Social Change & Development in India

Social Change & Development in India

Dr. S. Akhilesh
Honored with Prestigious Pt. G.B. Pant Award Govt. of India 1997, 1998, 2000, 2004 & 2008 and Bhartendu Harishchandra Award in 2006

Research Stud for ies re

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Centre for Research Studies

Rewa (M.P.) India

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ISBN- 978-81-87364-55-9

PREFACE
I am feeling pleasure in presenting the book, 'Social Change & Development in India'. India is one of the developing nations of the modern world. It has become an independent country, a republic, more than a half century ago. During this period the country has been engaged in efforts to attain development and growth in various areas such as building infrastructure, production of food grains, science and technology and spread of education. The life expectancy has increased and many diseases have been controlled. However, there are many areas in which Indian society is experiencing a variety of problems. Some of these problems have their roots in our colonial past while others are related to demographic changes, socio-political conditions and cultural processes. Social change and Development is a regular process of society. In this book it has been discussed from many views. The Indian society consists of people from different religious, linguistic and ethnic backgrounds. Since long there has been cultural give and take between the people from India and other countries. Since 1947 when India gained Political Independence the country has been engaged in the gigantic task of nation building. Efforts have been made to put nation on the path of socio-economic development. The transformation of nation as a self sufficient and cohesive political entity has proved to be a difficult challenge. The colonial past, socio-economic disparities in the society and raised aspirations have culminated in a complex situation. Traditionally the Indian society was hierarchically arranged and the different communities and caste groups showed a pattern of social distance in which low caste, tribals and minority groups were discriminated against and looked down upon. The Indian constitution prohibits against such discrimination. If we look at the historical trends we notice that the partition of India led to considerable degree of violence and the harmonious relations between Hindus and Muslims were disturbed. As a result suspicion and mistrust has developed between Muslims and Hindus. This has led to a number of clashes and conflicts which have been violent and have generated hatred. Political Parties in their performances are not so fair as needed. Various parts of the country are experiencing separatist movements. We have read about political movements in North East part of India (Assam, Nagaland, Tripura) where demands for separate political identities have been

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raised from time to time. The Kashmir region is experiencing the negative impact of crossborder terrorism and people are suffering. The Nuxalite movement in certain parts (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,Chhatisgarh, Madhya Pradesh) is also creating political instability and problems of governance. Caste-related prejudice and discrimination has also been on rise in certain parts of the country. In the course of socialization people acquire negative attitudes and stereotypes. Many times these are not founded in our real life experiences. Instead, they are based on false information, personal impressions and hearsay. However, they are very powerful and shape our behaviour in important ways. Thus if we have prejudice against some one it may lead to aggression, hostility and harm doing towards the target groups. In recent years inter group conflicts related to caste have moved from the social to the political arena of life. Infact caste based alliances, groups and organization are growing fast. They utilize caste-related identity for political gains. Today caste-affiliations are not so important in social or religious matters as they are in political matters. The presence of this group has changed the complexion of Indian political scene. On the whole the Indian society is currently experiencing social tensions of various kinds. They are related to the pattern of social change & development in India. In particular the rise of middle class migration of people from villages to cities, increase in the degree of economic inequality, spread of education and media are playing key role. The tensions in the lives of people at individual, family and community level is clearly visible. Most of the conflicts and tensions revolve around the issue of identity. Assertion of separate identity and promoting the same with different tactics is becoming a central problem. People use identities in an emotionally charged way to create a group structure for promoting certain goals. Thus associations, committees and organizations are created to serve these purposes. The creation of identity involves strategies which enhance similarity within the group and difference between the groups. In this way a diversion of "in group" or "own group and "out group" or other group is created. This kind of differentiation is present in almost all societies. This also implies that the differences across groups cannot be totally eliminated.
Rewa

CONTENTS
01. 02. 03. 04. Contemporary Theories of Social Change 11 Dr. Akhilesh Shukla Patterns of Cultural Change 21 Dr. Akhilesh Shukla Social Structure : Patterns of Structural Change 28 Dr. Akhilesh Shukla Exploring New Dimensions to Social Change and 40 Development: Humanistic and Socio-Psychological Perspectives Dr. Sudhir K. Samantaray Dialectic Model of Social Change 54 (A short analysis of Hegelian Theory) Dr. Akhilesh Shukla Dialectical Matearialism 58 (A short analysis of Theory of Karl Marx) Dr. Akhilesh Shukla Social Change and Development in India 62 Dr. Mukesh H. Kaushik Cultural Dynamics : An Integrated Approach Towards 73 Sustainable Development Sunildro L.S. Akoijam Cultural Identity and Development: 80 An Indian Perspective Dr Shefali Raizada Cultural Change of Tribal Societies of Assam as a 88 Consequence of Modernity Elizabeth L. Thiek, Somika Narzary Socio-Cultural Repercussion of Globalization in India 99 Ms. Pooja Gupta, Ms. Kudshiya Raza Social Structure and Development 106 Gediya Nitiksha J. Social Organisations and Village Development: 119 A Sociological Study Diganta Kr. Phukan Impact of Globalization on Social and Cultural 128 Change in India Mrs Renu Markandey

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Social Service or Social Change 134 Dr.Vinay Mishra Religious Change and its Impact on Changing the 145 Boro Society (With special reference to Assam) Disco Mushahary, Rimush Narzary, Dharmendra Baro Mahatma Gandhi's view on Exploitation Free 156 Indian Society Dr. Ananda Bhikuji Kale Role of Higher Education in Promotion of Social 158 Change and Development in India Dr. Geeta Nair Development of the Society through Value Oriented 167 Education Dr. Rajkumar S. Topandasani Challenges of Globalization on Indian Higher 170 Education Dr. Anjana Jain Women and Higher Education in India : An Overview 175 Mamta Biswas Higher Education in India, Teaching and Research 183 the Two Inseparables Dr. Charu Sharma English Language for Sustainable Growth and 188 Vertical Development Dr. Seema R. Gida The Indian Philosophy of Education: Dire Need of 191 the Hour for Sustainable Development Dr. Savita Sharma Social Implications of Information Technology 206 Revolution Mrs. Meenakshi Chahal Glimpses of Faith Healing in Select Travelogues: 212 A Study in Indian Values Apara Tiwari Developing Study Skills in E. S. L. Classrooms 230 Dr. Chandrashekhar Vazalwar Science Education : Shifting India from Learning 236 Society to Knowledge Society Dr. Preety Agarwal

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Women Empowerment: A Key to Measure Status 256 of Gender and Development in India Dr. Dinesh Das Bharati Mukherjee's Jasmine : A Picture of a 'New 267 Woman' Prof. (Mrs.) Ranjana Khosla Status of Dalit Women in India: Socio-Political 278 Dimensions Seema Sharma Development of Scheduled Caste Women: through 285 Reservation Policy (With special reference to western Uttar Pradesh) Dr. Lajwant Singh Changing Role of Women Entrepreneurs in Micro, 293 Small and Medium Enterprises in India Dr. Sangeeta Kumar Women Empowerment in Rural Rajasthan 306 Dr. Seema Pandey Childhood : Sexual Abuse and Prevention 312 Mr. Rajendrakumar Muljibhai Parmar Mr. Harendra Parmar Punishment : Analysis about its Justifiability 327 Sima Baruah Law as a Means of Social Change 337 Dr. Alka Verma National Integration in India 341 Dr. Hareshwar Roy Inclusive Growth and Social Development through 348 NREGA in Madhyapradesh Dr. Mrs. Sonal Rai Role of MNREGA and other Government Policies in 355 Rural Development (A Case Study of Jabalpur District) Ms. Ashu Jain Role of LIC in Economic Development 364 Prof. B.M.Chachane Urban Growth of Lucknow Metropolis and Its 372 Consequences Dr. Sarika Shukla

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An Emerging Issue of 21st Century : Need of an Environment Accounting Dr. Anand Tiwari Water Resources and Management Dr. (Smt.) Kiran Singh Effect of Ecological Changes on Social Life Dr. Ananda Bhikuji Kale Global Climatic Changes of the World Dr Monika Kannan Environmental Protection and Human Rights in Indian Perspective Dr. Jagat Singh Chandpuri Social Environmental Changes in Wood Craft Tradition of Sankheda Dr. Anjali Pandey Effect of Overpopulation on the Environment and Society Dr. Anita Sarin, Dr. Dipti Jha Increasing Noise Pollution in Society Rupa Salhotra National Rural Health Mission and Rural Poor : New Hope for Livelihood Sukanta Sarkar Heart Patients and their Family Relation Dr. Indra Barman A Study of the Sociology of Disability Dr. M. P. Maheta Study of Wild Edible Plants of Balaghat District. (M.P.) B.K. Bramhe Development of Rural Education in India Dr. Alka Saxena, Archana Saxena Social Change and Development through Five Years Plans in India Dr. Akhilesh Shukla

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Contemporary Theories of Social Change

* Dr. Akhilesh Shukla
Change is such an evident feature of social reality that any social-scientific theory, whatever its conceptual starting point, must sooner or later address it. At the same time it is essential to note that the ways social change has been identified have varied greatly in the history of thought. Furthermore, conceptions of change appear to have mirrored the historical realities of different epochs in large degree. In his essay for this volume Giesen shows that even though ideas of time existed and evolved over thousands of yearsranging from the identification of time as a period of action and a period of living to the differentiation of time according to hierarchical position (the gods are eternal; empires rise, prosper, and fall; humans have a time lifespan), to the conception of time as progress stability and order were the norm and changes were exceptional. But in more recent centuries the dominant conceptions of change itself have changed. Social change as a concept for comprehending a continual dynamic in social units became salient during the French Revolution and the industrial revolution in England, both periods of extraordinary dynamism. Comprehensive change became normal, and, accordingly, social philosophers and later sociologists gradually replaced the older ideas of natural constants and the contractual constructions of natural and rational order with conceptions of social change, even though precise formulations were slow to appear. For these thinkers social change was a property of social order, known
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as change (Luhmann 1984, 471). Moreover, in the midst of change observers began to look in retrospect to the dramatic changes that had occurred in earlier epochs, for examples, in the development of the Egyptian Empire or the Western Roman Empire. Contemporary theories of social change have become more generalized in order to explain far-reaching processes of change in past and present. In a review of contemporary theories of change Hermann Strasser and Susan C. Randall have identified the following attributes for these changes: magnitude of change, time span, direction, rate of change, amount of violence involved (1981, 16). In a sociological view any theory of change must contain three main elements that must stand in definite relation to one another: 1.Structuraldeterminantsofsocialchange,suchaspopulation changes, the dislocation occasioned by war, or strains and contradictions. 2. Processes and mechanisms of social change, including precipitating mechanisms, social movements, political conflict and accommodation, and entrepreneurial activity. 3.Directionsofsocialchange,includingstructuralchanges, effects, and consequences. Graphically, these may be arranged as follows:
Structural determinants Processes and Mechanisms Directions and consequences

Even this rendition of the metaframework for models of change is overly simple, for among the structural determinants of different processes of social change are the accumulated consequences of previous sequences of change. Wiswede and Kutsch (1978, vii) argue that although the analysis of social change represents the touchstone of sociology, it obviously still appears to be underdeveloped today. The editors accept this judgment and advance two reasons for it. The first reason is that despite the evident fact that comprehensive social changes cannot be explained by monocausal theories, such theories still survive in one form or another: cultural emanationist theories, materialist theories, and more specific examples such as the

explanation of social changes by the size and composition of the population of a society (Cipolla 1978) or by changes in key actors attitudes (Opp 1976). Such theories generally break down when confronted with explaining unexpected changes or when they are used for predicting or forecasting. The second reason for the underdevelopment of the study of social changes is those who accept the necessity of multicausal explanations face a formidable task in arranging the great arsenal of determinants, mechanisms, processes, and consequences into sufficiently complex interactive and predictive models. Simple theories are easier to create but are more likely to be inadequate, whereas complex theories are more likely to be realistic but are more difficult to construct formally. Another point of tension in the scientific study of social change is that between the striving for general theories and the carrying out of specialized studies dealing with certain societies and periods of time. Certainly the more comprehensive theories of the sociological masters still survive and inform the research of many scholars, even though the focus of these scholars has become more limited. Examples of the more focused study of changes in economic structure and stratification are found in the contributions of Goldthorpe, Haferkamp, and Mnch to this volume; examinations of changes in political and social structures are found in the contributions of Touraine and Eyerman.This volume strikes a kind of balance between comprehensiveness and specialization. Although the contributors and editors have kept in mind Wilbert E. Moores cautionary words about the myth of a singular theory of change (Moore 1963, 23), we have nonetheless been able to organize the volume around some general themes in the contemporary study of social change. These themes are the persistence of evolutionary thought, structural differentiation and cultural change, theories of modernity, modernity and new forms of social movements, modernity and social inequality, and international and global themes. This introduction takes up these

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themes in the order listed. Developments in the Paradigm of Evolutionary Theory- One of the earliest and most influential papers applying Darwinian theory to human cultural evolution was Donald T. Campbells paper Variation and Selective Retention in Sociocultural Systems. Campbells programmatic essay appeared as a chapter in a book entitled Social Change in Developing Areas (Barringer et al., 1965). It sketched a very ambitious project to apply Darwinian principles to the study of the evolution of human behavior. His essential theses were four. 1. Human sociocultural evolution should be studied using Darwinian methods. Human culture is information transmitted from person to person via teaching and imitation, much as genes are information transmitted from person to person in the course of reproduction. Like genes, sociocultural evolution has a pattern of descent with modification. Of course, the evolution of culture and social institutions differs in many ways from the evolution of genes. Perhaps most important, culture is a system for the inheritance of acquired variation. What individuals learn for themselves by hard effort others often imitate, typically at much less cost. Severalresearchers, beginning with Cavalli-Sforza and Feldmans (1973) pioneering paper, have followed up this thread of Campbells essay by developing formal models of the cultural evolutionary processes. These models are designed to explore the abstract principles of culture evolution using the modeling techniques population biologists use to study organic evolution. Note that Campbells (and our) concept of culture encompasses all the things that we learn from each other as opposed to learn for ourselves or inherit genetically. As such, it includes technical knowledge, our specific language, the habits, sentiments and ideas that guide our participation in social and political life, belief systems like religion, and artistic traditions. This concept of culture is not limited to the symbolic and meaningful elements or to elements on which there is wide consensus within a culture. 2. Cultural and genetic evolution are linked. Culture differs

from genes in that people are passive recipients of their genes but active agents with respect to culture. We can pick and choose among the cultural variants that are on offer in the population, and often modify what they originally imitate on the basis of experience. The various active decisions that individuals impose upon their culture act as evolutionary forces shaping culture. Each individuals marginal choices have only a small effect on the culturaltraditions of a society, but, by cumulating over repeated passage through many minds, individuals decision may ultimately transform their culture. The rules that guide decisionmaking are various and have to come from somewhere. At least some of the rules are rooted in genes. Senses of pleasure and pain often cause people to prefer one cultural variant over another, thought the results are often surprising, as in the prevalence of pain inducing spices in many cuisines. The linkage of culture and genes is a two-way street. Culture is an important factor in the environments in which people live, and generates selection pressures on genes. A simple example is the high frequency of genes that allow adults to digest milk sugar in societies with a long tradition of dairying (Durham, 1991). 3. Campbell maintained that natural selection remained the master force in cultural evolution. He was the first person to clearly see how a system for the inheritance of acquired variation would work. Natural selection is the ultimate source of the rules that proximally guide the evolution of culture. As evolutionary psychologists subsequently argued at length (Thornhill, et al., 1997), human psychology shows many signs of being shaped by natural selection. Thus natural selection has shaped the innate rules that in turn shape cultural evolution. Campbell called the decision-making forces vicarious selectors because they reflect the action of natural selection and tend to favor the same behavior as selection would if it had to act. Most evolutionary students of human behavior (e.g. Alexander, 1979, Lumsden and Wilson, 1981, Hirshleifer, 1977) hold that this is the main story. Human psychology must have been under the influence

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of natural selection throughout the period when capacities for culture evolved. At each step in the evolution of more sophisticated psychologies, selection would have favored only those psychological variants that increased genetic fitness. We call this the argument from natural origins. 4. Campbell argued that natural selection also operates directly on cultural variation. Some people are prone to drink and drive. Suppose this habit is mainly cultural, not genetic. The higher rate of death of drinker-drivers will remove them from the pool of people who might be imitated just as surely as it removes their genes. Selection on cultural variation is just as much an ultimate a cause as selection on genetic variation. Since cultural environments can generate selection on genes, and what favors genetic fitness can sometimes differ from what favors cultural fitness, the full gene-culture coevolutionary system is liable to be rich in phenomena that would not be predicted by the argument from natural origins. People who dont have any children at all can still be imitated and transmit their culture. Selection on culture might even favor variants that compete for roles with great cultural influence even at a cost to their genetic fitness. We call this the dual inheritance argument. Our own work has been substantially directed at exploring the dynamics of the dual inheritance system (Boyd and Richerson, 1985). The lasting attractiveness of the paradigm of evolutionary theory in sociology is a remarkable phenomenon given the controversial history of this perspective in sociology. In very recent times, however, it has been less the evolutionary writings of Spencer (The Study of Sociology [1872], Principles of Sociology[187696])thanthoseofDarwinthathaveprovided the models for sociologists (Giesen 1980, 1011; Luhmann, this volume; Giesen, this volume). Recent evidence of the continuing vitality of the evolutionary perspective is found, among North American sociologist, in the works of Talcott Parsons (1961, 1966, 1967, 1971a, 1977), Neil J. Smelser (1959, 1976), and Gerhard Lenski (1970, 1976) and among West German

sociologists, in the theories of Jrgen Habermas (1976, 1981) and Niklas Luhmann (1984). The work of Shmuel N. Eisenstadt (1970, 1976) shows a similar influence. These evolutionary conceptions have not been without their critics. Parsonss emphasis on evolution as an increase of adaptability, that is, the capacity to control and gain greater independence from the environment, has come under attack from a variety of sources (Granovetter 1979; Schmid 1981, 1982; Luhmann 1984). This line of criticism stresses the apparent teleology of Parsonss formulation and his failure to explain the structural prerequisites that are presumably necessary for further evolution. West German neoevolutionary thought has also come in for its share of critical reactions (on Habermas, see Berger 1982; Schmid 1981; Honneth and Joas 1986. On Luhmann, see Haferkamp and Schmid 1987). One particular line of criticism of Habermass work is that it is too normative and not sufficiently explanatory in its force: He fails to give a plausible reason why a rise in the capability for moral reflection should in all cases a rise in the adaptability of a social formation (Schmid 1981, 29). In this volume Goldthorpe, impatient with the generalities of both classical evolutionary theory and Marxist thought, echoes Poppers (194445, 1945) still-pertinent criticism. Despite these critical responses, evolutionary theoryor at least selected aspects of itcontinues to reappear. In this volume a number of authors (Luhmann, Eder, and Hondrich) take up evolutionary questions directly. Other authors, who are more closely identified with either systems theory or conflict theory (Giesen, Smelser, and Eisenstadt), also touch on evolutionary issues. Thus, Eder, although mainly looking at societal contradictions, also asks about the evolutionary functions of contradictions. Looking at the contributions to this volume that take up evolutionary themes in terms of the metaframework sketched above, it is possible to identify the following elements: triggering mechanisms for change,

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sustaining mechanisms of change, the end state of change (directionality), and the change process considered as a whole. 1.Triggeringmechanisms.Inadditiontothevariousinternal mechanisms (such as technology, cultural lags, and contradictions), Smelser suggests that intersocietal relations be systematically included as triggering mechanisms. Eder focuses on contradictions and treats them as mechanisms [that] initiate or continue communication. Communication, in turn, initiates sequences of change. In a related formulation Eisenstadt identifies structural variety in societies, which is a breeding ground for conflicts. And in the most unorthodox formulation Luhmann develops the notion of improbability. In an earlier formulation Luhmann (1984) criticized Parsonss and other neoevolutionary theories on the basis that they did not specify a process but simply defined the requirements for structural development. By contrast, Luhmann argues that, when viewed retrospectively, all developments are improbable in that they could not have been explained by prior existing determinants (for example, the distribution of power or wealth). Changes are, rather, the product of what Luhmann calls autopoiesis, that is, the tendency for self-production is social systems. Luhmann thus departs from the tradition causal assumptions of evolutionary theory and builds a high degree of indeterminacy summarized by the phrase the improbability of the probable into his conception of change. Eder also introduces the notion of liberty and improbability into his perspective on change but not in such a central way. 2. Sustaining mechanisms.The contributors to this volume develop many such mechanisms by making reference to biological analogies. Hondrich considers differentiation and segmentation to be two opposing yet collaborative principles of evolution, the former representing the dynamic, innovative, expanding and risky aspect of evolution, the latter standing for preservation, stability, and a reduction of risks. Eder works out an elaborate classification of mechanisms for his three stages

(variation, selection, and stabilization), involving learning processes within groups, classification struggles, and conflicts between society and environment. Again striking a note of indeterminacy, Luhmann regards the sustaining mechanisms for change as autopoiesis, that is, as self-referential systems permanently producing themselves and heading into an openended future. 3.Directionality.Thecontributorsrangeacrosstheboardwith respect to the determinacy of the end states of change. Eder speaks of a telos (of contradictions), the aim of which is to reproduce communication. This ongoing stream of communication constitutes social reality as being something in flux, as something always in change. On the level of moral ideas Eder works on the assumption of an evolutionary change in moral consciousness which was evoked by the initial dissolution of the religious basis of morality in the sixteenth century (1985, 10). At this level telos signifies the development of a morality based on the autonomy of the subject and is thus reminiscent of Piagets and Kohlbergs conceptions of moral development. Hondrich, using a traditional biological analogy, finds directionality in the interests of evolution, which are primarily those of survival. Luhmann appears to replace his earlier emphasis on the directionality found in differentiation, complexity, or even progress with a directionality that is more improbable. Smelser, who in an earlier (1959) formulation stressed both differentiation and complexity as lending directionality, is now more skeptical about very general statements concerning evolutionary goals or directions. Eisenstadt argues against positing any directionality toward modernization on the basis of prior structural propertiescalling them merely necessary conditions of modernizationand argues that the fortuitous intervention of elites necessary to create modern social structures. Finally, Giesen considers that the notion of directed development is wholly inappropriate. 4. Overall process. One of the features of contemporary

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evolutionary theory is that even though traditional models of development survive, there is also a preoccupation with pathology, paradox, decay, and dissolution as well as with growth (Elias 1985). Although Hondrich relies mainly on functionalist theories of differentiation and acknowledges the increases in size and efficiency accompanying differentiation, he also sees an increasing homogeneity in society and points to various threats posed to society by functional differentiation. Extreme differentiation, for example, is always accompanied by the development of a substratum of black markets, informal groups, and secret networks. Eder also points to pathologies in the evolutionary process that generally lead to higher level of morality. Luhmanns stress on backward developments and Giesens insistence that both emergence and decay are present in any social process also underscore the more pessimistic flavor of the most recent evolutionary models. ======================== References1. Gene Shackman, Ya-Lin Liu and George (Xun) Wang. Why does a society develop the way it does? 200 2. Ava ila ble athttp://gsociology.ica ap.org/report/ summary2.htm Haferkamp, Hans, and Neil J. Smelser, editors Social Change and Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1991.http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/ 13030/ft6000078s/ http://thevenusproject.com/the-venus-project/aims-a-proposals Shackman, Gene, Xun Wang and Ya-Lin Liu. 2011. Brief review of world population trends. Available athttp://gsociology.icaap.org/report/demsum.html The Republic (Plato), 348b Corbett, Edward P. J.; Robert J. Connors (1999). Classical Rhetoric For the Modern Student (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780195115420. Corbett, Edward P. J.; Robert J. Connors (1999). Classical Rhetoric For the Modern Student (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780195115420. Evolution: The Darwinian Theory of Social Change,An Homage to Donald T. Campbell Peter J. Richerson University of California Davis Robert Boyd University of California Los Angeles.

Patterns of Cultural Change

* Dr. Akhilesh Shukla
Cultureis a modern concept based on a term first used inclassical antiquity by the Roman orator Cicero: cultura animi. The term culture appeared first in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, to connote a process of cultivation or improvement, as inagriculture or horticulture.In the 19thcentury,thetermdevelopedtoreferfirsttothebetterment or refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals.In the mid-19th century, some scientists used the term culture to refer to a universal human capacity. For the GermannonpositivistsociologistGeorg Simmel, culture referred to the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.In the 20th century, culture emerged as a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of human phenomena that cannot be attributed to genetic inheritance. Specifically, the term culture in American anthropology had two meanings: 1. the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and 2. the distinct ways that people living differently classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively. Hoebel describes culture as an integrated system of learned behavior patterns which are characteristic of the members of
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asocietyand which are not a result of biological inheritance. Distinctions are currently made between the physical artifacts created by a society, its so-calledmaterial culture, and everything else,theintangiblessuchaslanguage,customs,etc.thatarethe main referent of the term culture. Cultural change and the power of culture are an active determinant of institutional change. This tradition brings to mind above all the work of Max Weber, which established the dynamic power of culture, particularly religion, in social change. For a prolonged time debate raged mainly over whether material factors were fundamental or whether culture could in fact be regarded as having independent significance in change. In more recent times, however, there has been a rediscovery of culture as an independent variable. In West Germany this was epitomized by a special issue in 1979 of the Klner Zeitschrift fr Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie titled Kultursoziologie (Cultural sociology), which included the articles Zum Neubeginn der Kultursoziologie (A fresh start for cultural sociology) by Wolfgang Lipp and Friedrich H. Tenbruck (1979) and Die Aufgaben der Kultursoziologie (The tasks of cultural sociology) by Tenbruck (1979). In 1986 a second special issue of this journal was dedicated to the theme of Culture and Society . It focused on Jrgen Habermass writings on the development of morality (1976, 1981) and on revised neo-Marxist approaches to culture. The interest in culture has been revitalized in England and the United States as well, particuarly by Raymond Williams and the Birmingham group, Clifford Geertz, Robert Bellah, and students of the mass media, especially Michael Schudson, Gaye Tuchman, and Todd Gitlin. In considering cultural change we distinguish between the explanation of cultural change as such and the explanation of other processes of change that refer to culture as a determinant. Most contemporary theoreticians acknowledge that culture should be regarded as an analytically distinct aspects of social life to be analyzed on its own level. But the effort to pursue the

study of culture, independently considered, is hampered by the difficulty of coming up with a proper definition of culture and a proper representation of its empirical manifestations. Culture seems to present the analyst with a kind of elementary diffuseness (Neidhardt 1986). How can we grasp cultures enormous variety of empirical manifestations and treat it as a totality? How do we deal with the complex and multiple cultures (high culture and folk culture, elite culture and street culture) that are present in all societies? Or should they be considered an unrelated patchwork? These are some of the methodological questions that have troubled students of culture. Reviewing studies of culture in his contribution to this volume, Wuthnow concludes that the main approach to culture has been psychological, culture as beliefs and outlooks, moods and motivations. However, he regards this kind of conceptualization as unsatisfactory, particularly when it comes to studying cultural change. As an alternative Wuthnow suggests that culture be defined as discourse and other symbolic acts, with attention being drawn to speakers and audiences. This definition would be a more sociological one because it stresses the interactive and communicative aspects of culture. It would be one way of extracting common or social beliefs and knowledge (see Eder 1983, 1985; Haferkamp 1985; Miller 1986) and of working toward a conceptualization of mind (Geist ) as developed in Lvi-Strausss structuralism. Wuthnows approach also has empirical and methodological implications: it looks toward the analysis of discursive texts, the rituals in which discourse is embedded. Although the study of symbolic acts of speakers and audiences has developed to a degree in the research on small-group discussions (Pollock 1955; Mangold 1962), Wuthnow emphasizes institutional contexts and longer periods of time in the study of text, debates, rituals, and the discussions created by or taking place in political organizations, religious groups, and even subversive organizations and marginal groups (see Haferkamp 1975). Geisens contribution to this

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volume adopts this strategy. He assesses texts from various periods in past centuries and draws from them evidence of longterm changes in the cultural modes of thinking about time and the notion of social change. Eisenstadts conception of the premises of societies could be given empirical meaning by the study of similar kinds of texts and rituals that have held a central place in the histories of societies. One tradition of sociological theory and research has treated cultural change as dependent on changes in the situation of classes, strata, carrier groups, etc. The most evident and perhaps most extreme thread in this tradition is found in the work of Marx and Engels. But it is also found in Durkheim in his view that changes in religion, morality, law, and cultural values such as individualism are rooted in the increasing complexity of society. Wuthnow divides this tradition into two large categories of cultural adaptation theory and class legitimation theory, both of which view cultural change as a response to or result of other types of change. He finds both versions too one-dimensional and general and calls instead for multifactoral explanations of cultural change considering the specific contexts, processes, and mechanisms that translate broad societal changes into concrete episodes of innovative cultural production. To put this approach into the terms suggested by our metaframework, the abroad conditions emphasized by these theorists can best be placed in the category of structural determinants. These structural determinants, however, are somewhat nonspecific in character. It is not possible to derive from them the precise processes and mechanisms of cultural change, the patterns of cultural innovations, or the ultimate directions and consequences of cultural change. Such processes, patterns, and consequences result from partially independent dynamics that operate within the broad conditions established by the cultural dimensions. Examples of research that build on this multideterminative model are Cohen (1955), Luhmann

(1985), and Chambliss and Seidman (1971). At a more abstract level the programs of Luhmann and Giesen, which stress indeterminacy, improbability, and looser models, underscore the point that patterns of cultural change cannot be derived from general structural preconditions. Another traditions has treated cultural change itself as a determinant, one that serves as a constant source of pressure for change, a release mechanisms for change, or a shaper of social reality. Max Weber is the exemplar of this type of analysis. However, his insistence on the reciprocal relationship between religious belief and economic action indicates that cultural changes themselves have social-structural factors among their determinants. Parsonss formulations of change also stress the active role of culture. He emphasizes that differentiation results in a more complex structure of society, which gives rise to new and more general value patterns that are important in guaranteeing stability in a more complex setting (Parsons 1971b, 14ff.). At the same time, however, he puts societys cultural code in a position in the of the hierarchy of social control, which, is able to control processes of action on a lower level (Schmid 1982, 185). Eisenstadts contribution in particular elaborates this notion of the reciprocal interaction between idea and institution. He stresses that in processes of social change, cultureand ideas in particularplays an arbitrating role. As a concrete illustration, Eisenstadt takes the cultural ideas of hierarchy and equality and asks how they work out differently in different social settings. Starting from Sombarts questions Why is there no socialism in the United States? (1976) and adding the question of why socialism has been relatively weak in Japan, he points out the different consequences of equality and hierarchy as values. In the United States the deep institutionalization of the value of equality of opportunity has historically diminished tendencies toward collective class consciousness and the mobilization of political parties on that basis, whereas in Japan the fundamental institutionalization of

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hierarchy and the relative absence of any notions of equality worked toward the same end. It might be added that it was mainly in the European countries, where the two ideas of hierarchy and equality have existed side by side in uneasy tension, that classbased political action has been more in evidence. Such is the power of fundamental premises of society. The editors believe that they see a kind of theoretical convergence, both in the contributions to this volume and in the larger trends in sociological analysis in both Europe and North America. This convergence involves an impatience with and desertion of one-sided models of cultural and social change, whatever their primary emphasis, and an active development of multicausal modes that stress reciprocal effects and the cumulative effect of diverse processes of change that are partly independent of one another. ======================== References1. Gene Shackman, Ya-Lin Liu and George (Xun) Wang. Why does a society develop the way it does? 200 2. Ava ila ble athttp://gsociology.ica ap.org/report/ summary2.htm Haferkamp, Hans, and Neil J. Smelser, editors Social Change and Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1991.http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/ 13030/ft6000078s/ http://thevenusproject.com/the-venus-project/aims-a-proposals Shackman, Gene, Xun Wang and Ya-Lin Liu. 2011. Brief review of world population trends. Available athttp://gsociology.icaap.org/report/demsum.html Merton, Robert. 1938. Social Structure and Anomie. American Sociological Review, Vol. 3, No.5, pp.672-682 Olanike, Deji. Gender and Rural Development By. p. 71. Dictionary of the Social Science, "Social Structure" The American Journal of Sociology, vol. 10, 1905, no. 5, p. 569-688 Aberration, t AL., 2000; Jay & Vary 1991 Abercrombie, N., S. Hill and B. S. Turner (2000), 'Social structure' in The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology, 4th edition, London:Penguin, pp. 326-327. Archer, M.S. 1995. Realist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Blau, P. M. (editor) (1975). Approaches to the Study of Social Structure, New York: The Free Press A Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. Burns, T. R. and H. Flam (1987) The Shaping of Social Organization: Social Rule System Theory with Applications London: Sage. Calhoun, Craig (2002), Dictionary of the Social Sciences (Article: Social Structure) Oxford University Press Crothers, Charles (1996), Social Structure, London: Routledge

Flam, H. and M. Carson (eds.) (2008) Rule System Theory: Applications and Explorations Peter Lang Publishers, Berlin/New York, 2008 Jary, D. and J. Jary (editors). (1991). 'Social structure', in The Harper Collins Dictionary of Sociology, New York: Harper Collins. Lopez, J. and J. Scott (2000), Social Structure, Buckingham and Philadelphia: Open University Press. Murdock, George (1949). Social Structure. New York: MacMillan. Porpora, D. V. (1987), The Concept of Social Structure, New York, Wetport and London: Greenwood Press. Porpora, D. V. (1989). 'Four Concepts of Social Structure', Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 19 (2), pp. 195-211. Smelser, N. J. (1988). 'Social structure', in N. J. Smelser (editor), The Handbook of Sociology, London: Sage, pp. 103-209. Tnnies, Ferdinand (1905). The Present Problems of Social Structure, American Journal of Sociology, 10 (5), p. 569-588 Wallerstein, I. (2004) World-Systems Analysis:An Introduction. Durham/London: Duke University Press. Harper, Douglas (2001). Online Etymology Dictionary Levine, Donald (ed) Simmel: On individuality and social forms, Chicago University Press, 1971. p 6. "What is culture?". Bodylanguagecards.com. Retrieved 2013-03-29. Hoebel, Adamson. Anthropology: Study of Man. Macionis, Gerber, John, Linda (2010).Sociology 7th Canadian Ed. Toronto

2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

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Social Structure : Patterns of Structural Change

* Dr. Akhilesh Shukla
Social structure is a term used in the social sciences to refer to patterned social arrangements in society that are bothemergentfrom and determinant of theactions of the individuals. The usage of the term social structure has changed over time and may reflect the various levels of analysiswithin differing sub-fields of sociology. On the macro scale, it can refer to the system of socioeconomic stratification (e.g., the class structure),social institutions, or, other patterned relations between large social groups. On the meso scale, it can refer to the structure of social network ties between individuals or organizations. On the micro scale, it can refer to the waynormsshapethebehaviorofactorswithinthesocialsystem. These meanings are not always kept separate. For example, recent scholarship by John Levi Martin has theorized that certain macro-scale structures are the emergent properties of microscale cultural institutions (this meaning of structure resembles that used by anthropologistClaude Lvi-Strauss). Marxist sociologyalso has a history of mixing different meanings of social structure, though it has done so by simply treating the cultural aspects of social structure asepiphenomena of its economic ones. Since the 1930s, the term has been in general use in social science, especially as a variable whose subcomponents needed to be distinguished in relationship to other sociological variables. The notion of social structure as
=========================== * Department of Sociology, Government T. R. S. College Rewa (M.P.)

relationship between different entities or groups or as enduring and relatively stable patterns of relationship emphasises the idea that society is grouped into structurally related groups or sets ofroles, with different functions, meanings or purposes. One example of social structure is the idea of social stratification, which refers to the idea that society is separated into different strata (levels), guided (if only partially) by the underlying structures in the social system. This approach has been important in the academic literature with the rise of various forms ofstructuralism. It is important in the modern study of organizations, because an organizations structure may determine its flexibility, capacity to change, and many other factors. Therefore, structure is an important issue formanagement. Social structure may be seen to influence important social systems including the economic system, legal system,political system,cultural system, and others. Family,religion,law,economyandclassareallsocialstructures. The social system is the parent system of those various systems that are embedded in it.Society: self-contained, self-sufficient population united by social relationships, bounded from other populations by geographic locations. Stratification: unequal distribution of valued goods or holdings in a population (i.e. class, status, resources, grades, wealth, positional goods, etc.). Network: pattern of relationships in a population of actors Social structure variables: pattern of relationships, size of institution, income distribution, and concurrency of social relationships. The early study of social structures has informed the study of institutions, culture and agency, social interaction, and history. Alexis de Tocqueville was apparently the first to use the term social structure; later, Karl Marx,Herbert Spencer,Max Weber,Ferdinand Tnnies, andmile Durkheimall contributed to structural concepts in sociology. Weber investigated and analyzed the institutions of modern society: market, bureaucracy (private enterprise and public administration), and politics (i. e. democracy). One of

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the earliest and most comprehensive accounts of social structure was provided by Karl Marx, who related political, cultural, and religious life to the mode of production (an underlying economic structure). Marx argued that the economic base substantially determined the cultural and political superstructure of a society. Subsequent Marxist accounts, such as that by Louis Althusser, proposed a more complex relationship that asserted the relative autonomy of cultural and political institutions, and a general determination by economic factors only in the last instance.In 1905, the German sociologist Ferdinand Tnnies first published his study The Present Problems of Social Structure in the U.S.A, arguing that only the constitution of a multitude into a unity creates a social structure (basing this approach on his concept ofsocial will). mile Durkheim (drawing on the analogies between biological and social systems popularized by Herbert Spencerand others) introduced the idea that diverse social institutions and practices played a role in assuring the functional integration of society through assimilation of diverse parts into a unified and self-reproducing whole. In this context, Durkheim distinguished two forms of structural relationship: mechanical solidarityandorganicsolidarity.Theformerdescribesstructures that unite similar parts through a shared culture; the latter describes differentiated parts united through social exchange and material interdependence.[3] As did Marx and Weber, more generally,Georg Simmeldeveloped a wide-ranging approach that provided observations and insights into domination and subordination, competition, division of labor, formation of parties, representation, inner solidarity coupled with exclusiveness toward the outside, and many similar features in the state, in a religious community, in an economic association, in an art school, and in family and kinship networks (however diverse the interests that give rise to these associations, the forms in which interests are realized may yet be identical (Crothers, 1996)). The notion of social structure was extensively developed

in the 20th century, with key contributions from structuralistperspectives drawing on the theories ofClaude Lvi-Strauss, Feminist or Marxist perspectives, fromfunctionalistperspectives such as those developed byTalcottParsonsandhisfollowers,orfromavarietyofanalytic perspectives (see Blau 1975, Lopez and Scott 2000). Some follow Marx in trying to identify the basic dimensions of society that explain the other dimensions, most emphasizing either economic production or political power. Others follow LviStrauss in seeking logical order in cultural structures. Still others, notablyPeterBlau,followSimmelinattemptingtobaseaformal theory of social structure on numerical patterns in relationshipsanalyzing, for example, the ways in which factors likegroup sizeshape intergroup relations. The notion of social structure is intimately related to a variety of central topics in social science, including the relation ofstructure and agency. The most influential attempts to combine the concept of social structure with agency are Anthony GiddenstheoryofstructurationandPierreBourdieuspractice theory. Giddens emphasizes the duality of structure and agency, in the sense that structures and agency cannot be conceived apart from one another. This permits him to argue that structures are neither independent of actors nor determining of their behavior, but rather sets of rules and competencies on which actors draw, and which, in the aggregate, they reproduce. Giddenss analysis, in this respect, closely parallels Jacques Derridas deconstruction of the binaries that underlie classic sociological and anthropological reasoning (notably the universalizing tendencies of Lvi-Strausss structuralism). Bourdieus practice theory also seeks a more supple account of social structure as embedded in, rather than determinative of, individual behavior. Other recent work by Margaret Archer (morphogenesis theory), Tom R. Burnsand collaborators (actor-system dynamics theoryandsocial rule system theory), andImmanuel Wallerstein(WorldSystemsTheory)providedelaborationsand

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applications of the sociological classics in structural sociology. As noted above, social structure has been identified as The relationship of definite entities or groups to each other, Enduring patterns of behaviour by participants in a social system in relation to each other, and Institutionalised norms or cognitive frameworks that structure the actions of actors in the social system. Lopez and Scott (2000) distinguish between institutional structureandrelational structure, where in the former: social structure is seen as comprising those cultural or normative patterns that define the expectations of agents hold about each others behaviour and that organize their enduring relations with each other. whereas in the latter: social structure is seen as comprising the relationships themselves, understood as patterns of causal interconnection and interdependence among agents and their actions, as well as the positions that they occupy. Social structure can also be divided into microstructure and macrostructure. Microstructure is the pattern of relations between most basic elements of social life, that cannot be further divided and have no social structure of their own (for example, pattern of relations between individuals in a group composed of individuals - where individuals have no social structure, or a structure of organizations as a pattern of relations between social positionsorsocial roles, where those positions and roles have no structure by themselves). Macrostructure is thus a kind of second level structure, a pattern of relations between objects that have their own structure (for example, a political social structure between political parties, as political parties have their own social structure). Some types of social structures that modern sociologist differentiate are relation structures (in family or larger family-like clan structures), communication structures(how information is passed in organizations) andsociometricstructures(structuresofsympathy,antipathyand indifference in organisations - this was studied by Jacob L. Moreno).Social rule system theory reduces the structures of (3)

to particular rule system arrangements, that is, the types of basic structures of (1 and 2). It shares with role theory, organizational andinstitutional sociology, andnetwork analysisthe concern with structural properties and developments and at the same time provides detailed conceptual tools needed to generate interesting, fruitful propositions and models and analyses. Sociologists also distinguish it as underNormative Structure In the social sciences, the term normative has broadly the same meaning as its usage in philosophy, but may also relate, in asociological context, to the role of cultural norms; the shared values or institutions thatstructuralfunctionalistsregardasconstitutiveofthesocial structureandsocial cohesion. These values and units ofsocializationthusacttoencourageorenforcesocialactivity and outcomes that ought to (with respect to the norms implicit in those structures) occur, while discouraging or preventing social activity that ought not occur. That is, they promote social activity that is socially valued (see philosophy above). While there are always anomalies in social activity (typically described as crime or anti-social behaviour, see also normality) the normative effects of popularly-endorsed beliefs (such as family values or common sense) push most social activity towards a generally homogeneous set. From such reasoning, however, functionalism shares an affinity with ideological conservatism. Normative economics deals with questions of what sort of economic policies should be pursued, in order to achieve desired (that is,valued, ibid.) economic outcomes. See economics aspect innormative economics. Ideal Structure pattern of relations between beliefs and views of people of varying social positions. Max Weber (18641920)arguedagainstabstracttheory,andhefavoredanapproach to sociological inquiry that generated its theory from rich, systematic, empirical, historical research. This approach required, first of all, an examination of the relationships between, and the respective roles of, history and sociology in inquiry.

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Weber argued that sociology was to develop concepts for the analysis of concrete phenomena, which would allow sociologists to then make generalizations about historical phenomena. History, on the other hand, would use a lexicon of sociological concepts in order to perform causal analysis of particular historical events, structures, and processes. In scholarly practice, according to Weber, sociology and history are interdependent. Weber contended that understanding, or verstehen, was the proper way of studying social phenomena. Derived from the interpretive practice known as hermeneutics, the method ofverstehenstrives to understand the meanings that human beings attribute to their experiences, interactions, and actions. Weber construed verstehen as a methodical, systematic, and rigorous form of inquiry that could be employed in both macroand micro-sociological analysis.Weber s formulation of causality stresses the great variety of factors that may precipitate the emergence of complex phenomena such as modern capitalism. Moreover, Weber argued that social scientists, unlike natural scientists, must take into account the meanings that actors attribute to their interactions when considering causality. Weber, furthermore, sought a middle ground between nomothetic (general laws) and idiographic (idiosyncratic actions and events) views in his notion of a probabilistic adequate causality.Webers greatest contribution to the conceptual arsenal of sociology is known as the ideal type. The ideal type is basically a theoretical model constructed by means of a detailed empirical study of a phenomenon. An ideal type is an intellectual construct that a sociologist may use to study historical realities by means of their similarities to, and divergences from, the model. Note that ideal types are not utopias or images of what the world ought to look like.Weber urged sociologists to reflect on the role of values in both research and the classroom. When teaching, he argued, sociologists ought to teach students the facts, rather than indoctrinating them to a particular political or personal point of view. Weber did argue, however, that the values of ones society

often help to decide what a scholar will study. He contended that, while values play this very important role in the research process, they must be kept out of the collection and interpretation of data. Interest Structure- Some believe that social structure is naturally developed. It may be caused by larger system needs, such as the need for labour, management, professional andmilitaryclasses, or by conflicts between groups, such as competition among political parties or amongelites and masses. Others believe that this structuring is not a result of natural processes, but is socially constructed. It may be created by the power of elites who seek to retain their power, or by economic systemsthat place emphasis uponcompetitionorcooperation. The most thorough account of the evolution of social structure is perhaps provided by structure and agency accounts that allow for a sophisticated analysis of the co-evolution of social structure and human agency, where socialised agents with a degree of autonomy take action in social systems where their action is on the one hand mediated by existing institutional structure and expectations but may, on the other hand, influence or transform that institutional structure.The notion of social structure may mask systematic biases, as it involves many identifiable subvariables, for example, gender. Some argue that men and women who have otherwise equal qualifications receive different treatment in the workplace because of their gender, which would be termed a social structural bias, but other variables (such as time on the job or hours worked) might be masked. Modern social structural analysis takes this into account throughmultivariate analysisand other techniques, but the analytic problem of how to combine various aspects of social life into a whole remains. Among the most persistent themes that appear in the evolutionist and neoevolutionist literature are those of differentiation, integration, conflict, and in particular, the relationship among these. The notion of differentiation (or

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specialization) was central in the work of Adam Smith, Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer, and Emile Durkheim. The same notion informs the work of a number of contemporary theorists, notably Parsons. Yet both the causes and consequences of social differentiation remain unclear; they are explored by many of the contributors to this volume. One way of organizing existing thought on structural differentiation is to trace the ways in which this phenomenon has been related to both integration and conflict. In the theories of Adam Smith and Herbert Spencer differentiation was regarded as a fundamental principle of change, but the integration of specialized activities was not problematic in their theories because it was regarded as a result that emerged from the aggregation of voluntary exchange in society. Differentiation (the division of labor) also played a central role in the theories of Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim. Marx posited contradictions, conflicts, and ultimate disintegration as arising from the differentiation of economic and social positions in economic systems. Durkheim stressed the need for positive integration in a differentiated society if anomie and conflict were not to become endemic. In his contribution to this volume, Alexander acknowledges the power of Durkheims theory of differentiation but finds shortcomings in its naive evolutionary assumptions and its mechanistic quality. One of the most comprehensive theories of differentiation is that of Parsons, who laid great stress on the adaptive upgrading that is attained through greater specialization of roles, organizations, and institutions. Yet this very focus on the functional consequences of differentiation, Alexander notes, perhaps diverted Parsons from a closer focus on the actual processes by which that new and more differentiated institution actually came about. This lack of attention to mechanisms was the focus of earlier criticism of Parsonss efforts (Lockwood 1956; Dahrendorf 1955, 1958) and is at the center of Alexanders criticisms of both Durkheims and Parsonss theories of differentiation. The stress on functionally positive consequences

may harbor a certain apologetic note, even an ideological patina. The works of Smelser (1959), Eisenstadt (1969), Bellah (1970), and Luhmann (1982) have constituted something of a corrective in that they have stressed mechanisms and processes more and positive functionalist aspects less. But the dynamics of structural differentiation are still not fully understood. The focus on structural causes and mechanisms of differentiation is found in Alexanders contribution to this volume. He argues that to improve the theory of differentiation, it is necessary [to have] a more phase-specific model of general differentiation and of social process alike. Here Alexander focuses on the key role of war and conflict. He argues that the theory of differentiation has as yet been unable to incorporate the notions of political repression, ferocious violence, oppression, and war. By distinguishing between polarization and differentiation on the one hand and various historical situations on the other, Alexander works toward a scheme that will more readily incorporate processes of change such as revolution, reform, and reaction. One advantage of his formulation is that it proposes a reciprocal relationship between conflict, conquest, and repression on the one hand and processes of differentiation on the other. Each set of variables plays a central causal role in the development of the others. In related formulations Eder regards conflict as a starting mechanisms of social change through variation, and Eyermans analysis begins with societal conflict. This focus on conflict brings to mind the Marxist heritage of differentiation as the source of the contradictions that destabilize and ultimately destroy a society. Lockwoods and Dahrendorf s criticisms of Parsonss formulations of the positive relation between differentiation and integration pushed both of them somewhat in a Marxist direction in that they regarded conflict as the core consequence of differentiation, especially the differentiation of authority. Dahrendorfs current views of social change still echo this position: Social change is define in terms of direction and

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rhythm by that power of unrest for which it is so difficult to find a sufficiently general name, by incompatibility, discord, antagonism, contradiction and resistance, through conflict (Dahrendorf 1987, 11). Finally, it should be noted that Eisenstadts insistence on the centrality of group conflict in the development of civilizational change is in keeping with the general thrust noted: the effort to synthesize systematically the conceptions of conflict, differentiation, and integration.To align these conceptions graphically, we refer the reader to Table 1. The only empty cell in the table is the one representing integration as one of the active causes of differentiation. Little attention has been given to this relationship in the literature on social change. But it is at least plausible to think that a highly integrated society with a legitimate and responsive state might tend to produce orderly structural innovation and differentiation as a response to internal group conflict, whereas a less-integrated system might produce chronic and unresolve group conflict and instability. It might also be supposed that a well-integrated society would be less likely to export its internal conflicts in the form of aggressive wars. Pirenne hinted at this relationship when he contrasted the North European Hanse with the Italian republics of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa: This confederation of German maritime towns, which forms such a striking contrast to the continual wars of the Italian towns of the Mediterranean.
Differentiation, Conflict, and Integration in Various Theories Differentiation Conflict causes Alexander Eder Eyerman is caused by (Dahrendorf) (Lockwood) Alexander Eisenstadt Integration causes is caused by (Parsons) Eisenstadt

Middle Ages. Thanks to their agreement, they succeeded in holding their own against the attacks launched against them by the kings of Denmark and in promoting their common interests abroad. (Pirenne 1937, 150). ======================== References1. Gene Shackman, Ya-Lin Liu and George (Xun) Wang. Why does a society develop the way it does? 200 2. Ava ila ble athttp://gsociology.ica ap.org/report/ summary2.htm Haferkamp, Hans, and Neil J. Smelser, editors Social Change and Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1991.http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/ 13030/ft6000078s/ http://thevenusproject.com/the-venus-project/aims-a-proposals Shackman, Gene, Xun Wang and Ya-Lin Liu. 2011. Brief review of world population trends. Available athttp://gsociology.icaap.org/report/demsum.html Merton, Robert. 1938. Social Structure and Anomie. American Sociological Review, Vol. 3, No.5, pp.672-682 Olanike, Deji. Gender and Rural Development By. p. 71. Dictionary of the Social Science, "Social Structure" The American Journal of Sociology, vol. 10, 1905, no. 5, p. 569-688 Aberration, t AL., 2000; Jay & Vary 1991 Abercrombie, N., S. Hill and B. S. Turner (2000), 'Social structure' in The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology, 4th edition, London:Penguin, pp. 326-327. Archer, M.S. 1995. Realist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Blau, P. M. (editor) (1975). Approaches to the Study of Social Structure, New York: The Free Press A Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. Burns, T. R. and H. Flam (1987) The Shaping of Social Organization: Social Rule System Theory with Applications London: Sage. Calhoun, Craig (2002), Dictionary of the Social Sciences (Article: Social Structure) Oxford University Press Crothers, Charles (1996), Social Structure, London: Routledge Flam, H. and M. Carson (eds.) (2008) Rule System Theory: Applications and Explorations Peter Lang Publishers, Berlin/New York, 2008 Jary, D. and J. Jary (editors). (1991). 'Social structure', in The Harper Collins Dictionary of Sociology, New York: Harper Collins. Lopez, J. and J. Scott (2000), Social Structure, Buckingham and Philadelphia: Open University Press. Murdock, George (1949). Social Structure. New York: MacMillan. Porpora, D. V. (1987), The Concept of Social Structure, New York, Wetport and London: Greenwood Press. Porpora, D. V. (1989). 'Four Concepts of Social Structure', Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 19 (2), pp. 195-211. Smelser, N. J. (1988). 'Social structure', in N. J. Smelser (editor), The Handbook of Sociology, London: Sage, pp. 103-209. Tnnies, Ferdinand (1905). The Present Problems of Social Structure, American Journal of Sociology, 10 (5), p. 569-588 Wallerstein, I. (2004) World-Systems Analysis:An Introduction. Durham/London: Duke University Press.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

The above explanation gave them a predominance on all the Northern waters, which they were to keep to the end of the

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Exploring New Dimensions to Social Change and Development: Humanistic and SocioPsychological Perspectives
* Dr. Sudhir K. Samantaray
Social change has been a recurring thought since past three centuries. Tracing back from Condorcet and Comte, Marx and Spencer up to Durkheim and Weber (the classical authors of social science have reflected on the trajectories and dynamics of human societies), and in modern times, Sidanius and Pratto and others have tried to study it from different perspectives. After the Second World War, the emergence of a world society has challenged sociology and social anthropology, political science and economics into new sustained research. Today, with intensely felt globalization and the breakdown of once firmly held ideas about the future, the social sciences are requested to reexamine their conceptual and analytical tools. Four paradigms have guided investigations of social change: modernization, development, evolution and more recently, transformation. Confronting these paradigms, the present paper throws certain light on social change from humanistic and socio-psychological point of view. Overview- A change in one sphere leads to change in another sphere either positively or negatively. Change is the basic nature of society and human mankind which is universal. Man and society have evolved through the times immemorial. Even tracing it back seems to be very difficult. The subject of social
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Post Graduate Government College Sector-11, Chandigarh

change in India or in any other culture is vast and complex, and an understanding of it will require the collaboration of a number of diversified domains such as economics, history, law, politics, religion, demography, psychology and sociology. Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society. The base of social change is change in the thought process in humans. It may refer to the notion of social progress or socio-cultural revolution, the philosophical idea that society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionary means. It may refer to a paradigmatic change in the socio-economic structure, for instance a shift away from feudalism and towards capitalism. Accordingly it may also refer to social revolution, such as the Socialist revolution presented in Marxism, or to other social movements, such as Womens suffrage or the Civil rights movement. Social change may be driven by cultural, religious, economic, scientific or technological forces. More generally, social change may include changes in nature, social institutions, social behaviours, or social relations.Social change may be defined as the process which is discernible in the alteration of the structure and functioning of a particular social system (Kuppuswamy, 1979). It is a term used to describe variation in, modifications of, any aspect of social processes, social patterns, and social interaction within a social organisation. Usually social change refers to a significant change in social behaviour or a change in social system rather than minor changes within a small group. Social change means such alterations as they occur in social organisation that is the structure of society. Any such ordered arrangement of social phenomena gives a structure to society. When alterations take place in the form of relationships and the pattern of social action within such structure, it is known as social change. The nature and pace of social change are not uniform in each age or period in the same society. There is no inherent law in social change according to which it assumes definite forms. It is difficult to make any prediction about the exact forms of social change.

