A Z of Psychology

Human Nervous system

1. Impulse Conduction
Impulse conduction = basic form of sending info in the nervous system

1.1

Neurons

To understand how the brain works have to begin with neurons

Neuron (nerve cell) = basic structural element

of the nervous system

Neuron form part of communication network tat influences how the body works

One neuron not effective but network of neurons can produce complex behaviour

All human behaviour such as thinking, feeling, planning etc. is based on impulses
firing in the neurons in the brain

1.1.1 Parts of a neuron

Not all neurons are exactly the same but most have the following 4

parts:

a) The dendrites
b) Soma
c) Axon
d) Axon terminals (bouton)

PART OF NEURON

DESCRIPTION

FUNCTION

Dendrites

Looks like the root of a tree

Surrounds the cell body and receive

messages from other neurons

Soma (cell body)

Inside the cell body is the nucleus- is the

Receives impulses from other neurons

control centre because it controls all

Can send own messages in form of

metabolic activities in the cell

nerve impulses

The soma can send own messages in form

of nerve impulses these messages

travel away form soma down a thin fibre

connected to it

Axon

Thin fibre connected to soma

Transmits impulses

Some axons are short and others very

When isolated with myelin axons

long (connecting parts of body that may

transmits impulses faster than ones

be some distance away)

not insulated

Many axons enclosed by white fatty

sheath called myelin (insulates the axon)
Illness multiple sclerosis attacks myelin
the result messages are not transmitted
properly

Axon terminals

Axon terminals branch out from axon and

Hold the vesicles with

(boutons)

end in small knobs called boutons

neurotransmitters

Inside boutons tiny vesicles with are

Neurotransmitters are chemical

filled with neurotransmitters

substances that play NB role in

conduction of messages form one
neuron to the next

1.1.2 Types of neurons

Neurons can be classified according to the functions they perform

Two main types

A) Sensory or afferent neurons = carry messages from the environment to spinal
cord and brain info is detected by senses and then carried to spinal cord and
brain info can also come from inside the body like the organs
B) Motor or efferent neurons = conduct messages form the spinal cord and brain
to muscle and glands e.g. If you want to run brain sends message to muscles
involved

Axons often group together in bundles

Nerve tract is term used to describe a bundle of axons inside brain or

spinal cord

Bundles in parts of the body outside the brain and spinal cord = nerve

1.2

Process of impulse conduction

Deals with the way neurons functions

Info from inside and outside the body is referred to as stimuli

(stimulus-single)
Stimulus = form of energy

received by the senses

converted into form of energy that
can be understood by the nervous system

Example 62 in textbook

Nerve cells are specially adapted for impulse conduction

Impulse conduction in nervous system is made of 2 main processes:

1)

Electrical = nerve impulse begins in first segment of axon & travels down the
axon to the terminals because of electrical events in the cell membrane

Chemical = passage of nerve impulse from one axon to

2)

another is a chemical process there is a small gap between the structures

of one neuron to another chemical processes determine whether the
impulses will be conducted across the gap to another neuron or not

1.2.1

The nerve impulse

Each neuron is like a small biological battery that stores potential energy
Fluid on the in an outside of the neuron contains small chemical particles named ions
These ions are electrically charged
They are unevenly distributed on either side of the cell membrane
Thus there can be more positive ions outside the membrane and more negative ones
inside
Ions move constantly in fluid in and outside the cell
Reason for moving is that ions move naturally from area with high concentration ions
to area with lower concentrations
Another reason for movement is that ions with opposite charges attracts each other
Ions with the same charges move away for each other

1.2.1.1

Resting membrane potential

Before an impulse can be conducted there must be a condition of readiness in the

neuron

This is called resting membrane potential = electrical charge brought about by

deference between positive and negative ions outside and inside the cells

If ions were distributed equally in and outside there will be no charge and no
potential

When there is a resting membrane potential the neuron I s ready to receive info
in form of electrical impulses and conduct these to and from the brain and body

