Mixed Languages

This paper explores the intersection of artificial intelligence (AI) and language preservation efforts, focusing on the documentation and preservation of endangered languages. With over 40% of the world's languages facing extinction, the need for innovative approaches to language documentation and preservation is urgent. Recent advancements in AI, including machine learning, natural language processing, and speech recognition, offer promising solutions to address the challenges faced by linguists and communities in preserving linguistic diversity. Through a comprehensive review of literature and case studies, this paper examines the role of AI in automating data collection, linguistic analysis, transcription, and even language revitalization efforts. Additionally, it discusses ethical considerations such as data bias, privacy, and cultural sensitivity in the application of AI technologies for language preservation. By highlighting the potential benefits and challenges of AI in this context, this paper aims to inform future research and practice in the field of endangered language preservation.

This paper explores intergenerational differences in the identification
of grammatical relations in Gurindji Kriol, in order to determine
whether differences between adults and children are the result of
an abrupt generational shift or an extended acquisition process.
We analyze the identification of agents in transitive sentences
using a 2AFC task where 16 agents are case-marked or not and are
ordered AV/VA. The study includes 73 participants which represent
four groups of Gurindji Kriol children (5, 7, 9 and 11 years old)
tested in 2005 and 2016, and one control group of adults tested in
2005. The data are analyzed both diachronically (in real-time) and
synchronically (in apparent-time). Our real-time analysis of the
2005 and 2016 children’s data reveals differences between child
groups but no differences across time, suggesting their patterns of
agent identification can be interpreted as an acquisitional cline.
Our apparent-time comparison of the combined 2005 and 2016
child and adult data show that by the age of 11 years, children
have acquired an adult-like argument-marking system which relies
on both case and word order.

Статья посвящена «антропологическому повороту» в российской социолингвистике и ряду теоретических проблем, связанных с изучением ею «человеческого фактора» / категории субъектности. Сама постановка проблемы основывается на интерпретации «человеческого фактора» в социолингвистике как выходящего за традиционные рамки социально-демографических факторов и социальных ролей и включающего языковые идеологии, языковые установки (отношение к языку), идентичности и другие связанные с субъектом феномены. Внимание автора обращено на такие вопросы эпистемологического характера, как специфика развития советской и российской социолингвистики в мировом контексте с точки зрения «человеческого фактора», границы социолингвистики со смежными дисциплинами, в первую очередь с лингвистической антропологией, а также терминология. В рамках последней рассматриваются особенности вариантов перевода на русский язык термина «language attitudes» и история их употребления в отечественной традиции. Автор утверждает, что можно говорить об узком (традиционном, стандартном) и широком (современном, интегративном) понимании социолингвистики, причем расширение происходит в первую очередь в сторону «человеческого фактора». Рассматриваются способы симбиоза социолингвистических и антропологических подходов в виде как конкретных исследований, так и целых направлений-социопсихолингвистики, лингвистической экологии, этнографии языковой политики и критической этнографической социолингвистики. Приведенные примеры иллюстрируют возможность совмещения «атомарности» микроуровневых исследований, характерных для лингвистической антропологии, и макроуровневых выводов и обобщений, характерных для (и ожидаемых от) социолингвистики. В заключительной части приводятся некоторые обобщающие соображения, перспективы и ограничения данной работы.
The article is devoted to the “anthropological turn” in Russian sociolinguistics and some theoretical problems related to the study of the “human factor”, or the category of subjectivity. The problem statement itself is based on the interpretation of the “human factor” in sociolinguistics as going beyond the traditional framework of socio-demographic factors and social roles and including language ideologies, language attitudes, identities and other subject-related phenomena. The author focuses on epistemological issues such as the specifics of the development of Soviet and Russian sociolinguistics in the global context from the perspective of the “human factor”, the boundaries of sociolinguistics, primarily with linguistic anthropology. The paper also examines terminological issues related to the translation of the term “language attitudes” into Russian. The author argues that there are narrow (traditional, standard) and broad (modern, integrative) interpretations of sociolinguistics; in the latter case, its expansion goes primarily in the anthropological direction. Both specific studies and
whole disciplinary areas such as sociopsycholinguistics, linguistic ecology, ethnography of language policy, and critical ethnographic sociolinguistics are given as examples of the symbiosis of sociolinguistic and anthropological approaches. The specific studies illustrate the possibility of combining the richly detailed micro-level investigations typical for linguistic anthropology and macro-level conclusions and generalizations characteristic of (and expected from) sociolinguistics. In conclusion, some general considerations, prospects, and limitations of this work are given.