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The most frequently used concept in recent years about human beings and human performance is human resource development. This concept has been used by different persons from different perspectives. Human resource development (HRD) from Psychological perspective is a process of change or modification of human behavior and mental processes through education, training and other corrective measures and through services for the purpose of making a person think rationally, behave purposefully and act skillfully. It is a process of transforming human population into human resources.When can we say that a person has become resourceful? A person is said to be resourceful when he/she has attained self actualizationrealizing or fulfilling the all the potentials. Man is born with immense potentialities which might remain dormant or useless unless these are nurtured from the beginning. Human Resource Development- The population of a country may be regarded as a resource or a liability. When does it become a resource, and when does it become a liability? When the population can sustain itself and works as a factor of individual, social and economic development and becomes a source of prosperity for the country, it is regarded as a resource. So, individual human-beings who constitute the population of a country have the potentialities to grow as an agent of change and development, or they become a factor of degradation and backwardness for the country. These dual possibilities should be understood in the first place. Human resource development may, therefore, be defined operationally as a planned effort or action to help individuals to unfold and develop their inner potentialities. This is to help individuals to achieve physical, social and psychological wellbeing and to become educated, knowledgeable and skillful, so that they can solve all the problems that a human society is likely to face. Finally, human resource development action also involves in assisting individuals to achieve self-actualization, harmony and peace, and spiritual well-being. This is the highest

form of human resource development. Components of Human Resource Development- There are four integral components of human resource development. These are the physical, psychological, social and spiritual well-being of the individual. These four components arise from different, but integrated, needs of the individual, namely the physical, psychological, social and spiritual needs.The maintenance of a nutritional balance and physical health, treatment during illness and the provision for an adequate shelter and maintaining a healthy social and psychological environment will help develop a well-balanced personality, intelligence and emotional and psychological health of the individual.The spiritual well-being of an individual transcends his physical and psychological wellbeing. Spiritual development of an individual involves in transforming his belief and action system in order to enable him to achieve a universal humanistic attitude, a mental state of loving and seeking for the truth and a longing for the union and harmony with the creator. Through a spiritual development an individual can free himself/herself from the narrow limit of the materialistic outlook and satisfaction. If a proper balance is not achieved among these four components of human needs, human resource development remains incomplete, Domains of Human Resource Development and Psychological Perspectives- Psychology is a discipline that asks and answers the fundamental question, why do we behave the way we do and think the way we think? The best way to characterize the different approaches that are taken to answer the question of psychology is to identify them as major perspectives. The major perspectives represent fundamental assumptions that underlie the research questions and methods that are used in order to answer the questions of psychology. Most all perspectives define psychology as the discipline interested in studying human behavior and mental processes, but that covers a lot of ground and the causes of behavior and mental processes are not always clear.

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Psychodynamic Perspective- Psychodynamic approach has been most popularly associated with the discipline of psychology for the past century is the psychodynamic and psychoanalytic perspective which assumes that human motivation was propelled by conflicts between instinctual, mostly unconscious, psychological forces-the Id, Ego and Superego. In addition to it, Freud also contributed the first developmental theory of human personality (Baron, 2012). It suggests that human development progresses through psychosexual stages. Each stage is characterized by specific behavioral and psychodynamic developments and challenges. Other psychodynamic theories arose, like those of Carl Jung and Alfred Adler, Margaret Mahler, and famous developmentalists like Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson, but all made the same basic assumption: There is a dynamic mind, conscious and unconscious, that influences the behavior of humans. Elements of the unconscious psyche interact to produce motives for behavior and thought processes. Behavioral Perspective- In an attempt to bring scientific method to bear on the understanding of human behavior, John B. Watson, using ideas he had gleaned from the likes of Ivan Pavlov and others, decided to declare that psychology should only concern itself with observable behavior. A science of behavior was built on only observable behavior. Assumptions about underlying psychological causes of behavior were not admitted. The unconscious was declared fictitious and its study, a waste of time. Serious psychology would focus on observable, controllable, behavior. The behavioral perspective gained great momentum in the 20th century because it was a powerful tool in training, education, and industry. Critics claimed that behaviorism was dehumanizing. John B. Watson and others conducted a thorough explication of Classical Conditioning and B. F. Skinner, responding somewhat to the critics of behaviorisms dehumanization, explained and expertly defended the processes of Operant Conditioning (Baron, 2012). BiopsychologicalPerspective- The biological perspective is a

broad scientific perspective that assumes that human behavior and thought processes have a biological basis. Biology includes investigations into biochemistry of behavior associated with neurotransmitters and hormones, genetics and heritability, and the psychophysics of sensation and perception. Physiological psychology,neuroscience, psychoneuroimunology and psychopharmacology are all part of the biological perspective (Baron, 2012). Because the biological perspective relies on scientific methods, its scope of investigation is limited to variables that can be controlled. Research methods are quantitative and seek to produce findings that can be replicated and that are generalizable across populations. Cognitive Perspective- In response to the empty organism theory of behaviorism, the cognitive perspective developed explanations for human behavior that suggest that human behavior is at times thoughtful and can be controlled by thought processes. Indeed, the cognitive perspective suggests that much of human behavior is mediated by thought processes like memory and attention, belief systems, attitudes and language. Cognitivists believe that humans bring significant conscious processes into the mix and that much of human behavior is mediated by conscious processes. Belief systems, value systems, thought processes, reason and intelligence have a significant impact on why we do the things we do and act the way we act (Baron, 2012). The cognitive perspective suggests that much of human behavior is significantly influenced by cognitive processes and is thus amenable to our thoughtful control. Socio-cultural Perspective- The social/cultural perspective in psychology suggests that human behavior is influenced by social context, environmental cues, social pressures and cultural influences. Anyone who has attended a football game will recognize that human behavior is susceptible to influence of the crowd mentality (Baron, 2012). We are all shaped by the context of our environment and influenced by the perception of authority in our social order. Social psychologists suggest that

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these forces are very powerful and explain a great deal about the causes of human behavior and thought processes. Evolutionary Perspective- The evolutionary perspective explains human behavior and thought process as resulting from evolutionary processes. The underlying assumption of biological evolution is survival of the species. Human behavior isunderstoodinthelightofthequestion:howdoesthisbehavior result from processes that support the survival of the species? Humanistic/Existential Perspective- The humanistic perspective arose in reaction to the deterministic and pessimistic psychoanalytic view and the mechanistic behavioral perspective, to support more optimistic views that humans are motivated by their potential to be creative and productive in response to their social and environmental conditions (Baron, 2012). The existential part of the humanist view recognizes the reality of being in a world and the opportunity that we have to choose apath for ourselves.Humanism is hopeful, focuses on subjective, conscious experience, tries to solve human problems and emphasizes the human potential to grow in a positive manner. The humanist philosophy respects diversity and confronts reality as it is both the painful and pleasurable, the good and the bad. Humanism assumes that people have choices about their behavior and possess free will to act and also must assume responsibility for choices and consequences. The humanist perspective differs from the biological perspective in that the assumptions about causes for behavior lie in human self-efficacy, choice and free will as opposed to the determinism of biological causes. Humanist and existential philosophies are combined because they both emphasize free will and responsibility as central to the nature of being. Feminist-post-structural Perspective- The feminist poststructural perspective arose in response to the observation by postmodern theorists like Michel Foucault, that the creators/ owners of a theory enjoy certain advantages that come from organizing knowledge along explanatory lines. Science has

traditionally been dominated by men and thus the methods and outcomes of science have benefited men for the most part. But, the feminist perspective goes beyond a critique of androcentric practices and suggests that all organized knowledge has a political agenda that should be examined in the light of all persons rights and benefits. The post-structural view helps us understand that knowledge is power and that the holders of the languages that construct knowledge are the ones who will have the choices about how resources are distributed. This political theory of psychology and knowledge construction tries to level the playing field and admit the views and voices of all. The underlying assumption in this view is that diversity is essential for human survival. Incumbent upon adherents to this perspective is a commitment to take a stand on issues they deem important, identify their own epistemological position and biases in relation to their views and then engage in a process of selfinterrogation of their position. Components of Human Development- The concept of human development enables one to understand socioeconomic development, changing values and motives as distinct but related facets of the same principle like economic development, changing values and motives work together to expand human choice. Economic development brings urbanization, social mobilization and occupational differentiation which increases social complexity and multiplies social transactions between human beings (Bendix, 1964; Durkheim, 1988; Simmel, 1984; Blau, 1994). These effects tend to emancipate people from clientelistic ties and replace vertical authority relations with horizontal bargaining relations. Individuals gain autonomy and resources become increasingly individualized. Moreover, socioeconomic development provides people with greater physical and intellectual resources by increasing incomes, skills and information levels and by establishing the welfare state. Socioeconomic development reduces restrictions on human autonomy, providing the objective means that enable people to

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pursue self-determination. This view is as old as Aristotle and has been argued from Adam Smith and Karl Marx to EspingAndersen (1990) and Sen (2000). In short, socioeconomic development provides individual resources that constitute the means component of human choice.Cultural change is the second key sub process relevant to human choice. Growing individual resources enable people to move beyond a narrow focus on obtaining the means to survival, leading people to place increasingly high priority on self-expression and human choice. Indeed, growing emphasis on self-expression is the central motivating force that leads people to demand broader choice. For choice is not only a matter of ones means but also of ones mind and motivation (Rokeach, 1960). Freedom and autonomy represent the institutional component of human choice, providing a legal structure that guarantees fundamental individual rights in a societys private and public life. Freedom and autonomy provides effective rights to human choice and thus represents its rules-component. This notion can be traced to Mill and Dewey, who perceive legal guarantees for individual self-development (Macpherson, 1977 as the core value of democracy. Individual resources, selfexpression values and effective rights are the three components of Human Development and represent its means-, motives- and rules-components. These components become increasingly widespread through the processes of socioeconomic development, cultural change and democratization, respectively. The three components of Human Development all reflect the underlying theme of growing human choice. Progress in any of the three aspects widens human leverage in societies, giving people greater means, stronger motivations and wider institutional guarantees, enabling them to make full use of their own potential and to develop individual creativity. Human Development of societies brings growing human choice on a mass-level. Human Development is not a teleological concept. It does not imply that its three sub processes necessarily proceed

in a linear upward direction. Societies can move in direction, progressing or regressing. But this concept does imply that changes in means, motives and rules tend to coincide among societies, either narrowing or widening the range of human choice. The concept of Human Development goes beyond standard modernization theory in being both more comprehensive and more specific. Usually, theories cannot maximize comprehensiveness and their degree of specificity at the same time, but the concept of Human Development does. On one hand, it is comprehensive in that it integrates major changes in socioeconomic structure, political culture, and regime institutions into a common theoretic framework. On the other hand, this concept is specific because it concentrates on one well-defined theme: the growth (or decline) of human choice. Linking Social Change with Human Development- The Human Development syndrome is manifested by two linkages: A means motives linkage that connects self-expression values with individual resources. Peoples value orientations reflect the restrictions that their social conditions put on human autonomy. Usually, people tend to adapt their aspirations to the restrictions posed by the environment (Cummins, 2000; Eckersley, 2000). This mechanism, known in social psychology as aspiration adjustment (Costa, McCrae & Zonderman 1987), emerged through human evolution, because it was conducive to survival. Aspiration adjustment leads people to aspire to attain the most pressing things first and to avoid wasting energy on unattainable goals (Maslow, 1974). Although the search for sustenance may come first, all humans also possess intellectual abilities and the potential to develop personal creativity. Indeed, the striving for self-expression seems deeply embedded in human motivations, since self-expression brings satisfaction as has been argued by writers ranging from Karl Marx to Maslow (1974) to Inkeles (1983) to Flanagan (1987). Nevertheless, people adapt their emphasis on self-expression to the restrictions posed by their

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environment. Under conditions of economic deprivation, people lower the priority given to self-expression, although this downward adjustment of aspirations has psychological costs, diminishing life satisfaction. A downward adjustment of aspirations may necessary to survive under restrictive conditions, such as those in low-income countries, where scarcity drives people into a struggle for survival. A motive rules linkage that ties effective rights to selfexpression values. Let us briefly outline how these linkages function. Growing emphasis on self-expression leads to increasing demands for civil liberties, freedom of speech and political rights-which provide institutional guarantees for the kinds of private and public activities that self-expression requires. Growing mass emphasis on self-expression brings quite different consequences for autocracies and democracies. It tends to undermine the legitimacy of autocracies that restrict human rights. This makes authoritarian rule increasingly ineffective and costly, since the regime must bear the growing costs of aspiration suppression (Koran, 1991). The exhaustion of a regimes moral resources increases the probability of an intraelite division in which one faction of the elite may split off in an attempt to regain legitimacy by liberalization and institutional reforms. Under the right circumstances (Foweraker & Landman, 1997; Welzel, 1999), this can mobilize mass demands for freedom and autonomy that eventually overthrows the authoritarian regime. The impact of growing emphasis on selfexpression is quite different in democracies, where it does not bring regime change, but an increasing effective type of democracy. In formal democracies, basic civil and political rights may be guaranteed on paper, but legal codification does not necessarily make these rights effective. Formal democracies can, in fact, can be ruled by corrupt elites who make a mockery of formal rights. In low income societies dominated by survival values, the bulk of the citizenry has neither the resources nor

the motivation to exert effective pressures to realize their constitutional rights. In economically developed societies, where self-expression values are widespread, people tend to be both more able and more willing to exert effective public pressures to keep the elites accountable. As Verba, Nie and Kim (1978) have pointed out, in all nations, citizens appear to convert socioeconomic resources into political involvement. Further, it leads to psychological empowerment, freedom, autonomy, and attainments of other domains of psychological functioning. It seems those types of psychological way of functioning and other aspects of value creations, self-actualization and so on lead to social change and development. Conclusion- Socioeconomic development, changing values, and psychological orientations constitute a coherent syndrome of social progress and change. Modernization theorists have so far failed to integrate these three components into a coherent theory. The concept of Human Development, as introduced by modern theorists, has the potential to provide an integrating theory, but it omitted the cultural component of the syndrome, which helps explain why (and under what conditions) economic development gives rise to democratic institutions. Human Development is an integrated syndrome, and the underlying theme of its three components is the growth of human choice: socioeconomic development widens human choice by enlarging peoples individual resources; cultural change increases mass emphasis on self-expression values and psychological upbringing , which lead people to place greater emphasis on establishing an institutional basis that secures human choice; and institutional change towards effective freedom and autonomy extends human choice by granting legal rights and keeping them effective. Human Development is shaped by causal sequences of psychological factors in which individual resources and potential lead to self-expression values and motives, which lead to effective self actualization. Self actualization remains effective only in so far as it is supported by a mass culture that emphasizes

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human self-expression. This culture needs a socioeconomic basis to take root in a society. Effective freedom and autonomy are much more an evolutionary phenomenon than something that can be simply created through intelligent constitutional engineering. The emergence of effective freedom and autonomy are deeply embedded in mass-level changes, and it is closely linked to these changes by the emancipator logic of Human Development. Indeed, effective freedom and autonomy are the inherent element of Human Development. Hence, the linkage between freedom and autonomy and mass-culture cannot be interpreted as indicating that effective freedom and autonomy created self-expression values. It seems to reflect the final stage in a Human Development sequence in which economic development leads to socio-cultural and psychological changes that are conducive to the emergence and sustaining of psychological functioning in the society. ======================== References1. 2. 3. Almond, G.A. & Verba, S. (1963). The Civic Culture, Princeton: Princeton University Press. Anand, S. & Sen, A. (2000). Human Development and Economic Sustainability. World Development 28(12):2029-49. Anand, S. (1993). Poverty and Human Development in Asia and the Pacific. In United Nations Development Programme (ed.), Poverty Alleviation in Asia and the Pacific. New York: UNDP Press, 1-39. Baron, R.A. (2012).Psychology, Pearson Education, Inc. and Dorley Kindersley Publishing Inc. Costa, P.T., McCrae, R.R. & Zonderman, A.B. (1987). Environmental and Dispositional Influences on Well-Being. British Journal of Psychology 78: 299-306. Cummins, R.A. (1995). On the Trail of the Gold Standard for Subjective Well-Being. Social Indicators Research 35: 179-200. Eckersley, R. (2000). The State and Fate of Nations: Implications of Subjective Measures of Personal and Social Quality of Life. Social Indicators Research 52: 3-27. Foweraker, J. & Landman, T. (1997). Citizenship Rights and Social Movements, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Freedom in the

9. 10. 11. 12.

World. several volumes, Freedom House (ed.), Lanham: University Press of America. Macpherson, C.B. (1977). The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rokeach, M. (1960). The Open and the Closed Mind, New York: Basic Books. Sen, A. (2000). Development as Freedom. New York: Anchor. Verba, S., Nie, N.H. & Kim, J.-O. (1978). Participation and Political Equality, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

4. 5.

6. 7.

8.

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Dialectic Model of Social Change (A short analysis of Hegelian Theory)

* Dr. Akhilesh Shukla
Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of asociety. Social change may include changes innature,social institutions,social behaviours, orsocial relations.In physiologyandsociology,social behavioris behavior directed towards society, or taking place between, members of the same species. Behavior such as predation which involves members of different species is not social. While many social behaviors arecommunication(provokearesponse,orchangeinbehavior, without acting directly on the receiver) communication between members of different species is not social behavior. The umbrella termbehavioralsciencesisusedtorefertosciencesthatstudy behaviorality disturbance in general. The base of social change is change in the thought process in humans. Social change may refer to the notion of social progress or sociocultural evolution, the philosophical idea that society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionarymeans.It may refer toa paradigmatic change in the socio-economic structure, for instance a shift away fromfeudalismandtowardscapitalism.Accordinglyitmayalso refer to social revolution, such as the Socialistrevolution presented inMarxism, or to othersocial movements, such asWomens suffrageortheCivilrightsmovement.Socialchangemaybedriven by cultural, religious, economic, scientific or technological forces. Change comes from two sources. One source is random or unique factors such as climate, weather, or the presence of specific groups
=========================== * Department of Sociology, Government T. R. S. College Rewa (M.P.)

of people. Another source is systematic factors. For example, successful development has the same general requirements, such as a stable and flexible government, enough free and available resources, and a diverse social organization of society. So, on the whole, social change is usually a combination of systematic factors along with some random or unique factors. There are many theories of social change. Generally, a theory of change should include elements such as structural aspects of change (like population shifts), Processes and mechanisms of social change, and directions of change. Hegelian: The classic Hegelian dialectic model of change is based on the interaction of opposing forces. Starting from a point of momentary stasis, Thesis countered by Antithesis first yields conflict, then it subsequently results in a new Synthesis. Dialectic(alsodialecticsandthe dialectical method) is a method of argument for resolving disagreement that has been central to European and Indian philosophy since antiquity. The worddialecticoriginatedinancientGreece,andwasmadepopular byPlatoin theSocratic dialogues. The dialectical method isdiscoursebetweentwoormorepeopleholdingdifferentpoints of view about a subject, who wish to establish the truth of the matter guided by reasoned arguments. The term dialectics is not synonymous with the term debate. While in theory debaters are not necessarily emotionally invested in their point of view, in practice debaters frequently display an emotional commitment that may cloud rational judgement. Debates are won through a combination of persuading the opponent; proving ones argument correct; or proving the opponents argument incorrect. Debates do not necessarily require promptly identifying a clear winner or loser; however clear winners are frequently determined by either a judge, jury, or by group consensus. The term dialectics is also not synonymous with the term rhetoric, a method or art of discourse that seeks to persuade, inform, or motivate an audience.Concepts,likelogosorrationalappeal,pathosor emotional appeal, and ethosorethicalappeal,areintentionally

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used by rhetoricians to persuade an audience. The purpose of the dialectic method of reasoning is resolution ofdisagreementthroughrationaldiscussion,and,ultimately,the search for truth. One way to proceedthe Socratic methodis to show that a given hypothesis (with other admissions) leads to acontradiction; thus, forcing the withdrawal of the hypothesis as a candidate for truth (see reductio ad absurdum). Another dialectical resolution of disagreement is by denying apresuppositionofthecontendingthesisandantithesis;thereby, proceeding to sublation(transcendence) to synthesis, a third thesis. It is also possible that the rejection of the participants presuppositions is resisted, which then might generate a secondorder controversy. FichteanDialectics (Hegelian Dialectics) is based upon four concepts: 1. Everything is transient and finite, existing in the medium of time. 2. Everything is composed of contradictions (opposing forces). 3. Gradual changes lead to crises, turning points when one force overcomes its opponent force (quantitative change leads to qualitative change). 4. Change is helical (spiral), not circular (negation of the negation). The concept of dialectic existed in the philosophy ofHeraclitusofEphesus, who proposed that everything is in constant change, as a result of inner strife and opposition. Hence, the history of the dialectical method is the history of philosophy. According to Kant, the ancient Greeks used the word dialectic to signify the logic of false appearance or semblance. To the ancients, it was nothing but the logic of illusion. It was a sophistic art of giving to ones ignorance, indeed even to ones intentional tricks, the outward appearance of truth, by imitating the thorough, accurate method which logic always requires, and by using its topic as a cloak for every empty assertion. Inclassicalphilosophy, dialectic (Greek:) is

a form of reasoning based upon dialogue of arguments and counterarguments, advocating propositions (theses) and counterpropositions(antitheses).Theoutcomeofsuchadialecticmight be the refutation of a relevant proposition, or of a synthesis, or a combination of the opposing assertions, or a qualitative improvement of the dialogue. Moreover, the term dialectic owes much of its prestige to its role in the philosophies ofSocratesandPlato, in the GreekClassicalperiod (5th to 4th centuries BCE). Aristotle said that it was the pre-Socratic philosopherZeno ofEleawho inventeddialectic, ofwhich the dialogues of Plato are the examples of the Socratic dialectical method. ======================== References1. Gene Shackman, Ya-Lin Liu and George (Xun) Wang. Why does a society develop the way it does? 200 2. Ava ila ble athttp://gsociology.ica ap.org/report/ summary2.htm Haferkamp, Hans, and Neil J. Smelser, editors Social Change and Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1991.http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/ 13030/ft6000078s/ http://thevenusproject.com/the-venus-project/aims-a-proposals Shackman, Gene, Xun Wang and Ya-Lin Liu. 2011. Brief review of world population trends. Available athttp://gsociology.icaap.org/report/demsum.html The Republic (Plato), 348b Corbett, Edward P. J.; Robert J. Connors (1999). Classical Rhetoric For the Modern Student (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780195115420. Corbett, Edward P. J.; Robert J. Connors (1999). Classical Rhetoric For the Modern Student (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780195115420

2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

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Dialectical Matearialism (A short analysis of Theory of Karl Marx)

* Dr. Akhilesh Shukla
Marxismpresentsadialecticalandmaterialistconceptof history; Humankinds history is a fundamental struggle betweensocialclasses.KarlMarxandFriedrichEngelsproposed that G. F. Hegel had rendered philosophy too abstractly ideal: The mystification which dialectic suffers in Hegels hands, by no means prevents him from being the first to present its general form of working in a comprehensive and conscious manner. With him it is standing on its head. It must be turned right side up again, if you would discover the rational kernel within the mystical shell. In contradiction to Hegelian idealism, Karl Marx presentedDialectical materialism Marxist dialectics: Method is not only different from the Hegelian, but is its direct opposite. To Hegel, the life-process of the human brain, i.e. the process of thinking, which, under the name of the Idea, he even transforms into an independent subject, is the demiurgos of the real world, and the real world is only the external, phenomenal form of the Idea. In Marxism, the dialectical method of historical study became intertwined withhistorical materialism, the school of thought exemplified by the works of Marx, Engels, and Vladimir Lenin. In the USSR, underJosephStalin,Marxistdialecticsbecamediamat(short for dialectical materialism), a theory emphasizing the primacy of the material way of life, social praxis, over all forms of social consciousness and the secondary, dependent character of
=========================== * Department of Sociology, Government T. R. S. College Rewa (M.P.)

the ideal. The term dialectical materialism was coined by the 19th-century social theorist Joseph Dietzgen who used the theory to explain the nature of socialism and social development. The original populariser of Marxism in Russia, Georgi Plekhanovused the terms dialectical materialism and historical materialism interchangeably. For Lenin, the primary feature of Marxs dialectical materialism (Lenins term) was its application of materialist philosophy to history and social sciences. Lenins main input in the philosophy of dialectical materialism was his theory of reflection, which presented human consciousness as a dynamic reflection of the objective material world that fully shapes its contents and structure. Later, Stalins works on the subject established a rigid and formalistic division of Marxist-Leninist theory in the dialectical materialism and historical materialism parts. While the first was supposed to be the key method and theory of the philosophy of nature, the second was the Soviet version of the philosophy of history. A dialectical method was fundamental to Marxist politics, e.g., the works of Karl Korsch, Georg Lukcs and certain members of the Frankfurt School. Soviet academics, notablyEvaldIlyenkovandZaidOrudzhev,continuedpursuing unorthodox philosophic study of Marxist dialectics; likewise in the West, notably the philosopher Bertell Ollman at New York University. Friedrich Engels proposed that Nature is dialectical, thus, in Anti-Dhring he said that the negation of negation is a very simple process, which is taking place everywhere and every day, which any child can understand as soon as it is stripped of the veil of mystery in which it was enveloped by the oldidealistphilosophy. InDialectics of Nature, Engels said: probably the same gentlemen who up to now have decried the transformation of quantity into quality as mysticism and incomprehensibletranscendentalismwill now declare that it is indeed something quite self-evident, trivial, and commonplace, which they have long employed, and so they have been taught nothing new. But to have formulated for the first time in its

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universally valid form a general law of development of Nature, society, and thought, will always remain an act of historic importance. Marxist dialectics is exemplified in Das Kapital(Capital),whichoutlinestwocentraltheories:(i)surplus value and (ii) the materialist conception of history; Marx explains dialectical materialism. In its rational form, it is a scandal and abomination to bourgeoisdom and its doctrinaire professors, because it includes in its comprehension an affirmative recognition of the existing state of things, at the same time, also, the recognition of the negation of that state, of its inevitable breaking up; because it regards every historically developed social form as in fluid movement, and therefore takes into account its transient nature not less than its momentary existence; because it lets nothing impose upon it, and is in its essence critical and revolutionary. Class struggle is the central contradiction to be resolved by Marxist dialectics, because of its central role in the social and political lives of a society. Nonetheless, Marx and Marxists developed the concept of class struggle to comprehend the dialectical contradictions between mental and manual labor, and between town and country. Hence, philosophic contradiction is central to the development of dialectics the progress from quantity to quality, the acceleration of gradual social change; the negation of the initial development of the status quo; the negation of that negation; and the high-level recurrence of features of the original status quo. In the USSR, Progress Publishers issued anthologies of dialectical materialism by Lenin, wherein he also quotes Marx and Engels: As the most comprehensive and profound doctrine of development, and the richest in content, Hegelian dialectics was considered by Marx and Engels the greatest achievement of classical German philosophy.... The great basic thought, Engels writes, that the world is not to be comprehended as a complex of ready-made things, but as a complex of processes, in which the things, apparently stable no less than their mind images in

our heads, the concepts, go through an uninterrupted change of coming into being and passing away... this great fundamental thought has, especially since the time of Hegel, so thoroughly permeated ordinary consciousness that, in its generality, it is now scarcely ever contradicted. But, to acknowledge this fundamental thought in words, and to apply it in reality in detail to each domain of investigation, are two different things.... For dialectical philosophy nothing is final, absolute, sacred. It reveals the transitory character of everything and in everything; nothing can endure before it, except the uninterrupted process of becoming and of passing away, of endless ascendancy from the lower to the higher. And dialectical philosophy, itself, is nothing more than the mere reflection of this process in the thinking brain. Thus, according to Marx, dialectics is the science of the general laws of motion both of the external world and of human thought. Lenin describes his dialectical understanding of the concept ofdevelopment. A development that repeats, as it were, stages that have already been passed, but repeats them in a different way, on a higher basis (the negation of the negation), a development, so to speak, that proceeds in spirals, not in a straight line; a development by leaps, catastrophes, and revolutions; breaks in continuity; the transformation of quantity into quality; inner impulses towards development, imparted by the contradiction and conflict of the various forces and tendencies acting on a given body, or within a given phenomenon, or within a given society; the interdependence and the closest and indissoluble connection between all aspects of any phenomenon (history constantly revealing ever new aspects), a connection that provides a uniform, and universal process of motion, one that follows definite laws these are some of the features of dialectics as a doctrine of development that is richer than the conventional one. ======================== References1. Gene Shackman, Ya-Lin Liu and George (Xun) Wang. Why does a society develop the way it does? 200 2. Ava ila ble athttp://gsociology.ica ap.org/report/

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summary2.htm Haferkamp, Hans, and Neil J. Smelser, editors Social Change and Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1992 1991.http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/ 13030/ft6000078s/ http://thevenusproject.com/the-venus-project/aims-a-proposals Shackman, Gene, Xun Wang and Ya-Lin Liu. 2011. Brief review of world population trends. Available athttp://gsociology.icaap.org/report/demsum.html The Republic (Plato), 348b Corbett, Edward P. J.; Robert J. Connors (1999). Classical Rhetoric For the Modern Student (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780195115420. Corbett, Edward P. J.; Robert J. Connors (1999). Classical Rhetoric For the Modern Student (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780195115420

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3. 4. 5. 6.

Social Change and Development in India

* Dr. Mukesh H. Kaushik
P. M. Greenfields new theory of social change and human development aims to show how changing socio demographic ecologies alter cultural values and learning environments and thereby shift developmental pathways. Worldwide socio demographic trends include movement from rural residence, informal education at home, subsistence economy, and lowtechnology environments to urban residence, formal schooling, commerce, and high-technology environments. The former ecology is summarized by the German term Gemeinschaft (community) and the latter by the German term Gesellschaft (society; Tonnies, 1887/1957). A review of empirical research demonstrates that, through adaptive processes, movement of any ecological variable in a Gesellschaft direction shifts cultural values in an individualistic direction and developmental pathways toward more independent social behavior and more abstract cognitionto give a few examples of the myriad behaviors that respond to these socio demographic changes. In contrast, the (much less frequent) movement of any ecological variable in a Gemeinschaft direction is predicted to move cultural values and developmental pathways in the opposite direction. In conclusion, socio cultural environments are not static either in the developed or the developing world and therefore must be treated dynamically in developmental research. Keywords: social change, culture, cognitive development, social development, learning. As the world sings the saga of India rising, Indians are confounded by the contrasting realities. Every day as millions of
=========================== * Assistant Professor, (Commerce Department) Sindhu Mahavidyalaya, Panchpaoli, Nagpur (M.S.)

7.

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youths chase their dreams in the rapidly growing economy, million more continue to struggle in poverty, illiteracy and ill health. India presents a motley blend of mystery, wonder and despair, which leaves even the experts baffled. The ruling government boasts of a 9% growth, and promises inclusiveness; the left on the other hand is vehemently critical of all its measures. The newspapers and the news channels are busy blaming the politicians, praising India Inc and swapping the page-3 news to page 1; the common man is left puzzled while trying to make sense of this chaotic mess. The question, How is India doing today? can be addressed only in relative terms; with respect to its own past and its position in the current world. In a vast country like India, striking regional disparities can be seen due to differences in natural resources, growth rates, initial conditions, political structure and social traditions. Assessing development and tracking its history is imperative to understand the impact of social conditions, politics and public policies on socioeconomic development. In this venture, demographic development indicators like poverty level, literacy rate, fertility rate and human development index give us a good measuring stick, through which we can rank our nation on the development ladder. Poverty level- Poverty level indicates the number of people with low purchasing power and lack of access to basic amenities like drinking water, health care, education etc. The World Bank Development Indicator report (2004) estimates that roughly 1.1bn or 1/6th of the world population lives in extreme poverty, earning less than $1 per day. Majority of the worlds poor live in subSaharan Africa, South Asia and East Asia. In India, it is estimated that about 300 million people live below the extreme poverty line. The number of moderately poor is much higher. After Independence, Nehruvian socialist policies had little effect on reducing poverty. From the 1950s to mid 70s the poverty level hovered around 50% and showed no clear signs of decline. The 80s showed a significant decline in poverty: about 13% in a decade. Land reforms, robust agricultural growth and export contributed to this decline, more than Indiras Garibi Hatao rhetoric. Since the reforms in the 90s, economic development has been robust

and dramatic, but the poverty levels show only a marginal decline. In fact, there is evidence that poverty actually increased during the early 90s, and it was only after 1998 that there was a clear indication of declining poverty. According to an NSS survey in 2005, about 27% of population lives below poverty line. There is widespread regional disparity in the prevalence of poverty. Punjab has less than 8.4% poor; whereas Orissa, Bihar, UP have 40% or more below the poverty line. Southern states like Karnataka (25%), Tamil Nadu (22.5%) have poverty levels close to the national average of 27%. Continued dependence on agriculture sector, which employs a staggering 60% of the total labor force and contributing only 20% to GDP has been cited as one of the prime reasons for persistent poverty. The jobs created since liberalization has been mainly in the service sector, giving little scope for the millions of illiterate or semi-literate population to reap the benefits of an open economy. Recent public initiatives like NREGS (National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme) and Food for Work are attempts to reduce poverty by using the unemployed to build rural infrastructure. There is mixed evidence for the effectiveness of these schemes. Long-term poverty reduction strategies should focus on making growth more inclusive through massive investment in human capital and creating opportunities to tap the human resources there in. Literacy and Education level- Literacy rate measures the human capital (i.e. productive skills and knowledge) of the population. More literate population generally shows lower birthrate per woman, lesser infant mortality and has better access to economic activities. The performance of India in educating its population has been poor compared to many countries of the world. In 2001 world literacy averaged to 80%, while India remained far below the average at 66%. The literacy growth in India has been steady but slow. Back in the 50s, the literacy rate was just above 18%, and since then we have seen roughly an increase of 10% per decade, with the highest 13% increase in the 90s. Constitutionally the states bear the major responsibility of elementary education. Large regional disparities in literacy and learning levels reflect the poor efficacy of many state educational policies. Kerala stands

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apart with more than 90% literate population, which is largely a result of mass campaigns by people and political action termed as the Kerala model. States like Bihar, Rajasthan and UP hover around 55%. Surprisingly, the economically better performing states like Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh have a literacy rate just above the national average. One of the prime drivers of human development is Female literacy. A literate female invariably takes care of her childs health, nutritional and educational needs. Higher female literacy has been linked to decreased infant and maternal mortality rates, as well as a decrease in the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including AIDS. Female literacy was dismally low till the 80s. It increased rapidly from 18% in 1981 to 38% in 1995. Hindi speaking states have shown greater gender disparity and correspondingly lower human development. Failure of states in addressing the educational access problem necessitated central intervention, and in 1976 a constitutional amendment was brought to make education a concurrent subject - i.e. a joint responsibility of state and central government. Some of the major central initiatives like partial implementation of Kothari commission report (1964), National Policy on Education (1986) etc have met with limited success. In 2000, Sarva Shiksha Abhyan (SSA) was launched by the NDA government with the objective of achieving Universal Elementary Education by 2010. Along with SSA, the Mid-day meal scheme was introduced nationwide in 2001. All these helped to substantially increase the enrollment in primary schools to 94% (Pratham ASER survey, 2005). The current trend shows that ensuring access to school for all is within reach and India is poised to achieve complete literacy by 2030. But the story is not complete; the Nationwide ASER survey also showed that the learning level of children is dismally poor in many states. About two-thirds of the students aged between 7-14 couldnt read a story at grade 2 levels, and about 40% of them couldnt do basic subtraction and division. Dropout rates at primary schools still remain high. Another surprising finding is that children in some states with high enrollment like Tamil Nadu and Karnataka had very poor learning levels. The situation calls for shifting policy focus from access and enrollment to attainment and retention, to

ensure that all the children enrolled learn well and complete their primary education. Fertility rate and population growth- Ever since Independence, population growth has been recognized as one of the major obstacles in the path of Indias development. Our population has increased three-folds from 360 million in 1951 to 1 billion plus in 2001. The population density of India is one of the highest in the world. One of the prime factors determining the population growth is the average number of children a woman bears in her lifetime termed as the Total Fertility Rate (TFR). The population will begin to stabilize if the TFR reaches below the replacement level of 2.1. However for the population to decline in numbers, it generally takes 25-30 years after reaching replacement level. Most of the developed countries have a fertility rate at or below the replacement; some countries, especially the European ones are experiencing negative population growth. According to UN estimates (2007), the world TFR is about 2.62, while India with a TFR of 2.82 is slightly above the world average. India has had the one of the oldest family planning programs among developing countries. After Independence, India has made significant progress in reducing the fertility rate. In 1950, on an average 6 children were born per woman, as compared to 2.8 in 2007. If the current decline continues, India will most probably reach replacement level by 2020. In spite of this decline, India performs relatively poor with respect to countries with a similar history of population growth, like China, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Brazil etc. In these countries, population policies, coercive or otherwise succeeded in bringing down birth rates dramatically over the past 50 years. The task is certainly harder in India, especially with social taboos on sexuality and a lack of openness about sexual and reproductive health. Widespread resistance to sex education at school level has an adverse impact on the reproductive choices exercised by women. There is astounding regional diversity within India with regard to birth rate. Many southern states, especially Kerala (1.7) and Tamil Nadu (1.8) have performed well in controlling their fertility rate. Some states like Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab, and AP are on the verge of reaching replacement level. The BIMARU (Bihar,

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Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh) states strikingly show very high birth rates, with all of them above 4. These states also lag behind in female literacy, which is the key driver in reducing the fertility rate. The situation calls for greater focus in the Hindispeaking belt by spreading awareness about family planning and reproductive health, sex education etc. In this venture there is more to learn from within the country than outside. Life Expectancy and Health- The healthier a person is, the longer he or she lives. The average Life expectancy of population of indicates the physical health conditions of the people. Wealthier population can afford private medical care and generally live longer, while the longevity of poor crucially depends on conditions of public health, nutrition and sanitation services. Developed countries in Europe, North America and Australia have a Life Expectancy at Birth (LEB) of over 75 years, whereas the poorest countries in Sub Saharan Africa have a life expectancy of less than 45 years. India, China and most Asian countries have seen a dramatic increase in LEB after the 1950s. In the late 1940s, on an average Indians used to live for 33 years. We then had a steady increase in life expectancy to 65 years in 2001. Elimination of small pox, and a sharp reduction in deaths due to Cholera and Malaria contributed to this increase in LEB. States now show relatively less variation in life expectancy; Bihar (61yrs) slightly lags behind Maharashtra (66 yrs), even Madhya Pradesh (57 yrs) with the lowest LEB among Indian states is not too far behind. Swaminathan Iyer argues, increased longevity has been the greatest single benefit to Indian citizens since independence, a benefit spread across all states and income levels. A word of caution has to be exercised before generalizing an increase in longevity to excellent public health. There are many other indicators of public health like Infant mortality, maternal mortality and malnutrition, in which India lags behind even some developing countries. In the name of structural adjustments, the government spending on public health has in fact decreased after the Economic liberalization. With a mere 1% of GDP allocation, Indias public health spending is among the lowest in the world. There are only 40 doctors per 10,000 people in India, where as in United States, it

is as high as 2300. The scarcity of doctors can be addressed if we allow greater private participation in setting up medical colleges and hospitals. Only when we address these issues can we hope that our people will be healthier while the country is getting wealthier. Human Development Index- The inaugural UN-Human Development Report (1990) notes, Physical expansion of economy, as measured by per capita GDP, does not necessarily mean that people are better off in the larger sense of the term, especially with regard to health, freedom, education and leisure time. People are the real wealth of a nation. Many countries in the world have shown good social development in spite of relatively poor economic conditions; for India the opposite appears to be true. To measure the quality of life, Amartya Sen and Mahbub-ulHaq in the early 90s came up with a composite index called the Human Development Index (HDI). HDI (a number between 0 and 1) is based on a combination of factors like literacy, education level, life expectancy and per capita income. Countries with HDI greater than 0.8 are typically considered developed countries, 0.5 or below indicate an underdeveloped country. India has an average HDI of 0.63 (medium) and ranks 127 in the world according to the UNDP report-2005. Indias high GDP growth contrasts with the poor human development indicating a failure at the social front. Achievements in literacy, access to public health and gender equality are far from impressive. The UNDP report adds, Pervasive gender inequalities, interacting with rural poverty and inequalities among states are undermining the growth into human development. Regional disparities are clearly reflected in the varying degree of Human development. With an HDI of 0.85, Kerala is comparable to some European countries in quality of life, and presents a paradox of high social growth and poor economic growth. Contrastingly, some economically progressive states like Karnataka and AP have fared only moderately in this measure. BIMARU states rank at the bottom in state rankings of HDI. Indias failure in raising human development reflects the myopic vision of political leaders and policy makers; to them per capita growth has overshadowed the need for equity and

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inclusiveness. The ICDS (Integrated Child Development Scheme), considered the largest nutritional program in the world, has failed to deliver due to poor governance and rampant corruption. Public schools in many states are unsuccessful in checking high drop out rates and the ever-prevalent teacher absenteeism. Hardly 40% of the grains under the PDS (Public Distribution System) ever reach the people below poverty line (BPL). The exclusion error and distribution error in PDS are so high that it is considered one of most inefficient ways of income transfer to the poor. All these inefficiencies and inadequacies are reflected in the HDI. Comparative study- India, China and South Korea- Before the 1950s more than two thirds of the humanity was poor. The problem area of the world was Asia, which had most of the worlds poor. The second half of the twentieth century saw dramatic changes in the demographic profile of the world. Many eastern countries emerged as economic giants, marked by the rise of Asian tigers in the 1960s and Chinas reforms in 1978; where as Indias liberalization in the early 90s is relatively recently. On the social front most of the East Asian countries have shown tremendous progress, reducing poverty increasing health and wealth of people. It is insightful to compare the Indias journey through development with other Asian countries such as China and South Korea. At the end of the world war-II (1945), the education and health status of people in these countries (India, China, South Korea) were similar. The literacy rates at 18%, 20% and 22% respectively, were comparable. During the fifties and sixties, South Korea massively invested in education; literacy grew at an unprecedented rate to 87% by 1970. This phenomenal rise in human capital coincided with the onset of economic boom pioneered by Gen. Park Chunghee in early 1961-62. Consequently Korea saw a dramatic reduction in poverty over the next two decades. By the late 80s Koreans were no longer considered third world citizens. China comes closest to India in terms of history and population. In the 1950s, beginning of the Mao era, China was socially and economically very backward. Although Mao has been criticized for his whimsical socio-political policies, his leadership saw high growth in the health and education sectors. Life expectancy and literacy rates rapidly

improved during his regime. The controversial coercive one child policy helped reduce the fertility rate significantly. In the late 70s, when Deng Xio Ping opened up markets, China was sufficiently advanced in its social indicators. People from all sections of society could reap the benefits of the opening of the economy. Manufacturing-led growth generated enormous wealth and employment; consequently over the next twenty years, China saw one of the most dramatic declines of poverty in history, lifting about 300 million people above the poverty level. The current HDI of China stands at 0.75 - very close to that of the developed nations. Experiences in these countries shows that participatory growth was largely led by the presence of good social infrastructure and human capital before the opening of markets. In contrast, India showed a relatively slow and sluggish growth in the social sector before opening of the markets in 90s. With a literacy rate of just 55% and an HDI of 0.51, India was just above the margin of an underdeveloped country. The liberalization and globalization of the economy created enormous opportunities for the educated masses hailing mainly from middle class families; most of the people at the bottom layer were left completely untouched by the wave of liberalization. This growth didnt create the manufacturing or service jobs accessible to an illiterate/semi-literate rural population. Over the years that followed, poverty levels didnt show any drastic reduction. Indias HDI has increased slowly, but not at a rate commensurate with the per capita income growth. Conclusion- The failure at the social front in the era of liberalization has been reflected with increased inequality and social unrest. While the GDP growth is absolutely essential, it should be seen more in terms of hitherto unseen social opportunities.To achieve inclusive and participatory growth, public policies should focus on substantial investment in human capital, ensure their efficient delivery through good governance and create opportunities for economic participation by all sections. The lessons learnt from the journey through our own past, and that of the world, tell us much about the road ahead in realizing the VISION 2020 of a developed India.