1.2.1.2

Action potential

Messages arriving from other neurons alter the resting potential

This means there is fluctuations in the ratio positive and negative ions

If resting potential charges enough cell reaches a threshold or critical point

Threshold is like a gate if threshold is high it is more difficult to get past it

Different neurons have different thresholds & stimulus must be intense enough to
cross through the threshold and make the particular neuron fire or conduct

If the electrical charge is strong enough to exceed the threshold the resting
membrane potential is changed into an action potential

This will lead the stimulus or electrical impulse to be conducted along the neuron
axon thus going into action

During an action potential the structure of the axon membrane changes :

a) tiny openings or channels in the cell membrane allows ions outside the cell
membrane to move inside the cell
b) the inside of the cell now becomes more positive in relation to the
outside
c) Channels first open near the soma, then down the length of the axon as
the action potential moves along

1.2.1.3

Refractory period

Movement of ions changes the electrical charge in the cell membrane

This means that immediately after an impulse has been conducted the neuron is
not ready to send another impulse until the resting potential has been restored

Period when the neuron is not ready to fire is called= refractory period

Two types of refractory periods:

a) An absolute refractory period = no impulse can be generated even with intense
stimulation
b) Relative refractory period = impulse can be generated but only with a very
intense stimulus

Refractory period ensures that impulse only goes in one direction

This means the part of the neuron that just fired is deactivated and cannot fire
so the impulse moves forward down the rest of the axon

Refractory period also prevents the nervous system from over stimulation by
regulating the relation between the stimulus intensity and impulse frequency

During refractory period only very intense stimulation will cross the threshold and
allow the neuron to fire

1.2.1.4

Characteristics of impulse conduction

Action potential special kind of electrical charge: all or nothing

This because the cell itself provides energy it does not come from the stimulus

Thus the strength of the stimulus does not change the strength or speed of the
impulse as it passes along the axon

All or nothing means the stimulus is either strong enough to result in impulse
conduction (all) or not strong enough (nothing)

Example: can be compare to a gun firing: If you pull the trigger the gun wil fire
(bullet will not go faster because you pull the trigger harder) & if you do not pull
the trigger the gun wil not fire

Thus if the charge is strong enough to exceed the threshold an impulse will occur
if not no impulse

3 other points to consider about the nature of impulse conduction:

a) Strength and speed = strength and speed of impulse conduction stays constant
but can vary with nerve fibres of different sizes the larger the nerve fibre
the stronger the impulse and faster it is conducted
b) Frequency = although impulse conduction is a all or nothing thing the intensity of
the stimulus does make a difference to the frequency it is conducted if
stimulus is very intense shorter time between firing of each impulse
c) Effect of myelination = impulse conduction is relatively slow but travels faster
among axons that is myelinated

1.3

Synaptic transmission of impulses

Communication between different neurons is chemical

There is a very small gap between 2 neurons called the synapse

When action potential reaches the axon terminals it causes chemicals to be

released into the space between the neurons= synaptic cleft

Chemicals allows contact to take place across the synaptic cleft

Chemicals are called neurotransmitters

These neurotransmitters can alter activity in other neurons

See fig.2 p. 66 in textbook

Communication between neurons takes place because of movement of chemicals

across the synaptic cleft

When neuron fires the action potential is conducted towards the axon terminals
and this causes the vesicles to move closer and attach themselves to the
presynaptic membrane

Point of attachment causes the membrane to open and neurotransmitters passes

through the synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters mix with fluid outside the cells and combine with receptors in
the postsynaptic membrane (see fig.2)

Example p. 66-67

Different neurons use different chemicals as neurotransmitters but each neuron

releases the same chemical from all branches of its axons

Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse to the post synaptic neuron

(neuron on receiving end of synapse)

There neurotransmitter molecules attach to receptors on the other neurons

dendrites or cell bodies

This causes postsynaptic membrane to open and close

1.3.1 Postsynaptic potentials

Some neurons release neurotransmitters that excite the next neuron stimulate
the neuron to fire an impulse