La habilidad de escritura en clases de lengua extranjera es una de las más difíciles de desarrollar, debido a que tradicionalmente se ha dirigido el énfasis al léxico y gramática, desatendiendo así el propósito comunicativo en la adquisición de la lengua. Esto sumado a la omisión sistemática de la incorporación de prácticas extracurriculares de los estudiantes en el aprendizaje en clase. En efecto, fuera de las aulas, los alumnos están expuestos y participan de un complejo entramado de interacciones en los medios digitales: no solo dominan la creación de contenido, sino que también regulan las prácticas con comentarios, valoraciones y críticas; aunado al capital cultural que la participación activa en redes supone. En la presente propuesta se intenta integrar la forma y fondo de las prácticas en medios digitales en el contexto de prácticas análogas de la literatura contemporánea como la parodia, el fan-fiction y la autoficción, con el objetivo de mejorar la competencia de escritura en la lengua extranjera y la conciencia crítica en la creación y consumo de sus lecturas habituales.

This article considers a particular poetic form, historically known as macaronic verse. Surveying the three extant examples of verse of this type in Old English, this article argues that there was an established macaronic verse form known in early medieval England. This genre of verse appears to have been used primarily as a framing device where its conspicuous mixed-language style likely encouraged close reading and drew attention to the constructed nature of the text. The extant examples also suggest that this form was used especially to emphasize the importance of piety for salvation and where a broader message was personalized to an individual reader. Finally, the article considers whether this form of verse could have arisen alongside or in response to a mixed-language Old English prose tradition.

■ Data comes from the Guaraché-Child Corpus, (ADOP, language documentation project, funded through the DoBeS Dokumentation bedrohter Sprachen initiative by Volkswagen Foundation, the data is The Language Archive, TLA, MPI, Nijmegen: www.mpi.nl/dobes/ache) ■ Descriptive account of Guaraché Negation, compared to the three source languages: Aché, Paraguayan Guaraní, and Paraguayan Spanish ■ First quantitative analysis of negation data among adult caretakers and the child/teenage speakers, the latter being considered, in our research, the first generation of L1 speakers of Guaraché 'The jaguar never tried to run, he was really brave.' (2) No sé qué día es. 'I don't know what day (it) is.' (3) Me pasa la leche, no más.

This article investigated the impact of non-standard dialects on Grade 10 learners at the two selected high schools in Winterveldt concerning writing Setswana and how to improve the written competency of Setswana Home Language (HL) learners. The study was conducted at two high schools where 56 participants were selected from Grade 10, with 28 participants from each school. The study employed a qualitative method. In this regard, two focus groups consisting of ten learners each from each school were interviewed. Similarly, class observations, constructive analysis, and text analysis were also used to collect the data. According to the data, it is evident that Non-standard dialects had a significant influence on the written and spoken outputs of the learners and most learners and teachers could not differentiate. The data also suggested that the Setswana written by female learners is better in comparison with how or what the Setswana male learners write. Based on the findings and conclusions the following recommendations can be made: (1)The government and the Department of Education must employ or rather hire native Setswana speakers to teach Setswana home language. (2) When learners do not understand certain aspects of the Setswana classes, teachers must not speak Sepitori to make the learners understand and (3)The use of non-standard dialects must be minimised in schools to reduce its influence on Setswana. The study findings will provide insights to the Department of Education about the challenges that Setswana L1 learners encounter that prevent them from excelling in written competency of the Setswana home language. This will help in policy implementation.

East Indisch. This language is the language spoken by the Indos in the Dutch colonial era. It has a unique feature despite being named as 'broken Dutch'. This present study is a descriptive qualitative study that looks into the feature of Indonesian language grammar in Petjo. This study elaborates the feature of Indonesian grammar in Petjo from morpho-syntax perspective. Results show that there are at least seven characteristics of Indonesian grammar appeared in Petjo. This explains why Petjo is called 'broken Dutch'.

This research paper looks at the role of geographical influences in the emergence of Creole languages and how colonization, trade routes, migration and contact of different linguistic communities contributed to the development of these languages. Paying attention to the most popular Creole languages in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, and West Africa, the work investigates how environmental and sociopolitical circumstances led to the peculiarities of phonological, syntactic, and lexical characteristics of these languages. In a comparative perspective, the paper points out how isolation, multilingualism and cultural exchange interact to bring about Creole. According to the findings, geographical factors did not only dictate linguistic hybridization but also dictated the social status as well as standardization of Creole languages. This paper adds to wider debates in sociolinguistics and creolistics based on the inseparability of place and language development.

