Information Literacy Context, Culture, and Information Seeking By: Florence Margaret Paisey

Florence Margaret Paisey

Knowledge is of two kinds: we know a subject ourselves, or we know where we can find information upon it. Samuel Johnson, Life of Johnson (Boswell, 1775)

Florence Margaret Paisey Table of Contents

Preface.......3 Part I Introduction...........6 Information and Communication: A Decade of Transformations........9 Information Ages.........12 Information Literacy: The Long March from Obscurity..15 Part II Information Literacy: Many Roads to Mecca..26 Information Literacy and Information Seeking Behavior....28 Information Literacy: The Social, Political, and Economic Context...35 The ACRL Information Literacy Standards: One Model of Many..........43 Information Literacy: The Practice of Instruction....51 References................................................................................................55

Florence Margaret Paisey Preface Part I of this paper discusses the impact of information and communication technologies within the context of globalization, information-based economies, and the need for context driven information literacy. A general history of library instruction describes its evolution from the role of librarians as an aid to readers to their current role in implementing programs that support information literacy as defined and articulated by the ALA and the ACRL. Part II discusses information and communication technology within a global context, identifying cultural and social disparities and the information skill sets appropriate in

inequitable conditions. A context for applying the ACRL Information Literacy Standards is described and they are analyzed within Wilsons information behavior model and levels of information seeking and searching behaviors. The importance of metacognition as a condition for effective learning is emphasized along with contrasting information literacy to bibliographic instruction.

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Part I Information Literacy: Social Implications

Florence Margaret Paisey Introduction On an average weekday, The New York Times contains more information than any contemporary of Shakespeares would have acquired in a lifetime (Anonymous) -- true or false? Whatever your opinion may be, the thought is worthy of consideration; it is not unreasonable or bizarre. It is also not new; The New York Times has been publishing for 156 years, since 1851 its reputation for in-depth, excellent, reliable coverage has met

with few challenges. In 1996, The New York Times broke with tradition and logged on to the current digital, information age; it went online. Such a change revolutionized news coverage; in-depth, comprehensive exposure to an event became available worldwide within minutes of its occurrence. Online news coverage gave the celebrated shot heard round the world new meaning. One shot, one outcry, one speech, one discovery became public and gambit for immediate and widespread deliberation with myriad potentialities. Information relating to international politics, proceedings, terrorist attacks, public affairs, and unexpected incidents was reported in real time. One could boot up any online connection through a desktop, laptop, or portable digital device and read detailed updates, with focused interest and varying, decontextualized viewpoints, at once. Columbine, Dianas death, 9-11, Virginia Tech appeared in writing, online, as fast as reporters could type and upload. Correspondents, individual bloggers, and others with the capability to upload could comment. The New York Times as well as other newspapers worldwide, in many languages, had joined the digital information age. If one believes that the power of the press effects change, that it is an active, transformative tool, rather than

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the inverse, a passive mirror of events, then instant global communication through online reporting has played a significant role in transforming our lives. The online environment has flourished and proliferated to the extent that readers can comment on any story publicly, addressing a global audience, through a blog, public forum, or podcast. Those with access have a voice, say-so, representation; some, as Lowell Bergman (2007) discusses, believe there is no division between the layperson who publishes online, and the journalist -- anyone who blogs or participates is reporting. This is one debate in the Frontline series, News War, a program that examines the issues and challenges facing media (Frontline, 2007). It is a debate that is relevant here as one measure of the extent that information and communication technologies (ICTs) have transformed society, shaped a digital elite, and created the need for an information literate population with digital skills. Unlike its traditional rival, broadcast news, online news offers the same capacity for in-depth, multidimensional commentary as print with the added value of exposition and ubiquity. Once online, news and commentary of an event spread worldwide. The online story is written, descriptive, thorough, and pervasive. Broadcasters reach specific audiences, usually within a cultural and linguistic context online stories translate quickly, crossing both cultural and linguistic boundaries. Now, in an average minute, one online issue of The New York Times not only contains more information than any contemporary of Shakespeares would have acquired in a lifetime (Anonymous), but may also update and change with immediacy. The reality of ubiquitous informational immediacy is unprecedented. This abundance of information, together with its

Florence Margaret Paisey immediacy, has effected political, economic, social, psychological, and cultural transformation.

Florence Margaret Paisey Information and Communication: A Decade of Transformations Digital communication technologies existed decades ago, but they were not assumed. Online newspapers, online galleries, e-photos, e-learning, e-health, virtual shopping, e-

banking, e-mail, and personal e-spaces are all routine, often tedious practices of life now. Tele-medicine is widening its net through electronic medical records the U.S. Health and Human Services initiative, Healthy People 2010, includes storing all medical records in an electronic format (2001); other initiatives include imaging for storage and transmission, e-prescribing, as well as evidence-based practice. It will soon be commonplace for one physician, at point of care, to consult another physician regarding a complex medical problem tens, hundreds, thousands of miles away by transmitting sophisticated, detailed images, auditory messages, and text via communication technology. The University of Calgarys Health Telematics Unit (Hunter, 2007) aims to build a lifelong virtual learning global e-health community with the capability to cross all existing geographical, temporal, political, social, and cultural barriers that will gradually change the way healthcare is provided (ibid). If one doubts the fundamental significance of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in work, education, and everyday life, look at current habits and expectations of individuals, not only in medicine, but also in all occupations, and in personal lives. In education, resources have been extended to the online environment. From primary to higher education, both educators and students supplement classroom activities with online activities and informational sources found in proprietary databases, the World Wide Web, the invisible Web, e-mail, instant messaging (IM), blogs, podcasts,

Florence Margaret Paisey 10 voice/video chat, videoconferencing, and multimedia authoring tools. Electronic networks support learning communities where learners work on common tasks and negotiate understanding (Glaser & Bassok, 1989). Other subject-related student assignments often involve online collaborative learning projects (ETS, 2001), virtual groups, multimedia presentations, Web pages, blogs, and podcasts. The workplace has been similarly affected; one can no longer obtain employment without basic information and communication skills. Employers increasingly require digital information skills and performances such as facility in utilizing word processing programs, carrying out functions on spreadsheets, managing e-mail accounts, operating fax machines, blogging, navigating the Internet as well as posting on social media sites. Some employers require these skills on computers and mobile devices alike. Supermarket clerks, waiters, clerical workers, nurse aides, security guards, cosmeticians, auto mechanics all need to be able to handle technical, digital equipment in the workplace. From graduating secondary students to high-powered professionals, there is a need for competent skill in information and communication technologies as well as the ability to continue adapting to next generation tools. Skill with communication technologies was desirable a decade ago; now it is standard and required to compete for employment and participate in mainstream society and organizations. Technical skills to utilize digital technologies and communication tools have become routine, yet questions, avoidance, and uncertainty regarding informational skills still abound. We entered the Information Age decades ago (Breivik, 1991); we are a knowledge society; we broker in information (Drucker, 1993, ETS, 2001, UNESCO, 2005). Habits, customs, institutions, careers, social problems have all been affected by

Florence Margaret Paisey 11 this shift it is momentous; it is historic. The need to cultivate an understanding of information behavior and effective information seeking is no longer an ivory tower debate; it is a survival issue.

