gender differences will be treated here through values of frequencyof the tow first formants [F1, F2] of the vowels /i, u, a/ which are linked to the pharyngealized and nonpharyngealized consonants. The results show significant differences between men and women and these differences are caused by social distinctions. Mots-cles : sociophonetique, acoustique, voyelle, pharyngalisation, parler arabe lybien de Tripoli

Formally the notion of the norm and that of variation can seem two poles of a magnet that repel each other; it almost seems that these two terms are the opposite of each other in the sense that the norm refers to a fixed and regulated system whereas variation is generally seen as a linguistic deviation of this normalized structure. However, when we open our critical mind, we have the impression that these two notions are conflictual; but if we look more closely, it is possible to deduce that, indeed, the notions of norm and variation can appear as two sides of the same coin: these are two terms that are actually complementary since without a norm it would not be possible to have a variation. Furthermore, we must remember that the norm is a system that is always there and that reassures us every time we get lost in a type of language that is completely "contaminated" by variation. To answer this question, it is first necessary to consider a precise and thorough definition of norm and variation. Then, it is necessary to consider whether these two concepts are conflicting or not by referring to the principles that have just been established by deepening them.

Si la recherche considère traditionnellement le français comme une langue monocentrique, de récentes études portant sur les normes (de prononciation) en Suisse et au Québec remettent actuellement cette affirmation en question. Dans cet ouvrage, la pluralité des normes de prononciation est abordée pour la première fois pour trois régions différentes et sur la base d’une combinaison de trois méthodes. Le cas de Paris en tant que traditionnel centre de la francophonie est comparé à ceux des « périphéries » québécoise et suisse romande sur la base d’une analyse des productions de 60 journalistes-présentateurs, considérés comme des locuteurs-modèles, combinée à des tests de perception et une enquête par questionnaires sur les représentations de 288 informateurs non experts. Les résultats montrent que si, en Europe, il est difficile de considérer l’existence d’une norme de prononciation suisse romande stable parallèle à celle de Paris, l’indépendance recrudescente d’un nouveau centre normatif québécois sur le continent américain est indéniable. Ces résultats remettent en cause la présumée "exception sociolinguistique" du français et impliquent une redéfinition du concept de norme de référence dans un sens pluricentrique.

Studies of semantic variables (e.g., concreteness) and affective variables (i.e., valence and arousal) have traditionally tended to run in different directions. However, in recent years there has been growing interest in studying the relationship, as well as the potential overlaps, between the two. This article describes a database that provides subjective ratings for 1,400 Spanish words for valence, arousal, concreteness, imageability, context availability, and familiarity. Data were collected online through a process involving 826 university students. The results showed a high interrater reliability for all of the variables examined, as well as high correlations between our affective and semantic values and norms currently available in other Spanish databases. Regarding the affective variables, the typical quadratic correlation between valence and arousal ratings was obtained. Likewise, significant correlations were found between the lexico-semantic variables. Importantly, we obtained moderate negative correlations between emotionality and both concreteness and imageability. This is in line with the claim that abstract words have more affective associations than concrete ones (Kousta, Vigliocco, Vinson, Andrews, & Del Campo, 2011). The present Spanish database is suitable for experimental research into the effects of both affective properties and lexico-semantic variables on word processing and memory.

Psycholinguistics has provided a broad spectrum of data available for many academic purposes from which one relevant area deals with the interplay between language and emotions. Thus, this review provides a framework for organizing past and guiding future research on the psycholinguistics of Spanish language associated with the affective domain. A scope review methodology was chosen for the final selection of 43 articles published from 2000 to 2019. The articles are organized according to several categories of analysis, giving some lights on the nature of the evidence, taking into consideration: subjects of study; characteristic variables under investigation, and instruments and / or approached methodologies. Finally, a brief discussion is conducted on the prospective, and applicability of this research line.

and Linguistics,' edited by Aleksi Mäkilähde, Ville Leppänen, and Esa Itkonen, is a collection of essays which aims to emphasize the centrality of the normative aspect of language and the language sciences. The book includes eight chapters discussing the role of norms and normativity in language and linguistics from a variety of perspectives, preceded by a somewhat lengthy introduction by the editors.