Haisla typically assigns stress like other North Wakashan languages, to the leftmost stress-bearing (moraic) syllable or applies the default-to-opposite rule if the word contains no moraic syllable. Perceived exceptions exist in words containing long vowels and suffixes with lexical high-pitch syllable (Elfner 2008; Janzen 2015; 2023). Previous work on the Haisla stress systems either did not consider phonemic vowel length (Vink 1977; Lincoln & Rath 1986; Wilson 1987) or merely acknowledged that it may be a factor (Bach 1990). After finding that all long (bimoraic) vowels do attract stress, we conduct the first detailed phonetic study of the Haisla stress system. We investigate prosodic features pitch, duration, and intensity, as well as the first (F1), second (F2), and third (F3) formants, in Haisla predictably stressed vowels. We find that pitch, duration, and intensity are very highly significant (p < 0.001) correlates of stress and, interestingly, that the backness (F2) of stressed /a/ is highly significant (p < 0.01). These results contribute to the understanding of the predictability of word stress in Haisla as well as additional considerations around orthographic revision for the Haisla Speech Community.

У статті на матеріалі мовних біографій проаналізовано зміни мовної свідомости та мовної поведінки київської молоді під час повномасштабної російсько-української війни. Схарактеризовано мовну ситуацію у столиці з погляду молодих киян та досліджено вплив мовного середовища на формування їхньої мовної поведінки. Виявлено чинники, що стримують молодь від переходу на українську мову в умовах війни.

Ambivalent voice" or "voice ambivalence" denotes a linguistic phenomenon where a single grammatical marker or form encapsulates multiple voices in a language. The present study focuses on the ambivalent voice of the dialect Linxia, a northwestern Sinitic language, employing descriptive and comparative methods to analyze its syntactic and semantic features. In Linxia, the causative, passive, and applicative voices are unified under the enclitic marker ti, contrasting with the prevalent use of the verb GIVE in adjacent languages. Nonetheless, due to deep contact with neighboring Altaic-type languages (Turko-Mongolic), the Linxia dialect exhibits linguistic convergence within the Gansu-Qinghai area.

This thesis presents a descriptive analysis of several topics within the spatial grammar of Kukatja. The primary goal of the thesis is to bring to light the multimodal resources Kukatja speakers have for expressing spatial relations. The thesis also seeks to contribute to ongoing debates concerning the relationship between language and cognition, while also making use of recent theoretical developments that draw attention to the role the environment and other non-linguistic factors have on spatial language. As Kukatja is just one of a small number of Australian Aboriginal languages still being acquired by children, this thesis also explores how various aspects of spatial grammar are changing against a backdrop of rapid social, cultural and environmental changes.
The thesis has a broad coverage, spanning various topics within morphology (spatial case marking) and the lexicon (locationals, demonstrative and posture verbs), while also analysing spatial strategies used to encode spatial relationships between objects that are separated in space (i.e. Frames of Reference or ‘FoRs’). The thesis also includes a chapter dedicated to pointing gestures. Each of these topics are explored with comparison to other related Australian Aboriginal languages but also with reference to cross-linguistic semantic typologies. To investigate these topics, I draw both on archival materials spanning over 60 years of documentation and my own novel fieldwork (6months between 2021–2023) in Balgo WA during which I collected both naturalistic and experimental data. The resulting annotated corpus of multimodal spatial language was analysed with a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods.
Several interesting findings can be highlighted from the various domains of study. Within morphology, the locative case is shown to have a highly polyfunctional role, extending across not only the semantic range of other spatial cases, but also exhibiting relational functions. Within the lexicon, evidence is presented for intergenerational changes in the morphosyntax of class of locationals—the uniqueness of this class being eroded within the speech of younger individuals. Within the class of demonstratives, the application of a standardised elicitation task prompted the reanalysis of the semantic basis of demonstrative forms. The results from investigating Frames of Reference reveal that the Kukatja community have a broad repertoire of strategies, utilising not only cardinal direction terms like ‘north’ and ‘south’ familiar to many Australian Aboriginal languages but also terms for ‘front’ and ‘back’ with both intrinsic (e.g. in front of the car [the car’s front]) and relative (e.g. in frontof the tree) sense types. Particularly notable is the identification of a range of subtypes of intrinsic FoR and also the use of relative FoR in orientation descriptions (i.e., he is looking to the back). Proximity descriptions are also shown to be used pragmatically to encode intrinsic FoR, a finding likely under-reported cross-linguistically to-date. The quantitative results show that younger speakers are making comparatively less use of cardinal direction terms than older speakers but are not shifting to more English-like patterns, despite increased use of English in the community. Instead, their linguistic strategies remain strictly ‘geocentric’, invoking aspects of their local environment to describe relations in horizontal tabletop space. Set in contrast to the linguistic strategies, the findings of the non-linguistic task revealed a preference for ‘intrinsic-like’ encodings, although this is discussed within the context of limitations of the chosen task. The pointing study lends quantitative support to earlier claims in the literature regarding the relationship between spatial language and gestural practise while also improving our understanding of how multimodal resources can be combined in the expression of spatial meanings in an Australian Aboriginal language.

