New Dialect Formation

Previous studies (e.g. Kroch 1989; Noble 1985) identify several language-internal constraints, as well as different preferences for each variant across regional varieties of English. In particular, Tagliamonte (2003, 2006) notes an ongoing rise in rates of have in Toronto. Given Toronto’s ethnolinguistic diversity and previous findings of different degrees of participation in ongoing phonological changes by different ethnic groups (Hoffman 2010; Hoffman & Walker 2010), we might ask whether lexical and grammatical changes show similar patterning.

Dr. Jakobsenʼs dictionary based on the data of his fieldwork carried out in Shetland between 1893 and 1895 is a unique lexicographical monument due to quite a number of features of its macro- and microstructure. The major peculiarities are caused by the following: 1. It is not easy to define exactly the genre of this versatile word-book as it is sure to be much more than a mere etymological dictionary. Most of its entries combine certain features of etymological, historical, monolingual and translation dictionaries as well as those of encyclopaedic and even terminological ones. 2. It deals with such a “dim” subject as the traces of Scandinavian (no matter how numerous and conspicuous they were in those days) in Shetland Insular Scots. This kind of material presupposed multiple interpretations as most original Scandinavian forms had undergone considerable morphological levelling and the scholar had to deal with numerous ambiguous roots. The material in question caused notable peculia...

The article discusses an important component of the American frontier culture, namely a dialect of English spoken in Texas. In particular, the paper focuses on predicate constructions with two modal verbs, more specifically with two modal auxiliaries (e.g. might could), attested in Texas English but not discussed or marked as incorrect in English textbooks. The paper metaphorically points to a "transatlantic Scottish-Texan frontier", which refers to the provenance and contemporary usage of the analyzed predicate structure. Diachronic research confirms the Scottish origin of double modals, which came to Southern American States together with Scottish and Northern-Irish (formerly Scottish immigrants to Ulster) settlers. Contemporary studies record the use of the analysed predicate structures primarily in the Southern dialects of American English. This paper exemplifies predicate constructions with two modal verbs with language data collected in Texas by Harmon S. Boertien (1986) and Marianna Di Paolo (1986) by means of sociolinguistic interviews. The data are used to demonstrate the syntactic properties of the discussed double modal predicate.

The coexistence of Italian varieties ("regional Italians") with other Romance dialects (dialetti) makes the Italo-Romance setting particularly intriguing from a language and dialect contact perspective. The significant internal migration in Italy fosters the convergence of different dialects, giving rise to noteworthy sociolinguistic phenomena that seems relevant for an analysis in terms of koineization. In this chapter, I will consider how Italian linguistics has dealt with the koineization issues and which scenarios may arise by applying the dialect contact approaches to the Italian context. This will be done through a review of the numerous definitions attributed to the term 'koine' in the field of Italian linguistics. By comparing Italian findings with other routes explored by international sociolinguistics, this article will contribute to proposing new perspectives for further investigation. Preliminary data from a new contact variety discovered in the Southern part of Italy will be considered in order to propose a model that allows an accurate observation of Italo-Romance dialect contact. This will allow us to discuss the thorny issue of the applicability of koineization and New Dialect Formation models, with the aim of outlining preparatory guidelines for future research. Indeed, although research on dialect contact has been conducted across various languages, there remains significant potential for the varieties and dialects spoken in Italy to contribute valuable insights to the study of dialect contact. Finally, four potential continua of dialect contact in Italy will be sketched.

In Northern Europe's major cities, new varieties of the host languages are emerging in the multilingual inner cities. While some analyse these 'multiethnolects' as youth styles, we take a variationist approach to an emerging 'Multicultural London English' (MLE), asking: (1) what features characterise MLE? (2) at what age(s) are they acquired? (3) is MLE vernacularised? (4) when did MLE emerge, and what factors enabled its emergence? We argue that innovations in the diphthongs and the quotative system are generated from the specific sociolinguistics of inner-city London, where at least half the population is undergoing group second-language acquisition and where high linguistic diversity leads to a feature pool to select from. We look for incrementation (Labov) in the acquisition of the features, but find this only for two 'global' changes, BE LIKE and GOOSE-fronting, for which adolescents show the highest usage. Community-internal factors explain the age-related variation in the remaining features.