Florence Margaret Paisey 12 Information Ages The complexities of change in the current information age have caused no greater challenge, concern, or delight than in previous information ages. Each information age permeated and revolutionized culture, often triggering political upheaval. In the midfifteenth century, a technological revolution occurred with its ensuing information surge. Johannes Gutenberg, a Dutchman, invented and marketed the printing press, a technology many regard as the invention of the Millennium (Diamond, 1999). The printing press produced vast amounts of information that became available to the masses some praised the capability; others criticized. Martin Luther complained of the evils of too much information as well as the misplaced motives of many who published. Yet, without the printing press, Luthers 95 Theses would not have been mass distributed and read. Francis Bacon hailed the invention, along with gunpowder and the compass, stating that it changed the appearance and state of the whole world (Bacon, Aphorism 129). Eisenstein (1979) details the impact of the printing press from a historical perspective, identifying accurate reproduction as one of the most significant aspects of its influence, particularly in science. The exponential increase of available information and the means of disseminating accurate reproductions provided a basis for comparative thought. Many view this capability as a key condition facilitating the Renaissance in Europe. Like the digital revolution, the printing press supplied a means to publish and reach the masses; the written word could inform, incite, caution, calm and divide. Paradoxically, while expanding the gap between the haves and the have-nots, the literate and the illiterate, the printing press effectively awakened the masses, defeating inertia and

Florence Margaret Paisey 13 providing the means to inform and educate a populace. Information enabled individuals in their struggle for self-government and democratic citizenry. The consequences of the printing press effected religious, social, and scientific reform that ultimately tilled the ground in which capitalism developed and democracies took root and thrived. The digital word reaches the masses with similar effects, yet there are two incalculable distinctions it is immediate and global. Given uncensored online access, geographical context no longer constrains or controls the information one receives or transmits. Yet, from a global perspective, the inequities in access, education, health, economics, and income become particularly worrisome. This new divide, the global digital divide, and the issues inherent, challenge leaders to keep pace with a growing gap between societies and individuals with access to information and communication technologies (ICTs) and those still isolated. Those individuals and societies with ICTs can dramatically improve communication and the exchange of information to strengthen and create new economic and social networks (ETS, 2001); those societies still cut off lose ground daily as information and communication technologies (ICTs) evolve in education, healthcare, and information exchange. Advantages of information and communication technologies (ICTs) do not come without demands. Regardless of ones position on technological determinism, as noted above, these technologies have organized our culture to the extent that gainful employment mandates basic technical and communication skills. In addition, ICTs, like the printing press, have generated a glut of information. Honing vital information, filtering irrelevancies, and negotiating focus (Taylor, 1968) require sharp information management. The technical ability to employ a word processing program or navigate the

Florence Margaret Paisey 14 Internet does not suffice; one must be able to focus on, find, structure, describe, and process information effectively and cognitively. If one does not possess such skills, information technology backfires, potentially becoming a nuisance. Technical skills alone, without corresponding cognitive skills and general literacy, will not decrease the gaps defined by the digital divide (ETS, 2001).

Florence Margaret Paisey 15 Information Literacy: The Long March from Obscurity Paul Zukowski introduced the notion of information skills in 1974. He is credited with pioneering the notion of information literate individuals as: People trained in the application of information resources in their work. They have learned techniques and skills for utilizing the wide range of information tools as well as primary sources in molding information solutions to their problems (IFLA, 2002). The association between Zukowskis concept of information skills and the American Library Associations (ALAs) concept of information literacy came out of a period of educational unrest and reform during the 1970s and 1980s in the United States. Corporate leaders noted that secondary school graduates were unprepared to join the workforce; educational and political leaders recognized the limitations of American high school graduates compared to graduates in other developed nations. Several measures were taken in order to redress this situation. One such measure identified the role of school media programs in developing critical thinking skills and information management. The relationship of libraries to information management comes out of the context of instructional librarianship and its evolving role in education. In 1876, Melvil Dewey and Frederick Leypoldt called for a conference of librarians to promote efficiency and economy in library work (ACRL, 2007). The topics of discussion included readings on professional skills such as cataloguing, indexing, and public relations (ibid). This meeting, clearly, unified librarians as a professional group; those present established the American Library Association (ALA) and resolved to hold annual conferences. Dewey

Florence Margaret Paisey 16 also pioneered the concept of the reference librarian, describing them as aids to readers who would be aware of the resources of the library, the readers information needs, and what resources the reader might utilize (Lipscomb, 2001). Winsor (1880), the first president of ALA, a scholar librarian, and appointed head of the Harvard University Library, believed librarians were equally important as subject faculty in the educational process and should work together with faculty members. His vision of the library as a workshop where professors and students could carry on their labors with the tools necessary for their purposes conveniently at hand (Lipscomb, 2001) transformed library practices and services. Reference services developed along with accessible books, open stacks, bibliographic instruction, and extended hours (ibid). Winsor worked diligently to promote librarians and the importance of library instruction, establishing practices that upheld methods of thorough research and the cultivation of habits that support seeking and reading original sources of learning (ibid). The initial instructional sessions were couched as peripheral to coursework, and were described as library orientation, library instruction, or bibliographic skills. These sessions required a librarian to communicate policies of the library, describe its arrangement, identify access points, and explain procedures to obtain information from closed stacks. Formal definition of bibliographic instruction involved teaching a set of principles or search strategies (Salony, 1995). Unfortunately, this practice seldom occurred due to the subject facultys unyielding opposition to librarians as educators. Most faculty members held an anti-intellectual idea of the librarian and viewed the appropriate role as noncurricular, limited to cataloguing, indexing, and collection development. This antiintellectual view continues to this day, as instructional librarians work persistently to

Florence Margaret Paisey 17 market their services, persuade subject faculty of the viability of systematic library instruction, and collaborate in preparing learners to effectively research topics and manage information. Other early innovative librarians of significant accomplishment endeavored to expand the librarians role to that of educator. During his tenure as Librarian at Swarthmore College (1927-1962), Charles Shaw proposed the first instructional program, criticizing one-shot bibliographic sessions as haphazard and unscientific (Salony, 1995). Shaw championed the concept of the instructional librarian, proposing that librarians gain expertise in learning theory that would prepare them to develop systematic instructional programs. The 1970's marked a shift in attitude toward library instruction. Eastern Michigan University received a five-year grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities. This grant supported an expansion of library instructional services, creating a library outreach program through which librarians identified three major needs (Rader, 1999): 1. The need to be flexible and diversified in order to communicate with faculty and students. 2. The need to be sensitive to the educational needs of students. 3. The need to participate in the academic community. In 1971, immediately following Eastern Michigans effort, the Library Orientation Exchange (LOEX) was founded as a clearinghouse for collecting, organizing, and disseminating bibliographic materials (Saxony, 1995). During its first meeting, eminent librarians (Palmer, 1972; Melum, 1972; Kennedy, 1972) discussed the role of libraries in fulfilling the educational mission of universities. Purposeful discussions of ideas and