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Zneholoshuvaty chy ne zneholoshuvaty? Do istorii odniiei polemiky mizh kharkivskymy movoznavtsiamy kintsia XX st. [To be or not to be voiced? From the history of one polemics between Kharkiv linguists at the end of the 20th century]. Movoznavstvo, (2), 19-34. [In Ukrainian].

This research study aimed to examine the voice onset time (VOT) duration for Pashto stops of the Yousafzai dialect and their impact on the subsequent vowel length. Following a descriptive approach, the study involved recording stops, including bilabials, dental, retroflex, velar, and uvular, from five Pashto speakers of the Yousafzai dialect aged 18-30 selected through convenient sampling. The recordings were made in a CVC pattern, focusing on the initial consonants. The study found that the retroflex /ʈ/ had the shortest VOT duration of 0.015 ms, while the dental /d̪ / had the longest VOT duration of-0.127 ms. The study also found that among voiceless stops in Pashto, the retroflex /ʈ/ had the shortest VOT duration of 0.015 ms, while the velar /k/ had the longest VOT duration of 0.054 ms. In voiced stops, the retroflex /ɖ/ had the shortest VOT duration of-0.104 ms, while the dental /d̪ / had the longest VOT duration of-0.127 ms. The study also revealed that vowel sounds were shorter after voiceless stops but longer after voiced stops. Overall, the findings of this study provide insight into the phonetics of Pashto stops in the Yousafzai dialect and how they impact vowel length. These results may have implications for language learners and researchers interested in Pashto phonology.

the committee members who agreed to read and provided their insightful comments on my study and who always showed me support since my graduate studies at University of Texas at Austin to this very day. I am also thankful to the following people for their contribution and assistance in different ways during my years of research: ʻĀdel Isleem, Mohammad Raʻed, Ronny Ħaamed, Saleem Shaaheen, Shadi Bayadci, Ħayaat and ʻInaad Raashed, Daaliya Hassoun, Naaji Abu Zeid, and Sanad Isleem, as well as everyone who agreed to sit with me and talk about the subject of this study. I would also like to thank the Department of Middle Eastern Studies at University of Texas at Austin and Bucknell University for accommodating all my needs to finish my research. I am grateful to both these institutes for their support. Finally, endless gratitude to my beloved wife Dena, and my children Mai & Julaan for all their patience, encouragement and support. And special thanks go out to my vi family, relatives, in laws and friends back home for believing in me and supporting me during my long but rewarding academic journey.

In Budugh, a disappearing East Caucasian language of Azerbaijan, all verb forms are based on one of two aspectual stems: the perfective and the imperfective. This paper describes the formation of imperfective stems, their finite use as debitive forms, and further derived moods and tenses. Imperfective stems converted to participles and used with a copula yield a prospective tense; stems inflected for the most common local case have become a deontic mood and, with the copula, a progressive form. A nonpast form covers other imperfective tense values. The same suffix is used to shift basic moods and tenses to past time reference or to form a counterfactual conditional mood.

This report serves as a brief introduction to my current work in
compiling a Votic Et)mological Glossary (VoEG) and, in
general, to the lexicography of the Votic and Baltofinnic (BF)
languages .
In Section 1. the motivations for undertaking such a project
are explained within the general framework of Votic and
Baltofinnic lexicography. Sections 2. and 3. describe the peculidrformat
of the VoEG and offer specific examples of the treatment
of various word-classes. Orthography is dealt with in Section 4.,
while Section 5. discusses issues in etymology.