In Northern Europe's major cities, new varieties of the host languages are emerging in the multilingual inner cities. While some analyse these 'multiethnolects' as youth styles, we take a variationist approach to an emerging 'Multicultural London English' (MLE), asking: (1) what features characterise MLE? (2) at what age(s) are they acquired? (3) is MLE vernacularised? (4) when did MLE emerge, and what factors enabled its emergence? We argue that innovations in the diphthongs and the quotative system are generated from the specific sociolinguistics of inner-city London, where at least half the population is undergoing group second-language acquisition and where high linguistic diversity leads to a feature pool to select from. We look for incrementation (Labov) in the acquisition of the features, but find this only for two 'global' changes, BE LIKE and GOOSE-fronting, for which adolescents show the highest usage. Community-internal factors explain the age-related variation in the remaining features.

The languages spoken in Shetland for the last twelve hundred years have ranged from Pictish, Norn to Shetland Scots. The Norn language started to form after the settlements of the Norwegian Vikings in Shetland. When the islands came under the British Crown, Norn was no longer the official language and slowly declined. One of the main reasons the Norn vernacular lived as long as it did, must have been the distance from the mainland of Scotland. Norn was last heard as a mother tongue in the 19th century even though it generally ceased to be spoken in people's daily life in the 18th century. Some of the elements of Norn, mainly lexis, have been preserved in the Shetland dialect today. Phonetic feature have also been preserved, for example is the consonant's duration in the Shetland dialect closer to the Norwegian language compared to Scottish Standard English. Recent researches indicate that there is dialectal loss among young adults in Lerwick, where fifty percent of them use only part of the Shetland dialect while the rest speaks Scottish Standard English.

We investigate the impact of medium of communication (in-person versus video) on intraspeaker variation in conversation—a process we refer to as medium-shifting. To quantify the effects of medium-shifting and understand its possible motivations, we analyze three variables that show intraspeaker effects of “clear” or “careful” speech: articulation rate, density-controlled vowel space area, and (ING). The data come from matched in-person and video-mediated interviews with thirty-three repeat guests from The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, recorded before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Mixed-effects regression models show that compared to in-person interviews, video-mediated interviews involve a significantly lower articulation rate and larger vowel space, but no significant difference in (ING). The results suggest that speakers may engage in medium-shifting in order to enhance their intelligibility over video, for example, through more precise articulatory movements and greater con...

In Northern Europe's major cities, new varieties of the host languages are emerging in the multilingual inner cities. While some analyse these 'multiethnolects' as youth styles, we take a variationist approach to an emerging 'Multicultural London English' (MLE), asking: (1) what features characterise MLE? (2) at what age(s) are they acquired? (3) is MLE vernacularised? (4) when did MLE emerge, and what factors enabled its emergence? We argue that innovations in the diphthongs and the quotative system are generated from the specific sociolinguistics of inner-city London, where at least half the population is undergoing group second-language acquisition and where high linguistic diversity leads to a feature pool to select from. We look for incrementation (Labov) in the acquisition of the features, but find this only for two 'global' changes, BE LIKE and GOOSE-fronting, for which adolescents show the highest usage. Community-internal factors explain the age-related variation in the remaining features.

This study presents findings from a quantitative analysis of interand intraspeaker phonetic variability in the realization of /t/ and /d/ from secondand thirdgeneration Lebanese American speakers from Dearborn, Michigan. The realization of /t/ and /d/ as either alveolar or dental (a substrate feature from Lebanese Arabic) is the focus of the analysis. The data, which come from 2006 corpus recordings, are also subject to diagnostics for a focused ethnolect i.e. the retention of distinctive features into the third and later generations of a speech community. These diagnostics are derived from new-dialect formation and ethnolect formation models. Evidence is found for a focused Lebanese American English ethnolect in Dearborn though the findings are tentative due to a small dataset. The results of the study lay the foundation for future work, which will seek to confirm these findings in greater detail.

The current study examined whether religious affiliation in Utah County, Utah affected the production of several vowel mergers typical of the area (ie, fell-fail, pool-pole-pull, card-cord). To do so, we asked self-identified members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) and self-identified non-Mormons to produce these vowel contrasts. Next, three na��ve raters trained in phonetics but unfamiliar with how English is spoken in Utah were asked to judge which of the two vowels in a vowel pair contrast was ...