Florence Margaret Paisey 18 methodologies took place, establishing the parameters of library instruction within the university (Rader, 1999). LOEX has continued to evolve into a preeminent international organization that compiles leading-edge resources for instructional services while archiving earlier materials. In 1977, another development strengthened the role of the librarian as educator. The Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) outlined instructional responsibilities of the librarian and created the Library Instruction Roundtable (Rader, 1999). Gradually, librarians organized in support of library instruction. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s (Hardesty, 1999), librarians and information scientists increasingly recognized the educational role of the library and advocated for library instruction. Specific instructional tasks centered on searching strategies and database selection as well as conceptual topics such as critical thinking skills. Meanwhile, in 1981, the Reagan administration challenged the federal governments involvement in educational research and development (NERPPB, 1998), effecting the Education Consolidation Improvement Act (ECIA). This controversial statute deregulated federal oversight of education, while also criticizing the work of state officials. The Secretary of Education, T. H. Bell, commissioned an inquiry into the state of American education. This report, A Nation at Risk, detailed academic inadequacies of American high school graduates, prompting a nationwide system of standardized testing. This imperative marked a new era in education policy, an era in which equal educational opportunities would be measured not so much in terms of financial aid, special programs, or even racial desegregation but,

Florence Margaret Paisey 19 rather, in terms of standardized tests (NYSED, 2003). Out of this political climate, leaders active in educational reform challenged the Reagan administrations federal deregulation and proposed elimination of the Department of Education. Proactive leaders drew attention to a general malaise in American education by comparing American student achievement to that of students in other developed nations. Despite the questionable alarmist agenda, leaders identified gaps in American education. Paul Hurd asserted, "We are raising a new generation of Americans that is scientifically and technologically illiterate" (1983). John Slaughter, a former Director of the National Science Foundation, warned of "a growing chasm between a small scientific and technological elite and a citizenry ill informed, indeed uninformed, on issues with a science component" (1983). Educational, corporate, and scientific leaders collectively sought to describe the economic, social, and cultural landscape in an effort to redress shortcomings in American educational achievement. One such report, issued by the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science and titled Educating Students to Think: The Role of the School Library Media Program (Mancall, Aaron, & Walker, 1986), conceptualized the role of the library and information resources in K-12 education. Three principal considerations emanated from the discussion: The role of school library media programs in fostering thinking skills. The implications of research in how children process information. The application of the previous considerations in developing an information skills program.

Florence Margaret Paisey 20 The significance of this meeting and its insightful considerations has yet to be fully acknowledged the cafeteria style education, described in A Nation at Risk, continues in practice. Information management skills have been addressed, yet the support, funding, and implementation of instruction based on the conclusions of this meeting ten critical thinking skills, metacognition, and skillful identification of an information need remain tangential in most instructional programs. In 1989, The ALA Presidential Committee on Information Literacy allied with the American Library Association to examine the challenges of escalating information. They concluded, No other change in American society has offered greater challenges than the emergence of the Information Age (ACRL, 1989). This report called for disciplinary education in information skills: Out of the super-abundance of available information, people need to be able to obtain specific information to meet a wide range of personal and business needs (ibid). The Commission articulated the concept of an information literate person as one who is able to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information. This concept of information literacy (ALA, 1989) evolved from cognitive task analyses of individuals with expertise in information management. The definition is a composite of behaviors that underlie effective performance with information. While the Commission addressed the need for information literacy within the contexts of social, business, and political interests, it stated that information literacy is an imperative or a survival skill in the Information Age:

Florence Margaret Paisey 21 Instead of drowning in the abundance of information that floods their lives, information literate people know how to find, evaluate, and use information effectively to solve a particular problem or make a decision whether the information they select comes from a computer, a book, a government agency, a film, or any number of other possible resources (ibid). The conclusions in the ALA Presidential Committees report on information literacy led to the formation of the National Forum on Information Literacy (NFIL). At the outset, NFIL, chaired by Patricia Breivik, conducted a study on the role of information literacy within the National Education Goals (2000). Two specific goals involving information literacy resulted: The creation of a comprehensive definition of information literacy. The development of outcome measures for the concept (Doyle, 1992).

The NFIL report, composed by Christina Doyle, submits a concise definition of information literacy as formulated by the panel (ibid). It states that information literacy is the ability to access, evaluate, and use information from a variety of sources. In an expansion of the definition, the report identifies ten behaviors characterizing the information literate individual. They include: Recognizing the need for information. Recognizing that accurate and complete information is the basis for intelligent decision-making. Formulating questions based on information needs.

Florence Margaret Paisey 22 Identifying potential sources of information. Developing successful search strategies. Accessing sources of information, including computer-based and other technologies. Evaluating information. Organizing information for practical application. Integrating new information into a body of knowledge. Using information in critical thinking and problem solving (Doyle, 1992). These ten behavioral attributes, ascribed to an information literate individual, provide the framework for the ACRL Information Literacy Standards. The attributes encompass a repertoire of information skills that, when performed sequentially, are intended to result in effective information management. The Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) accepted ALAs 1989 conception of information literacy defined as a set of abilities requiring individuals to "recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information (ACRL, 2003). They emphasized that information literacy is: A complementary cluster of abilities necessary to use information effectively. A framework for learning how to learn. The basis for lifelong learning (ACRL, 2000).

Florence Margaret Paisey 23 The Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) also set forth five content standards characterizing information literacy. These standards may be paraphrased as: Aptitude to grasp the nature of required information. Ability to access informational sources. Capacity to determine evaluative criteria. Competence to apply this information to a designated purpose. Awareness of the socio-economic implications of this information.

Information literacy has advanced in response to the abundance of information that characterizes the Information Age and its information-based economies. Its significance as a survival skill for all peoples at every socio-economic level has brought such a skill into the everyday world and valued as a fundamental human right. Such a realization gives one pause; what began as an aid to readers in a library more than a century ago has become recognized as a skill on which ones life can depend. If this significance seems exaggerated, bear in mind that UNESCO (2006) has affirmed that information literacy is not just a necessity, but a basic human right. UNESCOs initiative, Information For All Programme (IFAP), amplifies the significance of information literacy: Information literacy and lifelong learning have been described as the beacons of the Information Society, illuminating the courses to development, prosperity and freedom. Information literacy empowers people in all walks of life to seek, evaluate, use and create information effectively to achieve their personal, social,

Florence Margaret Paisey 24 occupational and educational goals. It is a basic human right in a digital world and promotes social inclusion in all nations (IFAP, 2006). Information for All Programme (IFAP) states that information literate individuals are able to access information in support of their health, education, work, environment and all decisions regarding their welfare. UNESCO and IFAP collaborate with the International Federation of Libraries and Institutions (IFLANET), forming a UNESCO/IFLA alliance. This union sponsors the compilation of an international database of information literacy resources, available to the global community. It records information literacy outcomes that could be used as a model for new information literacy actions in different parts of the world (UNESCO, 2007). In addition, the UNESCO/IFAP union collaborates with intergovernmental organizations in an alliance to promote information literacy and lifelong learning. The National Forum on Information Literacy (NFIL) represents the UNESCO/IFAP alliance for the United States. UNESCOs document, Beacons of the Information Society: The Alexandria Proclamation on Information Literacy and Lifelong Learning, defines and outlines its policies and programs to promote information literacy and lifelong learning worldwide. Within the context of the Information Age, excluding an individual from access to information and the instruction to manage it has become not only an affront to ones freedom, but a threat to survival. While still obscure to most, an awareness of the need for information literacy has become a distinction characteristic of those sensitive to the social, scientific, and cultural consequences of the Information Age as well as the prevailing means of adaptation.