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======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Abraham, M. F. 1990. Modern Sociological Theory : An Introduction, New Delhi : OUP Agrawal, B. 1994. A Field of One's Own : Gender and Land Rights in South Asia Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Appadurai, Arjun. 1997. Modernity At Large: Cultural Dimensions of lobalization, New Delhi : OUP Dereze, Jean and Amratya Sen. 1996. India : Economic Development and Social Opportunity. New Delhi : OUP Desai, A. R. 1985. India's Path of Development : A Marxist Approach. Bombay Popular Prakashan. (Chapter 2) Haq, Mahbub Ul. 1991. Reflections on Human Development. New Delhi: OUP Sharma, S.L. 1980."Criteria of Social Development", Journal of Social Action. Jan -Mar. Sharma, S.L.1986. Development : Socio -Cultural Dimensions, Jaipur:Rawat Chapter1. Sharma, S.L. 1994. "Salience of Ethnicity in Modernization : Evidence from India", Sociological Bulletin. Vol. 39, Nos. 1&2. pp. 33 -51. Srinivas, M. N. 1966. Social Change in Modern India. Berkley : University of Berkley. Symposium on Implications of Globalization. 1995. Sociological Bulletin. Vol. 44 (Articles of Mathew, Panini & Pathy). UNDP, Sustainable Development, New York : OUP World Ban k. 1995. World Development Report. New York. Amin, Samir. 1979. Unequal Development. New Delhi : OUP Giddens, Anthony. 1990. The Consequences of Modernity. Cabridge : Polity Press. Sharma, S.L. 1992. "Social Action Groups as Harbingers of Silent Revolution", Economic and Political Weekly. Vol. 21. Sharma, S.L. 1994. "Perspectives on sustainable Development in South Asia : The Case of India" In Samad (Ed.) Perspectives on Sustainable Development in Asia. Kuala Lumpur : ADIPA Sharma, S.L. 2000. "Empowerment Without Antagonism : A case for Reformulation of Women's Empowerment Approach". Sociological Bulletin. Vol. 49. No. 1 UNDP. 1997. Human Development Report. New York : Oxford University Press. Wallerstein Imnanual. 1974. The Modern World System. New York : OUP Waters, Malcoln. 1995. The Modern World System. New York : OUP World Commission on Environment and D evelopment. 1987. Our Common Future (Brundland Report). New Delhi. OUP.

Cultural Dynamics : An Integrated Approach Towards Sustainable Development

* Sunildro L.S. Akoijam
The area and influence of culture has grown in the salience of global development issues on account of the rising share of cultural goods, services and intellectual property in world trade as well as threats to cultural diversities and identities associated with contemporary globalization. The globalization with its unprecedented acceleration and intensification in the global flows of capital, labour and information is having a homogenizing influence on culture and vice-versa. In achieving sustainable development, the culture must be at the centre of developmental strategies, since culture frame peoples relationship to others in their society and the world around them including natural environment and condition their behavior. This paper is an attempt to explore the culture as the foundation of sustainable development, progress and creativity which needs to be carefully nurtured to grow and develop. It concludes by placing culture at the heart of strategies in enabling sustainable development and a powerful driving factor for its achievement. Introduction: Culture is a dynamic force for change rather than a rigid set of forms or parameters that must be strictly adhered to. As the World Commission on Culture and Development (WCCD) noted, a societys culture is neither static nor unchanging but rather is in a constant state of flux, influencing and being influenced by other world-views and expressive forms. Culture is the fountain of our progress and creativity and must be carefully nurtured to
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Department of Management, North-Eastern Hill University (NEHU) Tura Campus, Chandmari, Tura, Meghalaya

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grow and develop. The current era of globalization, with its unprecedented acceleration and intensification in the global flows of capital, labour, and information, is having a homogenizing influence on local culture. While this phenomenon promotes the integration of societies and has provided millions of people with new opportunities, it may also bring with it a loss of uniqueness of local culture, which in turn can lead to loss of identity, exclusion and even conflict. This is especially true for traditional societies and communities, which are exposed to rapid modernisation based on models imported from outside and not adapted to their context. Balancing the benefits of integrating into a globalized world against protecting the uniqueness of local culture requires a careful approach. Placing culture at the heart of development policies does not mean to confine and fix it in a conservative way, but on the contrary to invest in the potential of local resources, knowledge, skills and materials to foster creativity and sustainable progress. Recognition and respect for the diversity of cultures also creates the conditions for mutual understanding, dialogue and peace. The area of culture has grown in salience in global development issues on account of the rising share of cultural goods, services and intellectual property in world trade as well as the threats to cultural diversities and identities associated with contemporary globalization. Also there is increasing awareness that the protection and promotion of cultural diversity is vital to universal human rights, fundamental freedoms along with securing ecological and genetic diversity. This standpoint is premised on the view that sustainable development is only achievable if there is harmony and alignment between the objectives of cultural diversity and that of social equity, environmental responsibility and economic viability. Culture and sustainable development: We understand culture as a very broad concept, encompassing both action and structure (in the sense of Giddens theory of structuration). Culture means the attitudes, visions and behaviour of humans, social groups, regional populations, even nations, etc. to handle their life, to shape their environment, and to making sense of their very existence;

but culture means also the results of such actions, manifest in (cultural) objects (i.e. artefacts), institutions, economic structures, landscapes, settlements, land use patterns, etc. Such (cultural) structures and (cultural) attitudes and traditions are reciprocally interrelated, and they may re-enforce each other in an evolutionary (accumulative) process, or they may be linked in a dissipative and destructive way. It follows that culture is an element of a dynamic system, part of a process, which may be called acculturation, a continuous adaptive development, of which we can perceive an instant impression between past and future, here and there. Considering the normative dimensions of this term, it is evident, that culture in itself is an objective and value-free concept we must be especially careful about this just because of the imminent temptation of scaling different forms of culture, of grading different civilizations or aspects of regional cultures. On the other hand, given the context of this study, we should reflect the relation between culture and sustainability, which of course is a normative proposition. In this sense, sustainability may be interpreted as a culture (or behaviour), which cares for the ecological, social, and economic capitals, even trying to mutually increase them. Culture sector plays a dual role in that it is an arena for identity formation and an economic sector with growth potential, including its role as a key driver of the new digital and intellectual property economy. The art sector and the cultural industries are well recognized as means of artistic expression and symbols of national and regional identity. They describe the role of cultural entrepreneurs and arts enterprise, for-profit as well as not for-profit in the production, distribution and consumption of film, television, books, music, theatre, dance, visual arts, masquerade, multimedia, animation and so on. The cultural sector is not just a commercial arena, it is an aesthetic and social space where spiritual values, psychic meaning and bodily pleasures are displayed, enacted and represented. Culture is a key ingredient of post industrial, information intensive economic activity. A culture oriented economic development is one that integrates the symbolic and creative elements into any aspect of the urban economy, pursuing

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distinction, innovativeness and a higher level of interaction between localized individual and social knowledge and globalizing markets. From the development of a cluster of cultural activities, all types of economic and social externalities arise in a self-reinforcing process. Cultural clusters have become- to varying extents, according to characteristic, location and governance structures of such clusters- catalysts of a wholesome creative economy, involving a higher attractiveness for tourists, skilled talents, and ultimately for knowledge intensive enterprises in search of an innovative climate and high levels of quality of life. Indeed contemporary skilled workers attract a high value to a stimulating cultural climate and communities open to new and symbolic; these factors come to influence their mobility choices and ultimately, the sustainable development of a region. Culture oriented sustainable development is subject to strong endogeneity, modifying continuously the original conditions that makes culturally rich and viable as creative hubs. Culture counts. And today more than ever, it counts as the powerhouses of the contemporary society. Culture is a full fledge economic sector that-as of any other-generates impacts on the environment ranging from direct and indirect expenditure to employment generation. Cultural industries are typically labour intensive; their organisational model is rather a network interaction of micro and small producers than the supply-chain hierarchy. Culture may contribute to a more balanced and sustainable development. Culture is part and parcel of revitalization projects. It provides a formidable opportunity for personal development and social interaction among weaker groups and gives to excluded individuals a chance to their own start businesses or to catch up socially. The relation between a community and its culture extends to concerns of safety and social harmony. In an age in which societies tend to become multicultural, identities and ways of life confront one another. In the multicultural society, culture can be a level that stimulates pride, personal development and self fulfillment for minorities and at the same time it can be a common language, a bridge between different groups. For this reason cultural

development and planning are regarded as valuable strategies to accelerate process of sustainable development. Culture is seen as a way of doing which is typical of a particular location, determining comparative advantage in the production of specialized goods and services. This conceptualization of culture as a system of social norms inform the web of strategic relations which comes as a part and parcel of modern forms of organization of the economy which will ultimately contribute to the sustainable development of a society and economy. Results and conclusion: The culture should be considered as the central pillar of sustainable development. Sustainable development relates to the maintenance of political and community values. Social values and norms, being largely intangible, relate to the ethics, value systems, language, education, work attitudes, class systems and so on, that influence societal relations. Sustainable development also speaks to the satisfaction of basic human needs within the society such as food, clothing, and shelter. The sustainability of social needs and values alludes to the quality of growth that occurs in the economy. Equity in the distribution of resources is integral to sustainable development. The area of culture is often narrowly defined and thus made irrelevant to the wider development debate. For example, in one of the only publications that makes the linkage between culture and sustainable development the focus addressed the social and economic opportunities and requirements to mainstream investments in cultural heritage and the living arts. The other key thing to note is that when it comes to sustainable development not all cultures are equal, some cultures are more equal than others, depending on the political and historical context. At one end of the sustainable development discourse western science is viewed either as the cause or the solution to the problem. At the other end of the spectrum, traditional or localized, particularly non-western knowledge is either seen as backward and problematic or romanticized as sacred wisdom or therefore valued for its future value. So that when we speak of the promotion of cultural identities, cultural pluralism, cultural industries and geo-cultures as key

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elements of the fourth pillar of sustainable development it refers to a need to redress the global imbalance in the cultural arena. In order to maximize the impact of culture in the sustainable development, some areas need to be improved. Involving communities in policy making to safeguard their cultural heritage, including identifying what deserves protection and who owns it will enhance the cultural heritage and traditional knowledge. There is a need to support and strengthen community capacities in resource management and governance. A partnership can be initiated between Government and civil society for sustainable development management. Moreover several aspects of culture need to be enhanced for effective sustainable development. In this context capacities can be built up in cultural areas through education and training in the arts, arts administration and cultural entrepreneurship. There is need of investment in cultural industries to generate new and indigenous forms of employment and exports to aid in the diversification of economies and to reinforce and expand cultural confidence and ties with overseas communities. Moreover there is a need to strengthen the consultations between Governments and cultural industries in order to align government policy on culture and trade, industry, tourism, education, intellectual property protection and other sectors. And lastly there is need to improve access capital and credit, in particular in the areas of development financing and market development grants for small and medium-sized enterprises and the establishment of culture support fund for sustainable development of a region. ======================== References1. Addo, Herb, (1996). "Developmentalism: A Eurocentric Hoax, Delusion, Chicanery" In The Underdevelopment of Development. Essays in Honor of Andre Gunder Frank ed. S.C. Chew and R.A. Denemark (California: Sage):126- 146. Aseniero, G. (1985). "A Reflection on Developmentalism: From Development to Transformation." In H. Addo.Development as Social Transformation. (London: Hodder & Stoughton): 48-85. Banuri, Tariq (1990) "Modernization and its Discontents: A Cultural Perspective on Theories of Development" in Marglin, F and S. Marglin eds. Dominating Knowledge: Development, Culture, and Resistance. Oxford:Clarendon: 73-101. Cohen, Robin and Shirin Rai (2000) Global Social Movements. The Athlone Press: London. Friberg, Mats and Bjorn Hettne (1985). Greening of the World - Towards a Non-

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Deterministic Model of Global Processes. in Herb Addo, ed. Development as Social Transformation. London: Hodder and Stoughton: 204 - 270. Galtung, J. 1996. Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization. London: Sage/PRIO. Gotlieb, Yosef (1996) Development, Environment and Global Dysfunction: Towards sustainable Recovery. St. Luce Press, Florida. Haque, M. Shamsul (1999) "The Fate of Sustainable Development Under NeoLiberal Regimes in Developing Countries". International Political Science Review 20, no. 2: 197-218. Jacob, Merle (1995) Sustainable Development: A Reconstructive Critique of the United Nations debate. Goteborgs University, Goteborg, Sweden. Kadekodi, Gopal K (1992). "Paradigms of Sustainable Development". Journal of SID 3 :72-76. Langhelle, Oluf (1999). "Sustainable Development: Exploring the Ethics of Our Common Future." International Political Science Review 20.2: 129-149. Leach, Melissa (1998). "Culture and Sustainability". In World Culture Report (1998), specially edited by Louis Emmerji and Paul Streeton, 93-104. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. Ll, Sharachchandra M (1991) "Sustainable Development: A Critical Review." World Development 19.6: 607-21. Meadowcroft, James (2000) "Sustainable Development: a New(ish) Idea for a New Century?" Political Studies 48.2: 370-387. Munro, David (1995) "Sustainability: Rhetoric or Reality?". In A Sustainable World, edited by Thaddeus C. Trzyna, with the assistance of Julia K. Osborn. California: International Center for the Environment and Public Policy. Nurse, Keith (2006), "Culture as the fourth pillar of sustainable development", (prepared for Commonwealth Secretariat, London, UK) Nurse, Keith (2003) "Development: Unthinking the Past" NACLA Journal 37.3: Nurse, Keith (2002) "Governance, Industrial Policy and the New Global Economy: The Case for Cultural Industries" in Cynthia Barrow-Giles & Don Marshall, eds., Living at the Borderlines: Issues in Caribbean Sovereignty and Development. Kingston; UWI Press: 75-91. OECD (2001) Sustainable Development: Critical Issues. Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and;Development. Serrageldin, Ismail, and Joan Martin-Brown, eds. (1999) Culture in Sustainable Development: Investing in Cultural and Natural Endowments. Proceeding of the Conference on Culture in Sustainable Development, Washington, D.C. Streeton, Paul (1993) "The Special Problem of Small Countries". World Development 21.2: 197-202.

2.

3.

4. 5.

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Cultural Identity and Development:An Indian Perspective

* Dr Shefali Raizada
The pride of any society lies in its culture . Since no society in the world could be considered great without reference to its tradition and culture . There has also been role of oral tradition in passing our cultural heritage to coming generations through legends or folklores. People are prone to a tendency towards change because they constantly modify their cultural pattern and improve and adopt their behaviour to the exigencies of their physical social and ideological milieu.Cultural stability or change could be positive or negative in cultural development. Culture, in anthropology, the integrated system of socially acquired values, beliefs, and rules of conduct which delimit the range of accepted behaviors in any given society. Cultural differences distinguish societies from one another.Culture is embedded in a persons way of life. Culture is difficult to quantify, because it frequently exists at an unconscious level, or at least tends to be so pervasive that it escapes everyday thought. This is one reason that anthropologists tend to be skeptical of theorists who attempt to study their own culture. Every human society has its own particular culture, or sociocultural system. Variation among cultures is attributable to such factors as differing physical habitats and resources; the range of possibilities inherent in areas such as language, ritual, and social organization; and historical phenomena such as the development of links with other cultures. An individuals
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Amity University, Noida

attitudes, values, ideals, and beliefs are greatly influenced by the culture (or cultures) in which he or she lives. Culture change takes place as a result of ecological, socioeconomic, political, religious, or other fundamental factors affecting a society. Lack of modernization is the direct cause of underdeveloped society and culture which is due to the absence of the technology. State of development can be reached through a transfer of technological ideas, institutions, attitudes and values and cultures to the undeveloped nations.According to Osagie, transfer of modern attitudes reduce the presence of absurd traditional attitude and fosters an atmosphere for growth in western markets on which rests the wealth of nations Development is multifaceted term denotes growth and progress.Development is a more inconclusive concept with its social , political and economic facets. It is the qualitative and quantitative positive transformation of the lives of the people that doe not only enhance their material well being but also ensures their social well being , including the restoration of human dignity. The word culture has different meanings . Culture is the full range of learned human behaviour patterns . The term was first used in this way by the pioneer English Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor in his book primitive Culture published in 1871. He said that , culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge , belief , art , law morals, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Culture is a powerful human tool for survival , but it is a fragile phenomenon. It is constantly changing and easily lost because it exists only in our minds.The sum attitudes, customs and beliefs that distinguishes one group of people from another. Culture is transmitted through language material objects, ritual, institutions and art, from one generation to the next. Culture also refers to refind music, art and ,iterature; one who is well versed in these is consideredculture. Development is to elevate means economic and technological standar or conditions without disregarding or disrespecting any aspect of mans

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existing social,cultural and political values. This implies that development does not bring only ill-tidings, but also reduces education, technology , religion, industry. In other words, development cannot be divided from mans culture makes a man and man cannot be developed in a vaccum. Our world is gradually moving to a time when exchanges should be promoted to satisfy ourselves. As professor Joseph Kizeibo cited in Gbotokama (1966) stressed, no technical object is culturally neutral , in th sense that it carries with it .The stamp of the society in which it was conceived. As far as cultural development relationship is concerned , we need to assess the activities of UNESCO (United Nations Education Social and Cultural Organisation) on the issue . This organisation from the bginning emphasised its mission of advancing through the education , scientific and cultural relation and common welfare of mankind. Culture become increasingly important when 1960s or post colonial era with the evident deficiencies to cultural diversity in the currently adopted development model. The liberated ople had become aware of mode of existenc and persistently challenged the notion that modernization had to mean westernisation rather than been based on their own tradition.In the concept of development , the centre of gravity has thus shifted from the economic to social. Man is the means and the end of the development of culture which must be respected and preserved as per the Art I of UNESCO declaration . Cultural Development is boosted when cultural authenticity and technical progress continually complement each other.The world Conference on cultural policies was held in Mexico City in 1982 and came with the unique definition that links culture to development: culture isthe whole complex of distinctive spiritual , material , intellectual and emotional features that characterise a society or social group . It includes not only arts and letters, but also modes of life , the fundamental rights of the human being , value systems, traditions and beliefs. To further fulfill the objective of making cultural factors the focal point of

all strategies for development ,the world Decade for cultural Development was initiated and spanned between 1988-97. Within these ten years , UNESCO, earmarked four key objectivess Acknowledging the cultural dimension of development; affirming and enriching cultural identities; broadening participation in cultural lives; and promoting international cultural cooperation. As a result world wide cultural policies for development came up with an action plan and identified some crucial principles for development .Mans development is enhanced when man is both socially and culturally fulfilled No developmental task can be successful if does not have roots in people culture. Culture is one basic assessment of whether a society is either developing slowly or rapidly . Cultural trends and usages are closely related to the demands of the people of modern industrial development or commercial operations. Culture has daily played an invinsible role in determining customs, values , morals and growth in the society . There is a need to awaken an interest in those countries calling for a cultural revolution to assist in suggesting strategies for packaging these cultural ideas to be shared with other continents . There is need to preserve , revitalising and saving rich cultural heritage . There is a need to formulate attractive strategies to promote interst and awareness among international tourists, regional travels and even local inhabitants about a nations cultural heritage.If seriously deserving technological, political and economic advncement and development of nation, one should never disregard the role of culture. The impacts of development and cultural change in a globalising world are significant and felt at every level from local communities, to national policies, through to international institutions .Development has become a guiding framework through which people in many parts of the world understand themselves and their place in the global order. It means many different things to different people. Development inevitably

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brings change. At times, it has improved national economies and everyday living conditions for local communities. Development is also the framework by which agencies and institutional bodies are able to legitimize relations of unequal power between countries at both the national and local level. In so doing, development creates diverse arenas of struggle over the meaning and direction of social, economic and political change. Development, therefore, raises important academic and applied questions about targeted interventions and the relations between power, exchange, agency and identity that they entail. Development has become a guiding framework through which people in many parts of the world understand themselves and their place in the global order. It means many different things to different people. Development inevitably brings change. At times, it has improved national economies and everyday living conditions for local communities. Development is also the framework by which agencies and institutional bodies are able to legitimize relations of unequal power between countries at both the national and local level. In so doing, development creates diverse arenas of struggle over the meaning and direction of social, economic and political change. Development, therefore, raises important academic and applied questions about targeted interventions and the relations between power, exchange, agency and identity that they entail. It is particularly concerned with how significant impacts of change are constructed and experienced at various levels from local communities, to national policies, through to international institutions. The process by which structural reorganization is affected through time, eventually producing a form or structure which is qualitatively different from the ancestral form. culture is an important part of every society and that it is also subject to the process of evolution. He believed that societies were at different stages of cultural development and that the purpose of anthropology was to reconstruct the evolution of culture, from primitive beginnings to the modern state. The present theory of

social change and human development can be useful for developmental psychologists, because it provides a framework for understanding general patterns of cultural change and shifting pathways of human development around the world.The relationship between culture and development involves the need to perform an integral exercise given that this relationship includes many approaches and transversalization of many sciences (anthropology, sociology, history, political science, etc.). In recent years the idea that the cultural dimension must be included in the development policies and actions has become generally accepted. Due to the prioritisation of sustainable human development over culture has been studied as a necessary element for the full development of people andcommunities. Development, as overcoming poverty, has also increasingly opted for a broader concept of the term poverty: hence a broader approach to poverty includes, amongst others, the cultural sphere. It reaffirms that every culture is a unique and irreplaceable body of value and that cultural identity therefore contributes to the liberation of peoples. It considers cultural identity as wealth which promotes human relations; culture is dialogue and runs out and dies in isolation. Culture is taken as a fundamental dimension of the development process. Sustainable development can only be ensured by integrating cultural factors into the strategies to achieve it. Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, (...), to emphasize that culture belongs to everybody in the community, avoiding the elitism which had often defined it and defending the term cultural democracy. It stresses that in order to guarantee the participation of all individuals in the cultural life the inequalities must be eliminated, whether due to origin, nationality, age, language, gender, belonging to minority groups, etc. The conception of heritage covers both the tangible and the intangible. All peoples have the right and duty to defend and preserve their cultural

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heritage. 1. It defends the need to share cultural knowledge through exchange, to favour the diffusion of the creativity. This cooperation will be based on the respect for the cultural identity and the value of each culture, without the possibility of cultural subordination or assimilation.Take into account the cultural dimension of development: the recognition of the cultural dimension of development will come from the recognition of the cultural aspects of all the activities linked to economic, social, scientific and technical development. 2. Affirm and enrich the cultural identities: the aspects of this objective tend towards a protection and appreciation of the heritage, but distancing itself from a purely conservative vision, but rather impacting on revitalising processes of theseheritageassets; it also indicates the need to stimulate creativity. 3. Broaden the participation in cultural life: it considers that it is necessary first of all to guarantee access to cultural life, in order to later stimulate participation. Both access and participation are necessary for real cultural development: there must be favourable conditions for the effective exercise of the cultural rights. 4. Promote international cultural cooperation: culture can perform a determining role in establishing more balanced relations between States, analysing the cultural bases of a new balance in the relations between the worlds different regions. The culture is not something which is static, or something which has already been given, already present and unchanging in communities. Another interesting issue of this Strategy is the importance that it gives to the Focus on Rights, by indicating the need to go further in developing the human rights which have an impact on cultural life. The respect of cultural diversity is a prerequisite for successful and sustainable development

projects.The need to include culture in development strategies and assistance programmes has been an important issue on an international scale for several decades to come. ======================== References1. 2. Communities and the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003) - a New Tool for Development Linking Social Change and Developmental Change.Shifting Pathways of Human Development Patricia M. Greenfield University of California, Los Angelei ndependently. Culture and Development by Maider Maraa "Article: "Culture and Cognitive Development"" 26 December 2010. Web. 31 May. 2013. <http://www.academon.com/article-review/article-culture-andcognitive-development-146378/> Britannica.com. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Copyright 1994-2008 Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc Kroeber, A. L.The Nature of Culture. Chicago [1952]. Snow, C. P.The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge, 1959. Malinowski, B.A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays. New York, 1960.Mead, M.Continuities in Cultural Evolution. New Haven, 1965. Almond, G. A., & Verba, S. (1963). The civic culture: political attitudes and democracy in five nations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Barry, B. (1978). Sociologists, economists and democracy. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Downs, A. (1957). An economic theory of democracy. "Indian Literature Through the Ages". Ccrtindia.gov.in. Retrieved 2013-04-22. Amartya San,Development asFreedom (NewYork: Knopf, and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)

3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

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Cultural Change of Tribal Societies of Assam as a Consequence of Modernity

* Elizabeth L. Thiek **Somika Narzary
Assam is a land of numerous ethnic communities and tribes living together both in the hills and the plains. It is a home that nurtures indigenous tribes; their assimilation with one another resulting in the change of cultures and traditions- an impact of Modernity. This paper attempts to generalize the impact of Modernity and its influences resulting in the cultural change of the numerous tribes of Assam.The advent of modernity is brought about by necessity realised on the part of the people and its consolidation demands the acceptance of it. The evolution of modernity results for want of enlightenment but its advent sees the death of the older institutionalised traditions and beliefs. It is, in short, an indispensible aspect of change. This change enters the societies and embraces its members to withstand the strong cultural changes. Though the practices of many traditional ideologies and beliefs still flourish, numerous have been done away and replaced by innovative and contemporary practices. Till date, there exist the questions of tradition vs. modernity but the problems arising out of these questions are not the concern of this paper but the possibilities and success of the cohesion and fusion thereof which is an important facet of the impact of modernity. Introduction- Modernity is a term used to identify new and distinctive features in the subjects, forms, concepts and styles
=========================== * Gauhati University ** Assistant Professor, Bengtol College, Bengtol

of literature. Modernity, also, is a realistic expression of the social and intellectual forces, of rapid industrial development, urbanisation, secularisation and mass forms of social life. The experience of modernity was not simply a matter of changing cultural and technological modes but also involved a transformation in the attitudes of the people. Modernity has much to do with the much changed scenario of Assam and its inhabitants with the passage of time. Modern education becomes a medium through which the need for a change for the better began to be felt. The timid and the homely tribes began to step out from their cocoons to the calls and gestures of the outside world. The swept of modernity, apart from the states of the country, is felt to the utmost among the tribes of Assam which is the breeding ground of different and varied cultures and traditions.Since time immemorial, people belonging to different cultures and beliefs have entered Assam and dwelled over the hills and the plains. These people with the passage of time brought various cultural exchanges and changes. The different ethnic groups entering and inhabiting Assam till the present day are as followsSocial Groups of the Pre-Colonial Assam-The social groups of the pre-colonial Assam were diverse. The Ahoms were the ruling social group of pre-colonial Assam along with other social groups like Koch Rajbanshis, Chutiyas, Bodo- Kacharis, Brahmins, Kalitas, Keots, Muslims, Sikhs, and Buddhists etc. The Ahoms: The Ahoms were the major social groups of precolonial Assam. They were the offshoots of the great Thai or Shan race. They entered Assam in the 13th century from the eastern side. During their six hundred years of rule they made remarkable contribution in uniting different social groups and kingdoms though negotiations and invasions and were capable of protecting the land from foreign aggression and even from the Mughals. The Koch Rajbanshis: The Koches or Koch Rajbanshis were another dominant social group of pre-colonial Assam. They were

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a mongoloid race who have intermingled with the Meches, Garos, Lalungs, mikirs etc. the hybridisation took place through intermarriage with other communities. The Chutiyas: The Chutiyas belonged to the Mongoloid origin and they migrated to Assam from Tibet and China. The Chutiyas were divided into different divisions like Hindu, Barahi, Deori, Ahom, and Miri (mishings). The Ahom Chutiya and the Miri Chutiya divisons are the result of intermarriage between the Chutiyas, Ahom and the Miris. The Hindu Chutiyas were known to be the first to convert to Hinduism and were followed by the other divisions. The instances of friendship between the Chutiyas and the Ahom kings were recorded in the 14th century and the conquest and annexation of the chutiya kingdom by the Ahom king in the 16th century. The Bodo-Kacharis: The Bodo- Kacharis, another dominant social group of pre-colonial Assam belongs to the Tibeto-Burmas stock of Mongoloid race. The term Bodo, stands for a larger identity which encompassed some other sub-identities such as Kacharis, Mishings, Rabhas, Tiwas (Lalungs), Hajongs, Dimasas etc. Bodo-Kachari is collectively used for the allied tribes like Bodo-kachari, Mech, Dimasa, Hojai, Hajong, Lalung, Tiprah, and Garo who are scattered over various parts of North-east India. The Brahmins: The Brahmins who were priest and chronicler by profession, although small in size were an influential social group of that time. Expansion of Vaishnavism and different Satras had made the Ahom-Brahmins nexus inevitable because of the threat they felt from the expansion of such authority. The instance of intermingling with the Ahoms is recorded. The Kalitas: The Kalitas were another high caste people of Assam, next in rank to the Brahmins. They were an agricultural community engaged in various professions based on their skills and specialisations. The Kalitas were divided into two sections; the Bar-kalitas and Saru-kalitas. The Keots or Kaivartras : The Keots, who belongs to

agricultural community, were considered to have originated from the Ksatriya father and the Sudra mother. The keots were divided into two categories- the Haloi Keots and the Jalai Keots. The Haloi were regarded as the upper class Hindus whereas the Jalai were regarded as the depressed class. The keots converted to Hinduism. The Muslims: The Muslims were another religious community of pre-colonial Assam. They came to Assam in various manners and phases such as invasions and migration. Those who came to Assam in the 13th and 17th century were known as indigenous Muslims, who cannot be distinguished from the other segment of Assamese community. They speak Assamese language and their social behaviour has been shaped by the folk tradition and culture of Assam. In this way they have become inseparable part of the Assamese society. Two great personalities of Assam, Mahapurus Srimanta Sankardeva (1449-1569), the great Vaishnava Saint and Azan Faqir (1605-1690), the great Sufi preacher of Hanafi order, accelerated the process of Assamisation of the Muslims. Another group of Muslims in Assam could be located in Barak Valley who were descendants of converts in the 14th century at the missionary initiative of Shah Jalal Pir (d1367). As in the case of other parts of East Bengal, it is noteworthy that spread of Islam in the Barak valley is more of an outcome of conversion than migration. Due to their assimilation with the Assamese society they are regarded as Asomiya Muslim (i) The Sikhs: The Sikhs were another small group of pre colonial Assam. It is believed that Guru Nanak visited Assam in 1505 and converted many people to Sikhsm, it is also believed that, Guru Tegh Bahadur came to Assam to visit Kamakhya temple and left many of his disciples behind. The Buddhists: The Buddhists were also present in Assam during the pre- colonial time. The Khamtis,the Singphos, the Phakiyals or Tai Phakes, the Naras, the Turungs and the Aitaniyas were some of the Budhist groups. They migrated to

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Assam in the middle of the 18 century and settled in Sadiya region. The Migration and Importation of Different Social Groups During the Colonial Rule in Assam- Colonisation of Assam by the British brought a lot of changes in the socio-economic life of Assam. With the establishment of tea industry and for the success of commercialisation, export and profit, the British imported manpower in the form of many social groups from various parts of the country. Few social groups with the view of making their livelihood through labours and employments in such tea gardens and British administrative services began to influx Assam summing up the already existing intertwined and heterogeneous society of Assam. These pouring in of many social groups paved a way for yet another era of cultural amalgamation and formation of broader and more interwoven society. Some of the social group are(a) The Hindu Bengalis: The Hindu Bengalis were imported from West Bengal to serve the middle class jobs in colonial administration where educated lots with knowledge of English language were required. (b) The Marwaris: Another small social group who came to Assam along with the British were called Marwaris. The term Marwari was basically used to indicate the commercial caste from Rajasthan but in Assam, it was used to indicate members of other ethnic groups, such as Sindhis who have been associated with trade and commerce in the region. The Marwaris were on the task of serving as bankers and commercial agents for the tea gardens and the peasants. With the passage of time the Marwaris consolidated their stay in Assam and began to identify themselves with Assamese culture and society. In this connection, the name of Chandra Kumar Agarwala, Ananda Chandra Agarwala and Jyoti Prasad Agarwala deserved mentioning. (c) The Nepalis : The Nepalis were small labouring community who have migrated during the period of colonisation

of Assam. The British recruited them mainly for military purpose while some of them worked in the tea gardens. As their stay elongates, they fused with the society of Assam and were not enlisted as foreigners when Assam movement took place. (d) The Biharis: The Biharis migrated from the regions of Bihar. They took to arduous works such as construction of roads, houses and buildings besides engaging in small and petty works for livelihood. (e) The tea garden labourers: The tea garden workers were mostly imported from Bihar and Odhisa, they were tribals belonging to some sub tribes such as Sanhals, Mondas, Broans, Kharias, Gonds, Khonds, Nagesias etc. The migration of the tea workers was carried out under the effort of the individual planters or companies and steadily they began to settle down nearby the tea gardens and are now regarded as a part of Assamese society. (f) The Muslim peasants: The massive inflow of Muslim peasants from East Bengal to Assam was seen with economic interest by the British. The British policy of migration and settlement of the Muslim peasants was basically the product of Britishs policy of greater revenue which served the interest of the colonisers. Present or Modern Tribal Society of Assam- The Assamese society is a heterogeneous society. It comprises of different socioeconomic groups. It is, therefore, a multi cultural, multi ethnic, multi religious, and multi lingual society, sociological plurality is a significant feature of Assamese society. Existence of numerous tribal communities such as Bodos, Rabhas, Mishings, Kukis, Tiwas, Hmars, Dimasas, Doeris, Morans etc. makes a composition of multi cultural Assamese society. Another particular feature of Assamese society is the presence of varied religions like Hinduism, Muslim, Sikhism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, and Animism. The plurality of Assamese society is a product of historical development over the years with different people migrating from various regions bringing

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and assimilating their traditions, cultures, and religions with that of the existing ones, that, it would not be wrong to state that none of the tribes who migrated to Assam and the then inhabitants of Assam had undergone socio-religious-cultural changes from their roots. The modern society of Assam is a well amalgamated society, no less than the other societies of the world; in access to modernity, globalisation, western cultures and the contemporary trends. In short, in the modern Assamese society one would find the fusion of the old and the new. Such transformations can be traced back to the history of Assam Reasons of Cultural ChangeAnnexation - It plays an important part in the change of communities and societies, bringing them up into the main stream cultures. Wars and conquests- dominance of the more powerful tribes over the weaker ones results in the prevalence of the formers traditions and culture or fusion of both. Immigration- a new amalgamated culture may be found when people of a certain community immigrate to other territory when they begin to identify themselves with the region and people. Importation: The import of social groups into a particular region for the purpose of manpower in private and government enterprises often results in the assimilation with the dominant cultures. Intermarriage- due to inter-caste and inter-religious marriages, many amalgamated cultures and traditions may be formed. The presence of heterogeneous groups of communities in a particular region gives rise to the instances and possibilities of intermarriage. Multi cultural society- a society having members belonging to different communities living together within the same geographical region with similar and identical cultures and traditions may form cultural change. Influences- influence of modern ideologies and ideologies of other communities upon different communities and tribes can

also bring about cultural change. Adaptation and acceptance- a man trying to adapt others traditions and accepting or embracing ideologies of the other culture may also bring amalgamation of his new and old culture. Conversion- conversion of religion to other religion may also result in the amalgamation of cultures and bring changes. Religion- multi cultural tribes having the same faith or religion can bring change in their respective cultural activities. Impacts of Modernity of Cultural ChangeLiberalisation- The advent of the British and the introduction of modern education in all parts of the country enlightens man and his culture and he came in contact with the outside world and within, the questions on science and reason begins with the curiosity for knowledge and answers. Such is the product of modern education which liberates man from all kind of shackles -from old ideologies, traditions, and beliefs and helps to adopt a liberal culture. Globalisation: Broadly speaking, globalisation is the expansion and the intensifications of connections and movements of people, goods, capital, ideas, and cultures between countries. It is a process that involves the widening, deepening, speeding up and growing impact of worldwide interconnectedness. The impact of globalisation is often region specific. Globalisation converges the world into a global village from a macroscopic view point and is also responsible for creating hybridisation of identities in various spheres of society. Human rights: Endowed by modernism, the concept of human rights has grown based on mankinds inherent demand for life in which ones dignity and worth as a human being is respected and ones right to liberty and equality are protected. It covers the relationship between people and people, people and nature, and people and society. This right emerges from the charter of the United Nations and are internationally recognised and are protected by the National Human Rights Commission of the

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country. Gender issues: While large population of many states of India are still stuck in the traditional quagmire of superstitions, the tribals of Assam are steps ahead with gender issues; basically, a tribal household does not question the difference between sexes but are treated as equals. The importance of Individual or self in the modern age has done away the question of the fairer sex, in the twenty first century both the sexes have seen each other as an equal as well as competitor. As a result, there are growing number of parents, who are giving equal importance to the education and upbringing of their daughters amounting in women increasingly competing successfully in competition for jobs and professional opportunities in the country. There are many women chief ministers, chief secretaries, industrialists, businesswomen, artists, actresses, models and sportswomen who have impressed the world with their sterling performance and accomplishments. They have broken the traditions of women playing a second fiddle and have become role models for the new generation to emulate their examples; the question of gender sees its end in the modern society. Outlook: Alongside material progress, the mental state of the modern man also progress to a great extent. The once narrow outlook of man liberates itself from the tyrannical clutches of the old and adapts and embraces the new, broader and optimistic view of life. The modern outlook is not only liberal but is also rational and sound induced with acceptance, understanding and optimism discarding superstitious taboos, beliefs and practices of any culture. Living standards: Amid the growing competition in social and economic life, the common man is able to maintain his family by means of well defined and managed plans which involves savings, investments and economy. In the modern age, wastage of things or materials is rarely seen and heard of, besides this, the living condition and standard of modern family is well equipped with cleanliness and maintenance of hygiene.

Therefore, the modern familys vital statistics are far better than those of the institutional family, and of all previous family forms belonging to various cultures. Quantum changes in income, mortality rates, life expectancy, nutritional status, educational opportunities, and other indicators of the quality of life occur in response to industrialisation, modern health care, education, and other aspects of socio-economic development. It is widely agreed that families are better off with these changes than without them. The above discussions are the generalised highlights of the major impacts of modernity and those impacts can be said to have played tremendous role in assimilating cultures of several societies of Assam. Conclusion- The post-Independence period has seen the acceleration of social change and modernisation of various tribal groups and their effective induction within the framework of the nation-state. However, the search and formation of identity of social groups have also become dormant. Many groups have shown varying degrees of strain in accepting and adjusting to the demands of integration, which often has an assimilation overtone, made on them. Thus, while the pre-colonial setting was fluid and flexible, the colonial and post-colonial settings have been less so and the societal boundaries became more rigid, doing in the process distinct cultural orientationthe phenomenon we call ethnicity. Societies became ethno-political blocks. In addition, this period is characterised by revivalist trend so that the various social formations looked to their primordial cultural assets to define and consolidate their boundaries in the wake of ethnic consciousness. The consolidation of various social formations and ethnic upsurge based on it may be viewed as strategies of adaptation of the tribesmen and other indigenous inhabitants of the region in the modern context. The commotions that go with demand-making polities, including secessionist movements, have in the meantime, created unsettled conditions. These unrests are borne out from the awakening of ethnicity consciousness resulted from

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the various social and cultural changes of the societies. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Barpujari, H.K.ed. The Comprehensive History of Assam (vol-i). Guwahati: Publication Board of Assam,1990. Barpujari, H.K.ed. The Comprehensive History of Assam (volii).Guwahati:Publication Board of Assam,1992. Bradbury,Malcolm & James Mc Farlane,eds. Modernism. London: Penguin, 1991. Choudhury, Bibhash. English Social and Cultural History. New Delhi: Prentice- Hall of India,2005. Das,Jogesh. Folklore Of Assam. New Delhi:National Book Trust,India,1972. Gait,Edward. A History of Assam. Calcutta:Thacker,Spink & co,1906 Goswami, Uddipana.ed .Internal Displacement, Migration,and policy in Northeastern India, Washington DC 20036:Papers East West Centre Washington, 2007. Ketelbey,C.D.M. A History of Modern Times. New York: Oxford University Press, 1929. Lowe,Norman. Mastering Modern World History . Chennai: Macmillan, 2010(rpt). Majumdar,R.K & A.N Srivastava. History of Ancient India. Delhi: SBD Publishers Distributors, 1993. Singh,K.S. Transformation of Tribal Society: Integration vs Assimilation . Economic and Political Weekly, August 14, 1982. Thapar,Romila.Early India.New York:Penguin Books,2002.

Socio- Cultural Repercussion of Globalization in India

* Ms. Pooja Gupta ** Ms. Kudshiya Raza
Globalization has had a very considerate impact on Indian culture. And this can be seen anywhere. It Globalization is the buzzword in the contemporary world. Broadly speaking, the term globalization means integration of economies and societies through cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people. Cross border integration can have several dimensions cultural, social, political and economic.Has had a very deep impression on our culture and has mined its way to the roots of our culture. People dont think that they owe anything to their nation. More and more people believe that their lives are much more important than their country. Globalization can be defined as the removing of borders and barriers to facilitate easy exchange of ideas, resources and knowledge between countries. Communication is the essence of Globalization. Without communication, globalization is not possible. Globalization was introduced to India in 1991, when the Indian government introduced a set of reforms for the indisposed Indian economy to impede it from going to further crisis. These reforms were the Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization reforms. Since 1991, we have seen radical changes in India. Globalization has opened India to the world and has brought in the much desire contact. Globalization has had impacts in the economic, social, cultural and political ways of India. The most significant remains the influence of globalization on the economic
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Commerce, St. Aloysius College Jabalpur (M.P.) ** Assistant Professor, Commerce, St. Aloysius College Jabalpur (M.P.)

8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

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sector. India has seen tremendous growth since 1991. India is one of the fastest growing countries in the world and that is all due to the reforms undertaken in 1991. Introduction-The winds of globalization have been raced up in this era of an Information Society and the increasing usage of Information and Communication Technologies. Inordinate awareness of markets and knowledge of Capital resources have opened up the floodgates of International competition and trade. Due to these technologies world has become a compacted place which is indirectly nurturing globalization but again for those citizens who do not have adequate literacy levels, the digital divide is proving to be further injurious to their progress. Globalization can be defined as the removing of borders and barriers to facilitate easy exchange of ideas, resources and knowledge between countries. Communication is the essence of Globalization. Without communication, globalization is not possible. Globalization was introduced to India in 1991, when the Indian government introduced a set of reforms for the indisposed Indian economy to impede it from going to further crisis. These reforms were the Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization reforms. Since 1991, we have seen radical changes in India. Globalization has opened India to the world and has brought in the much desire contact. Globalization has had impacts in the economic, social, cultural and political ways of India. The most significant remains the influence of globalization on the economic sector. India has seen tremendous growth since 1991. India is one of the fastest growing countries in the world and that is all due to the reforms undertaken in 1991. The role of Multi-National Corporations (MNCs) is very extensive in the Indian scenario. The MNCs were brought in by Globalization. Globalization has had a very considerate impact on Indian culture. And this can be seen anywhere. It has had a very deep impression on our culture and has mined its way to the roots of our culture.We live in a strongly reliant world in which all the earths peoples with their immense differences of culture and historical experience are compressed together in instant communication. We face today a

world of almost unlimited promise which is also a world of finite danger. This sensation has been titled Globalization People around the globe are more connected to each other today than ever before in the history of mankind. Information and money flow more quickly than ever. Goods and services produced in one part of the world are progressively available in all parts of the world. International travel is more frequent. International communication is commonplace. Globalization is the buzzword in the contemporary world. Broadly speaking, the term globalization means integration of economies and societies through cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people. Cross border integration can have several dimensions cultural, social, political and economic. In fact, cultural and social integration even more than economic integration. The focus of this paper is to study the impact of globalization on economic, social and cultural structure of India. For this we must first understand the social and cultural factors of India. Social factor- Every business organization operates within norms of its society and exist preliminary to satisfy its needs. Hence the business organization has an inseparable position in the very social system. While the social factors influence the policy and strategy of business, business organization strives to satisfy the needs and wants of the society. Every nation has a culture, and every society and community has a culture of its own too. This includes linguistic and ethnic community in a larger perspective. A country like India has its own diversities in cultures, religions, languages, practices, norms, etc. Such diversity produces constraints to all productive enterprises. Cultural factor- A global business cannot disregard the cultural variables like social and religious practices, culture of communities, education, knowledge, rural community norms and belief etc. which are predominant in India, especially in the rural society. Sociological and cultural factors are also very significant in the rural communities in India which are innumerable.The various effects which globalization has brought in the Indian economy are

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substantial and affect the country socially, economically and culturally. The SOCIAL impact due to Globalization: 1. The free flow of Information is both general and commercial. 2. Globalization has through greater exposure liberalized our attitudes, reduced our biases and predispositions about people, situations and communities worldwide. 3. The advent of Information, Communication Technologies (ICT), Nations have built greater awareness of themselves and the other countries and cultures of the world. 4. One can see in India that inhibitions have been diluted because of the advent of media and the medium of entertainment. This has also naturally had some effect on the old cultural values with the focus now being on consumerism and success 5. The experience in India is of relevance because of the greater cultural and literacy diversity between states and the economic divide between the urban and rural areas of India. 6. There has been a remarkable increase in consumerism, for goods and services whether necessary or perceived. The Economic impact due to Globalization1. Globalization has given nations greater access to global markets, technology, financial resources and quality services and skilled human resources. 2. Improvement in and greater access to quality goods and services and an exponential increase in the volume of trade. 3. Access to global capital resources via the stock market and international debt depending on the economic potential of nations and their markets. 4. Access to technologies depending on the nations responsiveness to respect to protection of IPR and the responsible usage of technologies. 5. Access to the world markets to the skilled human resources from nations with inherent intellectual and technical capabilities. 6. Increase in exports of goods and services in which nations

have their respective competencies. Increased access to better and qualitative education. Increased the purchasing capability of the nation through the creation of a sizeable middle class which is hungry for quality goods and services while there co-exists a large poor class whose time is yet to come. One would expect that the fruits of liberalization and globalization. Would have a trickle-down effect through the collection of taxes and revenues by Government due to increased trade and commerce. Changes in social and cultural life- Access to television grew from 10% of the urban population (1991) to 75% of the urban population (1999) and to 90% (2009).Cable television and foreign movies became widely available for the first time and have acted as a catalyst in bulldozing the cultural boundaries. All these technologies have changed perceptions and dreams of ordinary people.Unmarried boys and girls are sharing same apartment and staying away from their parents.Indian youths leaving education in mid-way and joining MNCs. There has been a increase in the violence, particularly against women. Scientific and technological innovations have made life quite comfortable, fast and enjoyable. More availability of cheap and filthy material (CDs or DVDs of Hollywood movies, foreign channels like MTV) in the name of liberalization. In India, land-line or basic phone was a prestige symbol few years back but now you find people riding bicycle with a mobile in hand, talking or listening music or even clicking cameras of their phones targeting pretty girls or ladies. Society has become more open compared to its earlier conservative look due to exposure to other cultures through DTH or cable network. People are less worried for government jobs as MNCs and private or public sector are offering more lucrative jobs. Extension of internet facilities even to rural areas. In place of old cinema halls, multiplex theatres are coming up. Old restaurants are now replaced by McDonalds. Fast food and Chinese dishes have replaced juice corners and Parathas.More scandals and scams compared to preglobalization era. Ban on TV channels for showing sex and violence 7. 8.

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violating all norms. Girls/women being raped in moving vehicles or being blackmailed through new technology of photography, mobile camera, internet etc. There is descent in social values as evident from less respect for ladies, older people. The good effects of globalization are only associated with economy, but the Indian culture and civilization is worse effected by it. Demerits of globalization regarding Indian culture are given below: 1. The modern youth under the influence of globalization has drifted away from familial ties. They have no respect to elders and joint family system. They wish for independence, privacy and space. As a result the traditional joint family has given way to the nuclear family. 2. The globalization has affected the problem of cost of living in cities. 3. Globalization is hitting on the roots of the sacred institution called family which is the most important part of ones life of Indian culture. 4. Globalization brought different cultures close to each other with a large number of foreign satellite channels, beaming programmers in India. These channels propagate violence, vulgarity in the name of entertainment for gaining wide viewership. 5. In the age of globalization the juvenile offences are on the rise and our culture ideals have been deeply affected by rude foreign tradition. 6. Globalization has brought machines, new factories, and new technology in the Indian market. As a result unemployment has been increased. 7. Globalization is also responsible for falling image of women in India. The young generation considers women just as the product. They lack respect, compassion and generosity towards women. It is fair to say that the impact of globalization in the cultural sphere has, most Generally, been viewed in a pessimistic light. Typically, it has been associated with The destruction of cultural

identities, victims of the accelerating encroachment of a Homogenized, westernized, consumer culture. Conclusion- The implicit (for it is usually implicit) reasoning behind the assumption that globalization destroys identities Globalization has swept like a flood tide through the worlds diverse cultures, destroying stable localities, displacing peoples, bringing a market-driven, branded homogenization of cultural experience, thus obliterating the differences between locality-defined cultures which had constituted our identities. Though globalization has been judged as involving a general. Process of loss of cultural diversity another impact of globalization is reduced nationalism and patriotism in our country. People dont feel patriotic anymore. People dont think that they owe anything to their nation. More and more people believe that their lives are much more important than their country. As we can see here, we have had more of bad impacts than good. All these are sad, yet true facts. One thing we cannot deny is that globalization is inevitable. We have reached a point of no-return. Even if we wanted to, we cannot reverse the effects of globalization. Globalization has also had a very significant impact on the religious situation of India. Globalization has brought about raising a population who is agnostic and atheist. People visiting places of worship are reducing with time. People dont see the need or are too busy to remember god now. This is regardless of any religion be it Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism or any other religion. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. Micha el V.P, 2 006 , Environment for a globa l business: Globaliza tion, Liberalization and Strategic Management, PP. 260- 262. Article on "Theorizing Globalisation" by Douglas Kellner - web source: http:// www.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/papers/theoryglob.htm Wikipeida The free Encyclopedia- web source: http://en.wikipedia.org./ Westernization Bhargava P and Dave A, February 1, 2003, Inequalities in Rural Development: study of Rajasthan, Southern Economist, PP5.