Mergers have been a much-researched topic in sociolinguistics (Baranowski, 2013; Flanigan, 2008; Thomas & Hay, 2005; Hall-Lew, 2013), including in pre-lateral contexts (Bowie, 2000; Faber & DiPaolo, 1995; Thomas, 2001; Schmidt & Weaver, 2013). However, aside from Thomas & Bailey’s (1992) study on “competing mergers” in Texas, little work has been done on the interaction among several mergers involving some of the same phonemes and occurring in the same contexts when they coexist in a given community. Even less research has addressed the role of perception in competing-merger contexts. This study examines the status of mergers among /ul/, /ol/, and /ʊl/ in Youngstown, Ohio. Although at least three forms of the merger have been cited in this community—/ul/-/ʊl/, /ol/-/ʊl/, and /ul/-/ol/-/ʊl/—not all speakers in the community are merged, and those who are merged do not all merge the same phonemes (Schmidt & Weaver, 2013). Using acoustic analyses and multipleforced-choice perception tas...

Citation for published version (APA): Ljosland, R. (2016). The be-perfect in transitive constructions in Orkney and Shetland Scots: Influenced by Norn or not? In R. M. Millar, & J. Cruickshank (Eds.), Before the storm. Selected Papers from the FRLSU Conference, Ayr 2016. (Vol. 5, pp. 107-127). (Publications of the Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ulster). Aberdeen: Forum for Research on the Languages of Scotland and Ulster.

In the multilingual centres of Northern Europe's major cities, new varieties of the host languages are emerging. While some analyse these ‘multiethnolects’ as youth styles, we take a variationist approach to an emerging ‘Multicultural London English’ (MLE), asking: (1) what features characterise MLE; (2) at what age(s) are they acquired; (3) is MLE vernacularised; and (4) when did MLE emerge, and what factors enabled this? We argue that innovations in the diphthongs and the quotative system are generated from the specific sociolinguistics of inner-city London, where at least half the population is undergoing group second-language acquisition and where high linguistic diversity leads to a heterogeneous feature pool to select from. We look for incrementation (Labov 2001) in the acquisition of the features, but find this only for two ‘global’ changes, BE LIKE and goose-fronting, for which adolescents show the highest usage. Community-internal factors explain the age-related variat...

This study presents findings from a quantitative analysis of inter-and intraspeaker phonetic variability in the realization of /t/ and /d/ from second-and third-generation Lebanese American speakers from Dearborn, Michigan. The realization of /t/ and /d/ as either alveolar or dental (a substrate feature from Lebanese Arabic) is the focus of the analysis. The data, which come from 2006 corpus recordings, are also subject to diagnostics for a focused ethnolect i.e. the retention of distinctive features into the third and later generations of a speech community. These diagnostics are derived from new-dialect formation and ethnolect formation models. Evidence is found for a focused Lebanese American English ethnolect in Dearborn though the findings are tentative due to a small dataset. The results of the study lay the foundation for future work, which will seek to confirm these findings in greater detail.

This study presents findings from a quantitative analysis of inter-and intraspeaker phonetic variability in the realization of /t/ and /d/ from second-and third-generation Lebanese American speakers from Dearborn, Michigan. The realization of /t/ and /d/ as either alveolar or dental (a substrate feature from Lebanese Arabic) is the focus of the analysis. The data, which come from 2006 corpus recordings, are also subject to diagnostics for a focused ethnolect i.e. the retention of distinctive features into the third and later generations of a speech community. These diagnostics are derived from new-dialect formation and ethnolect formation models. Evidence is found for a focused Lebanese American English ethnolect in Dearborn though the findings are tentative due to a small dataset. The results of the study lay the foundation for future work, which will seek to confirm these findings in greater detail.

Despite the assumption in early studies that children are monostylistic until sometime around adolescence, a number of studies since then have demonstrated that adult-like patterns of variation may be acquired much earlier. How much earlier, however, is still subject to some debate. In this paper we contribute to this research through an analysis of a number of lexical, phonological and morphosyntactic variables across 29 caregiver/child pairs aged 2;10 to 4;2 in interaction with their primary caregivers. We rst establish the patterns of use-both linguistic and social-in caregiver speech and then investigate whether these patterns of use are evident in the child speech. Our ndings show that the acquisition of variation is highly variable dependent: some show age di erentiation, others do not; some show acquisition of style shi ing, others do not; some show correlations between caregiver input and child output, others do not. We interpret these ndings in the light of community norms, social recognition and sociolinguistic value in the acquisition of variation at these early stages.