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Part II Information Behavior and the ACRL Information Literacy Standards

Florence Margaret Paisey 26 Information Literacy: Many Roads to Mecca Information literacy has evolved from a functional skill to a liberal art involving information skills, reflection on the nature of information, the equity of its technical infrastructure, and its social, cultural and philosophical context. It began as a pragmatic issue in the United States; not only were secondary school graduates inadequately prepared for the workforce, but their performance in scientific and technological domains came alarmingly close to illiteracy. In an effort to resolve this crisis, corporate, scientific, and educational leaders recommended a holistic curriculum and testing that would foster academic achievement as well as curricula purposed to develop critical thinking skills. The National Commission on Libraries and Information Science (1986) recommended that libraries take on the role of facilitating critical thinking and information skills: Focus must go beyond location skills and 'correct answers' and move to strategies that will help students to develop insight and faculty in structuring successful approaches to solving information needs (1986). At that point, information skills gained recognition as essential skills for which both teachers and librarians were responsible. Resource-based learning, contrasted to textbook-based learning, utilized the library or media center as a hub for instructional activity, integral to the educational mission. Librarians became responsible for collection mapping or developing collections based on curricular objectives. Rather than answer specific questions driven by textbooks, students drew on information resources as they

Florence Margaret Paisey 27 researched assignments. Further developments occurred with the publication of the book Information Power (1988; 1998) in which the American Association of School Librarians (AASL) established the vision and mission of information literacy in school library media programs. In 1989, the ALA Presidential Committee on Information Literacy expressed what has become the definitive concept of the information literate person: To be information literate, a person must be able to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information (ALA, 1989). This concept, with the inclusion of survival skills and lifelong learning, broadened the educational rationale of information literacy and the context of the information literate person. The Commission extended the context of information literacy from workplace demands and schooling to the context of personal welfare and benefit. The AASL Information Literacy Standards addressed information within the context of academic needs while also emphasizing authentic learning that provides a bridge between formal, school-based learning and independent lifelong learning (Information Power, 1998). In 2000, the American Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) published the ACRL Information Literacy Standards intended to meet the informationseeking needs of those in higher education, while also supporting self-directed, lifelong learning.

Florence Margaret Paisey 28 Information Literacy and Information Seeking Behavior In view of this background, one may interpret the concept of the information literate person either broadly or narrowly. The distinction between information behavior, in general, or information seeking and searching, in particular, will, largely, determine the focus. If information literacy is to serve one within the context of globalization and the information age, it requires focus on the broader conception, which includes the effects of the social, cultural, and philosophical context as well as any academic pursuit in which one may engage. Wilson (2000) has described levels of information behavior and information seeking. According to Wilson, information behavior involves all human interaction with sources and channels of information, while information seeking involves purposive behavior that requires information to satisfy some goal. Both conceptual facets address the character of information in ones life the general and the situational. This distinction could be perceived as a philosophical issue involving the significance one attaches to information and its impact on both individuals and society. If one takes a broad view, information behavior would include accessing information regarding health, employment, housing, food supply, transportation, recreation, social interaction, and all things relative to ones personal, social, economic, and educational welfare. It would also imply a philosophical sense of information behavior or the nature of ones interaction with information and information sources. In this sense, information and information literacy would enable one to fathom the nature of an information need and seek to meet that need with an awareness of the socio-cultural context. The distinction between information literacy broadly conceived, as survival skill, viable in an age of globalization, and information literacy more narrowly conceived, as

Florence Margaret Paisey 29 an academic skill, can be illustrated from the literature in information behavior and information seeking. Savolainen (1995) studied information behavior as it relates to problem solving within a socio-cultural context. He looked at the way one seeks information to solve specific problems that arise in the course of everyday life. Savolainen hypothesized that social, cultural, and individual factors determine ones way of life and mastery of life, which in turn determine the selection, relevance, and effectiveness of information sources. The essential question in Savolainens empirical study (ibid) addressed how ones way of life and mastery of life affect everyday life information seeking (ELIS). Savolainens study compared the information seeking habits of industrial workers and teachers in Tampere, Finland. Savolainens researchers gathered data by means of interviews that focused on topics such as ones job, the nature of ones leisure activity, and practices for obtaining information. Interviewees were also asked to select a recent problematic situation and describe the means by which each sought information. Conclusions supported earlier studies in which interviewees with a higher level of education seek information more actively from various channels than those with a lower level of education. The notions of way of life and mastery of life were not found to be sole determinants of the selection, relevance, and effectiveness of information sources. It was suggested that the research framework be redefined in light of how the character of an individuals informational orientation is built. This feature, informational orientation, or how people emphasize cognitive and affective elements when approaching everyday problems, was found to be more significant than way of life.

Florence Margaret Paisey 30 Savolainens comparative study on ELIS actually raised more questions than it answered. Yet, this study, based on Dervins sense-making process model (1983), addressed information seeking within the broad context of personal, social, and cultural issues rather than within the narrower context of an academic endeavor. His study also demonstrated that education alone is not the sole determinant of effective information seeking; individual and situational variables play a significant role. Implications for future studies point to how individual cognitive and affective elements determine ones informational orientation, as well as how stressful situational factors play into information seeking. Kuhlthaus (1991) work in associating affective experience and information seeking may be relevant here, though the interaction of affect on the search process calls for further investigation. These issues address information behavior and information seeking in daily life, but are also relevant to information seeking in academic inquiry. In contrast to Savolainens investigation of ELIS, conceptual models of information seeking and searching (Krikelas, 1983; Kuhlthau, 1991; Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1993; Ellis, 1989; 1993; Leckie & Pettigrew, 1996) provide a conceptual framework or methodology intended to support academic or occupational inquiry. Models of information seeking (IS) within an academic context identify characteristics of an information search that typify an inquiry-based search. Examples of these models include Eisenberg and Berkowitzs Big 6 problem-solving strategy and curriculum intended to teach information and technology skills. As is evident from its reference, the Big 6 model delineates six steps in a linear problem solving sequence. Originally, the Big 6 model addressed inquiry-based or resource-based learning in school media programs; it has

Florence Margaret Paisey 31 since been expanded to include everyday life issues and work-related issues. While the Big 6 model added contexts, the skills and strategies stipulated remained fundamentally the same. Kuhlthaus information search model (ISP) has been widely employed in academic contexts. Her approach derives from Dervins sense-making model (1983) where an individual is actively engaged in finding meaning by assimilating information that extends ones knowledge and facilitates the development of a point of view. Kuhlthaus model may be regarded as a conceptual framework or theory of information seeking behavior. Its origin draws from Kellys (1963) personal construct theory that describes the affective experience of individuals involved in the process of constructing meaning from the information they encounter (Kuhlthau, 1991). In laymans terms, personal construct theory describes feelings that a person formulates in developing perspective or in getting the picture of a situation. Kuhlthaus information search process looks at information seeking from the users perspective, rather than a bibliographic or systems centered perspective (1991). It includes six stages or discrete steps that guide a student through the research process along with thoughts and feelings that might be associated with the task. Kuhlthau summarized her approach as follows: The information research process is a holistic learning process encompassing the affective experience of students as well as their intellect. Students' experience within the process must be clearly understood in order for teachers and media specialists to design library