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Social Structure and Development

* Gediya Nitiksha J.
The structure of anything consists of the stable relationships among its parts: moreover, the term part itself implies a certain degree of stability. The term social structure has often been used interchangeably with social organization in social anthropology and has been used particularly in the analysis of kinship and of political and legal institutions of primitive societies. Fortes believe that the term can be applied to any ordered arrangement of distinguishable wholes. i.e. To intuitions, groups, situations, processes, social positions: but Evans Pritchard restricts the term to the relationship between groups. Introduction- Since a social system is composed of the interrelated acts of the people, its structure must be sought in some degree of regularity or recurrence in these acts. R.Firth explicitly distinguishes between two terms. According to him, a social organization is concerned with the choices and decisions included in the actual social relations (the working arrangement of society)while social structure refers to the more fundamental social relations which give a society its basic form and which set limits to the courses of action organizationally possible. Structure as a facilitator/inch biter- Social phenomena constitute a distinct class of natural phenomena. They are all, in one way or another, connected with the existence of social structures, either being implied in or resulting from them. Social structures are just as real as are individual organisms. a complex organism is a collection of living cells and interstitial fluids
=========================== * Visiting Professor M.J. Kundaliya Arts & Commerce College Rajkot

arranged in certain structures, and a living cell is similarly a structural arrangement of complex molecules. Immediate result of the nature of individual human beings, but are the result of the social structure by which they are united. Radcliffe-Brown considers all the social relations of a person with others as a part of a social structure; and he includes in the social structures the differentiations of individuals and of classes by their social roles. He says: in the study of the social structure, the concrete reality with which we are concerned is the set of actually existing relations, at a given moment of time, which links together certain human beings. Lucky Mari says that the word structure is now the central concept in a large part of the work being done in social anthropology. She adds: we think of the society, not the culture, as an orderly arrangement of parts, and that our business is to detect and explain this order. It consists in relationships between persons which are regulated by a common body of recognized rights and obligations. Beteille states- there is some advantage in viewing the social structure as a set of relations between groups of persons having a high degree of consistency and constancy. One can then identify these groups, defines their boundaries and specify their mutual positions. Here we have defined social structure as an ordered arrangement of relationships between members of a given social group. We have tried to examine the nature of relationships obtaining in various spheres of the life of a tribal group. These spheres include family, marriage, kinship, religion and political relations. Family is one of the most important primary social institutions. It is one of the oldest institutions of the human society. Although sociologists are convinced that the family is the basic unit of social organization, the term itself remains one of the most loosely define in the vocabulary. The family is an organized group. Its members occupy a definite set of mutual statuses, interact according to definite behavior patterns, and are motivated by reciprocal attitudes and sentiments. Without this institutional organization, the familys performance of the

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four main functions, mentioned above, could not be accomplished. It is an institution which fulfills the human basic needs of its members. Man has several fundamental needs which are not fulfilled if he has to survive. Food, clothing and shelter are the most important primary needs to be fulfilled. Along with these, he needs mental and physical security which is provided to him by the family. Therefore, without family, the very existence of man, though not impossible, but certainly is very difficult. In different stages of civilization, family has been the most important and inseparable institution of the society. It has existed in all the stages of the development of culture. Man is born, brought up and socialized in the family. Family usually consists of husband and wife and their children or parents and their children. It is a group of closely knit individuals, related to each other by the bond of blood relationship or marriage. Thus, universality has been claimed for the institution of family and this has been located either in the biologically created mother child dyad or in the socially constructed mother-father-child triad. Traditionally, family has been viewed as a unit with several functions, notably legitimate sexual outlet for the partners, procreation, socialization of children, and in some cases production. There are many different family forms; nuclear, joint and extended etc. Each family goes through a life cycle. People are born into the family of their origin, after marriage start of their own family of procreation. Family roles change as the individual moves through the life cycles of the family. Nuclear family consists of parents and their children(unmarried). A joint family is a group of people who have members of at least three or more generations, who generally live under one roof, have common purse and common hearth, who hold property in common and who participate in common worship and are related to each other as some particular kind of kindred According to I.p. Desai,We call that household ajoint family which has generation depth (i.e. three or more ) than the nuclear family

and the members of which are related to one another by property, income etc, to mutual right and obligations.Tribal India exhibits a colorful diversity of families because of varied rules and customs among different tribe Different forms of family came into existence at different stage of cultural and social development viz matriarchal family, patriarchal, polygamous family and monogamous family, joint family and nuclear family. Thought it is quite difficult to ascertain 0as to which form of family came into existence fist or which was the earlist form of family. In different forms of family, certain common characteristics are observed viz marital tie, a system of descent, common habitation and an economic system. Different scholars have emphasized different characteristics of family. For example, according to kings Ley Davis, family is a group of those persons who are related to each other by blood.but, some other scholars consider this definition as incomplete but blood relationship is only one characteristics of the family. According to Mac Iver and page the other main characteristics are: universality, emotional basis of family, constructive influence and nucleus position of family in the social structure, limited size, responsibility of members, social regulation and permanent or temporary form of the family. The above definition includes several characteristics of the family and these are applicable to the family system among Indian tribes. Among Indian tribes, there exist different forms of family organization. There is reciprocal cooperation among its members. Family members by means of cooperation and division of labour, fulfill their basic needs. For example, kadars, till recently were in a collecting stage of economy. They used to collect forest and other produce and then distributed it some of the tribes, who were very backward from the point of view of development, we found instances of equality and maximum cooperation. In different societies, an important function of the family is regulation of sexual relationship between husband and wife. Usually family solidarity is based on sexual direction

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between husband and wife and their affection towards children. In tribal societies sex education was given due importance. For example, dormitories (assort of night club) were found among some of the tribes in our country. These dormitories were known by various names. The Ghotuls among Maria and muria were quite popular till recently. These dormitories regulated thesex behavior of young unmarried boy and girls and imparted sexeducation also. On to contrary, in our so called civilized traditional Indian society, the knowledge of sex-education among unmarried boys and girls is considered as undesirable. Rather it is assort of taboo. But the tribal people were more liberal so far as sex relationships were concerned. Another important task of family is to provide primary security to its members, looking after and care of children, make them a ware of customs and culture of the society. It is fist socializing agency for the child. In tribal families, the members even at a tender age are attracted toward economic activities eg. Grazing of animals, knowledge of forest produce, agricultural activities and tribal indigenous handicraft. From the early childhood, these people try to develop know how of the above traits.Family transmits the culture, customs and tradition of tribal group from one generation to another. As the tribal have no scripts But as here tribal people come in contact with the people, outside their society, their socialization process is affected. Because, the internal socialization, process tries to maintain and preserve their tribal cultural heritage, where as the outside contact tries to bring changes in the same. Inspite of all these change, the family plays very significant pole in maintaining the tribal culture. Tribal family also provides education to its members. As a social cultural agency it fulfills its role. Excepting a few tribal groups viz Nagas, Gonds, Bhotias, Munda, Oraon, Maria-Murias etc. where boys and girls are imparted education through the institution of ghotuls. In all other tribal societies family plays role of providing education to its members. Besides the

socialization, mental and cultural development of the members take place in the family. Characteristics of Tribal Families-The characteristic of the tribal families can be viewed on the following basis: 1. Membership of the family and nature of family members. 2. Form of marriage. 3. Family authority and descent. One the basis of membership or number of members, the tribal families can be classified into the following(a) Nuclear family. (b) Family of procreation, and (c) Joint family. (a) Nuclear family- This type of family consists of parents (husband and wife) and their unmarried children. This is the smallest and most probably the earliest family unit. Compared to joint family its composition is easy and this small units is responsible for looking after the needs of its members. Among the Ho tribe the family and the clan (Kabila) were dependent on each other, but there is clear cut division of work between family and clan. For example, clan or kili was collectively responsible for the collection of forest produce and on, it distributed the same (equally) among the families. Similarly, they collectively workship the village deites, but each family cooperated in a separate way. Yet for the personal needs of its members, the family was0 deemed responsible. Now a days because of dowry and high bride price, the girls among Ho tribe remain unmarried for a longer period and unmarried girls remain with the parents. (b) Family of procreation- Though the basis of formation of this type of family is marriage, but some other relative also stay with the family. In India, among hair tribe, this type of family is specially found. (c) Joint family- This type of family has been basically the characteristics of traditional Hindu society and many tribal groups in India also seem to have adopted this form of family.

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Where as in the nuclear family there is network of primary kins, in there is presence of secondary members, thus there is a wider network of kinship member. On the basis of family authority, descent and residence, family system among Indian tribes can be divided into two categories. (a) Matrilineal family- Such type of family is also termed as matriarchal family as authority in such family rests with the mother. These are also known as mother centred family. This is perhaps the oldest form of family, in which children are known through mother and descent is traced from mothers side. In this family five relationship are found: mother-son, mother, daughter, brother-brother, sister-sister, brother-sister. In such type of family women have exclusive rights over family property and on all sorts of economic activities and social matters. Husband, after marriage, leaves his parental place and goes to his wifes home to live on a permanent basis and his wifes home is the basis of his family. Mother plays more important role in looking after the children. In other important tasks, the role played by mothers brother is more important than of the husband. Even on religious matters women play key role. Matrilineal type of families in India are found in the following three areas: 1. Khasi and garo tribes residing at the southern of Brahmaputra. 2. Nayars of kerala and 3. Kadar, Eurula and pulayan tribes of south India. Khasi- Khasi are matriarchal and matrilineal. These people are metrical also. Among these people, having no daughter into family is considered as inauspicious. If a girl is not born in the family, there is a custom of adopting her as customarily she is the only legal heir to the family property. Thus, property is inherited by daughter from the mother. The youngest daughter usually performs familys religious activities and she gets major share is family property. Daughters automatically inherit mothers property. A man, before marriage gives his earning to

his mother and after marriage, to his wife. Thus, women enjoy control over property. Garo- Garo tribe is another interesting example of matriarchal family. Women enjoy rights over property matters. Though wife is the owner of family, yet she gets his ownership trough her husband. Women enjoy property rights so long as her husband is alive. As one could find among Garo Nokroms where the mother-in-law married son-in-law(after her daughters death) so that the property remains intact and no other person could inherit the family property. Among Garos if a women becomes window, her property rights are in danger. Therefore, she marries her own-son-in-law within a specified period. after which the property could easily be inherited by the daughter in the family. Thus, a widow is devoid of property rights if she does not marry again within a specific period. This second marriage at times used to take place irrespective of her age specially with a view to retain the property. The nayars of south India, were once practicing matriarchal system. The girl after marriage did not accompany her husband to the new home. Rather, she stayed back into the family of orientation and her husband used to visit her from time to time. The maternal uncle had more important position in the family than the father. The children in the family were more responsible to the maternal uncle than the father. He (mama) looked after the children. All property matters were dicided by the mother. Thus, in matriarchal societies, all property rights, descent and inheritance etc were from mother to the daughter. But after coming in contact with the outside world their traditional family system is on a decline and these people have also started adopting the patriarchal model. Patriarchal family- Patriarchal family is also patrilineal and patriclocal. This means in such type of family all the authority and economic rights pass from the husband or father to the son. The descent is traced from male line After marriage the girl leaves her presents house and stays with her husband. After marriage, the husband is considered as her own home. In

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patriarchal family, the head of the household is usually a man. His decision on family matters is supreme and all the family members are expected to follow his decision. There are a few tribal societies which have matriarchal system. While in all the remaining societies, there is patriarchal system. In the following pages, some important tribes, from various regions of the country, having patriarchal system, have been briefly discussed. Kharia tribe- Reside into hilly region of Orissa. These people strictly follow patriarchal system. The male head of the family enjoys highest authority. The descent is reckoned through him. The girls after marriage leave the parental home and stay with the husband. Usually these people follow monogamy. Bhils- Bhils are important patriarchal tribe. Father has extraordinary powers in the family but he does not misuse his powers arbitrarily. These people have assort of joint family system which. varies from Hindu joint family system. After marriage, all the sons (married ones) instead of staying with the father make their own house, near to fathers house and live there. Father gives his each married son, later on does not economically depend on his father. Though they live and eat separately, yet father keeps a watch on all the activities and conduct of his sons. The sons perform all the tasks under their fathers guidance and he is a highly respected person in the family. On various festive and ceremonial occasions, fathers house is the centre of all the activities. At the time of sons marriage, bride-price is paid by the father. The patriarchal family system is very strong among the Bhils of Rajasthan & Gujarat. Naga- Among naga tribe also there is patrilineal system. Like Bhils, these people also make separate dwelling after marriage. Thus, there is system of neo- local residence. Father gives some part of his property to his sons after their marriage. But if he does not like any son, he can debar him from his property (the property which he has earned or inherited. If, there is no male child in the family or if a father and after and his death, the property is inherited by the youngest son. Now it is purely up to

the youngest brother whether he keeps his deceased brothers property himself or distributes among other brothers also. Thus, in patriarchal family the property is inherited through male line. Women are debarred from the property rights. In husbands house the property is inherited by her sons and in fathers house by her brother. Thus, in Patriarchal system, usually the condition of women has been by and large unfavorable. Yet in India there are certain tribal groups where inspite of patriarchal system, women play important role in familys economic activities. At times, they seem to play more important role than their men fack. Women among Bhotias are the best example in this regard. The Bhotias are the transhumane residing in the northern parts of Kumaon and Garhwali into Himalayan region. The whole Bhotia economy centers around their women folk. She is expert in making garments and in the preparation of carpet, weaving of shawls, wollen rugs and several wollen garments at home. The men are traders, who usually move from one place to another. Women are the custodians of the family purse and take decision on important economic matters. Thus, by their skill and hard work, these women have been able to attain a respectable position in the Bhotia society. After their coming in contact with the Hindu society, we can observe changes in the position of women. In family and other matters, the outside contact has adversely affected their position. The Bhotia women now, no more enjoy extra-ordinary freedom and economic independece.The introduction of dowry and early marriage have also adversely affected the position of Bhotia women in the family. On the basis of marriage tribal families can be classified into the following categories. (a) Monogamous family and (b) Polygamous family i. Polygneous family ii. Polyandrous family Monogamous family- The monogamous family is the most

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popular form among tribal groups also. In this system a man marries only one women. This type of family generally consists of husband, wife and children. Among tribals, Kharia ho, Santhals and Kadars etc are monogamous. Some of the tribals seem to have adopted monogamy owing to economic hardships.Ho tribe follows monogamy because of high bride price, due to which it becomes very difficult for a man to marry more than one women. The Gonds keep second wife also in the family. Among Tangsa tribe, there is a custom of marrying one women. However, these people marry again, in the first wife dies or if she is barren or ill and is unable to perform agricultural work and other economic activities. This is important to point out that in monogamy, the opportunity of alternative marriage (second marriage) is available to man only. Polygamous family- In this type of family system man and women, (husband and wife) both by custom, have more than one life partner. This type is further subdivided into two i.e. polyandrous and polygenous family. Polyandrous family- In this type of family, a woman has two or more than two husband. Its earliest instance could be taken from the famous epic Mahabharata where panchli or Draupadi had five pandavas as her husband. Among toda tribe in south India, several brothers have (one) common wife in the family. There are several other Indian tribes, following this customs. Some of these are Khas tribe (jaunsaris) of jaunsar Bhavar, kota, tiyan and ladki botas etc. In this type of family the biological father of a child may be any one of the husbands, but the legal father is one who performs a special ritual at the time of childs birth, when first child born, then the eldest brother among the husbands performs the ritual. Like wise the other brothers perform the ritual in subsequent births. Among some of these tribes, there was custom of female infanticide in the past. The main reason behind was economic hardship and fear of abduction of young girl by neighboring tribes. The prevalence of the practice of female infanticide was seen till nineteenth

century when the British government in India banned this practice by law. However, banning of this practice altered the sex ratio in tribal; bit the custom of polyandry was in existence till recently. In due course of time changes occur in the of polyandrous marriage. Because, several brothers combined together, marry many women instead of one. Thus, instead of polyandrous marriage it could be termed as group marriage came into existence because of wide range of age gap between the brothers. When the eldest brother becomes of marriageable age and marries women, the youngest brother sometime is of very tender age or even sometimes he is born after the eldest brother has already married. The women (her husbands youngest brother) and treated him as her husband when he became young. The other younger brothers bring new wife to the family when they become young and she automatically becomes wife of all the brothers. Thus, many brothers share many wives, depending on the economic status of the family. Polyandrous family consists of two types: (a) Fraternal polyandrous family (b) Non-fraternal polyandrous family In fraternal polyandrous family type all the husband in the family, are siblings (real brothers), where as in the later type (non fraternal polyandrous family), a husband may be a person other than the real brother viz a cousin or a distant relative. Extreme poverty and high bride price system seem to be one of the important factors for this type of marriage. Among Eravans (south India), the economically backward persons and polyandry brings harmony and unity in the family. It also protected agricultural land from becoming uneconomic. The tribals such as Toda, Badaga and Kurumba who are traditional artisans, prepare iron tools, and wooden utensils and also earthen pots. These people have this feeling that all these activities in the family bring better coordination among the brother having fraternal polyandrous family. These factors have been responsible for the existence of this type of family in the past.

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However, outside contact has encouraged them to adopt monogamous family, which has become universal in character. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Johnson M. Harry, Sociology: A Systematic Introduction (1962). Meyer Fortes, Time and Social Structure and Other Essays (1970). Duncan Mitchel (ed.) A Dictionary of Sociology (1968). American Anthologists, Vol IV, No 1 (1953). Lucy Mair, An Introduction to Social Anthropology (1972). Radcliffe A.R. Brown, Structure and Function in Primitive Society (1971)

Social Organisations and Village Development: A Sociological Study

* Diganta Kr. Phukan
Social organisations may play active role in acceleration of development in all societies. In the present study conducted at the Ashok Gaon of Lakhimpur District, Assam, three social organisations have been playing effective roles in the development of education, agriculture, culture, sports, literary, infrastructural facilities etc. by which social change has been taking place. Introduction- Social organisations may play an important role in social development as well as social change.The term organisation has been derived the Greek word, organon which means a tools or an instrument. Singh(2011:261) has rightly pointed that an organisation may be thought of as the coordinated actions of two or more people for the purpose of meeting an objective. The purpose of an organisation is to transform something materials, people, information- in a manner that adds value to what is transformed, and allows the organisation to survive and prosper. Thus, social organisations may play important role in the development and transformation of the societies of different spheres. In the rural societies too, different social organisations may play crucial role in village development by taking steps in different aspects such as education, literary, music, sports, infrastructure, child development, women development, environmental aspects and many more. Such social organisations of villages may be Village Development
=========================== * Assistant Professor in Sociology, Jorhat College(Amal.), Jorhat, Assam

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Committee, youth organisation, women organisation, organisations for child and adolescent, literary organisation, sports organisations etc. In many rural areas in India one or more play different roles in changing society. Ashok gaon under the Narayanpur Revenue Circle of Lakhimpur District, Assam is a well known village in the context of literacy, government services, culture, sports, literary etc. as known by the researcher from many people of the Lakhimpur District and writings on the village. It was also known by the researcher from different sources that, three organisations viz., the Ashok Graminnayan Sammittee (village development committee), the Basanti Mohila Sammittee (the womens organisation), and the Basanti Yuva Sangha (the youth organisation) are the key factors that adopts many developmental programmes in the village. Therefore, this study has been conducted to explore the roles of these social organisations in the process of development and social change of the village. Methods- The study is based on both primary and secondary information. The secondary information related to the village have been collected from the writings on the village, records of the social organisations of the village, gaon panchyat office etc. and the primary information have been collected from the present office bearers and the members of the organizations through interview and conversation. In this regard, researcher s observation in some programmes was also a technique in forwarding the investigation. The Studied Village- The studied village i.e. the Ashok gaon under Narayanpur Revenue Circle of the Lakhimpur District is situated about 70 km south west from North Lakhimpur Townthe Headquarter of the District and just 1 km north from the great river the Brahmaputra. The area of the village is about 1 sq.km with 40 households and 230 people. All people belong to the Ahoms (The Ahoms are one of the major ethnic groups of Assam, originated from the Mongoloid racial group) follow

Hinduism. However, some traditional lores of the Ahoms are followed by them. There are three social organisations in the village viz., the Ashok Gramunnayan Sammittee, Basanti Yuva Sangha and Basanti Mohila Sammittee. The first one formed in 1940, second one i.e. Basanti Yuva Sangha was formed in 1960 and the Mohila Sammittee was formed in 1975. The Results- All three organisations viz., the Ashok Gramunnayan Sammittee, Basanti Yuva Sangha and Basanti Mohila Sammittee are playing crucial roles in forwarding many aspects of their village. (i) The Roles towards Development of EducationEducation plays an important role in society. In this regard Borthakur(2004:145) has stated that it is important for social development and it is also the indicator of social development. Education has a role to play an achieving social development and bringing about a change in the traditional beliefs and practices as well as in customs and manners. Education produces crops of skilled and energetic people who can demolish the rigidity of the traditional social structure and keep the society continually changing. Thus, education is regarded as the backbone of the nation, which performs significant functions in the society that it broadens the mental horizon of the people, helps in socialisation and formation of personality as well as encourages the spirit of competitions. Moreover, in which society the literacy rate is higher in comparison to others that is regarded as the developed society in general which implies that education is closely linked with social development as well as social change. During the study, it was tried to explore the entire education of the village and whether any role play by the social organisations. First, a favourable picture has been revealed in all levels of educations though the village do not have any educational institution. The educational scenario of the village has been depicted as the following table.

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Table No.: 1.1: Present Educational Scenario of the Village

Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Level of Education Illiterate Up to primary Up to Class x Only HSLC passed HSSLC Passed BA Passed Post Graduation Professional Course* Total No. of the Members 2 28 32 41 45 30 24 06 208 P.C. 0.96 13.46 15.38 19.71 21.63 14.42 11.54 2.88 100.00

*It includes Medical science, technical education, Business Administration, Fine art etc. The table shows that only 0.96 per cent is illiterate which implies that about 99.00 per cent is literate, which is a significant case. Another significant result depicted that a good number of the people are having Post-graduate degree in different disciplines such as Assamese(MIL), English Literature, Sociology, Mathematics, Physics, Political Science, Philosophy, Geography, Electronics etc. and it is encouraging that 5 members are having Ph. D. Degree . Most of the PG degree holders have been engaged in government services among whom one is serving as the principal of the North Lakhimpur College a reputed college in the state and others are engaged as teachers in different colleges, Higher Secondary Schools etc. Similarly many BA passed are engaged in various sectors such as Government and Non-government Schools, Business company, individual business, financial sector etc. Another significant result was depicted in case of professional course as 4 members have completed B. Tech. and some students are pursuing technical education presently. On the other hand one is pursuing medical education at Assam Medical College and likely to be completed MBBS this year. It may be also mentioned that 2 girls have completed diploma in nursing and 4 are having senior diploma in Fine Arts. It was known that a number of people exhibited good results in different levels of education.The result shows that the picture of education

is very good and therefore the researcher tried to explore the key factors inside it. In this regard it was found that along with peoples awareness towards education, the Gramunnayan Sammitte, the youth organisation and the women organisation have been playing a crucial role by adopting some measures. First, the Gramunnayan Sammiittee and the youth organisation often organise academic discussion at their village to discuss many academic matters where the students of the village and their parents or guardians are attended. Secondly, sometimes counsellors are invited for counselling academic problems, psychological problems raised among the students regarding academic matter. Thirdly, the guardians who are comparatively weak in financial aspect, provided financial aid, books, question papers, practical instruments etc. by these organizations. Fourthly, books available in the village library i.e. Ashok Library, conducted by the Ashok Gramunnayan Sammitte helps students of different levels as well readers to a great extend. Finally, it was depicted that the elder people of the village are conscious towards education and they always advice the young ones. (ii) Roles towards Agricultural- Agriculture is the backbone of rural India in general. It is important that though a good numbers of people are engaged in governmental and nongovernmental services as well as business sector, almost all people are depending on agricultural products produced at their own agricultural land. In this regard, it is quite important that the organisations of the village especially the Grammunnayan Samittee takes initiatives by adopting different measures. First, special talks are arranged often to discuss various matters relating to agricultural production such as measures to prevent diseases of the plants, use of fertilizers, use of insecticides and its effects etc. Secondly, some households are helped by the members of the Grammunnayan Sammittee in ploughing and members of the women organisation in transplanting and harvesting without remuneration, known in Assamese as hariya (group wise help to people) signifies close relationship, we feeling as well as

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attitude towards helps each other. (iii) Role towards Cultural Development- All three organisations organise many cultural programmes which help people in developing their cultural aspect as well as bringing social cohesion among the people. Especially, the Grammunnayan Sammitte organises Bhaona - a religious performance of drama and presented and played in traditional ways at the Namghor(the house of religious performance of the Vaisnavites) once in a year. All the actors (girls or women are not take part as actress traditionally) are of the village and the people are cordially involved to solemnize it. As reported by some people of the neighbouring villages, the performances in acting of those persons are very well known in their locality. Besides, it organises some other religious functions at their village leading to cultural achievement of many people of the village. In performing the Rongali Bihu - a well known performing art of Assam(perform at the first part of the Bohagthe first month of the Assamese New Year), the people of the village are exhibiting good performance as reported by many people of the region. It happens due to initiatives of the Grammunnayan Sammittee as well as the youth organisation. It was revealed that those organisations organise bihu during the time of Bohag or Rongali bihu at their village and outside. It was known that the youth bihu team of the village has been exhibiting their performance in and around the Lakhimpur District of the state. Some of the dhul (traditional drum played in performing bihu ) and penpa(traditional flute made of buffalo stone, small pieces of bamboo) players and bihu dancers(both male and female) are exhibiting good performance in and around the district. Such achievements are come through the initiatives of those organisations as they organise workshops on bihu as well as full involvement of many people in this activity. The youth organisation also organise one act play, full-fledged drama as well as workshops on acting at their own auditorium by which many of them are able to be well known artists. It may be worth

mentioning that in few years ago one of girls was the best actress in Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam for two sessions and this year the young man studied at Assam Medical College, Dibrugarh has been selected as the best actor in the college week, 201-13. They reported that the base for their achievement is brought by the youth organization as it tries to provide an arena for acting. Besides, it organizes many cultural competitions as well as workshops by which many youth are able to be singers and musical instrument players which is a sign of development in the cultural arena. In literary section, there are some well known poets, short story writers etc. and some of them published valuable works as books form or publish in the magazines, journals, newspapers etc. Besides, some researched works of some the scholars of the village have been published in many international, national journals and books which have made another sign of development in researched literature. In this regard, it was depicted that the youth organization and the Grammunnayan Sammittee have been playing crucial roles in forwarding those writers as the organizations carry out many such programmes of literary and inspire the researchers of different fields. Role towards Sports- Sports are unavoidable aspect of society. Sport and physical activity offer youth opportunities to experience challenge, fun, and enjoyment, while increasing their self-esteem and decreasing their stress (Csikszentmihalyi:1975, Long:1985). Further, many researchers have argued that activities such as sports, music, and the arts foster positive psychological and emotional development. Cote(2002) suggests that sport provides an arena for the development of social skills such as cooperation, assertion, responsibility, empathy and selfcontrol. Youth involved in sport often demonstrate discipline and commitment (Scanlan et al., 1993). It is a well known village regarding sports arena. Many literatures relating to the recent development of various societies in general and achievements in sports in particular of the Great Narayanpur region depicted

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that the studied village is a fertilized ground of sports especially in volleyball, where many players are exhibiting their performance not only in the local level, but district, state, universities and even National level. It was found that one of them participated in the Indian National level competitions who was the best volleyball player of the Cotton College, the premier college of Assam and thereby the best player of the Gauhati University, Guwahati. Another one played on behalf of Dibrugarh University Volleyball Team in Indian Inter University Volleyball Competition. Besides, a number of volleyball players (both male and female) of the village played in district, inter college and state level volleyball competitions. Besides, there are class-I Volleyball referees and well sports organizers who are closed to the district level sports organizations. For all these achievements, according to those players and many elders, the youth organization gets the main credit. Because, it organises many sports events, especially of volleyball at their village. These are coaching camps, volleyball competitions etc. However, in recent years, the achievements in volleyball is somewhat reduced as some of the organisers and interested people are residing far from the village for service, business etc. which brings difficulties in carry out such activities. Role towards Infrastructure and Basic Amenities- The elements of social infrastructure such as roads, public health facility, electrification, telephone, irrigation, educational institution etc. are very much important in social development. In this regard, the organisations particularly the Grammunnayan Sammittee and the youth organisation do a lot. Due to the effort of some of the members of the Grammunnayan Sammittee the main road passing through the village was taken under the State PWD Department in 1980 which is now under construction as a pucca road. Besides, often the roads inside the village are repaired by both the organisations. The village was provided electricity in 1985 and mobile service few years ago by the effort of the Grammunanyan Sammittee. However, as almost all

households have their own drinking water sources the organisations dont adopt any such steps to bring a common and government aided source of drinking water. (vi) Organization of Awareness Camp of various AspectsThe organisations are often organising awareness camps for many aspects jointly. These are towards pollution free environment, health; women related etc. which help to up lift such issues according to some elder members of the village. Conclusion- Above findings depict that the three social organisations viz., Ashok Gramunnayan Sammittee, Basanti Yuva Sanga and the Basanti Mohila Sammitte are taking various steps towards the development of education, agriculture, culture, sports, literary, social infrastructure etc. Besides, the people of the village are always having aspiration to be a developed village which is another significant point in the developmental process. Though, regarding employment, agriculture, social infrastructure etc. the village is yet to reach the most successful point, however, the village could able to get a level of development and such social change is taking place. ======================== References1. 2. Borthkur B.N.(2004) Sociological Aspects of Economic Development, Upashna Publishing Academy, Dibrugarh: Page 145 Cote J. & Hay J. (2002) "Children's Involvement in Sport: A Developmental Perspective", in: J. M. Silva & D. E. Stevens (Eds) Psychological Foundations of Sport, Boston, MA, Allyn & Bacon, Page: 484-502. Csikszentmihalyi M. (1975) Beyond Boredom and Anxiety: The Experience of Play in Work and Games, San Francisco, CA, Jossey-Bass Long B. C. (1985) "Stress-management Interventions: A 15-Month Follow-up of Aerobic Conditioning and Stress Inoculation Training", Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, Page: 471-478. Scanlan T. K., Carpenter P., Schmidt G., Simons J., & Keeler B. (1993) "An Introduction to The Sport Commitment Model, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15, Page: 1-15 Singh K.(2011): Rural Development Principles, Policies and Management, Sage Publications, New Delhi: Page 261

3. 4.

5.

6.

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Impact of Globalization on Social and Cultural Change in India

* Mrs Renu Markandey
Introduction- This paper discusses how globalization processes can affect social values and vice versa. It takes as its notion of values communally shared beliefs (such as rankings of considerations in defining social arrangements such as responsibility and freedom, order and liberty, religious beliefs, attitudes towards materialism, attitudes towards the natural environment, communal identification). Accepting that values differ between both societies and culture., I treat social values as providing a broad framework within which economies operate as a part of a linked social system. The term Globalization has been widely used in the last fifteen years. It is acontroversial termand has been definedin several different ways. Globalization indicates that the world today is more interconnected than before. Globalization in its basic economic sense refers to the adoption of open and unfettered trading markets(throughloweringoftradebarriers,removalofcapital controls, and liberalization of foreign exchange restrictions). Large volumes of money movement, increased volumes of trade, changes in information technology and communication are all integral to a global world. There is also a significant movement of people from one country to another for trade and work. Such increases in the movement of goods, labor, and services have weakened national barriers and restrictions that are imposed by a nation state. Some identify a new emergence of a global
=========================== * Department of Economics St. Aloysius College Jabalpur ( M.P.)

village. In the past two decades, economic globalization has been the driving force behind the overall process of globalization. Global interaction, rather than insulated isolation, has been the basis of economic progress in the world. Trade, along with migration, communication, and dissemination of scientific and technical knowledge, has helped to break the dominance of rampant poverty and the pervasiveness of nasty, brutish and short lives that characterized the world. And yet, despite all the progress, life is still severely nasty, brutish and short for a large part of the world population. The great rewards of globalized Amartya Sen- Globalization and its impact on People: Family and Mental Health For the purpose of this presentation, I will discuss globalization and its impact on people at social, cultural, and psychological levels. As a social scientist, I am interested in how societies and people change because of this economic phenomena and how the process of change can impact families, individuals and communities. Globalization is associated with rapid and significant human changes. The movements of people from rural to urban areas have accelerated, and the growth of cities in the developing world especially is linked to substandard living for many. Family disruption and social and domestic violence are increasing. For example, 2004 New Delhi police reports indicate that deaths in the city of about six women everyday are dowry-related suicides. Concepts of national identity and of family, job and tradition are changing rapidly and significantly. There is concern that competitiveness introduced by globalization is leading to more individualistic societies. On the other hand, rapid change can encourage fundamentalism, a desire for the past, and a loss of tolerance for differences in religion and culture. The nation state is losing influence relative to global economic pressures, and in some countries there is a failure or hesitation to develop social policies. All of these changes increase the likelihood that vulnerable people will be exploited, and threats to the human

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rights of less able people will increase. It is believed by economists that the crash of the stock market in Asia in 1994 was an example of the rapid spread of adverse human consequences because of the interdependence of economies and people. Millions of people lost prosperity and livelihoods, and education and health services were among those cut across the region. The effects, including social unrest and poverty, are still evident. Domestic violence and suicide increased in this period in several of the countries in the region. It is believed that the illicit drug trade has grown in recent years to form a significant proportion of the total business volume in the world. Let me revisit the business perspective of globalization: In a capitalistic market, multinational companies are taking the lead in establishing themselves and creating a major presence in almost every part of the world. Coca Cola, McDonalds, and Nike are examples of such growth and proliferation. The media then plays a major role in advertising the benefits of new products and services as being BETTER AND SUPERIOR to what the local market has. And slowly but steadily the food that we eat, the clothes we wear and the life style we lead begins to change.Thisprocessbecomesconsumerismwithinacapitalistic culture.Cultural globalization refers to the intensification and expansion of cultural flows across the globe is a very broad concept and has many facets, but in the discussion on globalization, Steger means it to refer to the symbolic construction, articulation, and dissemination of meaning. Topics under this heading include discussion about the development of a global culture, or lack thereof, the role of the media in shaping our identities and desires, and the globalization of languages Psychological Impact of Globalization The first is the development of a bicultural identity or perhaps a hybrid identity, which means that part of ones identity is rooted in the local culture while another part stems from an awareness of ones relation to the global world. The development of global

identities is no longer just a part of immigrants and ethic minorities.People today especially the young develop an identity that gives them a sense of belonging to a worldwide culture, which includes an awareness of events, practices, styles and information that are a part of the global culture. Media such as television and especially the Internet, which allows for instant communication with any place in the world, play an important part in developing a global identity. Yet, along with this new global identity people continue to retain and develop their local identity for daily interactions with their family, friends and community. A good example of bicultural identity is among the educated youth in India who despite being integrated into the global fast paced technological world, may continue to have deep rooted traditional Indian values with respect to their personal lives and choices such as preference for an arranged marriage, caring for parents in their old age. Although developing a bicultural identity means that a local identity is retained alongside a global identity, there is no doubt that local cultures are being modified by globalization. As traditional cultural practices and beliefs change, a bicultural or a hybrid multicultural identity likely develops to include the elements of the native, local and global culture. This is especially true with immigrants. The second issue is identity confusion, which individuals from non-western cultures experience as a response to globalization. While people may adapt to changes and develop bicultural or hybrid, multicultural identities, some may find it difficult to adapt to rapid changes. The ways of the global culture may seem out of reach, too foreign, or even undermining their own cultural values and beliefs. Instead of becoming bicultural, they may feel isolated and excluded from both their local culture and the global culture, truly belonging to neither. The terms delocalization and dis-placement have been used to describe these processes. For some young people, however, delocalization may result in an acute sense of alienation and impermanence as they grow up with a lack of cultural certainty, a lack of clear

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guidelines for how life is to be lived and how to interpret their experience. Identity confusion among young people may be reflected in problems such as depression, suicide, and substance use. A variety of cultures have experienced a sharp increase in suicide and substance use among their young people since their rapid move toward joining the global culture. The third change brought about by globalization is the growth of the self-selected culture, which means people choose to form groups with likeminded persons who wish to have an identity that is untainted by the global culture and its values. The values of the global culture, which are based on individualism, free market economics, and democracy and include freedom, of choice, individual rights, openness to change, and tolerance of differences are part of western values. For most people worldwide, what the global culture has to offer is appealing. One of the most vehement criticisms of globalization is that it threatens to create one homogeneous worldwide culture in which all children grow up wanting to be like the latest pop music star, eat Big Macs, vacation at Disney World, and wear blue jeans, and Nikes. This outcome is unlikely since most people will develop a bicultural identity that includes a local identity along with their global identity. Besides, while most young people may jump with accept globalization and its changes, there will e other who will remain out of it by joining a self-selected culture of fellow dissenters. Such groups can have a religious basis, which can result in fundamentalism or espouse clear nonreligious anti-global views Anti-globalization movement The anti-globalization movement developed in opposition to the perceived negative aspects of globalization. The term anti-globalization is in many ways a misnomer, since the group represents a wide range of interests and issues and many of the people involved in the antiglobalization movement do support closer ties between the various peoples and cultures of the world through, for example, aid, assistance for refugees, and global environmental issues.

Conclusion- At last we can conclude that Globalization and marginalization go hand in hand in India. With millions of poor farmers, rural laborers, urban unemployed, slum-dwellers, 3 million refugees, 100 million street children, and the millions displaced by the development projects, poverty in this era of globalization has assumed new dimensions. The question of are the poor getting poorer? related to inequality both nationally and internationally. It is apparent that in order to ensure that the potential gains from globalization are shared among all groups (rich and poor countries and between groups within a country) major reforms may be needed. As Amartya Sen states, Even if the poor were to get just a little richer, this would not necessarily imply that the poor were getting a fair share of the potentially vast benefits of global economic interrelations. ======================== References1. Albrow, Martin and Elizabeth King (eds.) (1990). Globalization, Knowledge and Society London: Sage. ISBN 978-0803983243 p. 8. "...all those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single world society Stever, H. Guyford (1972). "Science, Systems, and Society." Journal of Cybernetics, Agrawal publication. Steger, Manfred (2009). Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. Sen, Amartya K. (1970). Collective choice and social welfare. San Francisco, CA: Holden-Day.

2. 3. 4.

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Social Service or Social Change

* Dr.Vinay Mishra
My first answer to the question posed in the title is that we need both, of course. We need to provide services for those most in need, for those trying to survive, for those barely making it. We need to work for social change so that we create a society in which our institutions and organizations are equitable and just and all people are safe, adequately fed, adequately housed, well educated, able to work at safe, decent jobs, and able to participate in the decisions that affect their lives. Although the title of this article may be misleading in contrasting social service provision and social change work, the two do not necessarily go together easily and in many instances do not go together at all. There are some groups working for social change that are providing social service; there are many more groups providing social services that are not working for social change. In fact, many social service agencies may be intentionally or inadvertently working to maintain the status quo. The Economic Pyramid- I want to begin by providing a context for this discussion: the present political/economic system here in the United States. Currently our economic structure looks like the pyramid in Figure One in which 1% of the population controls about 47% of the net financial wealth of the country, and the next 19% of the population controls another 44%. That leaves 80% of the population struggling to gain a share of just 9% of the remaining financial wealth. That majority of 80% doesnt divide very easily into 9% of resources, which means
=========================== * Lecturer, Department of Social Work, Dr. Ram Manhor Lohia Avadh University, Faizabad (U.P.)

that many of us spend most of our time trying to get enough money to feed, house, clothe, and otherwise support ourselves and our families. The Buffer Zone- People in the ruling class have always avoided dealing directly with people on the bottom of the pyramid and they have always wanted to keep people from the bottom of the pyramid from organizing for power so that they could maintain the power, control, and most importantly, wealth that they have accumulated. They have created a network of occupations, careers, and professions to mediate for and buffer them from the rest of the population. This buffer zone consists of all the jobs that carry out the agenda of the ruling class without requiring ruling class presence or visibility. Some of the people doing these jobs fall into the 19% section of the pyramid, often performing work that serves the ruling class directly. However, most of the people in the buffer zone have jobs that put them into the top of the bottom 80%. These jobs give them a little more economic security and just enough power to make decisions about other peoples livesthose who have even less than they do. The buffer zone has three primary functions. The first function is to take care of people on the bottom of the pyramid. If it was a literal free-for-all for that 9% of social wealth allocated to the poor/working/and lower middle classes there would be chaos and many more people would be dying in the streets, instead of dying invisibly in homes, hospitals, prisons, rest homes, homeless shelters, etc. So there are many occupations to sort out which people get how much of the 9%, and to take care of those who arent really making it. Social welfare workers, nurses, teachers, counselors, case workers of various sorts, advocates for various groupsthese occupations, which are found primarily in the bottom of the pyramid, are performed mostly by women, and are primarily identified as womens work, taking care of people at the bottom of the pyramid. The second function of jobs in the buffer zone is to keep hope alive. To keep alive the myth that anyone can make it

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in this societythat there is a level playing field. These jobs, often the same as the caretaking jobs, determine which people will be the lucky ones to receive jobs and job training, a college education, housing allotments, or health care. These people convince us that if we just work hard, follow the rules, and dont challenge the social order or status quo, we too can get ahead and gain a few benefits from the system. Sometimes getting ahead in this context means getting a job in the buffer zone and becoming one of the people who hands out the benefits. The final function of jobs in the buffer zone is to maintain the system by controlling those who want to make changes. Because people at the bottom keep fighting for change, people at the top need social mechanisms that keep people in their place in the family, in schools, in the neighborhood, and even overseas in other countries. Police, security guards, prison wardens, soldiers, deans and administrators, immigration officials, and fathers in their role as the discipline in the familythese are all traditionally male roles in the buffer zone designed to keep people in their place in the hierarchy. During the last half of the 20th century when multiple groups were demandingand in some cases gettingcritical changes in our social structure such as better access to jobs, education, and health care, the ruling classes needed a new strategy to avoid an all out civil war. Co-opting social change- This strategy has been to create professions drawn from the groups of people demanding change of the system, creating an atmosphere of progress, where hope is kindled, and needs for change are made legitimate, without producing the systematic change which would actually eliminate the injustice or inequality which caused the organizing in the first place. This process separates people in leadership from their communities by offering them jobs providing services to their communities and steering their interests towards the governmental and non- profit bureaucracies that employ them. This process has the effect of creating new groups of professionals providing social services without necessarily

producing greater social justice or equality of opportunity. One example of how this process works can be seen in the Civil Rights Movement, which was a grassroots struggle led by African Americans for full civil rights, for access to power and resources, and for the end of racial discrimination and racist violence. Although legalized segregation was dismantled as a result of those struggles, the broader racial and economic goals of the movement have largely remained unfulfilled. However we now have a larger African American middle class because some opportunities opened up in the buffer zone: in the government, in middle management and academic jobs, and in the non-profit sector. The issue of racism is now addressed in our social institutions by a multiracial group of professionals who work as diversity or multicultural trainers, consultants, advisors, and educators. Although the ruling class is still almost exclusively white and most African Americans, Native Americans, and other people of color remain at the bottom of the economic pyramid, there is the illusion that substantial change has occurred because we have a few very high profile wealthy people of color. Bill Cosby, Oprah Winfrey, Michael Jordan and others are held up as examples to prove that any person of color can become rich and powerful if they work at it. The Civil Rights Movement is not the only arena where this process has occurred. Another example is the battered womens movement, the organizing by battered and formerly battered women for shelter, safety, resources, and an end to male violence. Again, some gains were made in identifying the issue, in improving the response of public institutions to incidents of male violence, and in increasing services to battered women. But systematic, large-scale efforts to mobilize battered women and end male violence have not been attempted. Instead, we have a network of (still largely inadequate) social services to attend to the immediate needs of battered women, and a new network of buffer zone jobs in shelters and advocacy organizations to administer to those needs.

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In both of these examples we can see that the roots of racism and male violence are not being addressed. Instead we have new cadres of professionals who administer to the needs of those on the bottom of the pyramid. In fact, in both of these cases we now have more controlling elementsmore police, security guards, immigration officials, etc. than ever beforewhose role is to reinforce the racial hierarchy and reach into the family lives of poor and working class white people and people of color. The Role of the Non-profit- A primary vehicle that the ruling class created to stabilize the buffer zone was the non-profit organization. The non-profit tax category was created to give substantial economic benefits to the ruling class while allowing them to fund services for themselves. Even today, most charitable, tax exempt giving from the ruling class goes to ruling class functions like museums, operas, art galleries, elite universities, private hospitals and family foundations. A second effect of the non -profit sector has been to provide a vehicle for the ruling class to fund (and therefore to control) work in the buffer zone. A large amount of the money donated to non-profits either comes from charitable foundations or from direct donations by members of the ruling class. Non-profits serving the 80% at the pyramids base often spend inordinate amounts of time writing proposals, designing programs to meet foundation guidelines, tracking and evaluating programs to satisfy foundations, or soliciting private donations through direct mail appeals, house parties, benefits, and other fundraising techniques. Much of the work of many non-profits is either developed or presented in such a way as to meet the guidelines and approval of people in or representing the ruling class. Within the last twenty years, due to the massive cutbacks in government support services and thus the greater dependence of non-profits on non-governmental funding, this process has been exacerbated. The ruling class established non-profits to provide social services. Jobs were professionalized historically to co-opt social change. Funders today generally look for non-profit

programming that fills gaps in the provision of services, extends outreach to underserved groups, and stresses collaborations which bring together several services providers to use money and other resources more efficiently. It should not be surprising that so much of the work of the buffer zone is social service keeping hope alive by helping some people get ahead. How does co-optation work? The ruling class co-opts the leadership in our communities by providing jobs for some people and aligning their perceived self interest with maintaining the system (maintaining their jobs). Whether they are social welfare workers, police, domestic violence shelter workers, diversity consultants, therapists, or security guards, their jobs and status are dependent on their ability to keep the system functioning and to keep people functioning within the system no matter how illogical, dysfunctional, exploitive, and unjust the system is. The very existence of these jobs serves to convince people that tremendous inequalities of wealth are natural and inevitable and those that work hard will get ahead. As the following quote makes clear, integrating the leadership of our communities into the bureaucracies of the buffer zone separates the interests of those leaders from the needs of the community. Co-optation is a process through which the policy orientations of leaders are influenced and their organizational activities channeled. It blends the leaders interests with those of an external organization. In the process, ethnic leaders and their organizations become active in the state-run interorganizational system; they become participants in the decisionmaking process as advisors or committee members. By becoming somewhat of an insider the co-opted leader is likely to identify with the organization and its objectives. The leaders point of view is shaped through the personal ties formed with authorities and functionaries of the external organization. Ruling class policies, including development of the non-profit sector and support for social services, have led to the cooptation of

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substantial numbers of well-intentioned people. In this group I include all of us whose heart workwhose intentionis to help people at the bottom of the pyramid, but whos work, in practice, substantially benefits people at the top of the pyramid and leaves the system unchanged. Looking at Domestic Violence- Lets look at domestic violence work as an example. If we see battered women as victims we will naturally try to protect them from further violence, provide them with services, and try to help them get ahead. We will treat them individually, as clients, and hold the people (primarily men) who beat them accountable for their violence through stronger criminal justice sanctions and batterers groups. We would try to help battered women get out of battering relationships and to move forward in their lives. We would be advocates for more services, better services, culturally competent services, multilingual services, and we would advocate for strong and effective sanctions against men who are batterers. We would measure our success by how many battered women we served, and our success stories would be about how individual women were able to escape the violence of abusive families and get on with their lives. Our advocacy success stories would be about how various communities of women were provided better services and how batterers were met with more effective responses.However, we could understand that battered women are caught in cycles that are the result of the systematic exploitation, disempowerment, and isolation of women in our society, kept in battering relationships by community tolerance for male violence, lack of well-paying jobs, lack of decent childcare and affordable housing, and most of all by their isolation from each other and from the information and resources they need to come together to effect change.If this were our analysis of domestic violence, then our primary strategies would involve providing battered women and their allies with the information, resources, connection, and organizing strategies they need to come together for substantial social change. We

would be providing organizational and structural support for battered women to come together to act on their own behalf. We would not be working for battered women, we would be working with them. They would be usbattered women would be in leadership and hold the jobs that currently many nonbattered women do. We would be organizers and resource providers, looking to battered women for leadership in the movement to end male violence. We would measure success by the strength of our programs for leadership development, community response to domestic violence, changes in the educational, housing, job, criminal justice, and social service institutions which condone or encourage male violence and which keep women trapped in abusive relationships. Our success stories would be about how battered women became leaders, educators, and organizers and how communities of people came together to understand male violence, develop strategies, and wield power. The buffer zone strategy of the ruling class works very smoothly, so smoothly that many of us dont notice that we are encouraged to feel good about helping a small number of individuals get ahead, while large numbers of people remain exploited, abused, and disenfranchised. Some of us have stopped imagining that we can end domestic violence and have, instead, built ourselves niches in the edifice of social services for battered women or for batterers. What We Do Matters? Even if it is not possible to change the system from within, an individuals actions within the system do matter. We can accept or reject, promote or hinder the states agenda. Without accountability to grassroots community struggles led by people at the bottom of the pyramid it becomes very easy to acquiesce to the ruling classs agenda. No one in the United States lives outside the pyramid. We all have jobs that have been set up to funnel benefits up the pyramid and to maintain the status quo. Those of us who are among the bottom 80% and

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who want to work for social change must do that work subversively. We must make strategic decisions about what the fundamental contradictions are in the system and how we can work together with others to expose those contradictions. We must use our resources, knowledge, and status as social service providers to educate, agitate, and organize for social change. We must refuse to be used as buffer zone agents against our communities. Instead we can come together in unions, coalitions, organizing projects, alliances, networks, support and advocacy groups and a multitude of other forms of action against the status quo. I am convinced that if we are just trying to get ahead ourselves, or are altruistically trying to help others get ahead, we will remain part of the problem, part of the economic, political, and social structure that maintains the ruling class in power. It is only when we get together with others, and see our work as that of helping people come together for power that our social service work will lead to social change. Accountability- So the question is, how do we maintain a critical transformative edge to our politics when we are building that politics in an organizational environment that is shaped by institutions outside of our community that dont necessarily want to see us survive on the terms that we are defining for ourselves?ix How do I know if I am being co-opted and just providing social service, or if I am truly helping people get together? I cannot know by myself. I cannot know just from some people telling me that I am doing a good job, or telling me that I am making a difference. I cannot know by whether I feel good about what I do. Popularity, status, good feelings, positive feedback these are all provided by our society to a range of people many of whom are not working for social good at all, much less for social change. I would like to look at the question of accountability because if I am in the buffer by job function or economic position the key question I have to confront is Who am I accountable to? Since my work occurs in an extremely

polarized and unequal economic hierarchy, and in an increasingly segregated and racially polarized society, I can begin to answer this question by analyzing the effects of my work on communities at the bottom of the pyramid to see if it contributes to perpetuating inequality or to promoting social justice. It is easy for me to forget that I am only able to work inside nonprofits, schools, and other social service organizations because so many people organized from the outside as part of the Civil Rights Movement, the womens movement, the lesbian, gay, bisexual liberation movement, and disability rights movement. As I have become professionalized, dependent on this work for my livelihood, and caught up in the exigencies of doing the work, there has been a strong tendency for me to become more and more disconnected from the everyday political struggles in my community for equal opportunity, access to training and jobs, comparable pay and an end to sexual and racial harassment and violencethose social justice issues from which my work originally grew. Even from within large organizations and institutional structures it is possible to work for social justice. It is possible to serve the interests of the poor and working class, people of colour and women, lesbians, gays and bisexuals and people with disabilities more effectively. But doing so is not without risk. We each need to determine the amount we can personally risk financially against the spiritual, emotional and community risks we bear by not standing by our commitment to social justice. These are strategic decisions that I dont think one can make in isolation from the inside of the organization(s) we work for. Our work is part of a much wider network of individuals and organizations working for justice on the outside. To make effective decisions about our own work we need to be accountable to those groups and their actions and issues. This accountability then becomes a source of connection that breaks down isolation and increases our effectiveness as social justice activists. Id like to end this article with some suggestions for

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thinking about accountability in this context. I want to focus on racism as an example as I look at six questions I think we need to ask ourselves in the current political condition. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Times Of India-11 Oct-2011 H.R.D. Report 2010 Social change in india..M.N.Srinivas Sociological thoughts..M.N.srinivas Dubey S.C. India Since Independence:Social Report on India 1947-1972. Kothari,Rajni,Politics In India.Orient Longman,New Delhi-1970

Religious Change and its Impact on Changing the Boro Society (With special reference to Assam)
* Disco Mushahary ** Rimush Narzary *** Dharmendra Baro
Although Boro people are traditionally firm believers of their traditional religion Bathou, they are also not an exception of the changes, be it in their life style, traditions, and most importantly their religion. The coming and adoption of new religions like Hinduism, Christianity, Brahma and others among the Boro people has a very significant role in transforming their society. These changes are adopted as other means of transforming their society and to uncover the mask of dirtyness and condemned identity of their tradition by others. The changes, particularly in some of the traditional religious rituals, started during the reign of their last king Iragdao, as they became a source of contempt for so called other neighboring refined people. It is fact that, Boro people, since they lost their kingdom, had to come and confront many challenges of exploitation, racial differentiation, and political domination from the others for which their socio-economic condition and religious stability got affected. Subsequently, by the influences of others like British and Hindu community, Boro people started adapting their traditions, cultures and most of them were converted to their religions. These changes were adopted by them in order to refine
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Dept. of Education, Bengtol College. ** Assistant Professor, Dept. of Education, Bengtol College. ** Assistant Professor, Dept. of English, Bengtol College.