This paper discusses the development of medieval Irish English (MIrE) within the model of new-dialect formation (NDF) (Trudgill 2004). In particular, the processes of interdialect development, reallocation and focussing are discussed with respect to data from sixteen MIrE poems from Harley 913 (c.1330). The data show traces of NDF, especially with respect to dialect mixing and novel forms, but they also show a lack of focussing in comparison to the model of NDF and to contemporary Middle English poems. I suggest that this lack of focussing is due to the lack of a standardised variety of English in general. In addition, factors such as the amount of contact between the settlers and the identity of the old(er) versus the new(er) settlers might have played a role as well. Thus my paper hopes to contribute to the discussion on new-dialect formation in general, and the development of MIrE in particular.

This paper discusses the use of may and might in 19th century Irish English and English English. It builds on Van Hattum (2012a), which found that in 18th and 19th century Irish English might Vinf was used in contexts requiring may/might have Ven in present-day English. This paper aims to find out if this development is due to regional or diachronic variation via a corpus-based study of these modals in 19th century Irish English and English English. The data shows no change in objective possibility contexts, but in subjective possibility contexts might loses the ability to signal past time. Though the data show some small differences between Irish English and English English, generally it seems that the change identified in Van Hattum (2012a) is due to diachronic variation.

This paper investigates the case of diglossia in Shetland, northern Scotland: the use of dialect and its implementation in pre-school and school educational curriculum. In particular, this article is aimed at revealing methodology and educational programs used in teaching the dialect in order to protect the local language traditions. The article examines teaching materials used in pre-school and school curricula in Shetland to establish in what ways teaching dialect is carried out and what methods are used to involve children most effectively in the dialect learning process. The current article is based on the research project carried out on the territory of the Shetland Islands, therefore, all the data and materials used are authentic and up-to-date. The results of the research presented in the article argue that while in some areas of the British Isles dialects are dying out, the local citizens of the Shetland Islands have found a way to protect and spread their local language variety. Moreover, the Shetland language case study demonstrates that the Shetland dialect implementation in pre-school and school curricula has, first of all, proved the bottom-up management effective and, secondly, revival and standardization of a local variety possible.

This chapter pursues four goals beyond the overall aim of illustrating the relevance of emigrant letters in the historical linguistics of Canadian English, North American English and its donor varieties. The first goal is to introduce a new electronic resource, the Petworth Emigration to Canada Corpus (PECC), a resource that should have the potential to help in a number of Late Modern English debates. Second, the paper is aimed to address for PECC the degree of orality and informality that the corpus of these early 19th-century English emigrant letters, compiled specifically for the present paper, reveals. In particular, as suggested in this paper's title, an assessment to which degree, if at all, the corpus' features may be approximated to features of the spoken LModE. For that goal, Schneider (2002) and Hickey's 7-tiered typology discussed in this volume's introduction (For RH: CORRECT?) serve as very useful reference points. Based on the 1830s empirical data from PEEC, it is aimed to contribute to the ongoing debate behind the reasons for the spread of first person will in English vernaculars; a point that has regained attention since McCafferty & Amador-Moreno (2014). Fourth and finally, the paper aims to contribute to a growing body of evidence that assesses the degree of linguistic "conservatism" in Canadian English, a variety that has been claimed to be "more conservative linguistically than the United States and Australia [and other ex-colonies]" (Chambers 1998: 253; see Dollinger 2015a for a critical assessment). The case study in the present paper is on the modal auxiliaries shall and will, which were chosen for the availability of comparative studies and, not unimportant in manuscript letter corpora and other small corpora (Dollinger 2004), the relatively frequent use of auxiliaries even in these often smallest of historical corpora.