Florence Margaret Paisey 32 assignments and plan instruction that encourage rather than impede learning (1989). Kuhlthaus Information Search Process (ISP) describes information seeking stages with concomitant affective experiences. Because Kuhlthau has looked at the influence of affect on information seeking, Wilson (1999) includes her model in both the broad perspective of information behavior and the narrower focus of information seeking. Ellis conceptual model (1989), like Kuhlthaus, is characterized by a micro-approach or approach to information seeking based on studying small groups or the users perspective. However, employing an empirical research method, grounded theory approach, Ellis investigated the information seeking behaviors of researchers in relation to their general work situation and project specific information requirements. He concluded that eight categories were sufficient to describe the information seeking patterns of the researchers and form the behavioral model (Ellis, 1997). These categories or features include: surveying, chaining, monitoring, browsing, distinguishing, filtering, extracting, and ending. Similarly, Leckie & Pettigrew (1996) looked at the specific information seeking behaviors of professional groups and posited an IS model applicable to professionals. As with Kuhlthau and Ellis, their model views information behavior from the users needs and perspective. It is a macro-model of the information search process of professionals, beginning with the context of professional roles and tasks engendered by those roles. Information needs arise from task requirements. Three features characterize the information search: awareness, sources, and outcomes.

Florence Margaret Paisey 33 Understanding how individuals search for information benefits our understanding of human behavior as well as informing systems designers regarding user behavior. Such information provides insight into what features in information retrieval systems support users in their search for information. Wilson & Jarvelin (2003) underscore the importance of understanding information search behavior as it relates to IR systems as well as facilitating the work of the information content developer. They assert that an understanding of information searching may: enable the information content developer to specify more clearly what navigational routes are needed through the information and exactly what kind of information or data styles need to be in the record. Wilson & Jarvelin (ibid) cite Ellis work on chaining (1989; 1993) and suggest that an IR system should provide navigational routes that include Boolean search strategies as well as the capacity to chain through citations backwards and forwards. In addition, they point out that most information search models indicate the importance of personal networking for the researcher. Given this, IR systems could include features that would offer users an option to connect to others interested in the same research, thereby facilitating collaborative work (ibid). This particular service is already available through the LinkedIn network, though such an option within the IR system would streamline the process and enhance its usability. Fundamentally, information literacy enables one to discern the channels by which one accesses tacit and explicit information in diverse situations, organizations, professions,

Florence Margaret Paisey 34 and cultures. It involves recognition that information is a dynamic entity, that it is connected to social, cultural, and occupational contexts, and that it affects individuals and situations through interaction and interchange. It is through this interaction that information is expanded and transformed. As such, the information literate person would possess information skills that enable one to interact with information sources and communicate across cultures, recognizing that particular situations may involve specialized information seeking skills. Information literacy itself would not change with ones situation; it involves recognition of and regard for the differences that may exist in access and retrieval, while also recognizing general information behaviors that cross cultures. Situations, social norms, organizational hierarchy, access channels, and characteristics of communication among groups vary; information literacy is the facility that enables one to recognize informational channels and interact effectively with these varied systems. Such ability not only involves technical skill and information management, but also cultural competence or an understanding that diverse cultures and contexts convey information in a range of ways, requiring cultural knowledge and situational awareness.

Florence Margaret Paisey 35 Information Literacy: The Social, Political, and Economic Context The nature of the information environment, channels of communication, and information flow determine the extent to which information literacy involves expertise with ICTs (Spink & Cole, 2001). This is not a reference to everyday life information seeking (ELIS) where people acquire information that will orient themselves to daily life, rather than to occupational demands (Savolainen, 1995). Rather, it refers to the penetration of ICTs within countries and their subcultures. While individuals in dominant, information-based countries require expertise in information and communication technologies (ICTs), approximately one billion people worldwide lack any connection to ICTs. Information seeking and use will be markedly different for these people than for those in an information-based economy demographics, language, access, information flow, communication channels, social hierarchy, and behavioral norms all determine the nature of information habits, the context in which individuals share information, and the interaction with information sources. In addition, the attitude of individuals toward information or informational orientation will vary in contexts, cultures, and situations. Whether the source of an information need is prescribed or imposed (Gross, 2001), extrinsic or intrinsic, formal or informal will influence the users response to the information need, construction of a query, motivation to satisfy the need, and treatment of the information (Dervin, 1992; Savolainen, 1995). The effect of context on information seeking has also been a focal point in information behavior research, yet the role of location or social setting has had little consideration. Pettigrew introduced the concept of information grounds to describe a social space where

Florence Margaret Paisey 36 people come together for a singular purpose but from whose behavior emerges a social atmosphere that fosters the spontaneous and serendipitous sharing of information (Pettigrew, 1999; Fisher et al., 2007). Such social spaces will occur among all social strata, but they form a crucial source of information sharing among immigrant populations and those in lower socio-economic populations who are information poor. No widely accepted definition of information literacy identifies the library as its locus. Yet, the preponderance of models describing the information literate user place the individual in an affluent, Western, high-tech library with a circumscribed skill set appropriate to information seeking in a digital environment. Technological skills are necessary within a digital microcosm, but they will, generally, be ineffectual, in the world at large. While individuals in dominant, information-based economies require expertise in information and communication technologies, such expertise is fundamentally irrelevant in developing countries and among the information poor where only 7% of the population has access to the Internet (UNCTAD, 2005). Managing information effectively in other words, information literacy not only exists independently of ICTs, but also preceded them. Indeed, Mancall, Aaron, & Walker (1986) recommended developing information skills programs a decade prior to the surge in telecommunications. The ability to communicate and manage information effectively has always distinguished human interactions and endeavors such behaviors were simply denoted differently (Raseroka, 2006). Globalization and the Information Age, existing due to advances in ICTs, have drawn attention to the phenomenon of information and with that attention an effort to understand information behavior and its impact on individuals, societies, and economies.