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their so called traditional customs and culture. Change has become an inevitable ideology among the Boro society which is directly or indirectly linked with the idea of transformation and reformation, be it their religion or overall identity. Since the past they have learned to accept these changes in a positive outlook. This paper will attempt to analyze particularly the religious changes and how far these changes are capable in transforming their society. Introduction- Change is a continuous process in human beings as they are the hunter of knowledge and newness in their day to day life. Positive change can be defined as the condition of embracing or reflecting the value system of present in order to redefine, restyle and restructure the tradition. It is fact that Boro people, in the past, were lagging behind their fellow Indians in many aspects like lifestyle, education and employability. Therefore, the necessity of change for them became a pertinent way, and accordingly it introduced a distinctive idea about individualism to traditional Boro religion that raises other challenges. The traditional Boro society came into contact with different religions, culture and societies and underwent a great change in the course of time in their traditional institutions like religion, marriage, economic aspects etc. particularly during the 19th and 20th century. Like other tribal, Boro people have also converted to other religions and adopted many non tribal ways of living due to the influence of modernity which, in return, has given a sign of progress and development to their overall status. It is well known that the beliefs and behaviour of the Boro traditional religion appeared mysterious to other communities in the past as they used to live a savage life as told by many. The Boro people have been living in deep dense forest and geographically separated from the rest of the non tribal population of the country thus leading to their isolation. These cultural and geographical differences brought a gap between the tribal and non tribal. With the advent of many new religious sects such as Brahma dharma, Ek sharan nam dharma, saivism,

vaisnavism etc. the Boro society witnessed a new direction in all the spheres of life. Besides, the Christian missionaries have made inroads into the original religious belief and customs of a large section of Boro people. Every new cult or religion of Boro undertakes some socio-cultural reforms, which brings structural change in the society. It gave a hard blow to the conservative Boro society and finally they have emerged with liberal outlook, replacing some of their old belief and ideas by modern knowledge. The Boro followed religious system of their own, which was free from outer religious influence during the prehistoric time due to geographical isolation and communication gap with other part of the world. But, the first half of the 19th century, specially, during the time of Raja Iragdao, the last king of Boro, the Hindu priests and the British influenced largely on the Boros indigenous culture and religion. Iragadao himself took a Hindu name Gobinda Chandra in order to have a good relationship with other neighboring kingdoms. After the loss of their kingdom and under the massive influences of Hinduism and Saivaism, during the early decades of nineteenth century, the presence of social order and stability of religion among the Boro society was destroyed to a great extent. British could rule the Boro kingdom as it happened to come under British East India Company after the Treaty of Yandaboo 1826. Religious changes among Boro can be identified as a specifically Enlightenment project, related in particular to the thinking of the inevitability of progress. The capability of changing urges Boro people in avoiding some of the unwanted things in their day to day life. Their changes are the sign of modernity which redefines, restyles and restructures the tradition. The interaction of modernity with that of Boros tradition establishes their rationale and relevance to the present. Objective of the study- The main objective of the study will focus on the following points: 1. To explore the causes of religious changes in Boro community.

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2.

To analyze how the changes in religion contributed to the change and development of Boro society. 3. To study future prospects of Boro community in terms of religious multiplicity and new changes. Area of Study-Assam, one of the North Eastern states of India, is a land of mix traditions, tribes, races, numerous cultures, ethnic groups and identity. It encompasses an area of 78,438 sq Km. It will be injustice to point out that Assam belongs to only a single tribe or race called Assamese. Because Assam not only belongs to that community which speaks the official language Assamese, it equally belongs to those communities who might not even understand Assamese language. People from those communities even today speak their own mother tongue. Like Boro, Rabha, Karbi, Chutia, Miri, Koch, Garo, Khamti, Singphos, Deori, Mess, Dimasa, Laloong, etc. who are practicing their own peculiar traditions, customs, and religions are the original inhabitants of Assam. However, Ahoms, from Thailand came to Assam in the 12th and 13th centuries, and being mesmerized by the beauty of this land, settled down here embracing its language and way of life. Consequently, the name, Assam, is believed to be given by the Ahoms who ruled Assam for seven hundred years. Boro are also indigenous people of Assam where they have been living since the time immemorial. The presence of Boro people can be traced in every district of Assam. They are also scattered whole over in North East India. Some of the legends and antique monuments of Boro, in Assam, can be still found in places like Tezpur Town, North Guwahati, Biswanath Chariali, Numolighor, Dimapur, Maibong, Kachpur, etc. Geographically most of the Boro people live in remote places. However, majority of them are found in the Northern side of the River Brahmaputra including Boroland Territorial Council. Brief History of Boros traditional Bathou religion- The traditional religion of Boro is known as Bathou. Bathou, the prime religion of Boro and its worship, is related to the origin and creation. The supreme God is known as Jiw bwrai , Siw

Bwrai or Sibrai (Father of life/soul) and also Afa Bwrai Bathou. Afa means Father, Bwrai means Oldman, and Bathou means unified power of five elements. Along with him, Mainao Burwi (Mother Nature) has been worshipped since the past. Sijou tree is the emblem of Bathou religion of Boro which was created by the supreme God at the altar. In Bathou religion the creator of the universe remains invisible. The term Bathou has a dual connotation. Ba means five i.e. the five elements of nature and thou means profound principles. These elements are soil, air, water, fire and sky through which the hidden power of Almighty God can be realized. Therefore, numerical five is very closely connected with Bathou religion of Boro. Having based on these five elements, Bathou religion has five principles. These are 1. Gwthar Gwsw Boihabw Thanangou (Everyone must have purity of heart) 2. Saithwni Gwsw Boihabw Tmeanhanangw (Everyone must have truthful heart or mind) 3. Onnaini Gwsw Boihabw Thanangw (Everyone must have loving heart.) 4. Nimahani Gwsw Boihabw Thanangw (Everyone must have forgiving heart.) 5. Khouseni Gwsw Boihabw Thanangw (Everyone must have the spirit of unity.) Deouri are important persons during the worshiping time of Bathou. Deouri means the priest who leads the worship of Bathou puja from the beginning to the end. Deodini, a female, having divine power to speculate the omens and fortunes of the society or people, is the prime person connected to the Bathou puja. Bathou religion believes the existence of thousands of deities with Sibrai as the head and their pacification through sacrificial rites. Kherai is the prayer institution of Bwrai Bathou as well as a prayer dance. In the traditional religion Bathou, the people

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worship the symbolic tree Sijou, which is fenced by bamboo strips. The fence is erected by eighteen pair of bamboo strips which are planted in vertical direction. The sacrifice of animal likes Chickens, Pigeons, goats, ducks were done near the altar of Sijou following varied religious occasion from time to time. Sometimes, they have been offered in the name of God without being killed and making them free to move. There is a ritual where they must offer Zu Mai or rice beer to God, before they can consume it. After the offering of rice beer to their God only, they used to share and consume it. These rituals involving animal sacrifice and offering Zumai or rice beer in the name of God have been reformed at many places over the years. However, these old practices can be seen in some places till today. Different types of religious influences and transition among the Boro society are as followsInfluence of Hinduism- The influence and process of conversion to different sects of Hinduism has brought out a new outlook in changing their customs, rituals, ideology and the way of life among the Boro people. The Boro society, which was outside the realm of Hindu society came into contact with Hinduism long back and gradually, came within the fold of their society. During the middle decades of the nineteenth century, most of the Boro people adopted Hinduism in order to get recognition of belonging to higher position in the caste hierarchy which was propagated by Hindu people. As despised by the upper caste Hindu society, Boro society underwent a great change as a result of the influence of the Hindu culture or direct conversion to Hindu religion. As a result, they partially abandoned the traditional non Hindu deities in the traditional religion and gradually included many Hindu deities in the traditional religion. Moreover, they gave up many traditional social customs and accepted new customs, which were acceptable to Hindu society. The last king, Iragdao changed his name under the influence of Hindu priest to Gobindo Chandra. It is believed that after the conversion of king, many followers and the people of his

kingdom also converted into Hinduism. The pure traditional Bathou religion has mixed with Hinduism and later on this group of Boro people identified Bathouism as one of the Hindu Religion. However, the Vaisnavite movement of Sankardeva of Assam also had a great influence among the Boro people. Due to the influence of this religion, many Boro people gave up their own traditional identity by becoming Sarania. These Boro people accepted so called Assamese language, culture, and most importantly changed their surnames into Das, Thakuria, Sarania, Deka, Choudhury etc. and thought themselves to be a refined and cultured group. Influence of missionaries and British People- In the early part of 19th century, the Christian missionaries such as Baptist Church, Lutheran Church, Anglican Church and Catholic Church came among the Boros to preach Christian religion and undertook some benevolent works for the elevation of humanity with a view to attract people towards Christianity. The American Baptist missionaries were the first Missionaries to work among the Boro. Apinta Kochari from Jargaon Village of North Kamrup was the first among the Boro, who embraced Christianity in the year 1849 under the American Baptist Church at Guwahati. The spread of Christianity among the Boros has brought some remarkable changes in their pattern of living, custom, habit, belief and values. It was through Boro Christian society that some of the western values and culture came among the Boros, which enabled them to evaluate their own culture and society. Among the various missionary workers Rev. Sidney Endle contributed a lot for the development in education, language, and social customs of the Boro. The activities of missionaries directly or indirectly freed the indigenous people from certain superstitious beliefs and practices. For example, when epidemic disease broke out in a village it was thought to be the act of an evil spirit and they tried to propitiate the spirit by sacrificing chicken or goat. But with the arrival of missionary doctors, people could realizevar the cause of diseases and gave up blind

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practices. The Boro converts were taught how to maintain cleanliness, health and hygienic and were encouraged to pursue western education and to become self reliant. After the BurmesBritish war and Yandabu Treaty of 1826 AD, the influenced of British in all respect was increased in the north eastern region, including the Boro dominant areas. They tried to renaissance of all the people of North East India including Boros in respect of Sati prota, removing social taboo, and superstition by educating people for the convenience of their administration and better communication. Thus many changes has also made due to the renaissance of the Bathousism. Influence of Brahma Dharma- By the end of 19th century and the early part of 20th century, the Boro society was suffering from religious, moral, political degradation, identity crisis, feeling of inferiority complex, belief in superstitions, becoming faithless as the number of God and Goddesses went on increasing, being addicted to rice beer etc. Gurudev Kalicharan, observing these conditions of the Boro people, felt that the identity and unity of the people could be preserved only through a change in the society and religion. Thus, he went to Kolkata in order to adopt Brahma Religion and subsequently he preached that religion among the Boro. The religious movement led by Gurudev Kalicharan Brahma brought the process of reformation and his effort to modernize the society by spreading higher education. The introduction of Brahma dharma by him marked a new era in the history of Boro society. The Brahma religion which has its roots in Vedic philosophy did tremendous work in changing the rituals and culture of the ethnic Boro like prohibition of animals sacrifice, preparation of alcoholic substances, rearing pigs, forced marriages, worship of many God and Goddesses etc. which were prevalent in traditional Bathou religion. He also told them to inculcate good habits and develop a progressive outlook. In order to protect the new followers of Brahmaism from being discriminated, he got the permission from Swami Shivnarayan and deputy commissioner of the region

to use Brahma as surname. This religion brought renaissance among the Boro. It transformed the Boro society from a tribal character to a fair Hindu society. As a consequence of the mass conversion of Boro people to this sect, the most notable change which can be observed is the beginning of upward social mobility with refined culture and behavior. The Influence of Saivism Sect- Guru Rupamani Devi of Basugaon (Kokrajhar district) has founded the Mani Bathou Siva dharma in the year 1980. This Saivism sect is a refined form of traditional religion whose complete structure is no other than a Hindu Religion. All Gods and Goddesses like Siva, Bhagabati, Indra, Lakshmi, Swaraswati, Brahma, Bishnu, Maheswar, Ganesh, Durga, Kali, Kamakhya, etc. who are the Hindu God and Goddesses, are the principle deities of Mani Bathou Dharma. The Rishis and Purohits of this cult maintain strict dietary habit like, fasting, eating, vegetarian food, abstain from drinking wine etc. and they live pious life. She had done various activities for social welfare through her religious ideology such as offering flowers instead of sacrificing animals in the name of God, keeping oneself and household clean and tidy as taking bath is compulsory before cooking food in the morning and at the time of entering the Temple as the principle of Mani dharma. The Influence of Sat Sang religion- The Sat Sang religion founded by Thakur Anukul also has a great influence among the Boro people of Assam. Thousands of Boro people have embraced Sat Sang religion and accepted the Aryan culture and their rites, rituals, customs, manners etc. Boro people who have accepted this religion feels themselves more refined, religious and cultured than the other Boro. However, many Boro devotees of this religion regard themselves high caste Hindu Brahmins in their conduct and manner and try to avoid social interaction with the lower grade people of other religions. It can be noticed that due to this Sat Sang religion many Boro people have become vegetarian. This is a well institutionalized, organized and liberal religion, which draws the attention of people of various castes,

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creeds, communities whose primary concern is to change and reform the people of different caste and communities and it has contributed, to a great extend, towards the ascending social position of the Boro. Conclusion- With the above discussion, we can conclude that the religious changes in Boro scoiety have engendered many a changes towards the progress from the past to that of present. It is obvious that Boro people, even though such religious discrimination among them has not arisen till date, are in a multiplicity identity of religion. However, violence might come when the multiplicity of religion among the same group will be denied or forcibly be erased for the sake of a single identity. The impact of modernity on the traditional Boro Bathou religion has brought changes on religious transitions, marriage, tradition; customs etc. and the evil practices of their society are abolished. Even today, many new religious activities have influenced among the Boro, whereas, a good number of them have tried to revive the traditional Bathou religious worship. The Boro society is passing through a stage of transition and changes. Many changes have taken in different aspects of their society and many more changes are expected in the days to come. In recent time the impact of education, medical science, globalization and information technology on human being has been increasing. The traditional practice of the Bathouism now a days have mingled with Hinduism and many new principles under the Bathouism has evolved which identified themselves as one new religious group of Bathouism. In this way, Bathouism has split into different branches like Sonaton Bathou, Abru Bathou, Rupamuni Bathou, Narayan Bathou, Swrjigiri Bathou etc. Although the religious changes foreshow the vulnerability of Boro original identity in the near future, its impact on the progress of their society cannot be ignored. To a great extent, it has introduced a distinctive idea about individualism to traditional Boro religion that raises other challenges. Thus, the Boro society has been divided into different religious groups

and the simple traditional society could lead towards a critical period. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. Dr. Brahma, K., Social customs of the Boros, Binna Library, Guwahati, Assam, 2009. Brahma, Sekhar, Religion of the Boros and their Socio-Cultural Transition, A historical perspective, DVS Publishers, Guwahati-1, 2006. Page no.11-88. Medhi,B.K, Athparia, R.P., SVD,k.Jose, "The Tribes of North East India, Issues and Challenges"; Omsons Publication, New Delhi, 2009 Mandal, Nath, Satyendra, (Edited by Bonny Narzary), History and Culture of the Boros, SAILEE 4A, Manicktola Main Road, Kolkata-700 054. Page no. 220226. Akhilesh, S, Indian Society: Issues and Problems, Gayatri Publication, Madhya Pradesh, 2013. Paul, A. K. & Narzary, B.(Compiling Editors), Let the World Know about Bodoland, Repaired Edition, 2011-12, Published by G.B.D's. Basumatary, Baneswar, Socio-economic Development: Education for tribal people with special reference to Bodo community in Assam; Rongiani Thandwi (souvenir), 42nd Annual Conference, 2003, Published by Reception Committee.

5. 6. 7.

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Mahatma Gandhi's view on Exploitation Free Indian Society

* Dr. Ananda Bhikuji Kale
Introduction-Words should carry weight. Listen more, talk less. Read more, think on it and then practice it. If your experience is good then preach it such are the ideologies of Mahatmaji. He practiced his principle throughout his life. He adopted the principle of Truth, Non-Violence, Swadeshi, Peace and put forward his thoughts on Swarajya, Democracy, Education etc. In this research paper light is shed on social thought of Gandhiji. Objectives1. To seek changes in Indian society according to Gandhijis ideology. 2. To evaluate changes in rural mindset. Hypothesis1. Gandhijis ideology is responsible for change in society. 2. India is land of villages. Ideals of Dharma or religion or society causing change in peoples mind. Social thought of Mahatma Gandhiji- Gandhiji favoured freedom of people but he is against its excess. Machines are for the comfort of human being, they should not be slave to it. Today also Gandhijis thought motivate physical labor in people. For the welfare of all, people should practice restraint. We got our independence before sixty four years. Throughout Maharashtra Sant Gadge Baba cleanliness drive is implemented. Women empowerment, small scale industries, self help groups and various other schemes are implemented. Gandhiji stressed equal opportunities for all.
=========================== * Head, Department of Sociology, Shri Shivaji College Akola (M.S.)

Gandhis social thought is based on economic equality. He advocated equal status to all works, which will help in eradication of unequality in society. Gandhis social thought is based on labor worship. He assigned equal status to all profession. Though Gandhiji agreed with marks on division of labor, he stressed that the struggles between two factors i.e. employee and employer are eradicated by change in their heart. Here he took the help of religious thoughts for his social philosophy. Gandhiji was opposed to Landlord ownership of land. He stressed on equal ownership of all factors. Gandhijis view was equal distribution of basic things among its people. Centres and states view on BPL card holder is based on Gandhijis ideology. Gandhiji opines that minority should be protected by majority. Hence today many minority welfare schemes are implemented accordingly. Conclusion1. Gandhijis social thoughts are causing drastic changes in society. 2. Today also 68% population lives in villages. Their mindset is getting changed according to the principles of Gandhiji. Today exploitation is almost negligible in rural as well as urban areas. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. Prof Ram Mudhaws Political philosophy Anshul Pradhan Prakashan, Nagpur. K. D. Boralkars Indian Political Thinkers, Pipalapure and Co. Nagpur. Prajakta Lawangares Lokrajya Oct 2010, Jansamparka Mahasanchanalaya, Mumbai. R. J. Lotes Indian Social constitution and its problems, Pimpalapure Publishers, Nagpur.

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Role of Higher Education in Promotion of Social Change and Development in India

* Dr. Geeta Nair
This research paper is based on my Major Research Project awarded by the UGC to study the importance of higher education in the promotion of human and gender development in India. It focuses on 3 Indian States of Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra that correspond to the highest, lowest, and middlelevel indicators of human and gender development, respectively. The study is based on secondary data, as well as primary data collection. Data mining of national level reports and policy documents of these States, along with rich diversified research work and studies conducted by several experts put an onus on women's education as a tool of empowerment that has become almost a universal truth even for the 'new growth centers' of the global South. Theoretically proposed by Theodore Schultz, this is amply demonstrated by the experiences of the developed world. Sen stressed the importance of human and gender development indices; as well as gender empowerment measures to focus on qualitative economic growth. He has also shown the inadequacies of present indices and is devising new measures of development in order to promote the idea of justice and of development as freedom. We broke common ground as higher education and/ or lack of it impacted women's development, human development, as well as the States' growth parameters. Higher education is indeed a tool of women's empowerment, in
=========================== * Head-Dept. of Business Economics & Chair, Research Cell; H. R. College of Commerce & Economics, Mumbai.

particular; and economic and societal development, in general. Key words: Major Research Project, higher education, human and gender development. Introduction- This paper is a work-in-progress based on empirical research undertaken on the topical area of human resources that are universally important to all nations at all times. It is funded by the University Grants Commission Major Research Project (February 2011-January 2013). India is no exception to this universality particularly in the light of emerging global power shifts from the North to the South accentuated by the global financial meltdown and its aftermath; coupled with the domestic demographic dividend on account of half our population being comprised by people in the 18-23 years agegroup. This double whammy must be translated into a sustainable human development story to be cherished by all. Merely being the second largest populous nation is not enough as India, as well as the world economies demand a well-trained, educated, and empowered supply of human resources. The gap between development and under-development can be bridged by human resources harnessed through appropriate education and training. Indias commitment towards the avowed goal of Inclusive Growth (Eleventh Five Year Plan, 2007-2012) must translate into reality and be in synchronization with global development goals, particularly, the Human Development Indices and Gender Development Indices that were envisaged to be realized by 2015 (UNDP, 2000). India has shown tremendous economic progress beyond the traditional Hindu Rate of Growth post-1990s that launched us into a new league of emerging. However, on the development front, India ranks a low 134 among 187 countries in terms of the human development index (HDI), which assesses long-term progress in health, education and income indicators in accordance with a UN report. Although placed in the medium category, Indias standing is way behind scores of economically less developed countries, including war-torn Iraq as well as the Philippines.

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Indias ranking in 2010 was 119 out of 169 countries. The UN Human Development Report 2011: Sustainability and Inequality puts Indias HDI is 0.5 compared to 0.3 in 2010. UN official Seeta Prabhu said: The HDI for 2011 would be the same if the 2010 methodology was adopted and the sample size was the same. Indias gender inequality index was 0.6, the highest in South Asia. Country Director Caitlin Wiesen said: This trajectory may be threatened by environmental risks and inequality. The UN report said that India had the worlds largest number of multi-dimensionally poor, more than half of the population, at 612 million (UNDP, 2011). Rationale of Choosing Education for Social Change and Development- This is the most important area of research and public policy as its discussion dates back to 1960s where Theodore Schultz had clearly pointed out that human resource development was the key difference between economic growth and economic development. This is strongly supported by gender protagonists like Mehboob-ul-Haq who had stated that we need to engender development or it stands engendered. In many ways, the 2012 World Bank Report is relatively upbeat on trends toward gender equality in the world today. In terms of education, girls have made great strides since the days of Savitribai Phule as gender gaps in primary education are closing in almost every country. Indeed, a reverse gap is emerging, with girls outnumbering boys in secondary schools in 45 countries and women outnumbering men in universities in 60 countries. Women are living longer and are pouring into the work force, especially the informal sector (Nair, 2008). Paradoxically, social inequities and discrimination continue even today. The WDR acknowledges that while some of the issues facing women are exacerbated by poverty and exclusion, income growth by itself does not mitigate gender inequality across the board. The report, however, puts stock in globalization, including trade openness and the spread of less expensive information and communication technology, to reduce gender disparities by

connecting women to markets and opportunities, and by reshaping attitudes. It also calls for changes in policies to provide women with more access to education, health care (particularly maternal health), property rights, and political quotas. WDR 2012 takes stock of the gains women have made around the world and the challenges they still face. The Banks framing of gender equality not only as a development objective in its own right, but also as smart economics, is an important message for those countries that lag the most on gender equality. Just as investing in women and girls can create a positive development cycle, the opposite is also true: countries that fail to empower half their population will suffer from lower productivity, slower economic growth, and weaker development outcomes (WDR, 2012). Modern theories by modern philosophers like Sen have defined development as freedom to be and to do, thereby examining poverty and inequality as deprivation in spaces of individual capabilities and functions (Sen, 1999). Modern realities mirror an acceptance of societies, economies, and polities of inequality as heirs apparent of the new millennium and its technocratic fast-paced materialistic growth that largely results in the commodification of people and creation of waste people as profit maximization displaces labor (Barabara HarrisWhite, 2005) implying that the State has to mitigate poverty of waste people in order to reduce their threat to the labor force. These changing trajectories of practical exposures in economic growth theories are somewhat matched by changing Rawlsian concepts of theory of justice to Sens idea of justice that point to the grave problems with this transcendental approach and argues for not a theory of an ideally-just state, but a theory that can yield judgments as to comparative justice (Sen, 2009, Nussbaum, 2000). Field Work Analysis- The research project aims at investigating the dual problems of inclusive growth and gender equality to be attained via the tool of higher education in order to promote

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human and social development in India. The main purpose of this study is to examine the impact of globalization on higher education in India. The specific objectives aim to review the gendered effects of domestic reforms and globalization of higher education on girls/women; highlight the importance of higher education in promoting human development, in general, and gender equality and empowerment, in particular. Also, an attempt to link up national and international policies and trends in higher education with micro level cases of select educational institutions in Mumbai is undertaken. This in turn would provide a road map for future promotion of womens development in higher education, at the work place and at home/society to widen their capabilities, opportunities, and choices to result in social development. Keeping in mind the above-mentioned theoretical framework and objectives, the following hypotheses are formulated: a) Globalization has become a universal phenomenon and does have repercussions on higher education, in general; b) Domestic reforms and international changes do impact girls/women; c) Higher education has an important role to play in promotion of human and social development, especially regarding gender equality and empowerment; d) Macro level policies in the arena of higher education, bothnational and international do have ramifications at the grassroots; e) It becomes imperative to frame women-friendly policies in the arena of higher education that would translate into better places of work and homes in order to harness the capabilities of women by providing them with wider choices and opportunities. The Research Design and Methodology revolves around secondary data as general policies and trends in higher education in India and abroad in the newly emerging framework of the National Knowledge Commission, and General Agreement of

Trade in Services (GATS), respectively would provide the skeleton for our analysis. Various Colleges affiliated to the University of Mumbai are being studied; along with the Sreemati Nathibai Damodar Thackersay (SNDT) University in order to also provide insights into the location and related income-group of women seeking higher education in exclusive female-enclaves in the arena of higher education and research. Apart from the home State of Maharashtra, the low HDI-GDI State of Madhya Pradesh has been visited and areas of Bhopal and Indore covered with interviews conducted at several engineering, dental, and management colleges; as well as the Womens Studies Centre at Barkatullah University. Initial results show the backwardness in womens education on account of social repressiveness and problems of backward tribal communities. Slow changes are seen to emerge with populist Government policies of providing bicycles to girls to encourage their entry into Universities. The State of Kerala showed totally opposite results of high levels of HDI and GDI on account of mass literacy programmes funded and implemented by a progressive State, along with progressive family attitudes. Most of the research tools would relate to field work and detailed structured questionnaires to the concerned sample largely covering educators, researchers, students, and administrators in these institutions. Few interviews with policy makers and leading educationists in this field are also covered. Field visits to other States are undertaken for comparative analysis and imbibing of best practices. This project is of great significance in terms of academics, as it would help us revisit, reform, revitalize, and rehabilitate this crucial area of human development upon which all other building blocks of a nation and society can be placed. It would provide valuable insights into different trajectories and methods adopted by pioneering institutions in the city. Academics and knowledge creation would be revolutionized as the present century is truly a Knowledge Century. It would enable India to convert its human power into productive and well-developed people, especially its women

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population. This is in tune with our 11 and 12 Five-Year Plans that aims to attain sustainable development and the national policies that are at the mid-way of the Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations of promoting education, empowerment, and gender equality by 2015. This area of research is contemporary in nature and is highly topical as it relates to the present-day needs of our society. Most of the social tensions, malaise, and disturbances, and underdevelopment occur due to the educational divide that the nation faces. The Government has made Constitutional changes at lower level of education in order to make it free, compulsory, and universal. But, the graph of higher education gets skewed and becomes highly asymmetrical due to various dichotomies and schism between gender, class, regional, and income groupings. The gender divide is highly prominent and causes the vicious circle of low education, backwardness in attitudes, low participation in the labour market, thus making human progress in general, and womens in particular retrograde. These developments have ramifications on population, mortality, morbidity, and thought processes thus creating a situation of one step ahead, but two behind..in human and gender development and empowerment. Thus, development if not engendered, would definitely be endangered in future. Higher education will usher in social change for real development to occur. Concluding Comments- It is difficult to draw out immediate conclusions as the field work data is being collected for the home State that clearly show that a roadmap of development must focus on education as a necessary means as well as objective of development to attain higher goals of sustainable development. On the macro front, the post-nineties remind us of a crisis situation on the domestic and international front that jeopardized Indias economic and political conditions. The attainment of high growth rates in a slow-moving western growth pattern masked the gross inequalities. The divide became increasingly visible due to the jobless nature of growth that

impoverished the weaker sections of women, poor, migrants, and the like. Education is one of the most important means of empowering women with the knowledge, skills and selfconfidence necessary to participate fully in the development process. (ICPD Programme of Action, paragraph 4.2). Education is important for everyone, but it is especially significant for girls and women. This is true not only because education is an entry point to other opportunities, but also because the educational achievements of women can have ripple effects within the family and across generations. Investing in girls education is one of the most effective ways to reduce poverty. Investments in secondary school education for girls yield especially high dividends. Girls who have been educated are likely to marry later and to have smaller and healthier families. Educated women can recognize the importance of health care and know how to seek it for themselves and their children. Education helps girls and women to know their rights and gain confidence. However, womens literacy rates are significantly lower than mens in most developing countries. Education of parents is linked to their childrens educational attainment, and the mother s education is usually more influential than the fathers. An educated mothers greater influence in household negotiations may allow her to secure more resources for her children. Educated mothers are more likely to be in the labour force, allowing them to pay some of the costs of schooling, and are more aware of returns to schooling. They have fewer children, can concentrate more attention on each child and realize the benefits of smaller families. Closing the gender gap in education is a development priority. The 1994 Cairo Consensus recognized education, especially for women, as a force for social and economic development. Universal completion of primary education was set as a 20-year goal, as was wider access to secondary and higher education among girls and women. Closing the gender gap in education by 2015 is also one of the benchmarks for the

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Millennium Development Goals that India must seek. India needs to re-look at her second generation reforms beyond mere quantitative attainment of double-digit growth rates. The benefits of high growth rate are likely to be negated by poverty, inequality, unemployment, hunger, deprivation, and illiteracy of the masses. The Human Development Index has been abysmally low at 0.4, marginally moving to 0.5 over the decade of nineties; with similar indices of Gender Development Index, and worst indices of Gender Empowerment Measure at 0.2 (Human Development Reports, 1995, 1999, and 2001). Mere quantitative achievements in literacy and targeted primary education programs in the absence of relevant and holistic higher education devoid of employability, equity, access; of especially women would widen the gaps between modern India and traditional Bharat. India today faces the biggest challenge of illiteracy and true education that is largely responsible for the present social malaise and heinous acts of violence against women, thus calling for social reformation of men, more than women supported by legislative reforms, social reformation, and political will that will build an egalitarian and equitable society where women are safe and treated with dignity and honor to help build the nations economic capabilities and social sensibilities. ======================== References1. 2. Eleventh Five Year Plan, (200 7-20 12), Ministry of Planning and Policy Implementation, GOI, New Delhi Harris-White, B. (2005), "Destitution and the Poverty of Its Politics", World Development, Vol. 33, No. 6 ----------------------(2006)"Poverty and Capitalism", Economic and Political Weekly, April, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 1241-46 Human Development Reports, UNDP, 1995, 1999, 2001, 2011 ICPD Program of Action (http://unfpa.org) Nair, G. (2008), "Revisiting Globalization through the Gender Lens", Serials Publications, New Delhi Nussbaum, M. (2000), "Women and Human Development: The Capabilities Approach", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Sen, A. (1999), "Development as Freedom", Clarender Press, UK -------- (2009), "The Idea of Justice", Penguin Books, London World Bank, WDR (2012), "Gender Equality and Development", Washington D.C.

Development of the Society through Value Oriented Education

* Dr. Rajkumar S. Topandasani
Life is becoming complex and complicated day by day. The norms of family, society, politics, professional ethics, secularism, democracy etc, are changing and coming under increasing strain therefore, it is obligatory on all of us that we must make serious efforts to inculcate values not only in children but also in adults. Introduction- Values are the principles that lay a solid foundation for a civilized and caring society. A society is said to be a cultured one, if it follows a set of norms that are for the welfare of its individual members; on the contrary, a society which cares least for its members and where the principle of might is right, is predominant, cannot be said to be a cultured society. In such a society becomes less caring for its individual members who need attention and care because of the conditions that are beyond their control. If a society is to be made for all, values must become an integral and inseparable part each individual. Values thus, are as important for living a happy life, as food is important for healthy body. Hence, there is an urgent need to initiate voluntary efforts for inculcating values in society. There has been, however a significant change in our values in the last fifty years, and there has been a shift in the way we think and act. There is more emphasis now on satisfying individual interests, than the collective ones which, sometimes,
=========================== * Associate Professor & Head, Department of Accountancy, Arts & Commerce College, Mendaeda (Gujarat)

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

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results in clashes between individual interests and social interests. As for as human values and moral values are concerned, the change has affected them adversely . Family bonds and social bonds have weakened and people have become more egoistic. The relationships are determined by usefulness of a person or persons for a particular purpose, i.e. practical benefits that people can derive from each other. This adverse change has influenced the whole system of society and ever before. Different types of crimes, including violence , economic and moral, are on the increase due to erosion of values. If urgent steps are not taken to control the situation, there will be chaos and unrest in the society hampering the development of the society as well as of individuals. Role of Parents- Family is the first school where good habits and values are nurtured in a child the foundation laid in the formative years of a child, play a significant role in determining the personality of a child and making him a good citizen n. it is the family where child learns different values such as love, sharing, living together, tolerance, respecting elders, obedience, honesty, kindness etc. Therefore, parents must ensure that right values are developed in children. Parents must also volunteer themselves to initiate such efforts that could contribute to the process of inculcating values in society. Role of Media- If our objective is clear, it will not be difficult to inculcate a value system in our educational programmed. There is a great demand in our country for an education, based on the abiding values and, at the same time imparting skills for learning how to live together for a better life. In this connection it would not be an exaggeration to say that the media are all powerful. They shape the mind of our people. Therefore, instead of making people crazy about inessential things, why not inspire them to live up to the enduring values that will make our lives courageous and strong make us feel for others, with the deepest of concern and understanding? Those who control the media and those who use them can do better towards enriching the

quality of human life. Role of Teacher- Teacher must play an important role in such a programme. The most important aspect is that they should set good examples of conduct and behaviors which the students may imbibe. Following are the various school programmes to be undertaken in the school for developing values. 1. Morning assemble activities like prayer, brief ethical speech, patriotic songs etc. 2. Essential teaching of great religion. 3. Extension lectures based on morality and value oriented education. 4. Declamation contests related to social, moral, cultural, aesthetic and spiritual values. 5. Book exhibitions. 6. Skits and dramas 7. Bharat Darshan Conclusion- Life is becoming complex and complicated day by day. The norms of family, society, politics, professional ethics, secularism, democracy etc, are changing and coming under increasing strain therefore, it is obligatory on all of us that we must make serious efforts to inculcate values not only in children but also in adults. ======================== References1. 2. Miracle of Teaching 2008 Quality and Excellence in Education-D.D.AGGARWAL Sarup & sons new delhi 2010.

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Challenges of Globalization on Indian Higher Education

* Dr. Anjana Jain
Higher Education has attained a key position in the knowledge society under globalized economy. However, the challenges faced are immense and far-reaching. The higher education system in India suffers from acute paucity of funds, lack of autonomy, burden of affiliation etc. It is characterized by extreme rigidity and lack of flexibility. The real weakness of the higher education is in the structure itself, and there is a need for introspection and reflection on what we have achieved and where do we go from here during the times of globalization on the other hand, the effects of globalization on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are foreseeing changes within learning systems across the world as ideas, values and knowledge, changing the roles of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialization towards an information based society. Introduction- Our era of global urbanization one where the majority of the worlds population now lives in urban areas raises some interesting opportunities and challenges for higher education systems and institutions, analysts are pointing out is that we are seeing not just the growth of the proportion of the worlds population living in cities, but also the emergence of new spatial patterns and orders; this emerging pattern is associated with terms like extended metropolitan region. Development of Higher Education- Humanity has gone through three ages of civilization namely agricultural era, industrial era
=========================== * Professor Economics, Govt. MLB Girls PG College, Indore

and knowledge era. We are assumed to be in the knowledge era. We refer to the present society as knowledge society. Knowledge is for human virtue from the beginning and nothing is new. It is an inherent characteristics and possession of human beings. If that is so, then why is it that we refer to the present age as knowledge era? Agriculturally civilized economy depends not on literacy and education but on crafts that require only training. The agents of production were the agriculturist, the mason, the carpenter, the blacksmith and so on. Knowledge is not used as a means of production. It was in the industrial age that knowledge was used to produce tools, and the objective is to increase productivity. Production moved from craft to technology. During the following two centuries, enormous category of tools was produced. Productivity was consistently increased. The World Bank conducted a survey in 34 advanced countries from 1850 to 1960 and it was found that in all these countries, economic development picked up only when they reached a high level of literacy. Nearer example was quoted. The revolution of China launched its new development program thereafter from 1978.1. In 1979, the literacy in China was 70% while in India it was 43.6% even until 1981. We launched the new economic policy in 1991. Even at that time the literacy in India was 52.2% that is, half of the population was still illiterate. In other words the people in India in 1991 were not as well prepared for development as the people in China were even a decade earlier.2. We have to realize that we have failed to reach the threshold level of literacy needed for development in the knowledge era. Even until the end of the 20th century, our failure has been that of educating our people. In higher education, the opportunities mentioned earlier were the opportunities of education for the highest level of knowledge in every subject and capacity, for creating new knowledge important for development. Developing countries do not have the facilities for producing adequate number of people with necessary university education. Students are moving, in increasing numbers, from developing countries to the advanced countries for higher education. This number has considerably increased and we have today what we

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refer to as a category of international students. Their numbers was according to United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 1.9 million in 2003. According to a study made by IDP Education Australia, the estimated demand for international higher education may reach 7.2 million globally by 2025. United States of America (USA) had in 2003, 5.7 lakhs of international students and the income from them was $13.5 billion. Even a country like Australia with a small population, had 1.6 lakhs of students in 2004, contributing US $ 4.5 billion. The number of Indian students studying abroad as per the statement of the Honorable Minister Vayalar Ravi, is 2.6 lakhs as a whole and 1.04 lakhs in USA. Even in a country like Australia the Indian student population is over 97000. One may estimate foreign exchange paid to the students who are studying abroad and it may amount to about Rs.25000 crores. We have to realize that higher education has long become one of the commercial goods. If we do not Thanuskodi 107 provide opportunities for adequate education facilities within India, we may have to pay for education abroad. It is not as though students from India alone go abroad to study (Prem et al., 2007) .3. The largest international student population is from China. The number from China is about 4 lakhs. China allows this large number to go out for higher education, in spite of the massive facilities created within China because they realize that in the interests of the country, the young men and women have to seek educational opportunities outside the borders of China. Table No. 1 All India Growth of Institutions
Year 1947-48 1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 Universities 20 28 45 93 123 184 266 348 355 367 416 480 504 College 496 578 1819 3227 4738 5748 11146 17625 18064 19000 20677 22000 25951 Total 516 606 1864 3320 4861 5932 11412 17973 18419 19367 21093 22480 26455

Source: UGC and Higher Education in India, Annual Reports Ref. (6-7) Main Institute in Indian Higher Education 1. University Grants Commission (UGC) set up under UGC Act 1956 in responsible for coordination, determination and maintenance of standards and release of grants to universities and research organization. 2. Professional councils that is responsible for recognition courses, promotion of professional institutions and provision of grants to undergraduate programs. As of today software development does not have a statutory council. NASSCOM is generally accepted as equivalent of a council. Research Councils: A number of them have been setup under the Central (federal) government..4 Challenges of Globalization in India Some of the major challenges which should be addressed like: Should the core ideas associated with the socio spatial structure of the university hold firm while the socio spatial structure of societies around the world is spreading horizontally across an increasing scale? Can we carry on assuming that people should/will come to a campus to receive all or a majority of their formal higher education? Does the globalization offer unprecedented opportunities to reach humankind like never before? The economic reforms and its outgrowth, transnational education, undoubtedly pose challenges to policy makers and educationalists in the country. Cultural conflict. Autonomy of Institutions. Quality education to poorer classes. Local language and culture. Lack of market oriented policies of the Government for the universities. The above challenges are faced by the society today in the era of globalization; education in country like India need to move from traditional methodology to modern methods, and even new

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methods needs to be explored to feed fast growing population and maintaining standard of education as well. Conclusion- Globalization, which is said to have brought radical changes in the polity, economy and society in India, may have a similarly profound effect on the education, particularly the higher education in the country. Globalization has brought in new definitions not only for the worlds economic and political system, but also for higher education. It is certain that the higher education cannot be any more static and traditional as it receives acute competition from global universities and private educational institutions. The innovation form of transnational education such as liberal migration policy for education, internet based distance learning, branch campuses, educational franchising have greatly expanded opportunities for students to study and learn outside their country of origin. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Higher Education National Informatics Centre Govt. of India. education.nic.in retrived 2010-09-01 India Country summary of Higher Education - world bank. Philip G. Albach, Higher Education & WTO; Globalization May 1994 world bank, Washington on, D.C. Nagnath V Kole and vilas B Khandare - Globalizaion & Higher Education Global Economics Research. April 2012 vol. I, page no. 54. Department of Secondary and Higher Education (2008) Higher Education in India, http://www.education.nic.in/

Women and Higher Education in India : An Overvi ew

* Mamta Biswas
Educating women especially in higher education has its own ramification as education needs to be seen in the total historical, social and cultural background of women in the Indian context. If general education is to be limited to men or women, that opportunity should be given to women, for than it would most surely be passed on to the next generation. As elsewhere in the world, a womens place in India has traditionally been the home. Traditions denying women access to gainful employment were further reinforced by their exclusion from formal education. According to Sir VabnuKramanika there were many women who composed the hymns of the Rigveda. AswalayanaGruhyaustra required posterity to read everyday the names of great women like SulabhaMaitraye, Gargyi. In the Indian Society from about 300 B.C. to the beginning of the Christian era sons were valued more than daughter. So womens access to formal education remained very poor. In Muslim period status of women was lowered even further due to Purdah system. In this time there was no any distinction between girls and boys in getting primary education. But girls were not permitted to go to higher educational institutions because there was co-education. On the whole, womens status was low at this time. In British period the real dent towards womens education was made by the 19th century social reform movement. This movement had two major thrusts : First, an organized effort to obtain legislation against Sati, Child marriage and female infanticide; and second, a firm and steady campaign for the education of women. Towards the end of the 19th century,
=========================== * Research Scholar, Department of Sociology BBAU, Lucknow (U.P.)

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Social reformers ventured further to provide windows and other marginalized women with education. At the beginning of 20 th century, Mahatma Gandhi specifically affirmed that womens education was vital both for success of Indian movement and for the development of the country. In this way Raja Ram Mohan Rai, Pandit Rama Bai, Rama BaiRanade, Swami Vivekananda, Annie Besant and other social reformers made efforts for the emancipation of Indian women. So it is clear that these social reformers demand equal rights of education for women. They drew women from all sections of society and led them to get education because education is a great need of women like men. Thus this was the position of women till pre independence period related with all education. After Independence period initiated as an epoch in the process of female education. A real impetus to womens education came with the political awakening of the country. After independence, the government of India has designed several strategies for promotion of women education some of important committees and commission are listed below: DurgabaiDeshmukh committee of Education of Women (1959). Hansa Mehta Committee on Differentiation of Curricula (1964). Education Commission (1964-66). National Policy of Education (1968) & reiterated strongly in the national policy on Education(1986)(revised in 1992) and its program of action. The Report of the committee on status or women towards equality (1974). Shramshakti, Report of Committee on women in Informal Sector. The National perspective plan for women (1988-2000) These are the some important commission and committees related with women education. The 1st Committee appointed by the Government of India in 1958 was the National Committee on womens Education. It criticised the Sargent Report for making a suggestion that womens education should not be treated as a

special problem.The post-independence period brought a new conception of the goals or objectives of womens education. Education of women was no longer seen exclusively as an instrument for womens role in society, it was now seen as a means of providing equality or opportunity to women. But here it is to be noted that there is a very wide disparity between the education of men and women. If we focus on the literacy rate in our country then we find that ( table 1) the literacy rate for women at various points of time from 1901 to 2011 has increased from the insignificant 0.7 per cent in 1901 to 65.46 in 2011. Table1: Literacy Rates in India (1901 to 2011)
Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 Percentage of Literacy to Table Population Persons Males 5.3 9.8 5.9 10.6 7.2 12.2 9.5 15.6 16.1 24.9 16.7 25.0 24.0 34.4 29.5 39.5 36.2 46.9 52.11 63.86 65.38 75.35 74.04 82.14 Females 0.7 1.1 1.8 2.9 7.3 7.9 13.0 18.7 24.8 39.42 54.18 65.46

Source :Census of India(1901 to 2011

Participation of Women in Higher Education- Women Constitute 48.5% (Census 2011) of the Indian population, but owing to the social-economic situation the education of women has always lagged behind theirmale counter parts no country will prosper if it fails to utilize the talents and abilities of women. But it is significant to note that for the overall development of women, higher education is also essential. Higher education equips the women to know the social world rationally as well as to play their role more independently and actively if we focus on the enrolment of women in higher education since independence, then we see that the growth in the number of women students in higher education has been phenomenal. The women enrolment which was less then 10 per cent of the total enrolment on the eve of

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Independence had risen to 41.5 per cent in the academic year 2010201. Table-1 show that the no. of women enrolled per hundred men registered almost five- times in 2010-11 as compared to 19501951. Table2:Women student per hundred men-student in India
Year 1950-51 2010-2011 Total women Enrolment (000s) 40 7048 Women Enrolment per hundred men 14 71

women students 9.8 lakhs, followed by Maharashtra 8.6 lakhs etc. Table 4:Statewise Enrolment of Women in India
S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. State/UT Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam 268451 Bihar 690776 Chhattisgarh 304381 Delhi 278770 Goa 26783 Gujarat 893648 Haryana 452565 Himachal Pradesh 133564 Jammu & 184394 Kashmir Jharkhand 274450 Karnataka 1001473 Kerala 404121 Madhya Pradesh 928939 Maharashtra 1955226 Manipur 33755 Meghalaya 41633 Mizoram 12303 Nagaland 20026 Orissa 510418 Punjab 469870 Rajasthan 789479 Sikkim 11608 Tamil Nadu 1482277 Tripura 32800 Uttar Pradesh 2564886 Uttarakhand 294485 West Bengal 944075 A&N Island 3158 Chandigarh 64510 D&N Haveli 2120 Daman & Diu 860 Lakshadweep 410 Pondicherry 35122 16964883 Grand Total Total Enrolment 1847479 16068 Women Enrolment 718894 5355 127514 215748 111403 129628 16381 358353 201844 66114 84615 91825 429919 229494 353817 858313 14999 21552 5895 10121 209454 234176 298750 5731 700154 14431 982806 121563 377059 1642 32666 996 404 143 16929 7048688 % of Women 38.9 33.3 47.5 31.2 36.6 46.5 61.2 40.1 44.6 49.5 45.9 33.5 42.9 56.8 38.1 43.9 44.4 51.8 47.9 50.5 41.0 49.8 37.8 49.4 47.2 44.0 38.3 41.3 39.9 52.0 50.6 47.0 47.0 34.9 48.2 41.5 % of Men 61.1 66.7 52.5 68.8 63.4 53.5 38.8 59.9 55.4 50.5 54.1 66.5 57.1 43.2 61.9 56.1 55.6 48.2 52.1 49.5 59.0 50.2 62.2 50.6 52.8 56.0 60.7 58.7 60.1 48.0 49.4 53.0 53.0 65.1 51.8 58.5

Source :UGC Annual Report 2010-11 The participation of women in higher education has increased tremendously. Considering the data of percentage of total women enrollment shown in table 3. Women enrolment in the faculty of Arts had been 41.21% of total enrolment, followed by the faculty of science (19.14%), the faculty of commerce/Management (16.12%), etc. In veterinary science women constitute only 0.10 % that in very low compare to all faculty. Table 3: Women Enrolment by Faculty in India 2010-11
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Faculty Arts Science Commerce / Management Education Eng./ Technology Medicine Agriculture Veterinary Science Law Others Total Women Enrolment 2904596 1349170 1136930 323954 800680 330040 25180 6926 83840 87372 7048688 Percentage of total women enrolment 41.21 19.14 16.12 4.60 11.36 4.68 0.36 0.10 1.19 1.24 100.00

Source: UGC Annual Report 2010-11

State wise distribution of womens enrolment in Table 3 shows that Goa with 61.2% topped in terms of women enrolment as a percentage of total enrolment of the state followed by Kerala (56.8%), Meghalaya (51.8%) etc. There are 17 states which had higher enrolment of women than the national percentage of 41.5%. Bihar recording the lowest women enrolment of 31.2% only. In absolute numbers, Uttar Pradeshhad been on the top in enrolling

Source : UGC Annual Report 2010-11

Statewise distribution of womens enrolment in Table 3 shows that Goa with 61.2% topped in terms of women enrolment as a percentage of total enrolment of the state followed by Kerala

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(56.8%), Meghalaya (51.8%) etc. There are 17 states which had higher enrolment of women than the national percentage of 41.5%. Bihar recording the lowest women enrolment of 31.2% only. In absolute numbers, Uttar Pradesh tops the list of state 9.8 lakhs, followed by Maharashtra 8.6 lakhs etc. Factors affecting Women Education- The results of womens education under existing conditions have not been entirely satisfactory. It is dis hearting to know that women in India are not equally enjoying the opportunities of higher education. Higher education for the girls is viewed as a wasteful expenditure. No doubt of late the girls are entering to higher education .But availability of institutions and infrastructural facilities socio cultural factors, financial problems, gender based inequality social dis crimination such as parents attitudes, customs, cultural constrains, fear of sexual harassment, early marriage, etc., these are the main factors which affect the women education. These factors are of various types and they have its impact at different levels i.e. at the level of family, society, college level etc. Thus it is very clear that education of women still lagging behind compare to men. Suggestion and Recommendations- After Independence, the government of India has designed several strategies for promotion of women education. Special incentives to attract the women in to the academic institutions. The positive initiatives by the government have helped in improving the participation of women at all levels of education especially higher education. Separate institutions for women should be established wherever it is needed, awareness campaign should be conducted for the parents, give emphasis to distance made of education by opening more branches of IGNOU, UPRTOU centers etc. encourage women teachers by providing intensive training and regular educational support, women should be given free education, quarters should be built for lady teacher, women students should be given the necessary encouragement, etc. These are the some suggestion and recommendation related with the progress of women education. In the above context there is a need to rethink about the education of women. Efforts must be directed to retain the girls in primary

and secondary educational levels and enable than to pursue higher studies. With the help of higher education, each and every women would be capable of discharging their social responsibility discharging their social responsibility towards community and national development through active participation. The contemporary Tamil poet SubramanyaBharti speaks for women : The all-merciful Lord Endowed women with vision and wisdom But some ignorant men on earth Have done them great harm Would we hurt one of the eyes And spoil the vision thereby The world will be rid of ignorance If women be educated and enlightened. ======================== References1. 2. 3. Agrawal,S.P.(2001),'Women Education in India', Published by Ashok Kr Mittal Publishing Company, New Delhi. Agrawal, Usha (1995)' Women Development and Education', published by D.K. Vaid for the Indian Publication ,Ambala Azim, Shaukath (2004) 'Muslim women and HigherEducation : A case study of Mangalore city' , National Seminar on Higher Education in India Emerging Challenges, sponsored by UGC, New Delhi. Arya, Anita (2000) 'Indian women education and Empowerment', vol 2, Gyan Publishing House,New Delhi. Chaudhary, Pratima (1995),'Women's Education in Indian :Myth and Reality' Har- Anand Publication, New Delhi. Chanana, Karuna (2001), 'Interrogating Women's Education : Bounded Visions expanding Horizon', RawatPublications,Jaipur and New Delhi. Dube, S.C. (1999) 'Gender Relation in the Indian Society' in Dr. SaryuRuhela(edi.) Understanding the Indian women today.problems& challenges, Indian, Publisher's Distributor ,Delhi. Gitika (2002) 'Women in Management : The Relentless Struggle For Gender Equality' in Beena, shah (edi) women Higher Education and empowerment Challenges & prospect published by Yogendra Kumar Jain For Y.K. Publishers. Agra Indirasen, Jaya (2002)'Women's empowerment Gender - Positive initiatives in pace setting women's college , Korark Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,Delhi Khan, Farhana (1999) 'Indian Women : Their status and education' in Dr. SaryuRuhela (edi.), understanding the Indian Women Today : Problems &Challenges , published by Indian Publishers Distributors, Delhi. Kumar,Usha (2005) 'Gender Equality and Development' in S.B. Verma (edi) Status of women in Modern India, Deep and Deep Publication Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

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Rao, D. Pulla (2011) ' Status of Women in Education Employment and Social Exclusion' (Essays in Honour of Prof. K.S. Chalan), Serials Publication, New Delhi. Ruhela, S.P. (1999) 'The Indian Women Today Sociological Perspectives' in Dr. SaryuRuhela (edi) Understanding the Indian Women Today : Problems and 6Challenges,Indian Publishers Distributors, Delhi. Serto,Manilei(2011)'Women Education &Development' Published by Maxford Books, New Delhi. Census of India (1901-2011) Singh,S.K.&Singh,A.K.(20 04)'OBC Women:Status a nd Edu cational Empowerment'Published by New Royal Book Co.,Lucknow. Singh, Seema (2005) 'The Gender Agenda' in S.B. Verma (edi) status of women in Modern India', Deep and Deep Publications PvtLtd.,New Delhi. University Grant Commission (UGC), UGC Annual Report (2010-11), New Delhi.