English is spoken today on all five continents as a result of colonial expansion in the last four centuries or so. The colonial era is now definitely over but its consequences are only too clearly to be seen in the presence of English as an official and often native language in many of the former colonies along with more or less strongly diverging varieties which arose in particular socio-political conditions, so-called pidgins which in some cases later developed into creoles. Another legacy of colonialism is where English fulfils the function of a lingua franca. Many countries, like Nigeria, use English as a lingua franca (a general means of communication) since there are many different and mutually unintelligible languages and a need for a supra-regional means of communication. English has also come to play a central role as an international language. There are a number of reasons for this, of which the economic status of the United States is certainly one of the most important nowadays. Internal reasons for the success of English in the international arena can also be given: a little bit of English goes a long way as the grammar is largely analytic in type so that it is suitable for those groups who do not wish to expend great effort on learning a foreign language. Present-day geographical distribution English is spoken on all five continents. With regard to numbers of speakers it is only exceeded by Chinese (in its various forms) and Spanish. But in terms of geographical spread it stands at the top of the league. The distribution is a direct consequence of English colonial policy, starting in Ireland in the late 12th century and continuing well into the 19th century, reaching its peak at the end of the reign of Queen Victoria and embodied in the saying 'the sun never sets on the British Empire'. For the present overview the varieties of English in the modern world are divided into four geographical groups as follows.

In the multilingual centres of Northern Europe's major cities, new varieties of the host languages are emerging. While some analyse these 'multiethnolects' as youth styles, we take a variationist approach to an emerging 'Multicultural London English' (MLE), asking: (1) what features characterise MLE; (2) at what age(s) are they acquired; (3) is MLE vernacularised; and (4) when did MLE emerge, and what factors enabled this? We argue that innovations in the diphthongs and the quotative system are generated from the specific sociolinguistics of inner-city London, where at least half the population is undergoing group second-language acquisition and where high linguistic diversity leads to a heterogeneous feature pool to select from. We look for incrementation in the acquisition of the features, but find this only for two 'global' changes, BE LIKE and GOOSE-fronting, for which adolescents show the highest usage. Community-internal factors explain the age-related variation in the remaining features.

Spelling practices are usually considered as linguistically uninteresting: once a variety has been codified, there is a clear-cut distinction between right and wrong spellings and it is thus relegated to the educational domain of concern for teachers and students. As is well known, the two dominant spelling traditions in English BrE and AmE spelling go back to Samuel Johnson’s 1755 dictionary and to Webster’s 1783 blue-backed speller, and have only been insignificantly altered over time. In present-day Canada, one can find conflicting spelling conventions, which sometimes reflect AmE, sometimes BrE reflections, and sometimes CanE innovations as a combination of the two. The common lore is that CanE spelling is a mixture of American and British norms, with some minor independent developments. This mixture, for some, presents a picture-book case of Canadianness. As Scargill put it: “Canadian English is not a mongrel mixture of British with American English, it exists in its own right and owes its existence to the Canadians who have made it what it is” (1977: 7). This is the handout of a 2010 talk at ICEHL-19 in Pécs, Hungary, that aims to explain the Canadian usage "mix" historically and socially with some interesting long-term trends in real-time.

A study of modal auxiliaries in early Canadian English, with a focus on can/may, which argues for the increased adoption of heuristic methods in corpus linguistics. The alternatives are not very attractive: the present paper suggests that (in 2008) 16 additional specialist historical corpora would have been needed "to reach hard and fast conclusions" about the development of Canadian English in the 18th and 19th centuries. Today, that number has not been significantly reduced, despite the (exciting) big data methods that have come into use since this paper was published.

Ask two speakers to produce the same sentence and you will undoubtedly find a number of differences in the ways in which they say that sentence. Ask a single speaker to say the same sentence on more than one occasion and the same will be true. Such variation arises for a number of reasons. Allophonic variation in the pronunciation of individual sounds frequently seems random, but may be constrained by linguistic factors such as the position of a sound in a word or phrase (e.g. unaspirated variants of /p/ occur after initial /s/ as in spot, but aspirated versions occur in initial position as in pot). Connected speech processes, which are abundant in fluent speech, often involve the influence of one sound on its neighbours, resulting in a wide range of different pronunciations for the same word. But such processes can also be quite variable in operation, since they may depend on aspects of speech style, which is in turn linked to the level of formality of the speech situation, as well as to interlocutor effects and other audience factors . Speakers are also influenced by environmental and paralinguistic factors (background noise, the expression of different emotions, etc.).