Florence Margaret Paisey 37 These considerations have prompted extensive research in information behavior and information seeking as well as the effective exchange and use of information on both a macro-level or cultural level and a micro-level or situational level (Lee, 2004). The information glut, occurring in advanced societies, has necessitated the development of an efficient means of interacting with information technologies and the superfluity of information they have generated; hence, the development of user-centered information systems as well as behavioral strategies and academic curricula pertaining to information literacy. However, as stated previously, the majority of people worldwide still do not have access to ICTs. As of 2004, only 3 out of every 100 Africans used the Internet, compared with 1 out of every 2 residents in G8 countries (CSTD, 2006). Estimates of the existing disparities among countries and communities with the opportunity to access information and communication technologies (ICTs) vary sharply, depending on how digital access is defined and the indicators employed as measurement. The United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD) defined the digital divide as: the disparities between countries at different stages of economic development with regard to their opportunities to access ICTs and their ability to use them for a variety of purposes (CSTD, 2006). The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has reported that the digital divide is shrinking in terms of fixed lines, mobile telephony, and Internet usage (ITU, 2007). Within the same paragraph, ITU also states that the gap is widening in least developed countries (ibid, p.10). This compartmentalizing with regard to those countries

Florence Margaret Paisey 38 developed and those not, masks the reality that the distribution of ICTs remains starkly inequitable and conditions for the most impoverished peoples are worsening. Even if access to ICTs is possible in undeveloped economies, such access is restricted, governed unfairly, and of low bandwidth or poor quality. While digital capabilities and information economies evolve in advanced societies, the divide grows in LDCs. In 2000, John Gannon, Chairman of the National Intelligence Council, stated: In the globally wired world, the persistence of poverty amid wealth will become more striking. As uneven distribution of wealth becomes more visible, discontent will increase, particularly among the 600 million relatively poor urban dwellers in developing countries whose aspirations will exceed their economic prospects (Gannon, 2000). In 2007, seven years after Gannon delivered this speech, worldwide circumstances have borne out his projection (ITU_UN, 2006; 2007). In theory, information literacy and access to the Internet are open to all and provide the means to promote political, economic, and social development. Facts tell a different story. The United Nations General Assembly President, Sheikha Haya Rashed Al Khalifa, reported that globalization has had an extremely uneven impact on the lives of the worlds poorest people. She stated: The paradox is evident when some in the world are waiting in line to buy new consumer technologies at a cost almost equal to the annual per capita income of hundreds of millions of people (2007).

Florence Margaret Paisey 39 She quoted Mahatma Gandhi: In poor places, people see God in a piece of bread. In this speech, she addressed the unfortunate situation in which Least Developed Countries (LDCs) have found themselves: They (LDCs) have benefited least from globalization, and have been affected most by its negative impact (UN, 2007). Moreover, even if LDCs gained access to advanced information and communication technologies, most of the content on the Internet is related to national or international concerns (ITU_UN, 2007) in other words, content on the Internet is not directly related to the economic and social issues that impoverished individuals face daily. In order to motivate such populations to use the Internet on a regular basis, content needs to be more diverse and relevant to the needs and concerns of all social strata. The Internet offers enormous opportunity in business, education, and health, but ten out of approximately 6,000 living languages dominate the Internet. This disquieting fact underscores the reality of the digital divide. Ten languages represent eighty percent of the discourse on the Internet, leaving more than 5,900 languages with little or no representation. Furthermore, if linguistic structure relates to worldview, cultural diversity on the Internet is constricted; indeed, the Internet may well be described as a culture itself. As such, the representation of diffuse cultures would not be synchronous with the nature of the Internet, as it currently exists. Illiteracy is still another situation. Digital communication may be scant in rural regions, but information literacy is no less relevant. Indeed, Floridi (2002a) views information behavior is as fundamental and and philosophically important as being, knowledge life, intelligence, meaning or moral good and evil. In this sense, Floridi (ibid) drawing on Sheras earlier work (1961) views information science as a discipline appropriate to the study of social dimensions of knowledge and the way it is disseminated.

Florence Margaret Paisey 40 This philosophical view of information (PI) brings the study of information behavior into an applied discipline of information, the Epistemology of Social Knowledge (ESK). This view takes into account the fundamental social and psychological aspects of information and their relationship to dimensions of knowledge and human information behavior (Spink & Cole, 2002; Spink & Currier, 2005; Spink & Cole, 2006)). Given this view, information behavior, information seeking, and the search process involves the study of information as an evolutionary social phenomenon, as it evolved patterns and practices of human information behaviors (Madden, 2003) and the effect of information on the human condition (Floridi, 2002a; Floridi, 2002b). If one accepts the view of information as a social phenomenon, illiterate populations will have developed organized channels of transmitting and utilizing information. Within this context, information has affected the evolution of that culture as surely as information, the digital divide, and information-based economies are transforming literate, affluent cultures. A simplistic example of information as a social phenomenon in a rural context entails the process an individual engages if, in a rural region, no cell signal can be accessed, no library is available, no school, college, or university is nearby. Remote islanders, theoretically, have access to telecommunications, yet live on subsistence wages hundreds of miles from a telecommunications system. How do individuals in this socio-cultural context effectively meet their information needs? There are ways of obtaining information in any culture, but communication channels are culturally bound; answers and understanding may not be familiar to the affluent, digitally sophisticated individual, unfamiliar with diverse cultures perhaps ethnocentric. What behaviors or skills does one ascribe to an information literate individual given rural

Florence Margaret Paisey 41 or undeveloped conditions? The recent film Babel comes to mind (Inarritu, 2006). This film illustrates the consequences of human and cultural insensitivity combined with maladaptive information behaviors. It is realistic; a failure to exchange information meaningfully is not only a failure to communicate; it is a failure to recognize cultural convention or channels that inform individuals and situations. Information literacy involves the ability to identify how a culture organizes and exchanges information with productive results. It is not only about the world of scholarship and digital retrieval; as a social phenomenon, it is about the humane and the diverse ways peoples organize, interact, and communicate. While affluent individuals, in affluent environments, have advantages of digital communication, most individuals subsist without adequate nutrition, healthcare, or shelter. Within these cultures, information literacy is as much a survival issue as in cultures mandating ICT skills for gainful employment. The behaviors characteristic of the impoverished but information literate individual in a rural region may seem insubstantial to an outsider, yet within the culture, such an individual gains control and the promise of meeting their social, economic, and educational goals. Whatever the economic condition, whatever the educational level, whatever the culture, a system of information exchange and flow will exist. Where there is information exchange and flow, there will be norms or dimensions of an information system that reflect information behavior; knowledge of that system involves information skills or information literacy, empowering a person to selfdirected, lifelong learning. How do user behaviors of those in developed countries compare with those in undeveloped countries? Is it absurdly confrontational to mention the inadequacies of the

Florence Margaret Paisey 42 Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) Information Literacy Standards? Or is one to step back, acknowledging that these Standards, as a whole, are viable, provide a broad strategy for information seeking and management, but apply optimally in specific contexts?