Sociolinguists have grappled with how speakers of different genders use linguistic variables differentially to constitute their identities. Two seemingly-conflicting generalisations have emerged, referred to as the gender paradox. Women at once maintain standard forms which are overtly-discussed and positively-evaluated; yet lead change in non-standard forms which are below the level of consciousness. These trends are relatively robust in cases of language-internal change in Western societies but less so in non-Western societies and situations of language contact. This paper examines the role of gender in a north Australian Indigenous community where there is a shift underway from Gurindji to Kriol. The dataset consists of 185 variables used by 78 speakers across three generations. Here we examine the results of the application of the BayesVarbrul to the dataset which suggest that that women tend to be more conservative than men in retaining Gurindji variants, despite a more general shift to Kriol.

The Cultural Transmission of Spatial Cognition: Evidence from a Large-scale Study Jurgen Bohnemeyer 1 ([email protected]), Katharine T. Donelson 1 , Randi E. Tucker 1 , Elena Benedicto 2 , Alejandra Capistran Garza 3 , Alyson Eggleston 4 , Nestor Hernandez Green 5 , Maria de Jesus Selene Hernandez Gomez 6 , Samuel Herrera Castro 8 , Carolyn K. O’Meara 7 , Enrique Palancar 9 , Gabriela Perez Baez 10 , Gilles Polian 11 , Rodrigo Romero Mendez 7 Department of Linguistics, University at Buffalo Department of Linguistics, Purdue University Departamento de Filosofia de la Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana- Iztapalapa Department of English, East Carolina University Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropologia Social – Distrito Federal Instituto de Investigaciones Antropologicas, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Centro de Estudios Linguisticos y Literarios. Facultad de Lenguas y Letras, Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro Instituto de Investigaciones Filologicas, Sem...

This article talks about exactly where the Urdu language was born, what stages it went through in its development, the influence of the Arabic and Persian languages and Islamic culture on the Urdu language, and the final scientific conclusions are given.

This paper examines the nature and effect of the (detrimental) consequences of English language contact within the Norton Sound Kotlik (NSK) dialect of the Yugtun language, based on several years of ongoing fieldwork within the Kotlik community. The NSK dialect has long been in contact with central standard Yugtun, Inupiaq, and to some degree Russian and English. This is evident through the presence of primarily nominal loanwords within defined semantic domains. However, the current and ongoing interactions with English from the 1970s onwards represents a new period of language contact which has led to the rapid replacement of the dialect with mainstream English. As NSK falls moribund, an increasing number of speech and semantic domains are being overtaken by English completely. The examination of loanwords in a language elucidates the type and degree of contact two languages had at an earlier point in time, which becomes more revealing if a large number of loans belong to a unified semantic field. Furthermore, particular semantic fields can highlight the geopolitical climates of the time and the types of changes that a language can undergo due to contact alone. A precursory examination of Yugtun loanwords as a whole suggests three major historical contact periods, each indicative of different types and degrees of interactions. First, a scattered pre-Columbian contact with Unangam Tunuu, Inupiaq, Athabaskan, and Chukchee resulted in little language change as evidenced by the low number of loanwords from these languages. Second, a period of sustained Russian contact in the 18th century was marked by a slew of new vocabulary ranging from domains such as trade to religion entering the language, as in the word lintaq 'ribbon' from Russian Lénta (Jacobson 2012). Third, a period of English contact in the late 19th century introduced vocabulary for many modern amenities and lifestyles, as in the phrase klinicaq-luni 'to the clinic' from the English clinic (Jacobson 2012). This third period of intense English contact has been the source of significant change within and even initial deterioration of many Yugtun dialects. Currently, the NSK dialect is entering into a fourth period of language change due to pervasive English contact, which is being documented through my fieldwork. The NSK dialect is critically endangered and spoken only by the elders, however what I'm calling the late middle generation (aged around 40-50) can still understand while not ever using the Yugtun language expressively. This dynamic leads to many bilingual speech events as the elders understand English but choose to speak in Yugtun whenever possible, while the middle generation responds entirely in English. These bilingual speech events are especially common amongst family members, according to NSK consultants. Up until recently, however, the elders spoke entirely in Yugtun amongst themselves. Within the last decade this situation has changed as the elders have begun to use entire English phrases when speaking Yugtun leading to mixed-speech events. These events do not represent code-switching as the elders have adopted English phrases into their lexicon wholesale, with no assimilation. Neither is this the expected language borrowing pattern encountered in past contact periods as these phrases are neither lexical nor are they being phonetically assimilated into Yugtun. In documenting the dialect and talking to elders, this wholesale borrowing of English phrases has become the new norm amongst the elders in natural conversation, particularly among those with experience of the residential school system. This represents a new period of contact whereby the elders are transitioning to the English language as the community leaves their heritage language behind. The nature of language use amongst Kotlik elders represents the final stages of ongoing language transference of the NSK dialect due to English contact. This is reflective of the social environment of the community whereby the elders acknowledge the importance of the Yugtun language to the community, but have begun to utilize English more often due to ease of communication as they are inundated with English media and culture and accommodate to younger generations in conversation (Auer 1984). The Yugtun language and, in particular, the Northern-most dialects, provide excellent case studies for understanding how the geopolitical climate can facilitate or force language transfer. Additionally, it highlights a late-stage example of language transfer and can serve as a warning especially in this period of extreme language loss across the globe and in the circumpolar regions within minority language communities.