Abstract: This paper aims to assess whether CanE can be considered a conservative variety of English. As the question is profoundly general, only partial answers can be expected. Theories on the origins of CanE and notions of colonial lag offer a starting point that is complemented with questions of linguistic autonomy vs. heteronomy. Variables from morphology/syntax, phonetics, and select vocabulary items offer test cases for assessment. A central role is afforded to the methodological problems of assessment on a cline from conservative to progressive throughout. It will be shown that most statements on the general conservative/progressive character of Canadian English must be treated as opinions based on selective evidence and not as unassailable assessments based on hard facts.

Zusammenfassung: Dieser Artikel untersucht die Frage, ob Kanadisches Englisch (KE) eine konservative Varietät des Englischen ist. Da die Frage sehr generell ist, können nur Teilfragen erörtert werden. Theorien über die Herkunft des KE und Konzeptionen einer kolonialen Latenzzeit (colonial lag) werden als Ansatzpunkte eingeführt, die um Fragen zur linguistischen Autonomie/Heteronomie erweitert werden. Fallstudien aus den Bereichen der Morphosyntax, Phonetik und des Vokabulars werden zur Einschätzung herangezogen, wobei eine zentrale Rolle dem methodischen Problem gilt, wie Varietäten anhand eines Merkmalsgefälles von konservativ bis progressiv eingestuft werden können. Es wird gezeigt, dass Bemerkungen zur angeblichen Konservativität des KE primär als Meinungen betrachtet werden müssen und nicht als unantastbare wissenschaftliche Typolisierungen.

Résumé: L’article pose la question si l’anglais canadien est une variété conservatrice de l’anglais. S’agissant d’une approche très générale, seulement des questions de détail pourront être approfondies ici. Seront présentées, dans un premier temps, des théories concernant les origines de l’anglais canadien et des conceptions d’un legs colonial pour ensuite élargir l’analyse de questions à propos de l’autonomie/hétéronomie linguistique.
L’analyse s’appuiera sur des études de cas morphosyntaxiques, phonétiques et lexiques tout en mettant l’accent sur le problème méthodologique qui consiste à savoir comment
classifier les variétés à partir d’un écart de caractère allant du qualificatif « conservateur » au qualificatif « progressif ». L’article se propose de démontrer que toute remarque
à propos d’une soi-disant conservativité de l’anglais canadien est hypothétique et ne peut être considérée comme une spécification scientifiquement valable.

Shetland dialect, the northernmost Scots variety, is something of a conundrum. Although most of its features place it at the end of the Northern Scots dialect continuum, some lexical, phonological and structural features resemble characteristics of more southerly Scots dialects; in particular those of the east central counties and the North-East. This essay approaches this problem from the point of view of recent work on new dialect formation, demonstrating that many of the features associated with this phenomenon -koinéisation, focussing, and the founder effect, among others -can be postulated for the development of Shetland dialect. Because this new dialect was formed further back in time than those previously studied, the pattern of development is rather more complex and difficult to describe than for those formed in the 19th century; moreover, the developing Scots dialect was for a lengthy period in contact with its close relative Norn in the islands. Because of the latter's associations with local identity, indeed, we could see this as a further founder effect. The essay demonstrates that present-day Shetland dialect was formed in the early 19th century from the supraregional koiné of the original 16th and 17th century Scots-speaking settlers and the heavily Norn-influenced Scots of the first and second generations of islanders who no longer had Norn as a mother tongue.

This book details the development of eleven modal auxiliaries in late 18th- and 19th-century Canadian English in a framework of new-dialect formation. The study assesses features of the modal auxiliaries, tracing influences to British and American input varieties, parallel developments, or Canadian innovations. The findings are based on the Corpus of Early Ontario English, pre-Confederation Section, the first electronic corpus of early Canadian English. The data, which are drawn from newspapers, diaries and letters, include original transcriptions from manuscript sources and texts from semi-literate writers. While the overall results are generally coherent with new-dialect formation theory, the Ontarian context suggests a number of adaptations to the current model. In addition to its general Late Modern English focus, New-Dialect Formation in Canada traces changes in epistemic modal functions up to the present day, offering answers to the loss of root uses in the central modals. By comparing Canadian with British and American data, important theoretical insights on the origins of the variety are gained. The study offers a sociohistorical perspective on a still understudied variety of North American English by combining language-internal features with settlement history in this first monograph-length, diachronic treatment of Canadian English in real time.