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17.

18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Higher Education in India, Teaching and Research the Tw o Inseparables

* Dr. Charu Sharma
Teaching and research in higher education are enriched if Research gains by teaching is taken as a theme in the institutes of higher learning and national laboratories. Presently, in India, we persue a policy of Teaching gains by research in our University setup. The vast potential of the scientists working in regional and national research laboratories can be exploited for various teaching programmes to improve the system with changing face of education in India and to make Teaching and Research taken together as a single profession. Keywords: Higher education, Teaching and Research. This paper addresses that in higher education, teaching and research taken together is a single profession. The argument here is that the positive points of the profession heavily outweigh the negative ones, if there are any, which can be debated. For the sake of brevity, I have used he which indicates both the genders. For long, higher education has been recognised as a major contributing factor to the sociocultural and intellectual life of a nation. It invariably improves the quality of human life. As per the statistics available upto April, 2010, a little less than 500 Universities including central, state, deemed and private, exist in India (http:// education.nic in./Higher Edu/List-deemed Univ.asp extracted on 25th April, 2010). Besides it, there are nearly 17000 colleges scattered all over the country. The University Grants Commission, New Delhi has been making budgetary plan allocation for 112
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Manav Rachana College of Education, Faridabad (Haryana)

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State Universities. The other State Universities including Agricultural and Technical also get special grants from it. In most of the developed nations as high as 50% of the population receive higher education at sometime in their life. However, in India, the same is only up to 9%, which is even lower than the data available for lesser developed countries of the world. Thus, a dire need of high level funding for higher education and research including contractual research and performance based budgeting exist. The quality and quantity of higher education has to be improved to meet the challenges of globalization. In India, we have a large number of well funded and well equipped national laboratories, which are properly staffed and where only research work is being carried out and no teaching work is done.1 This is very much in contrast to active participations and involvement in various teaching programmes by scientists of such laboratories in most of the developed nations of the west. Research gains by teaching is, perhaps, not a common theme in our scientific community. But, contrary to it, Teaching gains by research is more prevalent and widely accepted fact in our University education system and other institutes of higher learning. Thus, institutes of higher learning and research have to be dynamic and adoptive to the changing needs and priorities of the society. These should also provide a degree of freedom to young innovative minds. To our dismay, the number of students opting for undergraduate courses in basis sciences is gradually declining. Since the early days of human civilization Teaching is considered a noble profession. In my opinion, it is certainly a good career and lifestyle option in todays India. It gives a lot without getting an equivalent amount of return from the receiving end. The teachertaught relationship is unique in the sense that traditionality, it is one way flow of knowledge and therefore nonreciprocal. A teacher always possesses an intrinsic desire to give his best to the students without expecting much in his overall career in terms of benefits, monetary or otherwise, and finding not much scope for his career advancement. This way, it is such an exceptional kind of human relationship which has no parallel in the known history of the civilised world. In our present university

education setup, roughly not more than thirty to thirty five percent of the total available time on the campus is spent on actual teaching including the pre and post teaching processes i.e. preparation for the lectures and assessment. As such, rest of the time can be utilised in meaningful research, innovations, research promotion activities such as conferences, seminars, workshops etc. Further, a teacher gets generous leave facilities including summer and winter vacations, which no other profession can ever think of giving. The leave for going abroad on a visiting assignment and study leave for few years are common in the institutes of higher learning. Recently, P. Balaram2 has admirably analysed the state of Teachers and Teaching in universities and other educational establishment. In higher education, as stated above, a teacher should always remain actively engaged in some research work or else he becomes stale and stereo-typed and in due course of time even obsolete. It matters little how versatile he is in teaching and even continuous updating of curriculum based knowledge is not sufficient enough. Instead, one should know mor e and more about the subject, the fundamentals and the undiscovered truths. Research gives an opportunity to think anew and also for the re-interpretation of already known facts. It includes studies concerning the development of new and significant advances and the extent to which it adds to existing knowledge in that particular research area. It also helps in the development of ones capacity of critical assessment of the research findings and on that basis leading to sound judgement. Further, it not only gives immense satisfaction to the teacher himself and inspires him to be creative but certainly enhances promotional prospects in his career. In fact, teaching and research together means a single Profession which probably has the maximum degree of freedom in thought, speach and action. The organizational setup in various faculties of the university is much more democratic than in case of any other organistion. In university departments, the chairmanship is held by rotation among the senior faculty members and important policy decisions are taken collectively involving each of them in the overall interest of the students and the institution without compromising the academic standards. In addition to it, a

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teacher is free to choose his topic of research, has the freedom to change it and can be assisted by his students eager to make teaching and research a lifetime career. In our universities and institutions of higher learning, most of the research work is carried out under Ph.D. programme, which has time constraints and as such the research problem has to be potentially manageable, so that one could reach up to the conclusive end within the said timeframe. But, some research projects should also be taken up and persued relentlessly with full vigour in a free and relaxed manner without careing much for the time period involved in it. Faculty members may collaborate by making a group to take up major projects and can achieve more both in terms of quality and quantity as well. Such a collaboration, most of the times, is aimed at carrying out meaningful research which can really make a mark in the concerned discipline and earns a reputation to the institute or the said university department. Various factors such as availability of time, freedom to choose specific research area and also the availability of the young, energetic and aspiring postgraduate students, especially for the experimental and the field study part of the project, are helpful in accomplishing the task. Central and State Government agencies such as U.G.C., C.S.I.R, D.S.T., D.R.D.O., B.AR.C., I.C.A.R., I.C.M.R. I.C.S.S.R and state councils of scientific and industrial research generously grant funds for the research projects in thrust areas. It is equally important to publish the results of the research work in various referred journals of national and international repute having good impact factor. One should go for the quality in terms of originality and impact rather than the quantity (i.e. large number of publications in not much known journals) of research publications. The quantity, sometimes, may impress a non-specialist in the field but not those who have good knowledge of that specific area of research. China and India together are considered the emerging giants in the fields of science and technology research.3 In 2000,s an alarming progress in Chinas growth was noticed, when their universities and research institutes not only encouraged but even gave incentives for publishing the research work in journals which are included in Thomson ISI database.4 Pratap and Gupta reported

the ranking of top 25 universities in India based on the number of research papers published during 19992008.5 However, India still lacks in scientific information output as our contribution in 2006 was just 1.23% of world share. Lately, the number of publications from India increased considerably.6 For quality publication, one should initially submit his manuscript to a reputed and specialized journal in the field. The comments of the referees or the reviewers give an expert and indepth assessment of the work. From this, the researcher learns a lot and persues the studies in right direction. Research conferences, seminars and workshops are the platforms where one can have the exposure to others working in the same or related fields and also have free and frank exchange of ideas which are always fruitful. Conclusion- Summarising the above, I am of the opinion that like any other sphere of action, in higher education too, the ideal working system does not exist and is more or less a myth. As such, we have to make best use of whatever available without cursing anyone, system or individual and instead should contribute as much as we can, to improve the system with changing face of education in India. For this, both teachers and scientists must work together to achieve the goal. The theme, now, should be Teaching and Research both gain from each other. Thus in higher education, teaching and research are the two inseparables which taken together as a single profession leads us to a life full of dignity and purposefulness. ======================== References1Gupta, B.M. and Dhawan, S.M., Measures of progress of Science in India, An analysis of the publication output in science and technology, National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies, New Delhi, 2006. Balaram, P., Curr. Sci., 2009, 97, 609-610. Ezell, S.J. and Atkinson, R.D., RAND's rose coloured glasses. How RAND's report on U.S. competitiveness in science and technology gets it wrong. The Information Technology and Innovations foundation, 2008. Mani, S., India, an emerging high tech giant, but does she have feet of clay. Centre for development studies, 2008. Pratap, G. and Gupta, B.M., Curr. Sci., 2009, 97, 751-752. Miyairi, N., World class research from India, Thomson scientific citation analysis. Essential Science Indicators, 2006.

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English Language for Sustainable Grow th and Vertical Development

* Dr. Seema R. Gida
Introduction- This paper aims at depicting that English language has played a pivotal role in bringing sustainable growth and vertical development. What was the role of English earlier, then how it has been metamorphosised leading to a change; it has acted as a catalyst. With globalization English became the language of the common man. Then technology again gave an impetus in promoting English language and vice versa. Knowledge of English helps in different areas and also develops critical thinking; bringing intellectual autonomy. Moreover the social theories have been discussed to support the viewpoint. Example from the pages of history has been provided to highlight the importance of working in consonance resulting in a utility oriented; positive development and harmony leading to sustainable growth and empowerment. Key words- change and development innovation and technology utility and sustainable growth- knowledge and vertical development-empowerment and harmony.) English has acquired a prime place in todays society. With globalization the scope of English has widened, it has become the language of the common man the masses. English can be termed as a window to the world as it enables us to have a glance into the global scenario. In the past English was learnt in a typical manner, in public schools, convent schools and by a selected class in a particular format. This was the colonial impact, then in the post colonial period there was retaliation for everything in English, and
=========================== * Associate Professor, Lt.M.J. Kundalia Arts, Commerce & Comp. Sc. Mahila College, Rajkot.

so also the English language was thrown. Thus English occupied a back seat. But with the passage of time, with the fag end of the 20th century the society witnessed a change and this change has affected all the spheres of the society. Hence once again English occupied the status of a celebrity. The modus of learning English has no doubt changed; it is no longer the prerogative of the selected few. People have different objectives to learn the language and even many English medium schools have opened catering to the lower middle class also. Today English is there in technology, science, medicine, communication, media, research and so on. The use of English is there in each and every field, one is empowered with the knowledge of English, and it serves as an additive factor in the development of oneself. It is genuinely a tool of empowerment and social mobility. The spread of computer in the recent decades has brought a marathon change in the knowledge system since the movable type in the 15th century. The metabolism of knowledge is moving faster, it is being restructured. The Paulian system, by Richard Paul views thinking in terms of eight elements as purpose, question, information, concept, inference, assumption, implication and point of view. It also emphasizes the importance of critical thinking. This helps in promoting intellectual autonomy. English language has a critical role to play here. Initially, social change was thought to involve basic stages of development such as military society and industrial society, by which society progressed from simple, rural, agrarian forms to more complex, differentiated, industrial urban ones. The other is the theory of revolutionary social change, particularly deriving from K.Marx, emphasized the importance of class conflict, political struggle and imperialism as the principal mechanisms of fundamental structural changes. Theories of social change can be further classified as 1. Level of analysis 2.change is derived from factors: internal or external to the society 3.cause of social change (demographic pressure, class conflict, changes in mode of production, technological innovation or development of new systems of belief. 4. The agents of change (innovative elites of

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intellectuals, social deviants) 5. Nature of change (gradual diffusion of new values and institutions, or a radical disruption of the social system). Keeping in view the above theories of social change, as technological innovation, innovative elites or social deviants and gradual diffusion of new values and disruption of social system the role of English is of significance. English has travelled through crests and troughs making it a thoroughfare. English has acted as a catalyst in bringing the social change leading to development. It has acted as a prompt, given an impetus leading to vertical development and sustainable growth. Here I would like to take an example from the pages of history (Ramayana) the bridge built by Rama; it was more than a mere physical entity. It was a symbol of the need to find ways to preserve sanctity of life. That which is sustainable is that which takes into consideration the aspirations and commitment of all beings, be they dangerous animals or fathomless waters. Equally Ramas mission was important to find solutions within the given constraints were the true challenge. When he faced this truth, nature became his supporter and instead of fighting it he became empowered with its support. Because he was able to work in consonance with nature to achieve his desired goal, Ramas bridge symbolized the importance of understanding, compassion and harmony. There is no doubt that English language may not lose its charisma and get itself dissolved in the maze of the materialistic society, in the chaos and razzmatazz of the postmodern society. Let us be optimistic and work in consonance to create a knowledge based society which is utility oriented and able to sustain itself leading to empowerment and harmony. ======================== References1. Alboszta Agnieszka; Speaking, Listening, and oh yeah- thinking: Critical Thinking in Oral communication- Teaching English Communicatively ed.Shaila Mahan,Yking books, Jaipur. B.B.Sharma; Encyclopaedic dictionary of Sociology part IV, Anmol Publications, New Delhi. Toffler Alvin; Powershift Bantam Books.

The Indian Philosophy of Education: Dire Need of the Hour for Sustainable Development
* Dr. Savita Sharma Sustainable Development being community-oriented, environment- considerate, futuristic in nature, societal in direction and all inclusive affecting development of humans, flora and fauna, in fact, each element of mother earth, there appears a dire need to lay the foundation of present system of education on the firm ground of the Indian Philosophy of Education based on vibrant and dynamic cultural heritage of India to create awareness and commitment in the present generation for preserving this planet. Meaning and Concept of Sustainable DevelopmentSustainable Development demands for rational consumption of available resources in such a manner that these could be kept safe and intact for future generations also. The present generation needs to use, protect and preserve the resources wisely and judiciously. Thus, Humanitys mission, according to Rama Devi Pani, on the globe should be to steward the use of earth resources in a manner that protects natural ecosystems, supports local industry, takes care of social and physiological health of people, learn newer and newer ways to preserve, maintain and procreate the necessary life supporting system; and transcends them through education to the newer generations today, tomorrow and forever to come. But, on the other hand, mans priority for growth and development for fulfilling his desires
=========================== * Associate Professor, Govt. College of Teacher Education, Dharamshala (H.P.)

2. 3.

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have made him exploit the nature to its core. Consequently, nature at times, is bouncing back furiously and is disturbing the balance of earths ecosystem and as a result, the earth has started undergoing climatic change leading to devastating effects of global warming. All this has produced a paradoxical situation in the modern world: on one hand, man is enjoying luxurious lifestyles supported by technology and, on the other hand, is facing crises like environmental degradation, deteriorating moral and ethical values and many other disturbances. His Holiness, the Dalai Lama laments by saying, We have become long on quantity but short on quality. Despite all contradictions, development is a process that cant be curbed; it has to take place and herein lies the importance of understanding true meaning of sustainable development. The Brundtland Report, entitled, Our Common Future in 1987 by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), in which the term sustainable development appears for the first time, has defined it as, the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Major Initiatives at International Level for Sustainable Development- Sustainable development has become the slogan of the day at global level. The report Our Common Future in 1987 by WCED is considered to be the major international initiative to attract the attention of policy makers about the complexity of relationship between economic growth and environmental problems. In 1992, the United Nations Conference on , Environment and Development (Earth Summit) was held in Rio de Janerio, Brazil, where the Rio declaration on Environment and Development and Agenda 21 were adopted, and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the conventions on Biological Diversity (CBD) were signed as the outcome. It gave rise to the global concerns of various environment problems and the need to search for strategies for Sustainable Development. In 2002,the World

Summit on Sustainable Development was held in Johannesburg, South Africa. However, in 2005, UN adopted Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) (UNESCO, 2005). In 2012, at Rio de Janerio, Brazil, the leaders of international community and related organizations signed a Declaration promising to teach sustainable development concepts, encourage research on sustainable development issues, greening the campuses, support sustainability efforts, etc. The various initiatives at the United Nations level proved to be an eye opener for all nations to introspect and access as where their educational institutions, especially, higher education institutions stand in creating and disseminating the knowledge on sustainable development so that solutions to combat this problem can be devised. Education for sustainable development (ESD) programme focuses on research and capacity development to integrate education for sustainable development into curricula at all levels of education and in all the sectors of society by the end of UN Decade (2005-2014) , in terms of environment integrity, economic viability, and a just society for present and future generations. In this regard, Osterwalder has aptly observed that the research agenda should strive for sustainability with the goal of inventing new methods to deal with all the big problems such as climate change, pollution, energy, hunger, infectious diseases, biodiversity etc and systematically thinking about justice and ethics, peace and food governance, not only about ecology, but also about the economy might contribute in substantial way to establishment of a sustainable way of life. Emergence of New Metrics for Measuring Sustainable Development- As new metrics for measuring sustainable development has emerged at international level, difference between growth and development needs to be understood in its true spirit to avoid contradictory situations. Growth favours the physical indicators i.e. Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Gross National Product (GNP), Investment Consumption and Savings but as far as development is concerned, the equity and

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accessibility of income become crucial for Development of Human Indicators (HDI) to grow: education, living standards, health, poverty alleviation, etc. Welfare schemes percolate economic benefits to the poorest of the poor in the society. Development is not bad but it is the pattern of development and its management that matters. In addition to HDI, still more comprehensive metrics are emerging which include indicators of sustainability and inclusiveness. The index called Gross National Happiness (GNH) started by Bhutan in 1970 talks of happiness of citizens. In the late 1980s to address the flaws of GDP an index named ISEW i.e. Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare , which accounts for economic transactions as well as non- market natural and social benefits. The measure of Green GDP, which was initiated in 1990s, takes into account environmental damages. After this, the index called Happy Planet Index (HPI) was developed to measure the ratio of happy life years (the product of life satisfaction and life expectancy) to governmental impact, measured by ecological footprint. Realizing the need of inclusion of environmental and ecological factors in policy making, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OCED) has proposed A Framework to Measure the Progress of Society, which identifies 26 indicators spanning the final goals of human wellbeing and ecological conditions, the intermediate goals of economy, governance and culture, and the links between these sets of goals. In brief, three pillars of sustainability i.e. environmental sustainability, sustainable community and sustainable economy are clearly specified by the OECD.Thus, the key idea of sustainable development is the linkage between the well being of current generation and future generations. This is the only way of attaining the goal of the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD, 2005-2014) to, integrate the principles, values and practices of sustainable development into all aspects of education and learning, to encourage change in behaviour that will create a more sustainable future in terms of

environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just society for present and future generations. Existing Paradigm of Development- Present development model in India and everywhere else in the world, seems to be inspired by the insatiable urge to generate and accumulate monetary wealth. It is based upon the Machiavellian attitude of man- end justifies means. In their quest for more and more money, people ignore the lesson by Leo Tolstoy, How much land does a man need? and do not even hesitate in transgressing moral and ethical limits. Ultimately, it gets reflected in the skewed development at the cost of ecological balance: in indiscriminate deforestation for multi-storeyed houses, construction of hotel clusters and commercial complexes on river banks, haphazard construction of hydro- projects in seismic zones, building and broadening of roads by blasting through fragile mountains and by mercilessly felling huge canopies of centuries -old green trees. Even in the small hilly state of Himachal Pradesh, unscientific mining coupled with dumping of tonnes of debris, generated every year from cutting of hills for infrastructure projects, mushrooming of stone crushers in river- beds is destroying the ecology of rivers very badly. The saga of mans avarice to fulfil his desires is unending. Mans greedy eagle eyes have not spared even the worlds highest peak, the Crown of Mother India, the Mount Everest (8,850 meters) which has been alluring humans for decades with its aweinspiring peace and divinity; majestic natural beauty and exotic wilderness. It has now become a part of tour package. Once enchanting and mesmerising experience in sheer isolation of Sir Edmund Hillary has just turned into a picnic venture at the cost of Rs. 35.75 Lac. To Rs. 55 Lac. The majestic Himalayas which, has been extolled as Saviour of India from foreign invaders and icy-cold winds, stands tamed by building, bridges over the hazardous and treacherous passes. The increasing tourist inflow has changed the nature of the flora and fauna of the Everest by polluting the virgin environment.

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Man in his materialistic rat- race has trampled upon morality and spirituality because of which society on the whole is crumbling. It is a sad plight of affairs that India has been ranked 134th amongst 185 countries measured by HDI. Chasm between the rich and the poor keeps on widening as elites at the top layer have acquired affluent living styles while at the base of the social pyramid are millions who find it difficult to make their both ends meet, in spite of their strenuous day and night struggle. It sounds very inhuman and breeds a lot of discontent and frustration. All this results into imbalanced development and man find himself to be, not only a helpless creature but also, a meek spectator to natural catastrophes of great magnitude like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions ; landslides and forest fires ; cyclones and tsunamis ; incessant and torrential rains; horrifying devastation of man and nature caused by cloud-bursts and flash floods as has recently been witnessed in Kedarnath (Uttarakhand ) and distt. Kinnaur of Himachal Pradesh in the month of June. The warning sounded by Margaret Mead, a great anthropologist, more than 50 years ago sounds more relevant today in the light of recent unprecedented devastation in Uttarakhand, Not war but plethora of man made things is threatening to strangle us, bury us, in the debris, and by products of our technologically inventive and irresponsible age. In this context, a UN observation very aptly summarises the predicament of the modern world, History does not kill. Religion does not rape women, the purity of blood does not destroy buildings and institutions do not fail. Only individual do these things. For changing this Machiavellian attitude of man, character is to be built by cultivating the noblest qualities in human nature, to grow in self control, in generosity and in selflessness and to be useful to society. Need for New Development Model for Sustainable Development- As the present paradigm of development causes ecological imbalance, hence it needs to be modified. The unique developmental model created by Bhutan around the concept of

the Gross National Happiness (GNH) can prove to be a guiding force. It has four pillars: economic development, good governance, preservation and development of environment and culture. The emphasis is not on GDP but wellbeing of citizens which arises in a society where sustainable and equitable development is balanced with environment and cultural preservation and good governance. Besides, conventional indicators of progress, utmost emphasis is laid on the basic tenets of Buddhist ethics and conservation of environment, resulting in clean air, water, energy and natural resources. For curbing environmental pollution, the use of tobacco is banned throughout the country and polluting industries are not permitted. Emphasis is given to greater harmony between internal and external landscapes in contrast to consumerist culture where happiness is to be found through unsustainable lifestyles. For preserving its culture, the motto of tourist industry in Bhutan, high value, low volume tourism is inspired by the Buddhist view of interdependence between man and nature and to maintain the dignity of man against the onslaught of globalisation. In Indian context, it needs a revolutionary attitudinal change for conceiving, conceptualising and envisioning such a holistic and sustainable paradigm of development. Unless, it is firmly grounded on sound and indigenous cultural wisdom and philosophy of education, all efforts may go down the drain. The Indian Philosophy of Education: Soul of Sustainable Development- India is a sacred land with great traditions and glorious cultural heritage. But even after seven decades have passed since it attained independence, the existing system of education is not rooted in the indigenous culture and philosophy of education of the country. In the present scenario of globalisation when everything, even education is influenced by the Western culture, it is imperative to remember our own rootsancient Indian wisdom. The Indian civilisation, one of the oldest in the world has survived the onslaughts of many other civilisations because of Receptivity and all-

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Comprehensiveness. The greatness of Indian culture is beautifully and inspiringly summed up in the words of K.M. Munshis observation: The world importance of nations cannot be measured in the long run in terms of the men they butcher in battle, of the wealth which they rob of others, or of the destruction they bring to civilisation. It has to be reckoned in terms of knowledge, beauty and culture, which they contribute to mans possessions in his journey towards self- realization; in the strength, tenacity and resilience they develop in defeating the forces of disruption and annihilation; in the vitality they conserve in order to equip man with a higher destiny. This is the reason that in the west modernity is created by rejecting the past but in India future/modernity is created with the help of past and present. New ideas are incorporated into the old ones. Modernity is in its Continuity. Thus, remedy for the contemporary problems can very effectively be found in the Indian philosophy of education, which very aptly states: Vidya dadati Vinayam [Vishnu Purana (1.19:41.)] Education is discovering the Infinite and this process makes one humble. The ultimate goal of education as stated by Indian philosophy in the opening fragment from the sixth verse of Hitopadesha is: Sa Vidya ya Vimuktaye- that learning is true learning which liberates one from bondage, narrowmindedness and ignorance, the ultimate goal of education. Similarly, The Mundaka Upnishad divides Vidya into Para and Apara. Apara Vidya satisfies immediate goals of money, material and worldly success whereas Para Vidya is education for excellence, which will unite external mind with internal mind, a state of enlightenment, and of self realisation. This way, with Apara Vidya one circumvents that which is transitory and mortal and with Para Vidya one obtains the nectar of immortality, liberation, a Transcendental Experience. Devoid of the element of Para Vidya, an education that promotes material values only creates a vacuum, which like zero without a numeral to go with it becomes valueless and futile.

Adi Shankaracharya in his Vivekcudamani has also emphasised the same point of The Mundaka Upnishad by explaining six forms of wealth to be possessed by a human beingCalmness of mind, Self- control, self-withdrawal, forbearance, faith and single pointedness. Swami Vivekananda, also in harmony with this ancient concept wanted to promote spiritualism, perfection, divinity, self-reliance, universalbrotherhood and faith through education. He recommended education for Self-development, manifestation of the perfection already in man. The Atman is ultimate source of, not only all knowledge and happiness but also of all noble qualities and capacities inherent in man. The ultimate goal of education is to manifest this divinity within by controlling nature, external as well as internal. Education must produce such Mind to see Ultimate Reality pervading in all beings. Out of this philosophy of education emerges beautiful concept of ecology and environment, which if understood and practised in totality, can surely lead to sustainable development. Concept of Ecology and Environment according to the Indian Philosophy of Education- All beings whether living or non-living, animate or inanimate have emerged from the same Supreme source, implying therefore that the outer world need not be disturbed as this disturbance will definitely result in the disturbance of inner world. This philosophy of living in complete harmony with Nature (outer world) has its roots in Atharvaveda: Samudravasane devi parvatastanmanDale ViShnupatni namastubhyam padasparsh KshamaSvame. Oh Mother Earth, the Devi, who is having ocean as her garments and mountains as her bosom. Salutation to you, Consort of lord Vishnu, pardon mother for setting my foot on you. Placing ones feet is considered as an act of disrespect and thus one must seek forgiveness from Goddess Earth for doing so. It speaks of tremendous respect and reverence for Earth. How can one think of exploiting and polluting the earth , when it is held in such a high esteem? Such sensitivity needs to be

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cultivated in human beings for living harmoniously with all. Not only Mother Earth but even trees were also worshipped as Devatas, one who keeps giving incessantly. Rig Veda extols trees by saying that trees blossom and bear fruit because of Ushma, Urja and Megha (Akhand Jyoti). Trees offer all that they have for others and for environment. It is also said in Rig Veda (7/4/5) that medicinal herbs, trees and Earth possess an infinite treasure house of energy that never diminishes. The rishis in Yajur Veda (16/20/20) show immense respect towards the trees and advice to have reverence and devotion towards all eatables, grains, forests, medicinal herbs, trees and vegetation. Hence, cutting down trees is considered a sinful act. Even Upanishads advise to plant at least ten plants before cutting down one tree. Only such commitment can ensure protection and conservation of environment. Along with Earth and trees, even hills and mountains; rivers and oceans were also worshipped as saviours of mankind. The Govardhan Mountain lifted by child Krishna to save all the people and cattle of Vrindavan from the wrath of Indra in the form of incessant and torrential rain. Symbolically, this episode signifies the role of the mountains as Protector of mankind. Folk songs, based on the ancient culture and traditions sing of beautiful birds and animals and are even compared to ones own brothers and sisters in the folk songs of Himachal Pradesh. This is the uniqueness, all inclusiveness and grandeur of Indian Philosophy that it visualises the same Supreme Spirit pulsating in all beings of the universe. Only such a splendid culture like that of India can exhibit love, respect, compassion and Maha Karuna of Mahatma Buddha for all beings. Preparation for Life through the ancient Education SystemIn ancient India the standard of education was fixed and standardized on the basis of certain universally admitted and established ideas and practices connoted by the term , Brahmacharya. During this period, through rigorous training and discipline, the child under the care and guidance of the

teacher was prepared for future life. The Atharvaveda contains a separate hymn exalting the system of studentship and extols teachers to be a spiritual mother. The pupil enters upon his stage of studentship through the performance of the ceremony of the initiation called Upanayana by his chosen teacher called Acharya. The ceremony takes three days (ratristisrah) during which the teacher holds within him the pupil to impart to him a new birth and regenerated life whence the pupil emerges as a dvija or twice born. His first birth, he owes to his parents who give him only his body. It is a mere physical birth. His second birth is spiritual as it unfolds his mind and soul. The teacher recreates the pupil in a new body of learning : Acharyah upanayamano brahmacharinam krinute garbhamantah. In this way, through Upanayana the pupil emerges as a Brahmachari , new and changed person both externally and internally. In the words of Urmila Sharma, during the first period of life that of preparation through education, tender youth is first subjected to the process of rigorous discipline and training, the aim of which is to purge him of all the impurities and imperfections, physical and moral. Thus endowed with a sound mind in a sound body, the budding youth blossoms into a noble manhood which then reproduces itself in the householders state and through the experience of an active life ripens into the fruit of mature wisdom and moral steadfastness which are dedicated to the third Asrama (Vanaprastha) of life to the advancement not of the individual but of the collective life. He wanders from home into homelessness to move towards the Universal and the Absolute. Performing rituals (Yajna), a part of Gurukul education in Vedic period was done with the objective of expansion of mind from the individual to the universal. After each ahuti or sacrifices of oblations of something which, the worshipper holds valuable and dear to Agni, a clause was added : Idam Namam , - this is not mine , meaning thereby that every aspect of my life- whether performed with senses, mind, hands or just by my

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mere existence is surrendered to God. Symbolically, Yajnas were performed to inculcate the values of sharing, of liberating mind from ownership and learning to live with the sense of renunciation. Sacrifice is the process of self-expansion leading to final dissolution in the Absolute, emancipated from ones own narrow- self. The meaning underlined is that one must serve mankind selflessly. Even in Taittirya Upnishad, there are instances, where rishis first prayed to God to have all the noble qualities developed in them, Having gained noble qualities, thereafter, Lord please bring wealth to us. All this showcases that Indian philosophy emphasises the primacy of noble virtues than to money and wealth because only a virtuous person with evolved mind can use wealth judiciously for productive and philanthropic purposes instead of amassing wealth for selfish gains. Even, the Bhagavad Gita speaks of selfless deeds. There are numerous instances, one can find of sterling characters, who in the past sacrificed everything for humanity. The king Shivi, known for his generosity and sacrifice, donated his flesh of body to be fed to birds. In the same way, the king Ranti Deva parted of the little food and water, he had received after 48 days of fasting, to the different guests who arrived and begged for food and water. He, himself and his family members remained hungry and thirsty. Collective Living through Mutual Love and Concord- The philosophy of collective living (Vasudhaiv Kutumkbam) through mutual love and concord is advocated in the Vedas, the origin of Indian philosophy of education. A systematic attempt has been made to build up sam-hridaya, literally, concord, i.e. the union of hearts and (sam-jnanam ), unity through common understanding at all social levels. The Atharvaveda wants this to be practised in relation not only to ones people but also to the foreign people: Asvins, create between us and the strangers unity of hearts (sam-jnanam), (VII.52). Similarly, there are some important mantras in Rig Veda where prayers for artha, intellect, long life, living blissfully and a healthy life are made:

Bestow on us, Indra, the best of treasures, the efficient mind and great brilliance, the increase in wealth, the health of bodies, the sweetness of speech and the fairness of days (II.21.6). In the same manner, .Arthashastra- the classic treatise of economics and polity by Kautilya stresses time and again that society comes together not for only persons benefit but for everybodys benefit. In its preamble, Kautilya defines the foremost duty of king: Praja sukhe sukham rajyaha prajanamcha hitehitam, Natma priyyam hitam rajanaha prajanam cha hitam priyam. (Kautilyas Arthashastra). Kings happiness is inherent in the happiness and welfare of his people. Kings personal happiness is not his true happiness. The very concept of society is based upon the welfare of all its members and not the welfare of the privileged class. It is amply clear that the seeds of discipline, self-control, sacrifice and steadfastness laid by the teacher blossomed into a selfrealised person who lived in perfect harmony with man and nature , conserving , preserving and sustaining ecology as well as environment. The Indian Philosophy of Education: The only PanaceaSwami Vivekananda has very beautifully remarked by saying , Life is short, the vanities of the world are transient but they alone live who live for others, rest are more dead than alive. For nation building and for conserving, preserving and sustaining earth living, dynamic and vibrant citizens of strong character are needed. The role of the teacher is to help the child to achieve Vyakatitiva (individual) first and Vikasita Vyakatitiva (personality) immediately after, through physical, intellectual and spiritual expansion. This Transcendence to spiritual personality based on noble qualities of self-control, generosity, selflessness, renunciation and service is the only way to healthy community, nation building and sustainable development. Dire need of the hour is to evolve such an education programme at all levels: elementary, secondary and higher education, which

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upholds the quintessential of Indian cultural heritage and thereby of Indian Philosophy of Education to stem the upsurge of moral and ethical crisis among people. Education is a principal vehicle for promoting sustainable development. It needs a paradigm shift from education for living to education for life with the spirit of the Vasudhaiv Kutumbkam, considering the entire world as one family or Jai Jagat in the words of Vinoba Bhave, Bhoodan Saint of India. The education rooted in the Indian philosophy of Education can sensitise the present generation with the cultural values and only then the people of staunch and sterling characters like Sunder Lal Bahuguna of Chipko Movement (Uttrakhand), who upholds a noble belief: The Himalayas are like a child : when scolded, it starts crying like a child or the island community joining hands to stop the coral mining or the late Kinkari Devi, fighting against mining mafia in Sirmour (HP) will start residing this planet, and will positively contribute to sustainable development. In this way, the present generations will not only live happily and blissfully in harmony with ecology and environment but also will be in a capacity to handover this planet to future generations with enough pure air to breathe; enough pure water to drink; enough land to inhabit and enough mines to be excavated for minerals. Such holistic vision of Indian Philosophy of Education in harmony with surrounding environment and entire cosmos, at large, is the only panacea of all ills of society and will ultimately pave the way for Sustainable Development. ======================== References1. Akhand Jyoti (2013): Trees are Devatas that Keep Giving Inacessantly, printed by Akhand Jyoti Sansthan, Mathura Vol:11, Issue:3. May-June, 2013. pp 12-14. Chaudhary, D.R. (2013): Human Greed and Natures Fury, Dialectics of development and ecology, in The Tribune, Jalandhar. July 05,2013. Jha, V.N. (2004: Lectures on Indian Philosophy of Education, during Refresher Course on Education in ASC, University of Pune,

4. 5. 6.

7.

8. 9.

10.

11.

Pune.(Maharastra). April 06, 2004. Khosla Mukesh (2013): Five-Star Staircase to the Everest in The Tribune Trends, Jalandhar. July 06, 2013 Munshi, K.M. (2004): Hand Book of Vedic Education by Urmila Sharma, Shubhi Publications, Gurgaon (Haryana) pp 1, 2. OECD (2012): Higher Education for Sustainable Development: Final Report of International Action Research Project Forum for the Future, OECD(Organisation of Economic and Development). Pani, Rama Devi Sistla (2013): Special Issue on Research in Higher Education Institutions for Sustainable Development , University News, AIU House New Delhi Vol.51 No. 17. April 29May 05, 2013. From the Editor. Sharma,Urmila (2004): Hand Book Of Vedic Education by Urmila Sharma, Shubhi Publications, Gurgaon (Haryana) pp 57-145. Tiwari, Sanjay (2013): Research Innovations in Higher Education for Sustainability and Inclusivity University News, AIU House New Delhi Vol.51 No. 24. June 17-23, 2013 pp 10-14. UNESCO (2005) : UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development: 2005-2014, UNESCO-Education for Sustainable Development. Online reference: www.greenmesg,org > Sanskrit Mantras and Slokas.

2.

3.

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Social Implications of Information Technology Revolution

* Mrs. Meenakshi Chahal
IT has been called a Meta-technology and a Ubiquitous technology meaning that it has importance beyond the confines of IT. Undoubtedly, it has an important influence on society but like the steam engine which has been seen as having a similar kind of impact during the Industrial Revolution, it is one facet of a much broader change. Computers being networked over global telecom highways are leading to the use of Information Technology in every sector of human activity be it communication, banking, trading, learning and teaching, entertainment, socializing, government, management and librarying. Information technology (IT) helps the storage, processing, transmission and exploitation of information to satisfy a persons, companys, societys or governments needs for information. Social media revolution is still in its infancy. Mistakes are made on a frequent basis. The task of individuals and companies is to learn from those mistakes, anticipate others and prepare for the odd circumstances. Jurisdiction and Defamation are just two of the legal issues threatening the development of social media. Key words- Jurisdiction, Defamation, Meta-technology, Social media Introduction- Humanity has progressed from Agricultural Revolution to Industrial revolution and is now moving to an
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Education, B.Ed. (2- year programme) Directorate of Distance Education, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra

Information Revolution. Computers being networked over global telecom highways are leading to the use of Information Technology in every sector of human activity be it communication, banking, trading, learning and teaching, entertainment, socializing, government, management and librarying. Machines have extended mans mechanical power, convenience and comfort. Information Technology as commonly picturized by computer is extending mans mind, brain or intellectual power. Chemical, Metallurgical or Electrical technologies enable processing of raw materials into usable goods to satisfy mans and societys needs. Information technology (IT) helps the storage, processing, transmission and exploitation of information to satisfy a persons, companys, societys or governments needs for information. Invention of printing was the first big breakthrough in Information Technology. It enabled literacy and education to go up from 10% to over 80% within 50 years by making available vast amount of reading material. Other breakthrough inventions have been like telegraphy, telephony, wireless or radio, television, broadcasting and computers etc. Objectives to predict the dominance of Information Technology in daily life. to explain persons, companys and societys needs for information. to describe societys relationship with its technology Relationship between Society and Technology- It has been called a Meta-Technology and a Ubiquitous Technology meaning that it has importance beyond the confines of IT. Undoubtedly, it has an important influence on society but like the steam engine which has been seen as having a similar kind of impact during the Industrial Revolution, it is one facet of a much broader change. Phrases like The Third Wave, Post Industrial Society, Post Modernism and Information Age have been coined to describe the late twentieth century. Explanation

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for technologys rapid penetration is summed up in Moores Law that points to a doubling of the capability of IT every 18 months to 2 years. IT raises the question of the relationship between society and technology. It is frequently assumed that technology has a deterministic influence over society. Social Media: A Frontier and Boundless Territory- Policing social media as with most frontiers is not especially easy but law and order must be preserved for all the obvious reasons. Internet is home to more than two billion users. The figure is likely to be much higher as counting families, children and students etc. who share accounts. Geographically, internet users come from everywhere as Internet penetration by percentage of population is highest in the United States (78.3%) followed by Oceania (60.1%) and Europe (58.3%). Legal Implications of Social Media Revolution- One of Legal Implications of Social Media Revolution is Defamation, particularly Libel. Defamation cases involving websites are nothing new but lawsuits involving social media are on the rise. According to industry experts Online libel cases in the UK doubled between 2010 and 2011 and a total of 86 cases progressed to court. The situation is likely to worsen as social media usage increases over the coming years. Jurisdiction and Defamation are just two of the legal issues threatening the development of social media. Copyright Infringement is another serious concern as it has been online for more than a decade. However many sites such as Facebook and Twitter employ strict terms and agreements that aim to impose rules pertaining to copyright and defamation. Thus remedial measures are often available at the source. Social Media and Networking- Social networking is a term given to sites and applications that facilitate Online Social Interactions. These typically focus on sharing information with other users referred to as Friends. Most famous of these sites today is Facebook. Shannon Vallor (2011) has reflected on how sites like Facebook change or even challenge our notion of

friendship. Lure of the Virtual Game World- Computer, especially computer games result in anti-social behavior and isolation. Marcus Johansson suggests that we may be able to mitigate virtual immorality by punishing virtual crimes and giving virtual penalties. First moral impact one encounters when contemplating On-line games is the tendency for these games to portray violence. There are many news stories that claim cause and effect relationship between violence in computer games and real violence. Malware, Spyware and Informational Warfare- Malware and Computer virus threats are growing at an astonishing rate. Security Industry Professionals report that certain types of malware attacks and newer types of attacks as focused on mobile computing devices and hacking of cloud computing infrastructure are on rise in modern times. Robotics and Moral Values- Information technology has not been content to remain confined to virtual world and software implementation. These technologies are also interacting directly with us through Robotics Applications. Robotics is an emerging technology but it has already produced a number of applications that have important moral implications. Technologies such as military robotics, medical robotics, personal robotics and the world of sex robots are just some of the already existent uses of robotics that impact and express our moral commitments ( Capurro and Nagenborg 2009; Lin et al. 2011). In Wallach and Allens book Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong (2010), the authors present ideas for the design and programming of machines that can functionally reason on moral questions. Nanotechnology- Nanotechnology increasingly regarded as the Next Industrial Revolution greatly affects human relationships, society, politics, economy and environment on a global scale. Herbert Marcuse in his book Some Social Implications of Modern Technology examined technology in

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a broader sense. He defines technology as more than just Technical Apparatus as he calls it Technics. Most significant implication concerned with sociological processes is the creation of dominative Technological Rationality. He contrasts Individualistic Rationality with the modern Technological Rationality e.g. Individualism is based on autonomous selfinterest, whereas technology makes self-interest completely heteronomous achieved only by Adjustment and Compliance. Technology removes the dignity of the individual by sublimating him into a crowd. It reduces the individual to a Standardized Subject Of Brute Self Preservation i.e. an atomic and standardized force whose only expression is self-interest. Now maximum number of people are involved in collection, processing, storage, retrieval, transmission and receiving of information. Thus our society now is called an Information society. People do climb Everest because it is there, but not everyone chooses to do so. Technology offers opportunities but not everyone takes them up. Certain groups within society influence the development of technology through various disciplines as the funding of R&D and Marketing etc. Societys relationship with its technology is very complex. Technology is often used in surprising ways not anticipated by its originators or developers e.g. The Internet is a good example, it began as a communication system for the US military in the event of nuclear conflict. It relies on an infrastructure that had to be invented, planned, designed, made and put in place. Information technology simplifies life as rise of a leisure class, informed society and creates denser social circles. In other ways, it complicates life as increase in transportation technology, congestion in some areas and social separation of singular human interaction. Conclusion- To sum up, social media revolution is still in its infancy. Mistakes are made on a frequent basis. The task of individuals and companies is to learn from those mistakes, anticipate others and prepare for the odd circumstances.

Information technology is in a constant state of change and innovation. Internet technologies that have brought about so much social change were scarcely imaginable just decades before they appeared. James Moor argues that Moral Philosophers need to pay particular attention to emerging technologies. These help influence the design of these technologies early on before they adversely affect moral change (Moor 2005). Ongoing computing and communication revolution has numerous economic and social impacts on modern society. It requires serious social science investigation in order to manage its risks and dangers. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Graham H. May , Socia l Implications Of Information Technology, Leeds Metropolitan University, January 1996. Simply Law Jobs Blog , The Legal Implications Threatening the Social Media Revolution. Sanjay Kumar Pal, Articles, 21st Century Information Technology revolution, june, 2008 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University, Information Technology and Moral Values, june 12,2012 Fritz Allhoff et. al (eds), Nanoethics-The Ethical and Social Implications of Nanotechnology, 2008, p.385 Herbert Marcuse, Some Social Implications of Modern Technology, April 25, 2008 Konsbruck Robert Lee, Impacts of Information Technology on Society in the new Century, Switzerland.