The Cultural Transmission of Spatial Cognition: Evidence from a Large-scale Study Jurgen Bohnemeyer 1 ([email protected]), Katharine T. Donelson 1 , Randi E. Tucker 1 , Elena Benedicto 2 , Alejandra Capistran Garza 3 , Alyson Eggleston 4 , Nestor Hernandez Green 5 , Maria de Jesus Selene Hernandez Gomez 6 , Samuel Herrera Castro 8 , Carolyn K. O’Meara 7 , Enrique Palancar 9 , Gabriela Perez Baez 10 , Gilles Polian 11 , Rodrigo Romero Mendez 7 Department of Linguistics, University at Buffalo Department of Linguistics, Purdue University Departamento de Filosofia de la Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana- Iztapalapa Department of English, East Carolina University Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropologia Social – Distrito Federal Instituto de Investigaciones Antropologicas, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Centro de Estudios Linguisticos y Literarios. Facultad de Lenguas y Letras, Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro Instituto de Investigaciones Filologicas, Sem...

新疆和田地區是唐代于闐王國的所在地，在那裏曾陸續發現一些漢語—于闐語雙語文書，其中有不少漢語音譯的于闐語人名、地名、官名等專名，是研究8世紀于闐漢語語音面貌的寶貴資料。本文對這些雙語專名進行對音研究，得出的主要結論有：（1）輕重唇音分化；（2）全濁聲母有清音化的現象，唇音聲母及匣母表現得更加明顯；（3）鼻音聲母讀成鼻冠音；（4）通、宕、梗三攝的-ŋ韻尾均有消變現象；（5）入聲韻-k尾弱化得較為嚴重；（6）“阿”字有入聲讀法。漢語在音譯于闐語專名時可能由於佛經翻譯的影響而受到梵語干擾，形成一些溢出對音規律的例外現象，這反映出古代和田地區複雜的語言生態。專名的借入具有方向性，在利用它們研究漢語音韻時需要格外謹慎。[Several Chinese-Khotanese bilingual documents have been discovered in Hetian area of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, where Khotan was located in the Tang dynasty. There are many Chinese transliterated proper names in these bilingual documents, including personal names, toponyms, and official titles, which are important for the study on Chinese phonological system in Khotan in the eighth century. This article conducts a transcriptional study on these bilingual proper names, and the main conclusions are as follow: (1) bilabials and labiodentals are distinguished. (2) some traces of devoicing of voiced obstruents can be observed, which may be more obvious in labial initials and initial xiá匣. (3) nasal initials are prenasalized. (4) the coda -ŋ of the tōng通, dàng宕 and gěng梗 rhyme groups is weakening. (5) the stop coda -k is undergoing severe weakening. (6)the character ā阿can be read with a rùshēng入声 rhyme final. When Khotanese proper names were transliterated in Chinese, there might be some exceptions to transliterating rules due to the Sanskrit disturbance through Buddhist scripture translation, which reflects the complex linguistic ecosystem of the ancient Hetian region. The borrowing of proper nouns is bi-directional, thus the study of Chinese historical phonology based on these materials requires much caution.]

Visual Cryptography comes under cryptography domain. It deals with encrypting and decrypting of visual information like pictures, texts, videos $ etc.$ Multi Secret Image Sharing (MSIS) scheme is a part of visual cryptography that provides a protected method to transmit more than one secret images over a communication channel. Conventionally, transmission of a single secret image is possible over a channel at a time. But as technology grows, there emerge a need for sharing more than one secret image. An $(n, n)$-MSIS scheme is used to encrypt $n$ secret images into $n$ meaningless noisy images that are stored over different servers. To recover $n$ secret images all $n$ noisy images are required. At earlier time, the main problem with secret sharing schemes was that attacker can partially figure out secret images, even by getting access of $n-1$ or fewer noisy images. To tackle with this security issue, there arises a need of secure MSIS scheme, so that attacker can not retrieve any ...

