Authors : Archana Hajong; V. Ambedkar

Volume/Issue : Volume 10 - 2025, Issue 9 - September

Google Scholar : https://tinyurl.com/mrxpxtvc

Scribd : https://tinyurl.com/3w3tb3cy

DOI : https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25sep1424

Note : A published paper may take 4-5 working days from the publication date to appear in PlumX Metrics, Semantic Scholar, and ResearchGate.

Note : Google Scholar may take 30 to 40 days to display the article.

Abstract : This study synthesises current evidence on how socio-economic status (SES) influences neural development and learning in children and adolescents. Using a content analysis approach, we reviewed peer-reviewed studies across developmental neuroscience, psychology, and education to map pathways linking SES with brain structure and function, executive processes, and academic achievement. Throughout the corpus, low SES is consistently linked to altered maturation in cortico-limbic and frontoparietal networks, reduced volumes related to language and memory, and weaker functional segregation; these differences often coincide with diminished executive function, lower working memory, and poorer academic performance. Mechanisms include early-life nutrition and health, cumulative stress, cognitive stimulation at home and school, and neighbourhood resources. The evidence also highlights protective factors—such as scaffolding and enriched learning environments, strong teacher–student relationships, parental support, preschool attendance, and nutrition literacy—that mediate or moderate risk. Theoretically, the findings align with Maslow’s hierarchy (unmet deficiency needs, limiting growth needs) and Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (development through guided participation within the zone of proximal development). Notably, some students show academic resilience: higher cognitive ability and robust executive skills buffer the effects of socioeconomic disadvantages. The synthesis indicates that SES impacts learning through interconnected biological, mental, and environmental pathways rather than a single causal route. We conclude that multi-level interventions integrating early nutrition and health support, executive-function training, cognitively rich instruction, and community investments are most promising for reducing SES-related disparities. Future research should include longitudinal, culturally diverse cohorts to clarify sensitive periods and optimise cost-effective, equity-focused policies and practices. The review also emphasises ethical and policy implications for equitable education.

Keywords : Neural Development; Socio-Economic Status; Learning Abilities; Adolescent Brain Development.

References :