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Glimpses of Faith Healing in Select Travelogues: A Study in Indian Values

* Apara Tiwari
India is home to broadcasters and travel writers, Mark Tully and William Dalrymple of British origin. Dalrymple is a historical fiction writer, an art aficionado and a critic besides. More than their vocation, their fascination for Indias unique pluralism induced them to stay back and adapt to the Indian ambience.Travel books singled out for this study, Nine Lives by William Dalrymple and No Full Stops in India and India in Slow Motion (co-authored by Gillian Wright) by Mark Tully, is the outcome of Paul Theroux observation: Tourists dont know where theyve been, travelers dont know where theyre going. Dalrymple and Tully have looked into lives of individuals embedded with beliefs and practices in varied faiths, sustaining the ancient Indian tradition. Behind their faith, life throbs with values seeking spiritual fulfillment; an enigma, notwithstanding the global phenomena of liberalization, consumerism and materialism. The papers aim to move beyond what is usually expected in travelogues, is supported by pointed commentary: Dalrymples study of the people and beliefs of India ranks with the very finest travel writing [. . .] (Observer), [. . .] it also provides much insight into such topical and convoluted matters [. . .] (Tabish Khair in Biblio). About Mark Tullys No Full Stops in India Paul Gogarty writes in the Sunday Telegraph: [. . .] a lifetimes travels [. . .] throw more light on this vast tragic-comic country than anything [. . .]. In the Guardian Geoffery Moorhouse states: India in Slow Motion is the account of a journey [. . .] probing into the heart of Indian experience and
=========================== * Professor and Head, Department of English, Govt. College, Sihora, District Jabalpur (M.P.)

arguing that change is possible and that solutions do exist. In the process it brings the country and its people brilliantly alive. Dalrymple and Tully have travelled, interviewed and conversed with well-known and unknown leading uncommon lives for an insight into ancient Indian values vibrating with renewed meaning. The study is not so much about travel writing as much about experiences of a travel writer awed. Dalrymple inquires: What does it actually mean to be a holy man or a Jain nun, a mystic or a tantric seeking salvation on the roads of modern India, as the Tata trucks thunder past? Why does one individual resist armed resistance as a sacred calling, while another devoutly practices ahimsa, or non-violence? Why does one think he can create god, while another thinks god can inhabit him? How is each specific religious path surviving the changes India is currently undergoing? What changes and what remains the same? Does India still offer any sort of real spiritual alternative to materialism, or is it now just another fast developing satrap of the wider capitalist world? (Introduction xiii) He further clarifies: [. . .] travel writing tended to highlight the narrator: his adventures were the subject; the people he met were sometimes reduced to objects in the background. With Nine Lives I have tried to invert this, and keep the narrator firmly in the shadows, so bringing the lives of the people I have met to the fore and placing their stories firmly centre stage. (Introduction xv) Dalrymple travels to the Sufi shrine of Sehwan in rural Sindh, Pakistan, to comprehend the healing power of Sufism for all afflicted, notwithstanding man made divisions. Speaking to Lal Peri or Hina, a female, and other devotees of Sufi saints like Shah Abdul Latif and Lal Shahbaz Qalander or Jhule Lal in The Red Fairy he discovers that the creed was founded on love for humanity to unite and free people from the onslaughts of divisions. Inspired by poetry, song, devotional dance (dhammal), Hindu scriptures, yogic practices, self mortification, self-discipline, the movement brought Hindus and Muslims together. According to the Chinese traveler, Huien Tsang the town was the cult centre of the Shaivite sect and the Nataraj dance took the Islamicised Sufi form of dhammal later. That an afflicted spirit, can be cured by Sufi music

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and drumming, an outlet for tensions, a safety valve [. . .] that otherwise could have no other expression in this deeply conservative society, is a deep-rooted faith, articulates Lal Peri (Dalrymple 119). In Lal Shahbaz Qalanders company, love and protection is found whenever needed. Loneliness, fright and hunger vanished at once whenever she called him in prayer. Circumstances had made her a refugee, from Bihar to East Pakistan as a Muslim, after Hindu Muslim riots to India, then to Sindh as a lone woman. Survival for a lone woman not easy, she found ultimate refuge in the Sufi shrine of Shewan Sharif . Indifferent to the complex relationship between two religions with hatred and violence on one side and love and compassion on the other, faith in the healing power of saints attract devotees irrespective of any religion from far. In India in Slow Motion Mark Tully and Gillian Wright devote a chapter, Sufis and a Plain Faith to one of Indias most revered Sufi saints, Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya. The prayer soaked walls of the shrine (dargah) in Delhi, draw people from diverse social order. A scholar close to the movements promoting puritanical Islam which abhors colourful Sufism disclosed; it was rituals and music similar to the Bhakti movement that was opposed. Modern India was more influenced by movements of orthodox nature due to which the Sufi pirs were afraid of losing the traditional Sufi influence.Tully discovers faith in the problem solving business of the shrine. A Sufi pir had for the first time authorized his wife, [. . .] a practical woman who found a way of combining her spiritual gifts with sound common sense, as a pir (Tully and Wright 166). Many women came to her for help. Popularly considered a miraculous healer the pir said: I try to tell people that I cant perform miracles but people believe I can. Some people tell me the power was in your pir and his pir before him and that goes into you as their representative without you knowing it (Tully and Wright 169). To cope with the increasing demand of becoming his murid he had to invent an initiation rite by making them form a line joined by a piece of cloth. Then he takes the hand of the postulant in the front and the spiritual power travels down the line like electricity down a wire (Tully and Wright 169-170). The ever growing popularity of fusion music of Auliya, Saint Moinuddin

Chishti at Ajmer and the qawwalis of Amir Khusrau has played a significant role in integrating people, creating faith and harmony. Despite this welcome change a threat to their traditional religious identity lurks. What matters is the truth as people see it not the truth itself, [. . .] (Tully and Wright 177). Dalrymple sensed puritanical opposition to Sufism when he met the director of Deobandi madrasa, a sect of orthodox Islam. Sufi devotees like Lal Peri and her pir hope, with values of love, forgiveness, and goodness, Sufism can integrate people. Jihad her pir said should not be fought with swords but by winning over ones desires, recognizing hell and paradise within. Applicably, the deeply rooted cult of the saints and all borrowings from the religious traditions will resist and survive the onslaughts to hardline movements and intolerance, fighting only for power. In this rational world science might have ousted enchantment but enchantment has returned as Tully and Wright observe realistically: What is postmodernism but a revolt against overweaning rationalism? [. . .] Spaces are opening up again in which there is room for the possibility of divine intervention. [Of scientists they assert]: Many of course have always admitted, and still do, to an emptiness in their own lives which only the spirit can fill (178). Like other religions Sufism had profound spiritual masters in every generation, developing devotion and faith in folks. Dalrymple meets a Jain nun in The Nuns Tale at an ancient pilgrimage, Sravanabelagola. Her descriptions of self imposed physical afflictions, rigorous fasting, rejection of material possession, bearing pain with unwavering patience and determination, seemed torture to the utmost extremity imagined, to experience bliss, in the name of faith. Avoiding greed, intolerance and violence are significantly relevant but exceedingly difficult in practice. The crux lay in the spirit to gradually detach from material needs, observe fasting and so on, to which the body responds easily accepting changes naturally. Every possession is unnecessary; a surplus. On weaned from addiction to possession, even emotional attachment to people and relations can be performed in a manner, helping separation without deep hurt. This practice helps in overcoming wastage and over attachment. Observing fast helps in

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maintaining a healthy body, trying non-violence even in the minutest detail of daily life helps in maintaining ecological balance uplifting the motto live and let live. Theyyam means daivam in Sanskrit for God. Theyyam dancer, Hari Das, a dalit, says hes possessed by God during performance. Slowly transformed into God Vishnu with makeup, he nervously responds to his feelings despite 26 years of experience; Its more the fear that he might refuse to come. Its the intensity of your devotion that determines the intensity of the possession. If you lose your feeling of devotion, if it even once becomes routine or unthinking, the gods may stop coming (Dalrymple 30). Living in restrictions during the festive season Hari experiences a blinding transformation, a vehicle through which people thank God for granting their wishes. Performers dressed as Lord Vishnumurti and Chamundi believed to be incarnated as Gods and priests, bless the crowds even the most bigoted having immense faith in their miraculous feats. Hari reveals to Dalrymple in The Dancer of Kannur, that he like other dancers lives a double life as a manual labourer and a jail warder rest of the year. Ironically, none recognize him as a God without makeup, facing caste discrimination by the upper castes. The same people pay obeisance and seek his blessings when he performs donned as a deity. Despite a high literacy rate and development Theyyam grew due to the inequalities in caste, practiced even to this day in Kerala. As legend goes, one of its forms, Pottayam Theyyam gained popularity when Lord Shiva once tested Adi Shankaracharya for discrimination. Shankaracharya was enlightened thereafter respecting all humans equally. Hari declares, [. . .] Great modern reformers such as Karl Marx or [the Dalit political leader] Ambedkar are really only reinforcing the lessons taught to us by the great god Shiva. (Dalrymple 41). Theyyam has inspired people, created awareness in the importance of education and has improved overall self esteem. There is faith in people from all castes seeking advice to adopt good ways and discard bad ones specially when they, [. . .] see the god in the flesh and you can speak to him and ask him about your worries. (Dalrymple 48-49). It helps thwart misfortune of crop yield befallen on villages, help women, give advice on jobs,

and cure cancer patients. Prosperous sponsors from the Gulf patronize village Theyyams, a gesture to thank, ironically from a place where the most puritanical and intolerants live. Despite his concern for the dying tradition, with the younger generation opting more than ever to move out, Hari Das has to go back for a tougher life with a hope, [. . .] but it is what I live for, what I look forward to for the rest of the year. (Dalrymple 54). An inspiring article on culture unwrapped a reality, Though Theyyam is a Hindu ritual form, few know that there are Muslim Theyyams at four or five centres. In Kamballoore, a prominent Theyyam is a Mapla Muslim [. . .]. Indeed, the form speaks of religious harmony as well (The Hindu, Magazine 6 Nov 2011). India in Slow Motion reinvents Lord Rama, the Hindu God worshipped across India as maryada purushottam. Tully and Wright in Reinventing Rama, join the pilgrims during a local festival Panchkoshi Parikrama at Ayodhya, considered to be the birthplace of Rama. Passing by crowds of mostly rustic pilgrims from nearby villages, walking barefoot for the rituals, a young devotee said, elders had asked him to worship Rama twice every day and so he did. How many Western Christian parents must wish that inspiring lasting faith in the young was always so simple (Tully and Wright 8). A temple management member led a celibate life, notwithstanding all his qualifications, [. . .] from my childhood I was religious, [. . .]. I adore Rama, he is my family, my father, by brother, and my friend. (Tully and Wright 13). There was no formality in his relationship with his God. It is enough, he said, if you thrill and the fine hairs of your body stand on end at the mention of Ramas name. He hoped to die laying his head on Ramas arm as his pillow (Tully and Wright 15). Ignoring various religious sects he stuck to and loved his own Rama, and no one elses, disregarding some sadhus as politicians, than holy men. Despite the growing menace of monkeys in the temple no one attacks them as Hanuman the monkey God is as sacred as Rama and Sita. A mahant said he did nothing, only gave blessings, peace and satisfaction when people came with their troubles. It was Rama who did it. The travel writers chanced upon a peculiar bank where, in the 297 rectangles of each page in the customers account books

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they had written Siya Rama. With 125,000 one could open an account. The deposits are for welfare in this life and the next, [. . .] Writing like this is one hundred per cent more profitable than the traditional reciting the name of Rama because you have to concentrate so hard. Your mind cant wander. (Tully and Wright 25). Rama was worshipped by rasik Hindus in one temple as a rasik; [. . .] the young husband ecstatic in his love for his new bride, [. . .] (Tully and Wright 17). A scholar of the Ramanandi sect said, Rama came into the world not just to teach us to kill Ravana, but to establish a model to teach who you are, what are your duties, and what are your rights. (Tully and Wright 23). There are many ways in which one could worship him. Of his own guru he said, His devotion was so deep, so intense, that he often experienced God playing in his lap. (Tully and Wright 23). After the ill-fated incident of pulling down Babri Masjid to build the Ram Temple, Lord Rama, Ramayana and Ayodhya were reinvented. The VHP interpretation of Rama worship was interpreted by a manager, as vir or a brave warrior. Rama helped Sugreev when he organized an army and fought as God does not help the weak. We are peace loving and tolerant but also revengeful like Rama, when we are threatened and exploited by fanatics. As Tully sums up, although Hindu fundamentalism was not sweeping the nation, this visit witnessed tolerance yet there was a realization, [. . .] how insidious creating a sense of grievance could be (29). India was upset after the serialized telecast of the television phenomenon, Ramanand Sagar s Ramayan discontinued. Ministers and bureaucrats had to grant extension. Interviewing the cast and crew at Umargaon studios, during the making of the second exile of Sita, Tully could not resist a peep into its legendry impact on the people from all walks of life in The Rewriting of the Ramayan from No Full Stops in India.Wanting the viewers to think the characters as Gods, not ordinary men, Sagars strategy to transfer their divine inspiration among the masses included; casting of unknown actors, writing the script in the epic style and using crude electronic tricks for the war effect. Taxi drivers staying in a rank opposite the authors house requested him to let them watch

the Ramayan every Sunday at his place. An electricity substation was burnt down by the enraged viewers due to the power cut during an episode. A request was made to delay the swearing-in ceremony of cabinet ministers. A bride went missing on the auspicious occasion of her marriage. A train was delayed as the crew and passengers sat watching an episode on the platform, so on and so forth. Religious men who never see feature films saw Ramayan. Overwhelmed by the miracle Sagar declares, [. . .] its devotion in the same way that devotees of Mahatma Gandhi used to touch the rails after the train he was travelling in had passed. (Tully 145). Ramayan is long lasting faith, known by almost every Indian in every age, with Ram and Sita as adorable figures; Ram as a model man and Sita as a paragon of all wife-like virtues. Ram rajya is the golden age of rule as is the countless Ram-lilas staged in a number of towns and villages. Ramayan is the triumph of good over evil, a growing faith drawn from its adaptations relevant to contemporary life. Taking a glimpse into Sagars interpretation of his Ramayan is to bring in the times. Very few politicians today remember that Ram learnt to live an austere life from his guru Vashishta; the same austerity that Gandhiji tried to teach his contemporaries. In the same way the gurus advice to Rama that he would have to live up to the family traditions to rule as he was his subjects servant, not because he had the right to do so. The acceptance of Bharat as king after Rams exile by the people of Ayodhya and his questioning their loyalty teaches, [. . .] its a great privilege to have the vote, but the vote must be safeguarded otherwise people will have kings foisted on them by palace intrigues. (Tully 132). Tully calls criticisms like moving calendar art pictures, the truth in which the people like to see their Gods. He acknowledges Sagars claim that even the youth have been transported and utter Jai Shri Ram ki instead of Hi. Talking of national integration, youth from south had started to learn Hindi to understand the dialogues. Deepika and Dara Singh told Tully that people looked at them as Gods actually when they met them, not like actors. Emotional fan mails from Christian and Muslim viewers for Sagar demonstrated what Ramayan had done

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for communal harmony in the country. Charged for promoting mediocrity and sati pratha by critics and feminists Sagar replied through Sitas pertinent dialogues, [. . .] We have ways of making people feel ashamed so that there is a permanent change in them.[And after her exile she tells the people of Ayodhya], you do not deserve me, [requesting Mother Earth to swallow her up] (Tully 133). During Dushera that year, the taxi drivers informed Tully that there has never been so many Ravans being burnt at the Ram-lila celebrations as then and all because of the television. They also revealed that they felt proud to know the ancient Indian history and the complete story for the first time. Youths were preparing for the firework display at the grounds and it was here that Tully becomes sarcastic, Just four years ago I had seen smoke rising from the market behind that park as Hindus killed Sikhs and burnt their property in the dreadful riots which followed Indira Gandhis assassination (152). Its important to note here that it was a typical Indian spur of rage, yet it is also a country that can rise to occasion and stand united. The Kumbh Mela of 1989 gave rise to rumors and controversies on the alleged BBCs official estimate that about 2 lakh devotees would die in a stampede. Hiuen Tsang traces the Mela back to Harshvardhans reign. Held once every 12 years at the Sangam of Ganga and Jamuna, where different religious organizations and hoards of devotees from everywhere gather to take a ritualistic dip in the holy waters. Tully records his visit to a month long pageant out of all proportions with its focal point on akharas and naga sadhus performing penance and miraculous feats in No Full Stops in India. Among pitched up tents, tantrics, ghatias and pandas flourishing business, the local administration managed one of the biggest religious festival of the world with live paradox, exhibiting pilgrims following strict regime, fasting and meditating, and criticism with phrases like religious liars, politicizing religion, shouting slogans to build the Ram temple. Despite the wisdom of Hinduism and its profundity established in the world by great men Tully remarks; At the Mela, I found little or no evidence that Hindu orthodoxy was purging itself.(106). A former attorney general and a prosperous lawyer visiting the Mela came

up enlightening; Religion in India [. . .] is dharma, that is to say our duty: how we should conduct ourselves from birth to death. The Kumbh Mela is one of the rituals of dharma. You come here because you have faith in dharma and its rituals, not because you hope to get faith. Without faith you cannot really expect to understand the Mela. The lawyers wife added: [. . .] What we have to find is the dharma for today, and its quite possible that someone like Krishna has been born already to bring about that dharma. (Tully 113-114). Faith within fulfilled by the bath washed away all sins. No amount of criticism could deter pilgrims from this faith. Tully ideally encapsulates the entire experience: I made my way back to the press camp with the pilgrims who had bathed [. . .] there was no frenzy, just the calm certainty of faith: [. . .] the vast majority of the pilgrims were villagers. Their faith gave them the courage to ignore the ugly rumours and the fortitude to travel in overcrowded trains [. . .], to walk many miles and to sleep in the open. Yet the villagers are being told that their faith, which means so much to them, is superstition, and they must be secular. The elite for the most part ignored the Kumbh Mela, but those who did come travelled in cars and slept in tents(123). Dalrymple takes a glimpse into the life of a devadasi on his way to Saundatti, Karnataka. Rani speaks about her life and dedication to the Goddess Yellamma, their sacred deity, who had suffered similar onslaughts according to Hindu mythology. Historical evidences trace devadasi to the oldest profession of a woman who is dedicated or married to a God/Goddess in childhood. Donning her role differently since then; as a temple servant, a temple dancer, singer, courtesan and concubine, however, there lies [. . .] an almost unimaginable gulf separating the devadasis of ancient poems and inscriptions, and the lives lived by women like Rani Bai today (Dalrymple 70). In fact an alarming increase in their number, mostly around Belgaum has made them sex workers and truth is, The Daughters of Yellamma unlike earlier, are now from lower casts and almost entirely illiterate. Rani explained how different they were from ordinary sex workers. They had certain privileges as they were associated with divine tradition.

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Brahmins touched their feet, fed them and gifted them during festival of Yellamma on full moon days. Considered an incarnation of Goddess, she was auspicious to get blessings from, for long and fulfilling life, be it a birth or a marriage. She was never cursed, had communal security and cremated with special ceremony upon death, by Brahmins. These daughters of the Goddess had immense faith in Yellamma for their future and protection in good times and when in distress. Despite the Prohibition Act of 1982 against dedication of girls, this so called sacred prostitution is illegally on the rise mainly due to a way out of poverty and gaining access to the blessings of God, [. . .] the two things the poor most desperately crave (Dalrymple 72). The bitter truth is fear of infection, incurable disease and later abandonment; crossing boundaries alarmingly today without any positive solution. Faith is there but what about the values it nurtured in genesis? Mohan Bhopa and his wife Batasi, bards of Rajasthani medieval poem The Epic of Pabuji; were the last of the hereditary singers of wandering bhopa caste, having kept the oral epic alive. The 600 year old poem tells of heroism and honour, struggle and loss, and finally, martyrdom and vengeance (Dalrymple 79). Eventually it grew from the tale of a local chieftains heroic deeds protecting his cattle to the epic grandeur relating heroisms of a warrior and incarnate God, Pabu, who died fighting demons to protect his herds. With other feats interwoven, the 4000 lines poem takes 5 nights to unfold, is less entertainment and more a religious ritual invoking Pabuji for protection against ill-fortune. Traditionally performed in front of a phad, the audience consists of nomadic and camel-herding Rabari caste but other castes, especially the warrior caste also join in. Travelling to Mohans Pabusar village near Bikaner with the singer couple to watch the performance on the festival day, Dalrymple witnessed several pilgrim groups heading for the same purpose. The sacred phad, long narrative painting made on a strip of cloth illustrating epic events serving as a portable temple rather than a piece of art is as sacred as any deity. Phads made by the celebrated family of Shri Lal Joshi of Bhilwara had more power

and even rolled up phad kept evil at bay. With daily offerings made, it was passed on to the next generation with reverence. When ripped or faded it would be taken to river Ganga or holy Pushkar Lake together with the original painter to be put to cool. The bhopas had great powers to heal and cure the possessed person. These Rajasthani Homers of Dalrymple acted as exorcist reciting the epic or the mantras. Curing sickness of animals, children possessed by djinn, invoking the spirit of Pabuji, Mohan felt him within, driving away evil spirits at the power of the story. With a [. . .] wonderful sense of well- being, and complete peace [Mohan said after the end of a complete performance, which is rare,] It is he who cures. Not me (Dalrymple 99). For the educated today it is just a matter of faith healing and superstition. Despite the more popular TV, CD, DVD and Bollywood distracting the youth and snatches of epic being played at Rajasthan palace hotels, Mohan was very positive about its life. [. . .] for all that has changed, it is still at the centre of our life, and our faith, and our dharma. (Dalrymple 108). Comparing the Odyssey and the Iliads short life in the West regarding performances the author believes that the ritual is alive due to the intense devotion of the people of Pabusar for phad and its healing power. The poems had been turned into religious rituals and the bhopas had become receptacles for the messages of the gods, able to penetrate the wall in India always a fairly porous wall between the divine and the mundane(108). It is like the God who is less remote and looks after the daily needs of the villagers, someone you look up to for immediate help who is closer to you, understands you. Mohan has passed on the tradition to his son and hopes it continues with the grandson as long as it is done with complete devotion, Every day I get up hungry in the morning, [. . .] but thanks to him, neither I nor my family ever go to bed on an empty stomach. Not everyone in the village could say that, even the Brahmins and Rajputs. [. . .] It is Pabuji [. . .] who looks after us all.(Dalrymple 110). Non-violence is the essence of dharma, yet to protect this dharma one can fight and kill to stop greater sin. Searching into Buddhist library in Dharamsala, the residence of Dalai Lama, Dalrymple found ancient books telling tales of figures who became

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warriors to ward off evil threatening Buddhism. When the Chinese invaded Tibet and his mother tortured to death in 1950, Passang the monk, took up arms out of anger and hatred but said, [. . .] I gained more faith. How else could we have survived [. . .] I wore amulets with religious texts to guard my life and when the bullets came, they just travelled right past me. [. . .] I thought I saw the protector goddess, [. . .]. So, no, my faith was not affected. I felt completely protected. [The Buddhists believe in karma , he informs. In the seventh century the Tibetans invaded and tortured the Chinese, so] [. . .] it is our turn to suffer for what we did in previous lives. (Dalrymple 168). He gave up his vows as a monk and even helped the Dalai Lama safe passage to India. To protect his dharma and free his country from China he joined special Tibetan force in India in 1962 but his dream could not be realized. He fought as a soldier in the east in 1971, with his conscience pricking him, when Pakistan lost and Bangladesh was formed. He confessed that he kept praying then as he had never prayed as a monk or even when he underwent the rigors of training as a monk. After many years of wandering in Buddhist monasteries in India and practicing the vocation of weaving carpets in Karnataka he came back to Dharamsala in 1986. As reparation and to reinstate his dharma he started making prayer flags rejoining monkhood in 1995. When someone buys my flags they are putting their faith in them [. . .] and I always pray that they may find the right path and not make the same errors as me [ . . .]. (Dalrymple 172). The greatest lesson he learnt from the Dalai Lama was to conquer hatred, the biggest enemy of man for which he feels fortunate. Once on his way to Bodhgaya he ate Chinese food served by an old Chinese woman, cried with her, sharing common suffering. Tibet is still not free from the Chinese, still in his ripe old age Passang wants to visit his country once and spend his last days there. Srikanda, The Maker of Idols or Stpathy of Swamimalai in Tamil Nadu, 23rd in the lineage of bronze casters of 13th century Chola Empire, spoke proudly of his birth blessed to create God in human form. Watching the annual chariot procession celebrating Lord Murugans marriage with Valli, during the Tamil New Year

week, he tells Dalrymple he does not consider idols made by him as idols but only deities. In the heart of idol making lay the miracle of faith in the heart and hands of the sculptor, the ceremony of invocation chipping the eyes open and the faith of a devotee, making it divine. Creation was strictly in accordance to the Shilpa Shastra, for temple worship, which his family maintained to this day. He is overwhelmed seeing devotees worshiping these idols on a festival or temple, which he brought into being. Their satisfaction is his acceptance of becoming immortal in those statues. Dalrymple delves into the glorious age of Chola dynasty which patronized the Hindu theology of interwoven literature, art and religion, devotedly kept alive by men like Srikanda. Srikanda details the achievement of perfection of bronze statues in his factory, acknowledged the world over, that they are effective through regular puja in bestowing salvation to an intense devotee. Singing of devotional Thevaram hymns also lends beauty and life to the idols. To him the sacred tradition is noble as the creation is meant for worship. His workshop is like a temple and These idols are reflections of our minds and spirits, [. . .] (Dalrymple 197). For self-control and a heart devoid of corruption he said, [. . .] You need to maintain not just your skills, but also your discipline (Dalrymple 199). Strict training at a very young age under his fathers tutelage and Sanskrit from his grandfather to understand the geometry of Shilpa Shastra, Srikanda understood the significance of prayer, meditation, and trance, even being possessed while sculpting and chiseling the idols. Other workshops did good business without following traditional rules or employing lower castes to make them. Technically perfect, they were sold to tourists, kept in museums, still they were in no way divine and not meant for worship, he said. Similarly if an idol is not tended to, abused or stolen, the divinity is gone from it. Regarding the future he says it is not very promising as his son and his brothers son see their future as computer engineers. He does not feel justified to stop them from their passion but he prays everyday for its continuity. The tradition runs in the blood he believes and they have learnt the art well too. [. . .] After all, as my son says, this is the age of computers. And

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as much as I want otherwise, I can hardly tell him this is the age of the bronze caster. (Dalrymple 204). Faith in tantra or tantric rituals have invariably had a sinister reputation despite Tarapith, a shakti pith in Bengal known as one of the most holy places in India, where goddess Tara is worshipped. An odd form of Hinduism notorious for animal sacr ifices and insalubrious rituals mysteriously performed after dark, unknown elsewhere, the aim of the devotees is to become one with the divinity. To appease the demonic form of the Goddess who wards off suffering and heals the troubles of devotees, her hunger for blood has to be satisfied. Trying to fathom the meaning of the cult, tracing its origins from ancient Vedic texts back and forth to the modern times, Dalrymple interviewed Ma Manisha Bhairavi and Tapan sadhu, devotees at Tarapith. Overcoming all obstacles, from early hardships, their transition on being drawn to the call of goddess Tara, despite family conflicts, protests and scandals following them like shadows, to eventual absorption into this world experiencing nothing less than bliss for twenty years, the development of faith within each of these devotees appears as mysterious as the cult. Equally mysterious sound the miraculous powers, dangers of rituals and faith healing. Facing disturbance of Islamic and British rule in India and extinction, the Tantric cult is now confined to certain eastern states, Nepal and Bhutan. It plays an important part in modern Indian politics. Politicians from Bihar and Bengal travel to this pith for animal sacrifice and rituals to win elections. Despite setting up Anti-Superstition Committees by certain political factions to persuade people to reject faith healers, deter from infamous rituals and to embrace modernity, they come to seek blessings and bring goats for sacrifice. There have been reports of persecution of the poor and marginalized, accused of practicing witchcraft, depicted as perverts, drug addicts, alcoholics and even cannibals (Dalrymple 207). Ma Manisha is not worried. She knows politics is for the powerful and Ma has faith in her power beyond conventional religion. Businessmen also flock here for peace in domestic life and for flourishing business. The devotees living there perform them at a price. Tapan Sadhu has been rejected by

his family forever for abandoning them but Manisha Ma has been luckier to have garnered respect and acceptance by her two daughters after her husbands death. Ultimately it is the will of Tara that they have found new hope in place of sorrow (Dalrymple 232). It is through melancholic, enigmatic songs with a strange mix of skepticism and agnostic thought, walking the country on foot [. . .] along unknown roads that the Bauls, wandering minstrels of Bengal, come closer to God (Dalrymple 246). Their 500 years old history refuses to conform to religious conventions of idol worship. In an effort to discover the inner being of man, moner manush, where God resides; the real pilgrimage, Bauls inspire rural folk to give up differences surrounding caste, religion and material possession. Ironically, singing for divinities like Kali or Krishna helps Bauls to transcend the material life and provide solutions to people with problems in temples, a place of attraction. Dalr ymples visit to Kenduli on Ajoy River near Shantiniketan during Makar Sankranti was marked by his interaction with celebrated singers, Kanai, Paban and Debdas. Excepting an inner urge to sing soulful songs, Kanais childhood blindness became the practical decision to become a Baul. He could not till the land but he could sing to provide for his mother and sister. [. . .] it was my ability to sing that saved me from misfortune and [. . .] live the life of the heart (Dalrymple 244). Travelling the roads together Debdas and Kanai were made for each other; Kanai the voice and Debdas the eyes. Faith in guru hood, was not just in holding one anothers hands but in Kanais gesture, connected at the navel (Dalrymple 248). Rejected by the family for disapproving caste division even at a tender age, thereafter suffering tear-jerking hardships and penances, Kanai brought Debdas and nursed him back to health, never to leave him again. Baul gurus also teach Tantric sexual practices to their pupils, which unlike the Tantric custom, are closely guarded secrets. For this they consider marriage important and as Bhaskar Bhattacharya, a Delhi based writer and researcher of religion puts it, they use Tantric sexual yoga like a booster rocket, the body as the chariot that can take you up into the sky, towards the sun, as a way of

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reaching and revealing the divinity of the inner self transforming lives (Dalrymple 255-256). Settling for the music the aged Baul couple Subhol Kapa and Lalita expressed, I dont care if I die tomorrow. It makes everything in life seem sweet. To which Kanai added, It makes us so happy [. . .] that we dont remember what sadness is (Dalrymple 260). It was as though Keats was uttering that he was half in love with easeful death; contrarily his fanciful flight proved fragile and transitory. For these Bauls it was a life giving them bliss.Where studies in Sufism, Bhopas of Pabuji, Theyyam, Baul, Tantra and Yellamma faith rejected divisions of caste and religion, the first four through music and dance also got you carried away helping to find God within. The Ramayana phenomenon was faith revived and an ultimate value for national integration, both in its re-written as well as in its reinvented form. Jainism and Buddhist faith were stories of endurance personified whereas the bronze casters of deities displayed nobility of values honouring tradition in the face of hi-tech scenario. The Kumbh Mela, despite creating hard-line factions in religion and politics, displayed deep rooted faith in worship of rivers as holy elements of nature that washes away all sins. Nevertheless all took the devotee to a spiritual level, healing and serving the torn and miserable. Each one inadvertently taught one value of life or other, a need to imbibe as never before. Values are as comprehensive as our lives, fetching more meaning and complexity with technological progress and problem galore today. Ethics have never been defined clearly even by science, and so Western philosophy turns to religious authority or individual emotions. Differences concerning values might have created conflicts, yet every individual goal is bliss, achievable by any individual. For instance, from direct experience of Reality according to Vedantic ethics, inbuilt in humans and derived logically, it is naturally acceptable as ones own existence. Often called mystic view, the root of all faith and its healing power is this experience, which can be termed as knowledge or discovery of Self. Ancient rishies had realized it; Aurobindo, Ramkrishna Paramhans, Vivekananda, Osho and Sri Sri Ravishanker have in the modern times. Values drawn from this study on faith and practiced by people with diverse beliefs lie in

the deeply rooted ancient Indian tradition, culture and the scriptures. Modernity and change had led some to overlook these. For instance, the simple fact that driven by love, kindness and justice even a selfish person becomes naturally benevolent after the mystic experience, demonstrating the truth that this simple discovery of ones own real Self, already present, is the ultimate and direct experience of Reality or Sat-Chit-Anand(ExistenceConsciousness-Bliss). The crux is it comes from Sadhna; education and practice. For a happy life both scientific and spiritual progress is necessary. Vedic values encourage free and rational thinking, which is as verifiable as any science today. Multiple issues in this world like terrorism and poverty, and religious, regional, racial biases can be overcome, cured and healed with faith in this Vedantic philosophy, which is essentially humanistic, promoting nonviolence, truth, tolerance, service, kindness and the rest. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Dalrymple, William. Nine Lives. In Search of the Sacred in Modern India. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2010. Knapp, Stephen. The Secret Teachings of the Vedas. Answers to the Mysteries of Life. 11th ed. Mumbai: Jaico Publishing House, 2011. Tiwari, Vishwa Mohan. "World Moral Crisis: A Vedic Perspective." Vedic Science April-June (2005): 49-50. Tully, Mark. No Full Stops in India. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1992. Tully, Mark. and Gillian Wright. India in Slow Motion. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2003

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Developing Study Sk ills in E. S. L. Classrooms

* Dr. Chandrashekhar Vazalwar
Study skills are the key to success in academic world. They are useful tools/techniques to help learners, appreciate the goals towards achieving their dreams. This paper describes what is study skills, what are the different types of study skills, importance of study skills & how it can be developed in English as a Second Language(ESL) classrooms. Key Word : *English as a Second Language (ESL) Introduction- Today language is viewed as a skill rather than as knowledge. If we want to acquire knowledge about any subject, we read books or listen to lectures. Skills are acquired through practice. Language is also regarded as a skill. The more we speak, the more fluent we become. The more we read, the faster we can read. There are four linguistic skills : listening, speaking, reading & writing. These four skills have to be mastered by any user of the language. If we want to study anything through a language we have to master what are known as study skills. What are study skills? Study skills may be defined as skills which help learners to study more efficiently. When we teach study skills to our learners, we achieve two purposes : a) Directly We help the students to increase his/her knowledge of the subject matter, & b) Indirectly We improve his/her ability to learn other subjects independently & at will. In other words we enable him/her to learn to learn. The process of study involves four operations : perception,
=========================== * Associate Professor, Department of Education, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University) Bilaspur (C.G.)

comprehension, retention & retrieval. It means the student should first perceive what is relevant to his/her needs & select only those areas which are important. The student cannot study everything available in every book he can lay hands on. Once he has decided on the areas significant to him, he has to read & understand or comprehend the material that he has selected, for no learning can take place without comprehension. What is not understood is not learnt. Comprehension thus constitutes an important stage in the process of learning. However, mere comprehension does not guarantee mastery of the subject; for human memory is so transient, that, what is understood may easily be forgotten, hence the learner has to make special efforts to retain what he has learnt. Different students adopt different means towards retention. Very weak students memorize the whole lesson; brighter learners, however, try to remember the basic principles in the form of short notes. The last stage in learning process involves the retrieval of what has been learnt. Types of Study Skills1) Gathering skills(Perception, Comprehension) These are also known as reference skills & enables a learner to gather information as quickly as possible. This requires two sub skills : locating & comprehending information. For locating information we should first of all, know the sources available, e.g. books, journals etc. Once the learner has identified the sources he should make effective use of them. A major source of information is the dictionary . We mainly look for meanings of words in the dictionary. The dictionary gives us much more information, e.g. pronunciation, grammar, etymology, derivations etc. If the student is asked to write an assignment on a specific topic then for him it is impossible to read every word of every book on the area, he needs to be selective. Here he could get some guidance from the contents page or the index at the back of the book. After locating the relevant pages they should quickly skim through them & perhaps scan only those sections which are useful for his assignments. 2) Storing skills (Retention) Storing skills involve the ability to store information for ready retrieval & use. We do remember

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what we read/listen to ; but not everything. So most of us copy down important facts. If we are not properly trained we would waste a lot of time in copying; further just before the examination, when the students revise all the lessons, it would be just impossible for them to read through hundreds of pages. They should have the notes in brief & prcised form, ready for quick reference. Each student adopts his/her own way of storing information. Storing skills are of two main categories : a) Note taking It involves listening to lectures & taking down notes i.e. the main & subordinate points. This is a skill every student needs to master. In fact, since students have not mastered this skill adequately, we teachers are force to restore to dictating notes after we have finished lecturing on a topic. b) Note making It involves reading books & making notes. Note making is a very leisurely activity. Both the skills may be divided into following sub skills : i) Comprehension of the text/ lecture ii) Identification of the main points iii) Distinguishing main factors from subordinate ones iv) Deciding on the order of priority among the various points v) Identifying the organization of points vi) Organizing the points into a visual display Both are meant for students private use, hence they are free to use any abbreviation, symbol etc. 3) Retrieval skills While writing an examination, or participating in a conference or seminar, students need to summarize their ideas in a coherent form, so that their readers can understand them or sometimes they have to prepare a research abstract based on their reading. The student will of course base their summary or abstract on the notes they had prepared earlier. The length of a summary may vary depending on the purpose for which it is intended. Summarizing is not an exercise to be learnt for the use in the classroom alone ; it has relevance for life. We can summarize articles, chapters & even books for future reference. A newspaper reporters job is to summarize speeches & reports. Scientists & researchers read abstract of important books/papers to keep

themselves up to date & save time as well. A good summary requires several skills on the part of the learner; comprehension, analysis, judgment, clarity or brevity etc. Why are Study Skills Important? Study skills are learning strategies that help students organize, process, and use information effectively. Because learners might need help not just with what they learn but also with how they learn it. These skills are important not just for academic learning, but also for everyday life. They can help individuals be organized and successful lifelong learners and manage their jobs, households, and finances (EMSTAC, 2001). Study skills can be especially critical for learners with learning disabilities, who may have difficulty staying focused and become discouraged by lack of success (Beckman, 2002). When students attribute failure to internal factors, such as lack of ability, or external factors, such as bad luck, their self-confidence suffers and they see effort as futile (Peirce, 2004). Mastering the skills for studying and learning increases their self-efficacy and empowers them to change their approach and try different strategies if one fails. Signs that students need help developing study skills include spending too much time studying, taking class notes that are difficult to understand or contain the wrong information, procrastinating about large projects or tasks, being unable to identify what is important in a text, or being unable to remember what they have read (Cook Counseling Center, 2006; EMSTAC, 2001). How can Study Skills be Developed in ESL Class Rooms? The activities which may be used to develop various study skills in our learners they are : 1) Gathering skills A) Using a dictionary Task 1- Each of these three lists shows the words in the order in which they appear in the dictionary, but each one has one word that is out of order. Try to spot the three misplaced words before checking result from the dictionary. found narky phonetic founder narrate phonetics foundation narrator phonetician

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foundation cream narration phoney foundation garment narrative phonics foundations narrow phono Task 2- Identify the part of speech of OUT in the following sentences : a) Hell be back before the month is out. b) Take out the book you like best. c) The truth will always out. d) She went out the door. e) The fire has been out for hours. Task 3- Find out the plurals of the following nouns : a) s n ee z e b) medium c) memorandum d) triceps e) memo f) bureau g) criterion h) formula i) basis j) attorney general B) Using the library- The following is a part of the index taken from the book. What information do you get from the book ? 1. i) Abbreviations 70 ii) Colloquial expressions 29-32, 50,91 iii) Idiomatic usage 35-43, 53, 89 iv) Pronunciation 10-17, 45, 92 v) Reported speech 19- 25,55, 72 vi) Word order 56-61, 67, 88, 99 2. Where would you find information related to the following? stress; short forms; slang. 3. Find out what is wrong with the following sentences. Where could you possibly find the information? (i) He asked me where are you going (ii) I read the newspapers that he has kicked the bucket 2) Storing skills a) Note making - Read the following paragraphs & make a note on them. The human brain is spherical like a ball. It is divided into two halves called two hemispheres. The right hemisphere controls the working of the left side of the body, while the left hemisphere controls the right side. Furthermore, each hemisphere controls certain kinds of mental activities. In most people reasoning or logical thinking & the learning of mathematics & languages are controlled by the left hemisphere, while abilities in the arts & crafts & in music, dance & sports are controlled by the right hemisphere.

b) Diagramming/Information transfer- Read the following paragraph & complete the table given below. Raj & John are very good friends. They have a monthly income of Rs. 7000 & Rs. 5000 respectively. Raj buys milk for Rs.700 where as John spends only Rs. 500. Raj being vegetarian spent Rs.200 more on vegetables than John, who spends Rs. 200 on vegetables & Rs. 150 on meat. The provision bill for john comes to Rs. 700 per month where as Raj spends Rs. 200 more on the same. Since Mr. & Mrs. John are both working they have little time to prepare snacks at home. Hence they buy bakery for Rs.200 every month. Raj spends only Rs. 100 for the bakery. They both buy fruits for Rs. 200 every month.
Items 1. Milk Raj Rs. 700 John Rs. 500

3) Retrieval skills - Summarizing is the major retrieval skill. Once a student has mastered the skill of note making summarizing becomes easy. In addition to identifying the main & sub ordinate points in a text, & their manner of organization, summarizing requires a learner to write a coherent, logical piece of discourse in the form of a continuous paragraph. The length of the summary may vary according to the purpose for which it is written. Generally a summary needs to be comprehensive but precise. It should include the major relevant points but should not add any extra points not included in the text. Task 1- Refer to task on note making. Based on the notes you have prepared, write a summary of the passage. Task 2- Read the editorial of todays newspaper & summarize it in about 100 words. ======================== References1. 2. Beckman, P., & Weller, C. (1990). Active, independent learning for children with learning disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 21/22, 26-29. Cook Counseling Center. (2006). Study skill checklist. Blacksburg, VA: Cook Counseling Center, Virginia Tech. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from http:// www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/checklis.html Peirce, William. (2004). Metacognition: Study strategies, monitoring, and motivation. Text version of a workshop, Prince George's Community College, Maryland, November 17, 2004. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from http:// academic.pgcc.edu/~wpeirce/MCCCTR/metacognition.htm.

3.

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Science Education : Shifting India from Learning Society to Knowledge Society

* Dr. Preety Agarwal
The knowledge society will inevitably become far more competitive than any society we have yet known for the simple reason that with knowledge being universally accessible, there are no excuses for non-performance. There will be no poor countries. There will only be ignorant countries. Drucker Introduction- Our changing times provide numerous opportunities for interesting research into different aspect of the knowledgebased society. Science is becoming a powerful institution influencing peoples daily lives in various ways. But it is also increasingly influenced by social, economic and political forces shaping its direction and controlling its applications. The boundaries between private and public, nature and society are increasingly challenged by scientific and technical advances. Advances in science and its resulting technologies, such as global communication, satellite images of Earth, together with the popular fascination with dinosaurs etc., have irrevocably expanded the space and time scales with which people at many levels of society now view their world. Science is largely responsible for a growing public awareness that people share the planet with all other living creatures, that the environment which supports all life is subject to change, and that human activities are presently changing this environment and threaten to change it seriously. In the past two centuries, science has been used mainly as a tool for economic expansion and military power for the wealthier segments of the human race. A knowledge society should be able to integrate all
=========================== * Assistant Professor , Department of Teacher Education, Pt. J. N. P. G. College, Banda (U.P.)

its members and to promote new forms of solidarity involving both present and future generations. Nobody should be excluded from knowledge societies, where knowledge is a public good, available to each and every individual. By definition, a learning society cannot be just an information society. In the face of the potential excesses that the rise of a global information society is likely to generate, the notion of learning reintroduces a critical dimension, allowing our societies to face the possibility of assimilating the incredible amount of new knowledge that they regularly produce. Thus, learning as a phenomenon may generalize at all levels of our societies and offers a model for organizing the time, work and lives of our institutions. Such an evolution illustrates a paradigm shift. On the one hand, education and learning can no longer be confined to a set and settled space-time, but may develop over a lifetime. On the other hand, the human actor must be put at the heart of a continuing process of knowledge acquisition and communication. This return to the specifically human dimension of knowledge does not put into question the importance of new computer tools (automatic database managing or knowledge processing systems) Rather, they should be seen as mere tools, and should not allow us to overlook the role of learning and particularly the role that teachers and educators of all kinds are destined to play. We have seen that the existence of different ways of gaining access to knowledge is one of the major characteristics of learning societies. This diversity is linked to the end of two monopolies, that of educational institutions and that of books. Of course, educational institutions continue to play an essential role; as for books, and printed matter in general, they are not likely to disappear. Technological innovation provides the publishing business with new growth opportunities, through tailor-made printing and significant savings in storage space, and the internet creates new virtually unlimited opportunities for promoting, selling or negotiating rights. But the digital revolution, which has transformed our relationship to knowledge, is speeding up the erosion of these two monopolies very significantly. Long a symbol of the circulation of knowledge, how will books be changed through contact with the new media? And with the advent of these new

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media, what will become not only of the text itself, but also of the experience of reading? In learning societies, whose which must multiply and improve learning environments, what is to be the place of libraries? How are they to fit in with networking? None of these questions is unimportant for, behind them, we see outlined a whole series of opportunities for lifelong learning. One who has learned to learn and will continue to learn throughout his or her life, especially in and out of the formal education system. This is continuing education. This is lifelong Learning. In the knowledge society, clearly more and more of knowledge, and especially of advanced knowledge, will be acquired well past the age of formal schooling, and increasingly, perhaps, in and through educational processes which do not centre on the traditional school, e.g., systematic continuing education offered at the place of employment. It refers to any society where knowledge is the primary production resources instead of capital and labour. In other words, creates, shares and uses knowledge for the prosperity and well being of its people. acknowledges the might of the brain power over of any other kind-economic, military, political, etc. The Rise of the Knowledge Society- In the classical definition, which focuses on the development directions of a rise in knowledge? society, the wording, according to Lane (1966) is: As a first approximation to a definition, the knowledge society is one in which, more than in other societies, its members: (a) inquire into the basis of their beliefs about man, nature, and society; (b) are guided (perhaps unconsciously) by objective standards of veridical truth, and, at the upper levels of education, follow scientific rules of evidence and inference in inquiry; (c) devote considerable resources to this inquiry and thus have a large store of knowledge; (d) collect, organize, and interpret their knowledge in a constant effort to extract further meaning from it for the purposes at hand; (e) employ this knowledge to illuminate (and perhaps modify) their values and goals as well as to advance them. Just as the democratic society has a foundation in governmental and interpersonal relations and the affluent society a foundation in economics, so the knowledge society has its roots in epistemology and the logic of inquiry. (Lane, 1966, p. 650; cf. p.