As spoken by Bunny Naburula, Danny Cooper, Dick Foster, Donald Graham, Doris Kelly, Elizabeth Johnson, George Brown, Gladys Brown, Jack Walker, Jessie Cooper, Jimmy Newcastle, Julie Kelly, Lofty Japaljarri, Louie Martin, May Foster, Norah Graham, Penny Kelly, Penny Williams, Selina Grant, Susannah Nelson, Topsy Walker, Toprail Japaljarri and William Graham.

This volume is a descriptive analysis of Warlmanpa, a highly endangered language traditionally spoken northwest of the town of Tennant Creek, where most of the remaining speakers now live.

This grammatical description is based on language work carried out by community members and linguists since 1952, and is the first published reference grammar of the language.

The major areas of analysis include phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax. This volume also provides description of typologically notable features, including: a two-way stop contrast at each place of articulation; a complex second-position auxiliary system containing participant and tense/mood/aspect information; associated motion; and a lack of evidence for noun phrases.

This volume lays the foundation for future Warlmanpa language work.

The subject of this study is the so-called "Surzhyk", a mixed Ukrainian-Russian variety used by millions of people in Ukraine, sometimes alongside Ukrainian and, less commonly, alongside Russian. More specifically, the focus here is on the lexicon, addressing the following questions: (i) To what extent is the mixed speech lexicon influenced by Ukrainian or Russian? (ii) Does the distribution of Ukrainian or Russian lexemes reveal a reduction in variation, i.e. patterns of stabilisation? In other words, are there tendencies for one of the two competing, synonymous, or functionally equivalent Ukrainian or Russian lexemes to prevail over the other? Many Ukrainian linguists have stereotypically claimed for years that the distribution of Ukrainian and Russian elements in Surzhyk is unpredictable, spontaneous, if not chaotic. It is worth noting that these opinions are not based on comprehensive, systematic empirical evidence and largely ignore theoretical developments in the field of code-mixing. In contrast, by means of a quantitative analysis of an extensive corpus and a focus on intra-sentential code-mixing, this study demonstrates that the majority of recorded lexical Ukrainian-Russian competitions exhibit a clear fixation on one of the two expressions, resulting in a reduction in variation. In these instances, one of the two expressions prevails extensively across the entire region of Central Ukraine and the Black Sea Coast. Surzhyk is evidently evolving towards a "fused lect". A smaller portion of the examined instances reveals such stabilisation only in certain parts of the survey area, and another equally small portion exhibits widespread variability. In general, Ukrainian and Russian lexemes are roughly balanced in quantity. Suržyk • code-mixing • fused lects • Ukrainian-Russian language contact • quantitative corpus linguistics Аннотация Предметом данного исследования является так называемый «суржик», смешанный украинско-русский идиом, используемый миллионами людей в Украине, иногда наряду с украинским, реже -с русским. Основное внимание здесь уделяется лексике, при G. Hentschel

This paper concludes a research project on Belarusian-Russian Mixed Speech (BRMS), which is commonly referred to disrespectfully as 'Trasjanka'. BRMS is practised as a subvariety by millions of people in Belarus, usually in addition to Russian. The findings of the project will be presented in a question and answer format. At issue are 11 questions, which have been widely discussed during the last two decades: 1. When did BRMS / Trasjanka come into existence? 2. How did Trasjanka arise and how is it acquired? 3. Is Trasjanka a form of speech of the uneducated? 4. Does Trasjanka have anything in common with pidgin or creole languages or other 'mixed languages'? 5. Is Trasjanka an instance of code switching, of code mixing or a mixed ('fused') lect? 6. Does Trasjanka have a usus or usage norm? 7. Is it possible to distinguish a Belarusian-based Trasjanka from a Russian-based one? 8. Is Trasjanka a Belarusian or Russian 'dialect'? 9. Can we comprehend Trasjanka with the help of old concepts like 'diglossia' and 'bilingualism'? 10. Is Trasjanka a transient epiphenomenon in the language shift from Belarusian to Russian? 11. What role does Trasjanka play for the maintenance or revitalisation of Belarusian? Аннотация Эта статья является итогом исследовательского проекта по белорусскорусской смешанной речи (БРСР), которую обычно уничижительно называют 'трасянкой'. БРСР практикуют как субвариант миллионы людей в Беларуси, как правило, в дополнение к русскому. Результаты проекта будут представлены в формате вопросов и ответов. Речь идет об 11 вопросах, которые широко обсуждались в течение последних двух десятилетий: 1. Когда начала существовать трасянка? 2. Как возникла трасянка и как ее усваивают? 3. Является ли трасянка формой речи необразованных людей? 4. Есть ли у трасянки что-либо общее с пиджинами, креольскими языками или другими 'смешанными языками'? 5. Является ли трасянка примером переключения кодов, смешивания кодов или смешанного кода ('fused lect')? 6. Есть ли у трасянки узус или нормы использования? 7. Можно ли отличить трасянку с белорусским базисом от трасянки с русским базисом? 8. Трасянка-'диалект' белорусского или русского? 9. Можем ли мы описать трасянку с помощью таких старых понятий, как B G. Hentschel