Florence Margaret Paisey 43 The ACRL Information Literacy Standards: One Model of Many Whether one takes an ethnographic view of information as culture, or the sociological view of information as a cultural construct, an understanding of the observable, of how people actually forage information, determine what is meaningful or useful, and communicate in their small worlds will foster insightful understanding of information behavior and adaptive strategies. Context, situation, domain, and individual differences shape information behavior. Information behavior is as varied and complex as any other behavioral repertoire. Nearly two decades of discussion and exploration of behaviors particular to information literacy have yielded interesting definitions and information seeking models (Taylor, 1968; Belkin, 1981; Kuhlthau, 1991; Dervin, 1983; Wilson, 1996; 1999; Bruce, 1997; Spink, 2001; Floridi, 2002b; ACRL, 2000; CAUL, 2003; SCONUL, 1999). These representative researchers or associations have more consensus than conflict (OwusuAnsah, 2003), yet an overarching model of information seeking, adaptable in varied contexts, situations, and domains, remains elusive. Various foundational models of information behavior, in particular information seeking behavior, have been posited, yet there is no theory of information behavior or information seeking behavior that integrates prevailing data (Jarvelein & Vakkari, 1990; Jarvelein & Vakkari, 1993; Julien, 1996; Julien and Duggan, 2000). Various foundational models and theories on aspects of information behavior, including information seeking behavior, information needs and uses, information retrieval systems, and library and information services have been posited. Pettigrew & McKechnie (2001) conducted a content analysis that looked at what theories have

Florence Margaret Paisey 44 emerged in information seeking (IS), the derivation of these theories, and how these theories are employed. They investigated nearly twelve hundred articles, in 6 peerreviewed journals, published between 1993 and 1998, looking for basic characteristics of articles, which theories were deployed, and the frequency with which particular theories were cited, indicating a theoretical subset both inside and outside IS. They found no predominating theory of information behavior or information seeking behavior in those journals selected for content analysis. Pettigrew & McKechie (ibid) discuss possible explanations that relate to the fragmentation of a theoretical base. First, they identify the confused use of the term theory within IS and the various definitions of theory both generally and as required by specific disciplines. A theory in the humanities is defined differently from theory in mathematics. Petttigrew and McKechie (ibid) also refer to varied definitions of theory according to subfields in IS, how researchers in IS perceive theory, an authors inconsistent use of the term within an article, and general inconsistent naming conventions of a particular theory. Peter Ingwersens work was offered as an example of the varied ways one theory may be referenced. His work has been alternatively called a theory of knowledge structures, theory of the interaction IR process, cognitive theory of IR, cognitive viewpoint of IS, theory of cognitive space, and cognitive theory of polyrepresentation. It is recommended that authors identify the discipline in which a theory originated along with primary sources for scholars who may have little knowledge of the theoretical origin. Consistent naming conventions would also reduce confusion regarding the varied theories credited to the development of IS theory. Wilsons macro-model (1999) of information behavior approximates a sound attempt at formulating a framework or underpinning for information behavior and information

Florence Margaret Paisey 45 seeking. This theory offers a capacity to subsume micro-models of information searching within the larger concept of information behavior and information seeking. Wilsons conceptual framework provides for various components of information behavior from the contextual trigger, barriers in responding to this trigger, possible articulation of an information need, and the flow of behaviors influenced by individual differences and resources. Wilsons model (1999) begins with a person in context and an event that triggers the information need. Wilsons model does not immediately progress to question negotiation and information seeking. Rather, his model provides for an impediment to question negotiation. Impediments would include independent and intervening variables such as stress and coping, cognitive styles, education, demographics, environment, risk, and reward among other known pressures on any behavior, including information behavior. This model stands as a behavioral model, rather than an information seeking model, as the information need triggered may not be acted upon if the multiplicity of variables possible overwhelms the individual. However, if information seeking occurs, one can introduce an information seeking behaviors and repertoires, or nest an IS model that would characterize the process of satisfying the information need. One may also tier or map Wilsons model to contain micro-level information searching models such as Ellis chaining (Ellis & Haugan, 1997), Kuhlthaus phenomenological stages (Kuhlthau, 1991), or Bates metaphorical berrypicking (Bates, 1989). While nesting models of micro-level searching, Wilsons conceptual frame of information behavior is retained as well as his notions of information seeking and searching, then use.

Florence Margaret Paisey 46 Wilsons macro-behavioral model (1999), together with his structure describing the sequence of information seeking and searching to information use, offers a feasible representation of the events and variables active during an individuals experience with an information need and possible search. Given that one may nest any inclusive model of information seeking and searching, the ACRL Information Literacy Standards are a practicable option. They would nest in three tiers within Wilsons information seeking, searching, and use schema. Unlike the aforementioned models of Ellis, Kuhlthau, and Bates, the ACRL Information Literacy Standards do not weigh in as a theory of information searching, nor have they been based on any specific research base. They are, however, a widely accepted set of behavioral standards purposed to develop information literacy. As such, the ACRL Information Literacy Standards set forth strategies intended to bring about meaningful and ethical individual information seeking, searching, use, and production. They may be viewed as a template, shell, methodology, or framework by which an individual can effectively organize information behaviors. Key in learning this composite of skills is the notion of performances, or the knowledge and skills learners are expected to acquire. Performances, in an instructional sense, refer to sequential behaviors an individual knows how to do with efficient, seemingly reflexive, intuitive ability (Grabe & Grabe, 2001). The ACRL Information Literacy Standards include 22 performances or performance indicators within the five general standards. Each of these performances describes definitive outcomes that demonstrate knowledge and practice of the performance or, in effect, information literacy, as conceived and described by the ACRL.

Florence Margaret Paisey 47 Fundamental aspects of information behavior such as identifying an information need, negotiating (Taylor, 1968) or eliciting (Wu, 2003) a question, accessing information, evaluating the information, and applying the information with purposeful results (Taylor, 1968; Belkin, 1980; Kuhlthau, 1991; Wilson, 1996; 1999; Dervin, Spink, 2001; Floridi, 2002b) establish a continuum of information seeking and searching behaviors; these behaviors are reflected in the ACRL Standards. The five explicit ACRL Standards derive from the 1989 ALA definition of the information literate person. The standards are comprehensive, fundamental information skills from which specific dimensions or performances of information literacy emanate. The ACRL performances or performance indicators specifically relate to the academic dimension of information literacy; they apply to the requirements of formal research or inquiry as conducted by students, scholars, specific professionals, and researchers. The performances do not and are not intended to serve all professions and all everyday life information needs; such a distinction is essential in appropriately regarding and applying the ACRL Standards. Wilson (2000) views information behavior as the totality of human behavior in relation to sources and channels of information, including both active and passive information seeking and information use. His model of information behavior including a person in context, an event triggering an information need, and a series of possible intervening variables has been identified in the previous section (Wilson, 1996). However, as one proceeds through the experience of this intervening process, Wilson arrives at a point where an individual will continue (or not) to seek such information that will satisfy the need, be processed or integrated and finally applied. He identifies three levels or tiers of interactive information behaviors: information seeking, information

Florence Margaret Paisey 48 searching, and information use. These levels may be associated with the ACRL Information Literacy Standards. They are the broad strokes of user behavior; many information methods or models will correspond to these levels of user behavior, though the model at issue is the ACRL model. Wilson (ibid) defines information seeking as the purposive seeking of information as a response to a perceived information need to satisfy some goal. He defines his second level of information behavior as information searching. He views this behavioral level as micro-behavior where the user accesses information sources, interacts with systems of all kinds, and determines the criteria for evaluating the quality and relevance of information accessed. Higher and lower order thinking skills are required as an individual determines the extent of information involved in satisfying the initial need, reconstructing the question, or iterating the process. Situational features, such as access to ICTs, location, environment, values, socio-economic conditions, and domain largely determine the nature of ones interaction with information sources and channels on this level. Wilsons third level of information behavior, information use, consists of the physical and mental acts involved in incorporating the information found into the persons existing knowledge base (ibid). Physical acts would include marking significant sections of text, while mental acts involve comparing new information with ones existing knowledge. Wilsons three levels of information behavior correspond to four of the five ACRL Information Literacy Standards. Information seeking or determining ones information need and formulating a question relate to Standard 1. Information searching or accessing information required to satisfy ones information need, adopting search strategies, and determining the criteria for evaluation and relevance of the information