1. B. Pakkenberg and H. J. G. Gundersen, ‘Neocortical neuron number in humans: Effect of sex and age’, J. Comp. Neurol., vol. 384, no. 2, pp. 312–320, 1997, doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970728)384:2<312::AID-CNE10>3.0.CO;2-K.
2. J. Stiles and T. L. Jernigan, ‘The Basics of Brain Development’, Neuropsychol. Rev., vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 327–348, 2010, doi: 10.1007/s11065-010-9148-4.
3. S. Ackerman, ‘The Development and Shaping of the Brain’, in Discovering the Brain, National Academies Press (US), 1992. Accessed: Jul. 17, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234146/
4. T. J. Shors, L. Anderson, D. M. Curlik, and S. Nokia, ‘Use it or lose it: How neurogenesis keeps the brain fit for learning’, Behav. Brain Res., vol. 227, no. 2, pp. 450–458, Feb. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.04.023.
5. W. Kelsch, S. Sim, and C. Lois, ‘Watching Synaptogenesis in the Adult Brain’, Annu. Rev. Neurosci., vol. 33, no. Volume 33, 2010, pp. 131–149, Jul. 2010, doi: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-060909-153252.
6. V. B. de Graaf-Peters and M. Hadders-Algra, ‘Ontogeny of the human central nervous system: What is happening when?’, Early Hum. Dev., vol. 82, no. 4, pp. 257–266, Apr. 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2005.10.013.
7. R. A. I. Bethlehem et al., ‘Brain charts for the human lifespan’, Nature, vol. 604, no. 7906, pp. 525–533, Apr. 2022, doi: 10.1038/s41586-022-04554-y.
8. L. P. Spear, The behavioral neuroscience of adolescence. in The behavioral neuroscience of adolescence. New York, NY, US: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010, pp. xvii, 391.
9. M. H. Immordino-Yang, L. Darling-Hammond, and C. R. Krone, ‘Nurturing Nature: How Brain Development Is Inherently Social and Emotional, and What This Means for Education’, Educ. Psychol., vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 185–204, Jul. 2019, doi: 10.1080/00461520.2019.1633924.
10. L. Buckley, M. Broadley, and C. N. Cascio, ‘Socio-economic status and the developing brain in adolescence: A systematic review’, Child Neuropsychol., vol. 25, no. 7, pp. 859–884, Oct. 2019, doi: 10.1080/09297049.2018.1549209.
11. K. G. Noble, S. M. Houston, E. Kan, and E. R. Sowell, ‘Neural correlates of socioeconomic status in the developing human brain’, Dev. Sci., vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 516–527, Jul. 2012, doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01147.x.
12. Saul McLeod, ‘(PDF) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs’, ResearchGate. Accessed: Jul. 20, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383241976_Maslow's_Hierarchy_of_Needs
13. H. R. C. Mason et al., ‘Understanding the Medical Education Experiences of Low-Income Students Through a Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Lens: An Exploratory Qualitative Study’, J. Gen. Intern. Med., vol. 40, no. 6, pp. 1367–1377, May 2025, doi: 10.1007/s11606-024-09161-3.
14. A. Noltemeyer, K. Bush, J. Patton, and D. Bergen, ‘The relationship among deficiency needs and growth needs: An empirical investigation of Maslow’s theory’, Child. Youth Serv. Rev., vol. 34, no. 9, pp. 1862–1867, Sep. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.05.021.
15. I. A. Panhwar, M. Usman, F. Panhwar, and T. A. Surahio*, ‘Exploring the Impact of Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding in Second Language Acquisition: A Comparative Study of Vygotskian and Freirean Approaches’, Soc. Sci. Rev. Arch., vol. 3, no. 1, Art. no. 1, Feb. 2025, doi: 10.70670/sra.v3i1.416.
16. R. D. S. Raizada and M. M. Kishiyama, ‘Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Brain Development, and How Cognitive Neuroscience May Contribute to Levelling the Playing Field’, Front. Hum. Neurosci., vol. 4, p. 3, Feb. 2010, doi: 10.3389/neuro.09.003.2010.
17. D. Susanti, ‘The Influence of Socioeconomic Status on Executive Functions: Causal Study in Kindergarten Group B DKI Jakarta Province in 2024’, JPUD - J. Pendidik. Usia Dini, vol. 18, no. 2, Art. no. 2, Dec. 2024, doi: 10.21009/jpud.v18i2.50298.
18. M. C. Diamond, A. B. Scheibel, G. M. Murphy, and T. Harvey, ‘On the brain of a scientist: Albert Einstein’, Exp. Neurol., vol. 88, no. 1, pp. 198–204, Apr. 1985, doi: 10.1016/0014-4886(85)90123-2.
19. M. L. Rosen, M. A. Sheridan, K. A. Sambrook, A. N. Meltzoff, and K. A. McLaughlin, ‘Socioeconomic disparities in academic achievement: A multi-modal investigation of neural mechanisms in children and adolescents’, NeuroImage, vol. 173, pp. 298–310, Jun. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.02.043.
20. D. M. Ivanovic et al., ‘Nutritional status, brain development and scholastic achievement of Chilean high-school graduates from high and low intellectual quotient and socio-economic status’, Br. J. Nutr., vol. 87, no. 1, pp. 81–92, Jan. 2002, doi: 10.1079/BJN2001485.
21. D. Rakesh, P. A. Lee, A. Gaikwad, and K. A. McLaughlin, ‘Annual Research Review: Associations of socioeconomic status with cognitive function, language ability, and academic achievement in youth: a systematic review of mechanisms and protective factors’, J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry, vol. 66, no. 4, pp. 417–439, Apr. 2025, doi: 10.1111/jcpp.14082.
22. E. A. Hamza, R. Tindle, S. Pawlak, D. Bedewy, and A. A. Moustafa, ‘The impact of poverty and socioeconomic status on brain, behaviour, and development: a unified framework’, Rev. Neurosci., vol. 35, no. 6, pp. 597–617, Aug. 2024, doi: 10.1515/revneuro-2023-0163.
23. L. Langensee, T. Rumetshofer, and J. Mårtensson, ‘Interplay of socioeconomic status, cognition, and school performance in the ABCD sample’, Npj Sci. Learn., vol. 9, no. 1, p. 17, Mar. 2024, doi: 10.1038/s41539-024-00233-x.
24. Q. Hu et al., ‘The Relationship between Socioeconomic Status and Academic Achievement is Mediated and Moderated by Executive Functions’, J. Youth Adolesc., vol. 53, no. 7, pp. 1593–1604, Jul. 2024, doi: 10.1007/s10964-024-01941-8.
25. Y. Qian, Q. Su, W. Liu, L. Ma, M. Ma, and L. Ma, ‘The influence of socioeconomic status on intelligence in school-age children in Xuyong County: a mediation analysis of nutrition literacy and dietary diversity’, Eur. J. Nutr., vol. 64, no. 2, p. 100, Feb. 2025, doi: 10.1007/s00394-025-03599-9.