Bisher bezogen sich Angaben zum Wortschatz einer Sprache meist auf Wortformen und basierten auf Korpora, die möglichst balanciert und repräsentativ sein sollten. Die vorliegende Untersuchung betrachtet neben der Verteilung der Wortformen auch die der Morpheme und Allomorphe, basierend auf einer regelbasierten automatischen Wortformerkennung (DMM). Die Morphemverteilung in einem klassischen Korpus wird mit der in domänenspezifischen Korpora verglichen. 1 Desiderata der Korpuskonstruktion Bereits im Jahre 1897-98 präsentierte Wilhelm Kaeding die erste umfassende Häufigkeitsuntersuchung von Wortformen für das Deutsche, und zwar als statistische Grundlage zur Verbesserung der Stenographie. 1 Mit seiner kleinen Armee von 'Zählern' untersuchte Kaeding fast 11 Millionen laufende Wortformen (= 20 Millionen Silben) mit 250 178 verschiedenen Wortformen (Types). Damit war die von Kaeding verwendete Textmenge mehr als zehnmal so groß und die resultierende Menge der Types mehr als doppelt so groß wie die des computerbasierten Limas-Korpus von 1973. Im Gegensatz zu heutigen Korpora handelt es sich bei Kaedings Textsammlung allerdings nicht um ein streng synchrones Korpus, denn die von ihm ausgewählten Beispiele decken den Zeitraum von ca. 1750 bis 1890 ab.

O presente trabalho busca analisar as informações discursivas impregnadas em uma das tiras de Mafalda, criada pelo argentino Quino, em 1964. Esse gênero textual, conhecido popularmente como tirinha, possui a capacidade de armazenar informações de um determinado momento histórico e possibilita a percepção das circunstâncias políticas, econômicas e culturais. Para elucidar a função das tiras, como um veículo que expressa temáticas do cotidiano, apoiamo-nos nas concepções de Pêcheux (1969), Orlandi (1999), Mussalim (2011) e Bentes (2004) ao nos apresentar a Análise do Discurso (AD), como uma ferramenta que possibilita observar a palavra em movimento e abstrai as expressões de sentidos, a priori, não perceptíveis no texto. No intuito de evidenciar esses elementos textuais, implícitos, usaremos uma tirinha da personagem Mafalda, para contextualizá-los ao período da ditadura, na América Latina, e às crises econômicas. A personagem Mafalda é representada por uma criança de seis anos de idade, com forte teor crítico, que demonstra preocupação com a paz mundial e o sentido de humanidade, através de indagações a respeito dos problemas de ordem social. Dessa forma, observamos que o posicionamento da personagem possui uma vertente atemporal, pois se vincula aos mais diversos contextos socioeconômicos independente da circunstância temporal.

Caló (also known as Romanó) is the mixed speech that Spanish Gitanos developed by combining a Romani lexicon and the Spanish grammar. Since Romantic travelers and scholars documented this language in the first half of the nineteenth century (Conde; Bright 1818; Borrow 1841), Caló has been described as a dying language. However, there is a lack of data on the knowledge and use of this speech by Gitano speakers (Adiego 2005; Buzek 2011a). To begin filling this void, we developed a specific questionnaire that included a vocabulary of 360 key Caló terms with their Spanish translations, and we applied it to an intentional sample of 68 Gitanos and Gitanas in Andalusia. Our informants recognized 129 words on average, a greater knowledge than expected, although also more varied, as few youngsters recognized more than 80 terms. Today Caló is not learned by children as a mother tongue, nor considered a complete language. It is very rare to hear spontaneous conversations in Caló beyond a few p...