Основной вопрос, которому посвящена данная статья, формулируется следующим образом. В языках с письменной традицией понятие нормы неразрывно связано с унификацией языка, созданием нормативных ресурсов (прежде всего, словарей, грамматик и справочников) и системой образования. А что происходит в языках, у которых нет письменной традиции и соответственно, нет кодифицированной нормы, создаваемой интеллектуальной элитой? Существует ли у носителей таких языков представление о норме, а если да, то на чем оно основывается?
Авторы рассказывают о своих наблюдениях, сделанных в процессе работы с носителями малых прибалтийско-финских языков: водского и ижорского.

După aproape două decenii am considerat că am putea fi în măsură să reliefăm importanța temei, într-o modalitate mai transparentă. Creîndu-ne răgazul necesar, am elaborat ediția de față, una restructurată, recalibrată și acomodată la rezultatele constantelor reflecții asupra chestiunii. Este o formă amendată prin adăugiri, eliminări și reformulări, operate asupra unor secvențe de text. Principalul scop vizat a fost obținerea unei imagini corecte și mai fin perspectivate, exprimate prin intermediul unui text limpede și cuprinzător, coerent și bine argumentat.

У статті розглянуто правильність / неправильність у вживанні низки прийменників, виокремлено ті конструкції, що найчастіше трапляються не лише в студентському, а й викладацькому мовленні. Аналіз поданих прийменників засвідчує неймовірне синонімне багатство у доборі правильної форми.
Ключові слова: прийменник, мовна норма, інтерферентний аспект.
Mykytyuk O. The destruction of the picture of the Ukrainian world by the nonnormative prepositional forms (applied aspect)
The article examines the correctness / incorrectness of the use of a number of prepositions, here are determined those structures that often occur not only in the students but also in the teachers speech. The analysis of the given prepositions demonstrates the incredible synonym wealth in the selection of the correct form.
Key words: preposition, linguistic norm, interferential aspect.

În zilele noastre, cu greu ar putea fi numită o disciplină care, preocupîndu-se de vreun aspect al ontologiei viului, să nu pretindă a avea un cuvînt de spus în dubla chestiune a originii și evoluției limbajului, de la biologie pînă la filozofie, de la științele computaționale pînă la arheologie. Chiar științe și domenii ale căror produse intelectuale nu se referă și nu au în vedere comunicarea umană oferă, în ultimele decenii, fragmente de cunoaștere ce înlesnesc ajungerea la adevărul rîvnit de lingvistica evoluționistă, ce se ancorase pînă nu demult, exclusiv și-inevitabil-limitativ, în datele obținute de lingvistica istorică, gramatica constructivistă, semantica cognitivă, psiholingvistica și altele asemenea. Este vorba, în fapt, nu de o deschidere a acelor științe și domenii față de ceea ce pare a fi misterul absolut al speciei umane, ci, dimpotrivă, de o relativ recentă acceptare de către lingvistica însăși a ideii că unele chei de descifrare a lui pot fi deduse ori îmbunătățite prin analiza evidențelor ce țin de evoluția biologică, de modificarea capacității cerebrale, de evoluția abilităților cognitive și perceptuale, de schimbările sociale, de creșterea complexității sociale și ecologice etc.; și nu neapărat și nu numai la Homo sapiens.

This thesis addresses philosophical problems concerning improper
assertions. The first part considers the issue of defining lying: here,
against a standard view, I argue that a lie need not intend to deceive
the hearer. I define lying as an insincere assertion, and then resort
to speech act theory to develop a detailed account of what an
assertion is, and what can make it insincere.
Even a sincere assertion, however, can be improper (e.g., it can be
false, or unwarranted): in the second part of the thesis, I consider
these kinds of impropriety. An influential hypothesis maintains that
proper assertions must meet a precise epistemic standard, and
several philosophers have tried to identify this standard. After
reviewing some difficulties for this approach, I provide an innovative
solution to some known puzzles concerning this issue. In my view,
assertions purport to aim at truth, but they are not subject to a norm
that requires speakers to assert a proposition only if it is true.