This means that the neurotransmitter can make the next neuron more likely to
produce an action potential

Action potential in next neuron is called postsynaptic potential

Other neurons can release neurotransmitters that inhibits the

production of action potential in the next neuron = try to stop it firing

After a neurotransmitter excites or inhibits a receptor in the next neuron

several things can happen to them:

1)

can be reabsorbed by the axon that released it called re-

uptake
2)

it can diffuse away

3)

can be broken up by enzymes

4)

or could bounce around and then after a while return to the postsynaptic
receptor

The longer the neurotransmitter is in the synaptic cleft the ore likely it will
affect the other neuron

Postsynaptic potential will only be generated it enough neurotransmitters is

discharged into the synapse thus if there are enough messages received at one
time

Postsynaptic potential is not a all or nothing event but rather a graded potential

Impulses becomes weaker as they travel further from the point of stimulation

A weak impulse can be strengthened by additional neurotransmitters

Can occur through the processes of spatial or temporal summation

Spatial summation = post synaptic potential is reinforced by action potentials

form the terminals of several axons reaching the synapse at the same time or
close together

Effect of spatial summation is making more of the neurotransmitter available

Temporal summation = refers to frequent action potentials along the same axon

leads to more discharge of the neurotransmitter to reinforce the postsynaptic

potential
Both spatial and temporal summation increases the changes of a neuron firing in

case of excitatory postsynaptic potential or reduces chances of firing with the

inhibitory postsynaptic potential

1.4 Nature of neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters can either have an inhibitory or excitatory effect or both
If it has one of the above effects depends on:
a) nature of the neurotransmitter
b) place where it acts
c) quantity of the neurotransmitter in relation tot the enzyme that destroys it
d) amount of inhibitory neurotransmitter in relation to the amount of excitatory
transmitters at the particular synapse
What are neurotransmitters:
1) chemicals present in or synthesised(made) by neurons
2) when neuron is active the chemical is released ad produces a response in
a target cell
3) there is a mechanism to remove the neurotransmitter from the synaptic
cleft once the work is done

1.4.1 Classic neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter

Location

Description

Medical conditions
associated with

Acetylcholine

Released by cells in

Causes skeletal

Seen in some areas of the

(Ach)

brain, spinal cord &

muscles to contract

brain of patients with

parasympathetic

Related to memory

Alzheimer disease

nerves

because it assists
normal wakeful
behaviour and mental
alertness

Adrenalin

Released by the

Increases heart beat

(epinephrine)

synaptic nerves and

and contraction in

adrenal glands

blood vessels,
skeletal muscles and
heart muscle
Speeds up
metabolism and
releases glucose in
the blood

Noradrenalin

Released by brain cells

Has excitatory

Lack is associated with

(NA)

and sympathetic

effect

depression and excess with

nerves as well as

mania

adrenal glands

Dopamine (DA)

Involved in the

Excess is believed to be

control of muscle

associated with schizophrenia

behaviour

mental disorder
characterised by loss of
contact with reality
Too little can result in muscle
rigidity and tremor like with
Parkinsons disease mental
disorder characterised by
disturbances of movement
and dementia

Serotonin

Found in the brain,

Helps regulate sleep-

Associated with seasonal

digestive tract and

wake cycle and

depression mood disorder

blood

temperature

that occurs in autumn and

winter

Gamma-amino

Inhibitory

butyric acid (GABA)

neurotransmitter
Helps to control
aggression and eating

Endorphin

Neurotransmitter

involved in the
experience of
pleasure and
suppression of pain

1.5 Effect of drugs on synaptic processes

Knowledge of neurotransmitters helps us to understand the effect of drugs on
behaviour because drugs effects the synaptic processes
2 main classes of drugs: (examples p. 70)
a) agonists= drugs having a similar effect to some neurotransmitters
b) antagonists = drugs that block the action of some neurotransmitters