Florence Margaret Paisey 49 found, all relate to Standards 2, 3, and 4. As stated above, Wilson (2000) views information searching, exemplified by the performance indicators of Standards 2, 3, and 4, as a micro-level of behavior. Hence, transient, situational factors such as access to ICTs, social norms and values, the subject domain, and socio-economic conditions shape the nature of the interaction with information channels and sources, in other words, the character of the information search. Standard 5, understanding the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the information, relates, in part, to the application of the information found. These are issues where criteria for credibility will apply globally with local or situational variation. Legal issues, such as copyright, plagiarism, and privacy, or ethical principles, such as the treatment of experimental subjects and security, cross national boundaries. Censorship and freedom of speech, while addressed internationally, may have criteria determined by local authorities, as would institutional policies, idiosyncratic measures of netiquette, and a favored documentation style. On a stretch, one could include Standard 5 in Wilsons notion of information use, or what one deems acceptable. However, the concept of Standard 5 relates more to issues of practice and context as well as situational issues of information, rather than to the informational quality. An experiment could yield valid data, but have been conducted employing unethical methods. The ACRL performances directly relate to essential information skills of intellectual inquiry and information seeking. Performances, in general, involve procedural knowledge that demonstrates proficiency of a content standard. The nature and description of performances, ultimately, varies with contextual and situational features as well as the discipline, the domain, and the individual. While the ACRL Standards may be viewed as

Florence Margaret Paisey 50 general information seeking skills, the ACRL performances are specific to scholarly or educational endeavor. As such, they are limited, culturally biased or specific, and exclude those outside of an academic arena. UNESCO/IFAP endorses the ACRL Information Literacy Standards through their alliance with the National Forum on Information Literacy (NFIL). The Standards are also an awareness raising tool and an enabling tool that establishes guidelines by which educators can integrate a curriculum for information literacy. These values are at the core of UNESCOs commitment to information literacy. However, the ACRL standards as a whole, inclusive of the performances, do not characterize broad information behaviors. As such, they will not serve routine information seeking and searching. Understanding the purpose and goals of these Standards is as essential as understanding their performances and outcomes.

Florence Margaret Paisey 51 Information Literacy: The Practice of Instruction Human information behavior and information seeking is one aspect of understanding human nature; it specifically involves the interaction between individuals and information sources, tacit and explicit, passive and active. Information literacy is not simply a set of discrete bibliographic or information skills; it involves an approach to dealing with information as process and should engender an internalized facility to recognize the need for information, define the need, locate, access, evaluate, and synthesize information relating to that defined need. Critical thinking skills and metacognition are at the core of information literacy. The information literate person possesses an awareness of the parameters of ones knowledge, is open to the sense of uncertainty, can define the uncertainty, transform uncertainty to a specific question, thesis, or hypothesis, and develop strategies to resolve the uncertainty or satisfy the information need. There is a clear, integrated cognitive process that typifies an information literate person who has a capacity for lifelong learning. This internalized, cognitive process contrasts a bibliographic skill set comprising discrete, fragmented abilities with random tools designed for information management. It is a logical progression from bibliographic skill instruction that focuses on subject-related information resources, but not the development of a cognitive facility that activates a systematic behavioral response to ones perceived information need. The underlying distinction between the objectives of information literacy and bibliographic skills is this dynamic cognitive process. The information literate individual approaches information with an internalized ability to process and paraphrase information based on evaluative criteria. Such an

Florence Margaret Paisey 52 individual can move about the world of information with efficiency, competence, and refined skill. It is an applied method of satisfying the information need: it is not a simple skill; it is not static; it will evolve in accordance with a persons informational needs and sophistication of thought. The task of teaching information literacy is intended to be a collaborative effort between the discipline-based faculty member and the instructional librarian. As a team, the subject faculty member and librarian can coordinate information literacy curricula with specific disciplinary related goals. However, there seems to be a black hole of papers and opinions on how this collaboration or partnership can be achieved. The reality of establishing a well-rounded, systematic information literacy program relates to the general academic culture that is nurtured in a college, university, or school. Is information viewed as a viable subject in its own right? Is information literacy viewed as an essential skill, integral to the educational mission of the organization? Few subjects could be more valuable, both pragmatically and philosophically, than information and information literacy. One hears erudite scholars and societal leaders talk stridently and informatively about globalization and the information age, yet when faced with turning words into action and funding a program of information literacy, few deliver. Grafstein (2002) believes librarians and information specialists are best equipped to teach generic information seeking skills, focused on tools and general evaluative criteria. She states: There is a set of generic skills that must crucially be imparted in developing information literate students. These are skills that apply to the process of information

Florence Margaret Paisey 53 retrieval and evaluation across academic disciplines, and, additionally, to the information needs of everyday life. It is this set of skills that librarians, in their capacity as information specialists, are uniquely qualified to teach. Grafsteins view focuses on location, access, search strategies, information retrieval, and basic objective criteria for the evaluation of information. These are essential, appropriate aspects of instruction in information literacy. They can also be taught intermittently, accommodating arbitrary, or one-shot bibliographic sessions. Yet these skills, in themselves, will not engender information literacy, as defined by the ALA. They address mechanistic aspects of information retrieval and the application of static evaluative criteria. They do not deal with developing an awareness of socio-cultural, contextual, or situational factors that affect how one perceives a problem, constructs the information query, formulates a search strategy, and satisfies the information need. In addition, the information need or uncertainty and subsequent question come out of an uncertainty or perceived gap in ability between ones individual knowledge base and new information. Ones perception of this gap shapes the information question that will generate an approach to inquiry. The ability to identify or define the relationship between new information and an existing knowledge base involves the awareness and ability to define a logical relationship between ones internal knowledge structures and new information. Such awareness requires skill in metacognition. This process may be characterized as integrative and evaluative, requiring iterative, process oriented assessment of new information and its relationship to existing knowledge structures. A novice and an expert can perceive the same information need, yet the experts approach

Florence Margaret Paisey 54 to inquiry will be qualitatively different from the novices due to a different knowledge base. Metacognition is critical in developing strategy to meet information needs and resolve conflicts, problems, or issues in a meaningful way. Grafsteins skill set is a limited, specific, safe, reductionist repertoire that may apply to an instructors assigned question, or a clear, uncomplicated situation in life. However, if faced with a complicated problem or constellation of information needs, such reductionism will not be effective. Effective information literacy requires metacognition or the purposeful evaluation of the quality of ones own thinking (APA, 2002). Self-monitoring shapes how one is defining uncertainties, teasing out questions or hypotheses, developing strategy, critically evaluating varied solutions, and using information to resolve uncertainties as they relate to ones knowledge structures or base. Grafsteins approach, however practical, falls short of fostering this critical thinking central in understanding how one learns how to learn, a core value in information literacy and lifelong learning.

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