661) According to Stehrs analysis it is crucial that one can speak of an advance in scientific awareness for all essential areas of life in modern-day society. It concerns dimensions and processes that were mentioned in the introduction and that refer to: scientification as the scientific pervasion of all areas of life and activity, as well as the concept of the knowledge society; professionalization, that is to say, a suppression of traditional forms of knowledge through scientific awareness, the complex scientific knowledge and ability; the differentiation of a system of scientific and educational politics; the production of knowledge in the context of education in a specific sector of production; the reformation of dominant structures in the context of technological/technocratic developments; the emergence of expert power, that is to say, transformation processes in the context of the legitimating of power; Knowledge about the analysis of social processes and, thus, a new foundation for emancipation and social control (Stehr, 1994, p. 36; cf. Weingarten, 2001, p. 332). In the face of these challenges, the international community, including governments, international governmental and nongovernmental organizations and the private sector, should focus on three sets of initiatives that could be viewed as the pillars on which genuine knowledge societies for all can be built: A better valuation of existing forms of knowledge to narrow the knowledge divide; A more participatory approach to access to knowledge; A better integration of knowledge policies. Learning Societies- A learning society is generally considered to be the basis from which lifelong learning can take place. From a theoretical standpoint, not only does the learning society provide the framework in which lifelong learning is allowed to flourish, but that in fact both elements mutually support each other. That is, a learning society gives rise to the capacity for lifelong learning, but lifelong learning allows, through socialization, for individuals to contribute back to the learning abilities of broader society in

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the form of wisdom (known as a koinosophic or wise society The Learning Society: Engenders a culture of learning throughout life. Aims to develop motivated, engaged learners who are prepared to conquer the unforeseen challenges of tomorrow as well as those of today. Takes learning to the learner, seeing learning as an activity, not a place. Believes that learning is for all, that no one should be excluded. Recognizes that people learn differently, and strives to meet those needs. Cultivates and embraces new learning providers, from the public, private, and NGO sectors. Develops new relationships and new networks between learners, providers (new and old), funders, and innovators. Provides the universal infrastructure they need to succeed still physical but increasingly virtual. Supports systems of continuous innovation and feedback to develop knowledge of what works in which circumstances. By definition, a learning society cannot be just an information society. In the face of the potential excesses that the rise of a global information society is likely to generate, the notion of learning reintroduces a critical dimension, allowing our societies to face the possibility of assimilating the incredible amount of new knowledge that they regularly produce. Thus, learning as a phenomenon may generalize at all levels of our societies and offers a model for organizing the time, work and lives of our institutions. Such an evolution illustrates a paradigm shift. On the one hand, education and learning can no longer be confined to a set and settled space-time, but may develop over a lifetime. Learning societies will have to enable each individual to keep up with knowledge. This will require an in-depth debate over knowledge evaluation, whether of learners (schoolchildren, students, workers following a training course, seniors, etc) or of teachers and researchers. All the difficulty lies in the fact that knowledge, unlike goods and services, cannot be measured objectively, even if, in learning

societies, knowledge is at the Core of continuous exchanges. This is a global issue that goes beyond the question of knowledge trade; it also concerns job remuneration in the immaterial sector and thereby knowledge remuneration. This difficulty is all the more acute since the necessity to assign units of measure to knowledge has led to the development of measurable forms of knowledge formatted Or standardized knowledge that can be evaluated quantitatively (with units) and qualitatively (with a reference table). Worse than that, the execution speed of cognitive tasks can become a unit of measure, even for tasks requiring thinking and, thereby, time. Hence, we end up favoring exercises such as text summaries, teaching the learner to skim over knowledge instead of analyzing it. Multiple choice question papers have taken this form of evaluation to appalling extremes. By generalizing knowledge evaluation, knowledge temples might well become supermarkets selling standardized information or cognitive routines. If it is difficult to establish global standards to evaluate knowledge, for most forms of knowledge cannot be quantified; it is however possible to suggest a few safeguards. One of the solutions could consist in distinguishing the role of the teacher from that of the examiner: this would prevent knowledge from being excessively subjected to evaluation. Examiners would have broader bases for comparison and would not be confronted to the relationship problems between teachers and students. Indeed, entrusting the teachers with teaching and evaluation makes them both judge and judged. This solution entails organizational problems and may be more expensive. However, it would bring a solution to the crucial issue of global evaluation accreditation, so necessary for the emergence of knowledge for all societies. Science and Knowledge Society- In the coming century, the rate of change of natural and human conditions and issues can be expected to continue to accelerate. Scientists have an increasing obligation to become involved with policy-makers and the public in finding and implementing solutions or means of adaptation to issues that are both local and world-wide, such as reconciling the present competitive profit motive with the common good; providing for contributions from and benefits to marginalized elements of

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society and minority cultures; justifying current expenditures to prevent costs or damages to future generations; rewarding collective rather than individual efforts. The role of science in society and governance has never been more important. The gaining of scientific knowledge must not be assumed to lead automatically to direct commercial policy exploitation of that knowledge. Often the knowledge is of greatest benefit if it increases public understanding and awareness. Scientists cannot always control the application of their findings. However, they have a responsibility to engage in public dialogue about the implications of scientific findings and to help distinguish between socially beneficial and socially harmful applications. Action is needed at the international level to protect the human species from human-induced genetic alteration and to ensure that technological applications in the fields of human genetics are ethically and socially sound. Review committees at the institutional and national levels, such as those that examine and appraise research projects, can help focus attention on key ethical and safety issues. However, stronger and higher-level mechanisms for decision-making and enforcement in this area of science are also needed. UNESCO has an important role to play in this regard. Scientists should be more proactive in policy making. This could be done by promoting, among governments around the world, the concept of science/policy contracts. These agreements would recognize the value of scientific advice, but also make clear that such advice is but one ingredient in decision-making and not necessarily the overriding one. Such contracts should set clear performance standards by which the inputs of scientists can be evaluated. The world scientific community should consider adopting an international code of ethical conduct for scientists, similar to the Hippocratic Oath taken by physicians. This code would apply a similar principle of measurability to scientific behavior that scientists so cherish in their day-to-day pursuit of knowledge. Role of Science Education in Shifting Learning Society to Knowledge Society- One of the principal forward-looking questions that arise when we consider the building of a Knowledge

society is the recruitment of qualified staff for science and technology. The mastery of technology is a necessary precondition for the creation of knowledge societies, but it is not sufficient to ensure their sustainability. The use of complex research infrastructures (with computerized and often automated systems) presupposes the presence not only of large numbers of engineers and technicians, with the ability to control and maintain them (and to devise new instrumental techniques as well), but also of administrative staff participating in the management of research centres that are also centres of production. In addition, technological infrastructure and services are demanding engineers and technicians in ever-increasing numbers. We may therefore wonder whether education systems, in industrialized as well as in developing countries, Will have the capacity to train technicians, engineers, scientists and even high-level researchers in sufficient numbers to enable the knowledge society to fulfill all its promise. It is paradoxical to observe that, just as we hail the emergence of the knowledge society, the number of students enrolled in the sciences is falling sharply in quite a few industrialized countries, as is the number of those students who undertake research work at the end of their studies. The trend is all the harder to track since no statistical analysis has yet been conducted on an international scale to check the details and determine the exact causes. The lack of detailed figures, however, should not make us ignore the issue but, on the contrary, call for such studies to be carried out, not only in the industrialized countries, but in developing countries also. The present crisis in science education will without doubt have serious consequences. Not only will the demand for qualified Scientific staff fails to be satisfied in most of the industrialized countries but, above all, it will become increasingly difficult, if nothing is done, to meet the constantly growing requirements of our innovation oriented societies. What explanations can one offer for this crisis in science education, just at a time when knowledge societies are emerging? First of all, it must be recognized that, as early as primary and secondary school, a certain number of young people find science subjects boring. Secondly, as we saw in

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connection with the ethical and political debates stirred up by scientific research, sciences beneficent image is no longer accepted as a matter of course. Lastly, science has a reputation for being poorly paid. This problem leads us directly to the specific subject of this section recruitment. The problem may seem minor: many scientists have illustrious careers and some become celebrities and may reap prestigious awards. But in societies where people are often judged on the basis of financial and social success, material considerations have considerable weight in the choices made by 20-year-olds. The sometimes Insurmountable difficulty of establishing oneself in the world of research is often emphasized. Develop collaboratories: towards better scientific knowledge sharing collectively managed scientific cooperation networks and infrastructures accessible to researchers from several countries and regions, including those working in developing countries, should be set up. These Collaboratories, which enable scientists separated from each other by huge distances to work together on specific projects, such as the study of the human genome or AIDS/HIV research, offer an outstanding way of sharing and spreading knowledge more effectively (interoperability and meta-data standards, facilities, databanks, large information technology centres and possibly larger infrastructures). Setting up collaboratories might lead to the creation of sustainable platforms for sharing knowledge, research and innovation between the planets different regions, Women and Science- The crisis in science education can also be interpreted as one version of the underrepresentation in scientific institutions of certain social groups: ethnic or religious minorities, castes or marginalized social categories. This certainly applies strongly to women in the domain of science. In both industrialized and developing countries, the crisis in science education must also be understood as an expression of gender inequality. It becomes clear that science is suffering from under-feminization, a situation further aggravated by the glass ceiling affecting posts that carry responsibility a problem encountered everywhere, but particularly important in science. How can this situation be remedied? One of the first priorities is part and parcel of the general imperative for

girls education, an essential factor in development everywhere and fundamental if women are to become able to choose their destiny. Science education must be the subject of special attention: talks could be organized at primary and secondary schools and outstanding successes by women in science could be widely publicized. Symbolic high-level measures (the creation of specific distinctions or prizes reserved for women in science, for instance, such as the LOreal-UNESCO Prize for Women in Science), could also be highlighted; and indeed these have in recent years been receiving greater publicity from the media (science journals, womens magazines and ordinary newspapers). The essential task here is to use all necessary means, not excluding mass advertising , to convince educators, parents and the people most closely concerned the girls themselves that women can excel in science just as much as men. Some aspects of the crisis in science education derive from the unattractive image of the sciences and the teaching methods currently in general use, but responsibility also lies with decision-makers who give insufficient attention to the problem and above all with the difficulty many of them have in appreciating the complexity of the issues involved in science. Ideas for the knowledge society clearly make policies for education in science and technology a priority for economic and social investment. The quality of researchers training, their status and remuneration are now crucial issues for the take-off of science and technology, and political and economic decision-makers should recognize that knowledge is now a particular form of capital which, although it has its own ineradicable peculiarities, should nevertheless be given the same importance as economic capital. Making Science a Part of Peoples Life Curriculum- Science and technology play an increasingly large part in everyday life and in public debate. The spread of a genuinely scientific culture is essential for sustainable governance. Unless such a culture becomes general, there will inevitably be greater disparities and inequalities between individuals, genders, generations, social groups and nations according to their endowment of the scientific knowledge needed in the dynamic environments that characterize knowledge societies. Such societies intensify peoples need for

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scientific literacy if they are to make up their own minds on personal matters such as health, or collective ones such as the use of personal data. The general public does not necessarily need to have all the science in every textbook at its fingertips, but it must at least be capable of assessing the relevance of arguments put forward by experts and understanding the possible consequences of the authorities proposed measures on the economy, conservation or health. This applies not only to the general public and civil society, but also to the decision-makers themselves, who must not allow themselves to substitute the technical opinion of experts, even official ones, for political decision making. Inclusion of a scientific culture in the training of government decision-makers and officers might even prove an extremely beneficial step for developing countries, where innovation is sometimes held back by the difficulty these decision-makers often have in grasping scientific and technological issues and their importance. Training in scientific culture aims not so much to give people a particular body of facts as to make them capable of actively taking part in the governance of societies more and more influenced by science and technology. This is why scientific culture is not the culture of scientists. All too often it is perceived as a particular form of culture reserved for academics, but in fact it is the best means of providing training in interdisciplinary thinking, since it brings individuals face to face with different forms of knowledge. The point is also essential if there is to be any dialogue between the exact or natural sciences on the one hand and the social and human sciences on the other; between these two the bridges are often narrow and there can even be conflict. Scientific culture includes training in interdisciplinary thinking. The scientific culture of scientists themselves must in future extend beyond their own specialist fields. Scientific culture that of non-specialists as well as of specialists is becoming a universal culture, essential for understanding cultural diversity and the variety of human knowledge. Only scientific culture permits the creation of a public forum where anyone culture occupational, political, ethnic or ethical can enter into dialogue with all the others. A scientific culture must therefore enable everyone to acquire the skills needed

to grasp the issues relating to the main areas of science, particularly where these have an ethical or political impact. It must also make everyone capable of organizing information in a relevant and fruitful manner proliferating sources of information could become a handicap to those who lack the ability to link them, rank them and discriminate among them. Making Science Knowledge Popular-The concept of science mediatization is not concerned with the direction of transmission from learned elite to an ignorant multitude, for example but rather with the purpose and means of such communication. It must be recognized that there are some scientists who look down on extension activities as popularization, or even as pseudo-science and the notion sometimes betrays an elitist vision of science as the sole source and arbiter of knowledge. We must of course distinguish between scientific communication that takes the form of seminars or articles for specialists, and science mediatization whose purpose is to convey the general significance of a scientific is both forms of transmission must be given their rightful importance. Science mediatization includes books, radio and television, the internet, lectures and other events designed to make the public more aware of various aspects of science and technology. It incorporates both traditional and recent methods of disseminating scientific knowledge throughout society and accommodates the idea that the social and political relationships between scientists and nonscientists, the public at large, decision-makers and journalists are evolving. Communicating with the public with this purpose is a tricky business, for it requires scientists to make an effort of translation and to have a certain talent. But it actually offers the surest protection against the spread of pseudo-scientific theories, for it offers everyone the means of identifying and dissecting frauds hidden behind pretence of science. Pseudo-science, often no more than a public relations strategy, thrives when scientists decline to present their work to the general public. Science mediatization therefore has an essential part to play in certifying those findings that the scientific community regards as legitimate scientific literature written for the public at large remains a particularly appropriate medium for spreading knowledge of new scientific

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discoveries as well as long-established science. This form of mediatization is unquestionably the oldest, but the odds are that, whatever future developments may bring, it will remain one of the most worthwhile forms of mediatization, if only because it is equally well suited to both the internet and paper media. The mass media television, radio, newspapers, Magazines and their recent interactive forms such as the internet are just as essential for the development and perpetuation of a scientific culture for all. Some scientists complain that they over-simplify, distort or caricature science. But if science wishes to be adequately represented in the media, scientists themselves must take the initiative and become acquainted with the communication techniques used in nonscientific media. Scientific institutions must explore the development of tools for generating scientific awareness not only in the media but also more broadly among the general public, nongovernmental organizations, and government and international agencies. We could also mention plans for rolling news channels devoted to general scientific information or linked to current affairs. Such a form of science mediatization would target scientists as well the general public, but would serve, above all, as a reference source for other media and for decision-makers, as happens already with other sources the ordinary news media, for one. The success of mediatization depends, then, on the expansion of science beyond its boundaries and, above all, on scientists adoption of new methods arising from recent radical social changes. Discourage Brain Drain- There are three probable dangers that may emerge if science continues to lose its luster. First of all, there will be shortages of people with scientific and technological qualifications. Secondly, the industrialized countries will continue to poach large numbers of scientists and engineers from developing countries to make up for their own shortage of highly qualified recruits. This is already making the brain drain worse, and its acceleration is liable to affect not only the developing countries but also any of the industrialized countries that allow them to be left behind by more advanced ones in the domain of research. Lastly, the growing insecurity of scientific research as a career may lead to its abandonment by many of the most brilliant students

the driving force of high-level research. Such professional precariousness may as a result, directly impair the quality and competitiveness of future research, in both economic and scientific terms. Teaching Science in Action- Although it is important to achieve coherent and innovative mediatization of science, school will still continue to play its vital role as the means by which knowledge and scientific culture are transmitted. From now on, there will be two forms of introduction to the sciences: that which takes place in the traditional classroom setting and that which relies on the use of networks. In the conventional classroom, teachers should use teaching methods that focus on genuine science-led training, leading to the accumulation of a knowledge base that is selfsufficient because it has been individually acquired. The most thought-provoking vision for the future of education is the constitution of new humanities to occupy the void gradually left by outdated literary traditions, to bridge the gap between scientific knowledge and the human sciences, and to provide a synoptic grasp of current knowledge. The new humanities would be consonant with the complex thinking advocated by Edgar Morin, which he associates with the need to promote knowledge conducive to a grasp of global and fundamental issues that incorporates partial and local knowledge.14 If a field of study is not just to be an accumulation of facts, a dead letter, it is vital for learners to know where the knowledge they are required to learn comes from and how it was developed. How do scientists work? What motivates them? What is done in a laboratory? Why do writers write? What are the human sciences about? These are crucial questions all too often glossed over in teaching today, but which would hold considerable appeal if there were more interaction with the intellectual circles concerned. The magnitude of these challenges for education calls for trained teaching staff with updated knowledge about the latest technological, scientific and epistemological developments, both in their own subject area and in educational processes themselves. Teacher training must therefore extend beyond the bounds of competency in a particular discipline and must include, as components in their own right,

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training in the new technologies and study of the ways and means of stimulating the students motivation and personal commitment. What they will need to learn, then, is not so much a technical skill as the ability to choose from among the increasingly abundant array of teaching and other software and educational programmes on offer, those that are most appropriate. This is particularly true in the countries of the North. For the countries of the South, the main priority consists in focusing on more flexible, learner centred teaching practices. The teaching profession is, in fact, ideally suited to distance education using the new technologies. Teachers, with their experience in handling and passing on knowledge and knowhow, can make the most of the new media. On a last point, given the objective of gender equality in education, teachers must be made more aware of gender stereotyping, particularly since students incentive to study a particular subject is not strictly limited to acquiring skills or qualifications, but often hinges also on personal Identity, including gender identity. Overcoming Geographical Barriers- The new technologies are changing the face of education with the development of e-learning. The term covers a wide range of applications of these technologies, from the use of computers in the classroom to the entirely online distance education programmes that are beginning to emerge. Virtual classes offer personalized monitoring coupled with flexibility in the management of learning and greater autonomy in the acquisition of knowledge. Apart from the institutional programmes on offer, the internet is becoming the foremost medium of self-instruction by providing tools for informal learning and allowing the creation of virtual classes. Raising Net Working of Higher Education- By its very nature, innovative or specialized knowledge can only attract a small number of students. If it is localized geographically in a single institution, such knowledge will not be disseminated throughout the disciplinary community, which is scattered internationally. Would it not be preferable if, as in the case of summer schools, such educational content were to become as it were delocalized, itinerant and concentrated in the span of a few weeks, thereby enabling new and advanced knowledge to be made available to

the groups of students concerned, who would not otherwise have access to it in the institutions where they are studying? Educational networks of this kind make it possible to publish and disseminate online catalogues o specialized knowledge corresponding to every level of competence and specifying the skills needed to follow the different courses. When such courses are residential in nature (i.e. when teachers and students live together during the period of concentrated teaching), the dissemination of knowledge takes on a very different form from that with which formal lectures have made us familiar questions can be posed much more informally and the replies adapted to each questioner. Interdisciplinary links and intercultural dialogue can furthermore be strengthened as a result of students from different geographical backgrounds and disciplines living together. The new frontiers of science Decentralisation of Information- While it is impossible to foresee exactly the shape of science tomorrow, the directions in which research is currently moving are already providing a number of pointers, partially enabling us to imagine the future. The exercise calls for caution, for, while it may sometimes be possible to anticipate major technological trends, it is much harder to predict what individuals will do with these tools and the impact that their use will have on the dynamics of science and technology. The approaches pursued here resulting from a combination of information garnering and intuition have thus led us to focus on a few domains (informatics, biology and nanotechnology) whose rise is marked by a high degree of cross-disciplinary integration, a distinctive feature of knowledge societies. Bio-Computers and Nanotechnologies- Digital technology is furthermore developing at the microscopic level. The most ambitious projects concern the production of bio-computers. Many geneticists have argued that genetics is, in the last analysis, a science for the processing of information by living matter, which would make it possible to treat DNA as a computer. Such a DNA biocomputer would make it possible to process in record time problems of high complexity, starting with those linked to the development of nanotechnologies. These developments force us to pose future challenges

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Publish Science Literature- Scientific publications are a major concern since communication between researchers is intrinsic to the very nature of their activity. Publication represents a key instant in the production of scientific knowledge, for it is then that the results are formalized and made public. Because it ensures transmission and validation of research findings, publication is part and parcel of the knowledge creation process. Design a New Knowledge Based Science Curriculum for allGlobalization has increased the value and importance of advanced specialist skills and know-how. However, specialized skills and deep expertise take a long time to develop. In Outliers, Malcolm Glad well popularized and extended Anders Ericssons finding that experts in many domains are united by having spent around 10,000 hours developing their outstanding skills.Technology can help overcome this by providing easier and faster access to sources of world-class expertise: the best thinkers, researchers, teachers, and experts in their field. With improved video and true collaboration technologies, distance learning and remote collaboration become much richer experiences. But learning in these specialist subjects is about more than facts; its about learning a discipline, too. Learning how to apply the scientific method is a life skill applicable to numerous situations that allows the learner to relate to specialists across the entire domain of science. Evidence-based social science is the same, and so is law. By teaching the underlying method, these disciplines reach across subjects to enable people to apply knowledge in real life and prepare them to confront problems that we cannot yet imagine. Access to Knowledge and Knowledge Sharing- Access to knowledge and sharing can provide individuals with the abilities needed to ensure the conditions for human security. These conditions include a certain number of fundamental rights freedom of conscience, freedom of expression and information, freedom of association, freedom of the press, and universal suffrage, as well as economic, social and cultural rights, among which is the right to education. Therefore, the free movement of ideas, information and images, coupled with broad access. If access to political, social, scientific and economic information is an

inalienable right, it nevertheless remains important to be aware of the dangers associated with the movement of data concerning individuals. Indeed, threats to privacy have increased, particularly with the advent of new information and communication technologies, and especially when the use of such technologies is presented as security-related. The complexity of this situation shows that, in order to be democratic, knowledge societies will need to strike the right balance between individual freedom and the demands of security. In these circumstances, knowledge societies can become true societies of mutual understanding and dialogue between civilizations. This is described as the tendency of the learning society to have a dependency on technological advances. This can be regarded as the shifts towards knowledge economies in developed countries where the concept of the learning society is most prevalent, but also vitally as acknowledging the importance of the internet in allowing education to move beyond traditional boundaries and move across transnational borders instantly first approach to human security in the United Nations was promoted by UNDP in its 1994 World Human Development Report devoted to new dimensions on human security: There have always been two major components of human security: freedom from fear and freedom from want ... The list of threats to human security is long but most can be considered under seven main categories: (1) Economic security; (2) food security; (3) health security; (4) environmental security; (5) personal security; (6) Community security; (7) political security knowledge and information, are prerequisites for human security. Conclusion- Lifelong education thus entails transforming, redistributing and re-harmonizing individual and social periods of learning. Over a lifespan, several periods of education and training can be identified. As we have seen, the new university network models must be able to ensure both the research function and knowledge development in their chosen fields. Modern societies will have to give a great deal of thought to the evaluation of knowledge, students, teachers and researchers, as well as to the need to introduce more flexibility into the functioning of institutions and to separate the functions of teacher and examiner,

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with the overall objective of favoring the growth of educational networks. It will be equally essential to analyze the nature of the various forms of knowledge, to distinguish between descriptive knowledge (facts and information), procedural knowledge (concerned with the question how?), explicative knowledge (corresponding to the question why?) and behavioral knowledge. It will also be necessary to underline the utility, at first sight paradoxical, of abstract knowledge in a society of knowledge professions and jobs. In knowledge societies, such integration of research and policies should be encouraged through the pooling of knowledge resources and the development of Trans disciplinarily it is reasonable to hope that knowledge societies will encourage the promotion of human security through new and appropriate processes. There is a strong connection between the goals of human security and those of education and training. Shall we recall that in the societies of the written word, illiteracy has become a source of insecurity, as developing countries are cruelly aware? Moreover, through science education, the battle is joined not only against ignorance but also against other forms of insecurity. Education encourages people to take better care of their health, favors securing employment on the job market and pacifies the everyday violence in relationships between individuals. Education also encourages awareness and thereby the prevention of old and new threats, particularly crucial at a time when many experts consider that we have entered the risk society (Ulrich Beck).12 Indeed, it is important to prepare citizens for better self-protection and risk management. Education is the keystone of the policies on human security and the main tool to encourage the emergence of knowledge societies. If access to political, social, scientific and economic information is an inalienable right, it nevertheless remains important to be aware of the dangers associated with the movement of data concerning individuals. Indeed, threats to privacy have increased, particularly with the advent of new information and communication technologies, and especially when the use of such technologies is presented as security-related. The complexity of this situation shows that, in order to be democratic, knowledge societies will need to strike the right balance between individual

freedom and the demands of security. In these circumstances, knowledge societies can become true societies of mutual understanding and dialogue between civilizations. This is described as the tendency of the learning society to have a dependency on technological advances. This can be regarded as the shifts towards knowledge economies in developed countries where the concept of the learning society is most prevalent, but also vitally as acknowledging the importance of the internet in allowing education to move beyond traditional boundaries and move across transnational borders instantly. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Drucker, P. 1969. The Age of Discontinuity. Guidelines to our Changing Society. New York, Harper & Row. Evers, H.-D. 2002. Knowledge society and the knowledge gap. Paper presented at the conference on "Globalization, Culture and Inequalities" (Kebansaan University, Malaysia, 19-21 August). (http://www.unibielefeld. de/soz/iw/pdf/evers_2.pdf). Husn, T. 1974. The Learning Society. London, Methuen. Jarvis, P. (Ed.). 2001. The Age of Learning: Education and the Knowledge Society. London, Kogan Page Leach, M. 2002. Paper presented at the "Linking Traditional and Scientific Knowledge for Sustainable Development" conference (Johannesburg, World Summit on Sustainable Development, 29 August). Lyon, D. 1988. The Information Society: Issues and Illusions. Cambridge, the Polity Press. Lyon, D. (ed.). 2003. Surveillance as Social Sorting: Privacy, Risk, and Digital Discrimination. London/New York, Routledge. Stehr, N. 1994. Knowledge Societies: The Transformation of Labour, Property and Knowledge in Contemporary Society. London, Sage. -2004 "Can the information society lead to knowledge societies?" Paper presented at the third session of the XXIst Century Dialogues: "Building Knowledge Societies" (UNESCO/National Commission for UNESCO of the Republic of Korea, Seoul, and 27-28 July). 2004. Universities of the future: networks, Knowledge sharing and empowerment. Paper presented at the third session of the XXIst Century Dialogues: Building Knowledge Societies (UNESCO/ National Commission for UNESCO of the Republic of Korea, Seoul, and 27-28 July). Towards Knowledge Societies - ISBN 92-3-104000-6 - UNESCO 2005 http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/1994/

7. 8. 9. 10.

11.

12. 13.

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Women Empow erment: A Key to Measure Status of Gender and Development in India
* Dr. Dinesh Das
Introduction- The development of a country depends upon its valuable natural and human resources. Women at the global level constitute half of the world population and one third of labour force. But they earn only one tenth of the world income. The role and status of women have been undergoing a continuous change in recent times. The place of women in developing countries is largely determined by the overall socio-economic and cultural circumstances especially in rural areas. The constitution of India pledges equality of status and opportunity, social, economic and political justice and dignity of the individual to all the citizens. Undoubtedly the awareness of women in India has improved. Most of them are aware of their rights and they know how to raise their voice against injustice. They are trying to change the mindset of the people who treat women as inherently weak and liability. But still the issues of womens affairs and development are very complex. Large inequalities still prevail in India regarding the improvement of capabilities of females and males in different sphere of life. Discriminations are all around against the females whether it is educational attainments, provision of health and nutrition, share in economic opportunities or political participation. The real situation of women all around the world is very alarming. Out of the worlds 1.3 billion poor, about 70 percent are women. Women hold only 10.5 percent of the seats in the worlds parliament. This is also a bitter true that out of the worlds one billion illiterates two third are women; and two thirds of 130 million
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Dept. of Economics, Gossaigaon College, Kokrajhar, Assam.

children world wide, who are not in school are girls. Rural women produce more than 55 percent of all food grown in developing countries. The value of womens unpaid household and community work is estimated 35 percent GDP world wide.To remove inequalities women have to be empowered. Measures must be given high priority to improve the status, role and participation of women. According to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, Empowering women is prerequisite for creating a good nation, when women are empowered, society with stability is assured. Empowerment of women is essential as their value systems lead to development of a good family, good society and ultimately good nation. Parameter of Womens Empowermenti) Enhancing access to legal literacy and information relating to womens rights and entitlements in society with a view to enhance their participation on an equal footing in all areas. ii) Providing information knowledge and skill for gaining economic independence. iii) Fostering decision making and action. iv) Ensuring their active participation in polity and economy. v) Enabling women to make informed choices in areas like education, employment and health especially reproductive health. vi) Ensuring equal participation in developmental processes. Gender and Development: An Overview- This is the main theme of the research paper which deals with the different indicators of womens empowerment in terms of education, health, employment and control over income and political empowerment. Education: Education is the strongest tool of empowerment. After Independence, the govt. of India set up a national committee on education for girls in 1958 to allocate resources for girls primary and secondary and later for the promotion of female education. But it is very sad that inspite of all efforts there is still wide gender disparity in literacy rate of men and women. In 2009, the adult literacy rate of men was 76.9% while it is only 54.5% in women. In 2011 the literacy rate of men has been increased and registered 82% while for women it reached only 65.46%.

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Table-1
State Wise Gender Disparity regarding Literacy Rate in India
Sl.No. State & Union Territories Literacy Rate 93.9% 92.3% 91.6% 87.8% 87.4% 87.1% 86.5% 86.4% 86.3% 86.3% 83.8% 82.9% 82.2% 80.3% 80.1% 79.8% 79.6% 79.3% 77.7% 77.7% 77.1% 76.7% 76.6% 75.6% 75.5% 73.5% 73.2% 71.0% 70.6% 69.7% 68.7% 67.6% 67.1% 67.0% 63.8% Male literacy Rate 96.0% 96.1% 93.7% 92.2% 92.8% 91.5% 92.1% 90.5% 90.1% 91.0% 90.8% 89.8% 87.3% 86.8% 83.3% 86.5% 88.3% 87.2% 75.6% 86.5% 82.7% 81.5% 85.5% 82.8% 77.2% 82.4% 78.8% 81.5% 80.5% 79.2% 78.3% 78.5% 80.5% 73.7% 73.5% Female Literacy Rate 92.0% 88.2% 89.4% 83.1 % 81.8% 79.6% 81.2% 81.4% 81.1% 80.9% 76.6% 75.5% 76.4% 73.9% 76.3% 73.2% 70.7% 70.7% 59.7% 65.9% 71.2% 71.3% 66.8% 68.1% 73.8% 64.4% 67.3% 60.6% 60.0% 59.3% 58.0% 56.2% 52.7% 59.6% 53.3% Gender Disparity 4.0% 7.9% 4.3% 9.1% 11.0% 11.9% 10.9% 9.1% 9.0% 10.1% 14.2% 14.3% 10.9% 12.9% 7.0% 13.3% 17.6% 16.5% 15.9% 20.6% 11.5% 10.2% 18.7% 14.7% 3.4% 18.0% 11.5% 20.9% 20.5% 19.9% 20.3% 22.3% 27.8% 14.1% 20.2%

Table 2 Gender Disparity in Literacy Rate among Different Groups

Group Urban Rural According to Caste Schedule caste Schedule tribe Other backward cast According to Economic Higher class Status Middle class Lower class According to Area Female (%) 75 46 44 33 52 55 50 19 Male (%) 88 72 72 60 79 90 79 72

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Kerela Lakshyadeep Mizoram Tripura Goa Daman & Deu Pondicherry Chandigarh Andmaan & Nicobar Delhi Himanchan Pradesh Maharastra Sikkim Tamilnadu Nagaland Manipur Uttrakhand Gujrat Andhra Pradesh Dadar & Nagar Haveli West Bangal Punjab Haryana Karnatak Meghalay Orissa Assam Chhatisgarh Madhya Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Jharkhand Rajasthan Arunachal Pradesh Bihar

Source: NFHS-3, 2005-06, GOI

The gender disparity regarding literacy rate among different groups is very alarming. In rural areas there had seen great disparity in male-female literacy rate (88:75). Cast wise disparity in women literacy rate is most alarming as female literacy rate in schedule caste is being reported only 33%. Socio-economically the gender disparity in literacy rate is also very poor. In low-income families, women literacy rate is only 19% in comparison to male literacy rate (72%) of that category. Today also, among the children away form schooling, the maximum number are of girls in the world. In India the enrolment rate of female children are remarkably less. Mostly fifty percent of the girls who enrolled in elementary education left the school before entering in class 5th. Only 28% girls complete their primary education completely. Table 3 Gross Enrollment Ratio (1951-2005)
Year 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001-02 2002-03 2004-05 I-V 60.6 82.5 95.5 95.8 114.0 105.29 97.53 110.70 Boys VI-VIII 20.6 33.2 46.5 54.3 76.6 67.77 65.34 74.30 I-V 24.8 41.4 60.5 64.1 85.5 86.91 93.07 104.67 Girls VI-VIII 4.6 11.3 20.8 28.6 47.0 52.09 56.22 65.13 I-V 42.6 52.4 78.6 80.5 100.1 96.30 95.39 107.80 Total VI-VIII 12.7 22.5 33.4 41.9 62.1 60.20 60.99 69.63

Source: Census 2011, Govt. of India.

It is very disappointing that after completing the six decades of independence, high gender disparity regarding literacy exists in more than ten high populated states in India. The most alarming condition is of Rajasthan, where the adult literacy rate of man is 80.5% while it is only 52.7% of women. Almost the same situation is of Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Madya Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Dadar & Nagar Haveli, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Orissa.

Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development, Dept. of Education, Govt. of India.

There has been definite increase in the gross enrollment rate since independence. The girls have achieved a significant increase

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in enrollment as at the primary level enrolment rate of 24.8 percent in 1951 has risen to 104.67 in 2004-05 and in upper primary level the girls enrollment rate has increased from 4.6 percent to 65.13 percent during the same period. But still gender disparity is seen regarding enrollment rate. As in comparison to boys enrollment rate (110.70) at primary level in 2004-05 girls enrollment rate (74.30) is relatively less. Socio-cultural factors are also responsible to detach women to education. Poverty, parada system, child marriage and some social customs like dowry are the barriers in the way of women towards education. For poor families the earning is the basic objective of their life while the education is considered secondary. Female children have to perform many house hold duties like fetching water from far outside, looking after the siblings, bringing groceries, cooking food for family and sometimes helping elders in earnings. This is why the drop-out rate of female children is higher than that of male children. Table 4 Drop-Out Rate at Primary and Middle Levels (1961-2005)
Year 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001-02 2002-03 2004-05 Boys 61.7 64.5 56.2 40.1 38.36 35.85 31.81 Class I-V Girls 70.9 70.9 62.5 46.0 39.88 33.72 25.42 All 64.9 67.0 58.7 42.6 39.03 34.89 29.00 Boys 75.0 74.6 68.0 59.1 52.91 52.28 50.49 Class VI-VIII Girls All 85.0 78.3 83.4 77.9 79.4 72.7 65.1 60.9 56.92 54.65 53.45 52.79 51.28 50.84

Table 5 Projected Values of Expectation of Life at Birth in India

Period 1951-60 1961-70 1971-75 1976-80 1981-85 1986-91 1991-96 1996-01 2001-06 2006-11 2011-16 Male 41.9 46.6 50.5 52.5 55.4 58.1 60.6 628 64.1 65.6 66.9 Female 40.6 44.7 49.0 52.1 55.7 59.1 61.7 64.2 65.8 67.2 68.8 Combined 41.3 45.6 49.7 52.3 55.4 58.6 61.1 63.5 64.8 NA NA

Source: Registrar General of India.

The life expectancy for men and women indicate that women had lesser life expectancy than men options at birth traces. Table 6 Infant Mortality Rate by Sex in India (for 000 live Birth)
Year 2004 2005 2006 Male 64 62 61 Rural Female 63 66 64 All 64 64 62 Male 39 37 37 Urban Female 40 43 40 All 40 40 39 Male 58 56 56 Total Female All 58 58 61 58 59 57

Source: Sample Registration System, Registrar General Commissioner, Census Operation, Government of India.

Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development, Dept. of Education, Govt. of India.

Similarly the drop-out rate at primary and middle class are declining and the most hopeful thing is that the girl drop-out rate is lower than that of boys from 2002-03 at primary class level. Health: Since 65 years of independence, an awareness is emerging as central as well as states are continue giving importance to women health and implementing a large-scale programme for the same. The important indicator of women health is her life expectancy at birth.

Once the child born, the infant mortality rate in the first year is often adverse as far as female children are concerned. The total IMR in 2004 was 57, for males it was 56 and for female it was 59 per 1000 births. This adversarial relationship of female IMR with male IMR has been continuing even after universal immunization programmes in both rural as well as urban areas. Employment and Control over Income: Traditionally, Indian women have had a dependency syndrome as far as employment is concerned. They were expected to look after the home, help in agriculture and joining in non-agricultural activities with equal to men. Womens status as a wife does not give her control over the family income which remained with the husband who decided the expenditure pattern for the family. Numerous govt. still deny women the right to acquire or dispose of land without her husbands permission. Most of the Indian women have virtually no land or

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inheritance right. The scene of women employment in organized sector is more disappointing. Women in the public and private sectors constituted 29.21 and 20.95 lakh respectively (as on 31st March, 2005) and it is not more than 20 percent of total work force in organized sector. It also indicates that women were employed more in public sector than in the private sector and especially in community, social and personal services. However in private sector female participation is high in manufacturing sector and it is closely followed by community, social and personal sectors. Similarly the concentration of women in state govt. and local bodies are higher as compared to central govt. An observation made here during the period, the extent of women empowerment is very less and sometimes it was negative in both in public and private sectors. The total employment of women in public sector in 2000 indicates 28.57 lakhs and it was reduced to 28.50 lakhs for the year 2001. Similarly in private sector women employment was 21.02 lakhs in 2001 and it was declined to 20.50 lakhs in the year 2002. Table 7 Women Employment in Different Branches of Public & Private Sectors
Sectors Public Sector Central Government State Government Quasi Government (Central) Quasi Government (State) Local Bodies Total Public Sector Private Sector Larger Establishments (Employing 25 or More Persons) Smaller Establishments (Employing Between 10 and 24 Persons) Total Private Sector Total 1999 251.9 1377.5 341.1 247.1 593.3 2810.9 1775.9 2000 252.2 1405.0 344.7 262.5 592.6 2857.0 1840.6 2001 254.5 1410.2 346.6 257.9 580.9 2850.0 1875.8 2002 255.4 1450.4 350.7 258.6 571.6 2886.6 1816.8

considering the men as physically stronger supposed to be more efficient than women. Male employees receive about hundred percent higher wages than women employees for same job and it is very high in mining, finance, real estate and other business work. Table 8 Average Wage Earning Received in Major Industrial Division in India (2004-05)
Sl.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Industrial Description Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry and fishing Mining and Quarrying Manufacturing Electricity, Gas and Water Construction Wholesale and Retail Trade and Restaurants and Hotels Transport, Storage and Communication Financing, Insurance Real Estate and Business Community, Social and Personal Services Total Female 34.29 36.84 37.67 45.98 57.07 40.90 38.85 32.34 46.68 47.39 Male 56.71 76.35 63.53 85.89 84.78 60.39 81.32 89.63 67.91 76.06

Source: Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government on India.

Womens access to financial resources is also an important element of womens empowerment. In NFHS-3 only 45 percent of all women age 15-49 say that they have some money of their own that they alone can decide how to use, 15 percent have a bank or saving account that they themselves use; 39 percent know of a programme that gives money to women to start or expand a business of their own and only 4 percent of all women have even taken a loan for such a programme. Table 9 Women Access to Money and Credit
Background Characteristics % who have money that can decide how to use 35.0 41.6 46.0 49.1 50.0 52.1 40.9 % who have a bank or saving account that they themselves use % who % who knows of a have taken Micro a loan from Credit Micro Programme Credit Programme

228.3

225.2

227.2

233.4

2004.2 4815.1

2065.8 4922.8

2102.9 4953.0

2050.2 4936.8

Age 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-39 40-49 Urban Rural 7.2 10.9 15.7 19.4 20.8 Residence 23.9 10.7 30.8 37.5 40.3 41.4 42.4 44.2 35.8 0.8 2.5 4.4 6.0 5.9 3.2 4.4

Source: Ministry of Labour and Employment, Govt. of India

In all over India the wage differentials across gender are endemic in both organized and unorganized labour market. It is widely reported that in organized sector when men and women perform the same task, men are always paid a higher wage and

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43.1 37.9 41.1 41.1 48.1 59.7 Education 7.4 10.9 12.1 15.1 22.3 40.9 Wealth Index 3.7 7.1 10.5 16.3 33.6 26.3 43.7 40.6 44.9 50.2 57.0 3.8 6.7 4.9 3.7 3.6 2.7

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No education 5 years complete 5-7 years complete 8-9 years complete 10-11 years complete 12 or more years complete Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

38.9 40.2 41.0 45.1 55.5

25.1 33.0 39.4 43.1 48.8

2.8 4.0 5.9 4.9 2.5

Source: NFHS-3, India 2005-06

All four of these indicators generally increase with age. The first three of these indication are higher for women in urban than in rural areas, and tend to increase with the wealth quintile of women. However the percentage of women who have ever taken a loan is slightly higher among women in rural areas than in urban areas, and has an inverted U shaped relationship with the wealth index. The indicator bears differing relationship with education. In particulars compared with women with less or no education, the most educated women or more likely to have a bank or saving account and to know about loan programme but are least likely to have ever taken a loan. Also the proportion of women who have some money of their own that they can use as they want, first declines with education from 43% among women with no education to 41 percent among women with 5-9 years of education and then increase to 60 percent among women with 12 or more completed years of education. Political Empowerment: Womens equality and empowerment are identified as key agents of development. The constitution of India grants equality to women in various fields of life still a large number of women in various fields are either ill-equipped or not in a position to propel themselves out of their unsatisfactory socioeconomic conditions. Patriarchy continues to be embedded in the social system in many parts of India denying a majority of women the choice to decide on how they live. The constitutional sanction of political equality to women is enjoyed only to a limited extend in really. The level of representation of women is low in the state legislatures and in parliament. The reservation of seats to legislative

bodies has been considered to give sweeping changes. The reservation for women is to motivate them to share the responsibilities of the society. Women participation in the village level politics can change at social, economic and political levels. To empower the women, the 73rd amendment of the constitution of India in 1992 declared that not less than one third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every panchayat shall be reserved for women and such seats may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a panchayat. Claus (4) of the act has also given the provision that not less than one-third of the total number of offices of chairperson in Panchayat at each level shall be reserved for women. We can not make democracy meaningful without the full involvement of women. Through women participation in politics we can enjoy political democracy in the country. Table-10 Political Representation in Parliament in India (1951-2004)
Year 1952 1957 1962 1967 1971 1977 1980 1984 1989 1991 1996 1998 1999 2004 Total Seats 489 494 494 520 520 542 542 542 529 521 543 543 543 543 Total Contestants 1874 1519 1985 2369 2784 2439 4629 4241 6160 8699 13952 4750 4949 NA No. of Women Contestants 51 45 70 67 86 70 142 164 198 325 599 267 284 NA Seat Won by Women 23 27 35 30 21 19 28 42 27 39 39 41 49 44

Source: Vote, 1998, KBK Pollagraphics and Lok Sabha Secretariat, New Delhi, Unpublished.

Concluding Observations- Though the constitution on India grants equal rights to women in various spheres of life, yet majority of women are still not in position to propel them out of unsatisfactory socio-economic development. The major reasons behind it are that they are ill-equipped, uneducated, poor and untrained. Over riding importance of community and patriarchy ensures women to keep silence in community as these is still high

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preferences for male child specially in states like Rajasthan, U.P., M.P., Punjab etc. There is a big difference in male-female ratio in these particular states. Domestic violence associated with dowry is very common all over in India. Indian women are still crying for social justice. Empowerment would not hold any meaning unless the provisions are made for women to make her strong, aware of their equal status in the society and to bring them in mainstream of society. The present need in this context is to educate women as education is the key of stable development. Education gives them power to take rational decisions. The greatest challenge is to recognize the abstracts that stand in they way of empowerment of women and than remove. At the national as well as state levels we need a full fledged mechanism to ensure gender sensitive policy, implementation through a participatory apex body. India is passing through a momentous stage in development. It has encountered and mastered many challenges in the past. Through various developmental and education base schemes and programmes, a wide gender gap will be bridged and the vision of a proud and prosperous India is realized. ======================== References1. 2. 3. Anker, R. (1998), 'Gender and Jobs; Sex Segregation of Occupation in the World', Geneva; ILO Economic Survey (2007-08) Govt. of India Human Development Report, MFHS (2005-06) "Women's Empowerment and Demographic Health Outcomes. Annual Report (2007-08) Government of India, Ministry of Women & Child Development. Jerry Finn (1999), "An Exploration of Helping Processes in an Online SHG Focusing on Issues on Disability," Journal of Health and Social Work, Vol-24 Kelkar, G. and D. Nathan (1991), 'Gender and Tribe: Women, Land and Forests in Jharkhand,' New Delhi. Sreeramulu, G. (2006), "Empowerment of Women through Self-Help Group," Eastern Book Corporation. UNDP (2001), Participatory Governance People's Empowerment and Poverty Reduction, UNDP Conference Paper Series. Vandana K. Jena (2007), 'Literacy for Women's Empowerment in India', Journal of Population Education, IAEA, New Delhi, No. 38, July - Sept. Vijayanthi (2002),'Women's Empowerment through Self-Help Group; A Participatory Approach' Indian Journal of Gender studies, PP. 263-73 World Bank (2001), Engendering Development; Through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources and Voice, New York; Oxford University Press UNDP (1999 & 2005)

Bharati Muk herjee's Jasmine : A Picture of a 'New Woman'

* Prof. (Mrs.) Ranjana Khosla
Bharati Mukherjee is one of the most innovative novelists of the Indo-Anglican literature. The eight novels, two collections of short fictions and prose works written to date by her have made her a major presence in North American letters. She has taken advantage of a western education and mastery of the English Language to write socially alert fiction about the transformations that are created by the westward movement of South Asians in our time. Born in India in 1940, she migrated to the U.S.A. in 1961. But her migration to the other country could not sever her familial ties with her motherland. She even after five decades continues to write about India and Indian immigrants to the West.The novels of Bharati Mukherjee transport us to the complex realm of the culturally displaced geographically alienated characters who migrate to the West and consequently face the tensions of alienation, adaptation and assimilation. Migration is the phenomenon of the second half of the 20th century. In this change a male migrant has to face less hurdles and he can easily adjust with the change but female faces many hurdles which Mukherjee herself has felt. Bharati Mukherjee is often appreciated as championing the cause of the doubly oppressed race-the marginalized female identity which is further marginalized because she is an immigrant on an alien soil. Ethnic women in America are clearly twicemarginalised; by virtue of their ethnicity and their gender. The process of finding ones identity is a matter of intense struggle:
=========================== * Balaghat (M.P.)

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

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with the self, with tradition with the wonders and horrors of a new culture with growing aspirations, hopes and desires. Mukherjee married Clark Blaise an American of Canadian parentage and was ready to embrace expatriation and think Canada her home. But her dream of settling in Canada and carving a place for herself in the countrys cultural life was shattered by her experience of racism and insularity in Montreal and Toronto. What Bharati Mukherjee went through at a personal level is reflected in the experience of the heroines of her two novels The Tigers Daughter (1972) and Wife (1975). The Tigers Daughter is designed to capture the predicament of someone returning to her homeland after a period of self-imposed exile. To such a person home will never be home again, and life in exile, bitter draught though it often is, will be preferable to what home has become. Bharati Mukherjees second novel Wife is very different from The Tigers Daughter. Tara Cartwright returns to India to recover her roots. Dimple Basu does everything she can to obliterate hers. Dimples problem does not lie out anywhere but it is within herself. The novel has as its major theme the plight of an Indian wife torn between the need to play the role society expects of her and her need for self expression. Another theme of the novel is her predicament as an Indian immigrants wife in North America, since she can neither connect with the people around her nor give expression to her feeling of rage at her old life. Moreover, the novel tracks the violence building up inside and all around her in the North American landscape until she is driven to murder her husband. Jasmine (1990) another novel of Bharati Mukherjee is primarily a novel of cultural transplantation. Different from Wife it presents a diametrically opposite picture of the woman who can be termed as the New Woman. This woman has come to signify the awakening of woman into a new realization of her place and position in family and society. Conscious of her individuality the new woman has been trying to assert her right as a human being and is determined to fight for her survival.

Her journey from India to America is an attempt to reshape her own destiny. It also signifies the rejection of her old traditional Indian self in favour of a more liberated, free and sensuous American life. But behind this bold step of, going to America, one can visualize Jasmines attempt to escape from the tradition bound, conservative society of Hasnapur where bad-luck dogged dowryless wives, rebellious wives, barren wives. They fell into wells they got run over by trains, they burned to death heating milk on kerosene stoves (85). America comes across as the land of freedom and promise and self-fulfilment, where there is a premium on individual effort and where man-woman relationships are based on mutual and equal partnership. The protagonist of the novel enjoys the assimilated status of immigration by a sheer will to bond herself to her adopted land. Her fate is predicted by an astrologer at the age of seven. Jyoti rejecting what the village astrologer sees in her stars widowhood and exile and wounding herself in a gesture of defiance. The astrologer emphasizes to her that there was no changing fate, but Jasmine already conscious of her female identity and armed with the belief that she ghosts were guarding her, refuses to accept that she was nothing (4). Jyoti also comes to realize early in her life that she was a survivor, a fighter and adapter (40) because she knows that her mothers desperate bid to strangle her as an infant failed. It is not that her mother did not want a life for her, rather she was afraid that as the fifth daughter of their impoverished family Jyoti was destined to be a dowryless bride and she therefore wanted to spare her the ignominy (later, when Jasmine wants to pursue a higher education it is her mother who convinces her father that a girl should have more that a primary education). Her odyssey of life leads her through many transformations (Jyoti, Jasmine, Kali, Jazzy, Jose and Jane through large geographical locales like Hasnapur, Jullundhar, Florida New York, Iowa and finally towards California. At every stage of her life the heroine revolts against her fate and finds a path for herself. Thus the novel

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depicts a womans quest for identity and how she comes to term with her ownself. Jasmine search for self recognition leads her into social and spiritual direction till she arrives at a time when she can view the future .... greedy with wants and reckless from hope. (241). Jyoti was born in a family which was driven from their affluent house in Lahore to a life of ignominous poverty in the remote Punjab village Hasnapur during the partition riots in 1947 Jyoti has early acquaintance with the heart wrenching agony of people uprooted from their homesteads. Even as a child, Jasmine shows herself to be someone who will not let the past rule her life. She didnt like her father (Pitaji) to drown himself in nostalgia for Lahore the city he had been forced to leave behind during the partition. She lived in a society that circumscribed woman through all sorts of rules but she had learnt quite early to make use of every opportunity that came her way and all about permissible rebellion (47) Jyoti is also courageous and resourceful, when attacked by a mad dog in the Hasnapur field, she is able to kill it with a staff she carries around with her because it makes her feel the buzz of power (54). Her grandmother (Dida) wanted Jyoti to get married soon and not to study. But Jyoti could not be coaxed into abandoning her dreams of getting a better life through education. She is proficient in English and devites herself to the reading of novels written in that language. Jasmine probably unwittingly acquires from the novel her instinct to move westwards. In America she is in a kind of glitzy wonderland and finds herself encountering strange situations and unusual characters as Alice did in Alice in Wonderland. If the astrologer and her grandmother represent the fatalistic aspect of Hindu philosophy, the young Jyoti has an instinctive understanding of another belief enshrined in Hindu belief. to treat every second of your existence as a possible assignment from God. (61) Believing, then, that her mission was to somehow rise above her surroundings, Jasmine rejects despair and cynicism and believes that she can move on and make a life for herself

(1990 interview, 25) because that was what God wanted her to do. So Jyoti continues her education, picking up knowledge not only from books but also from hearing men talk about politics, from newspapers and the radio and from her brothers friend Prakash whom she is determined to marry. Because he is fluent in English, intelligent and sensitive and has applied for jobs overseas. It is important to Jyoti that the man she marries knows English, for to have English as a language was to have more than you had been given at birth it was to want the world (68). Joyously sharing the ambitions of Prakash, she looks forward to going to a land of opportunities. Prakash, global in his sympathies, defending a precarious unity against further fragmentation of Punjab, argues to one fundamentalist, Sukhwinder, that India s for everyone (66) and thus becomes a target. As he celebrates his impending departure for America he is blown to peices by a terrorist bomb. One half of the astrologers prediction widowhood comes true, leaving Jasmine in a daze. Their dream is shattered and the incident leaves her grief stricken. Prakash exhorts her from every corner of grief darkened room, Dont crawl back to Hasnapur and feudalism. That Jyoti is dead (96) she does not shuttle between the identities and thinks we had created life. Prakesh had taken Jyoti and created Jasmine and Jasmine would complete the mission of Prakash Vijh and Wife (97). Prakashs exhortation to her from beyond life not to join other widows in her village in a life consecrated to dead husbands and to aim for America. It the earliest makes her think of committing Sati in the University campus of Florida where he had seeked admission. In order to make this dream true she seeks the help of her brother to get forged documents and soon equipped with the forged passport, Prakashs paper, his new blue suit and especially her white saree she is on her way to the New World. Like fractal geometry her life describes a pattern which is both irregular, broken, fractured and yet none the less an ordered continuum. This trip abroad is a measure of her innate affinity to the

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American ideal of fearless enterprise. Bharati Mukherjees concept of Americanness as an outlook on life seems personified in the image of Jasmine. Carrying with her a sandal wood Ganpati, the Hindu God with an elephant trunk to uproot anything in her path (102) and possessing a singlemindedness of purpose, Jasmine lands in Florida. Her American experience begins with a misfortune her rape by Half face (he had lost an eye and ear and most of his cheek in a paddy field in Vietnam) the captain of the trawler in which she crosses over to Florida. Incensed by the outrage she becomes a veritable Kali. She extended her tongue and sliced it. Hot blood dripped immediately in the sink. She knifed the Half face to death. Mataji (Jyotis mother) used to say, for every monster there is a hero. For every hero a monster. (114) That can be perfectly visualised in this incidence. For Half Face the monster. Jyoti has taken the form of Kali- the Goddess of destruction. a destroyer of evil so that the world can be renewed. (1990interview, 21) She enacts a kind to death for herself too the death of the old self (through the symbolic burning of her dishonoured clothes) and comes out like a new self. Jasmine is now ready for her journey in America having killed the monster. The shattered Jasmine is rescued from starvation and misery by Lillian Gordon, a kind quaker lady whose mission in life, it seems is to help undocumented aliens survive in America. Mrs. Gordon risks incarceration for not disclosing the names and addresses of a host of illegal aliens she protects. Her hospitality and her advice, Let the past make you wary, by all means. But do not let it deform you (131) helps her recoup physically and mentally. She helped Jasmine with clothes and shoes and exhorts her to walk and talk American. Jasmine is totally transformed into Jazzy. She watches herself in the mirror and is shocked at her transformation. Jazzy in a T-shirt, tight cords, and running shoes. I couldnt tell if with the Hasnapuri sidle Id also abandoned my Hasnapuri modesty. (133). Gordon also helps Jasmine get back her self-

confidence and pays for her to New-York so that she can live with Professor Vadhera. The Jasmine who arrives in New York, then feels free of bitterness and is full of the hope she had when with Prakash. But the five months she spends with the Vadheras prove stifling for her. Although Professor Vadhera is a kind man and his wife appears to be happy to have her as a full time unpaid maid in the house. Jasmine has become an invisible, nameless woman in the Flushing ghetto. She knows that she wants something more from life than what the Vadheras had from a full days work; just enough money to live in a Little India in New York city. She is shocked by the discovery that professorji is making out a living not by teaching but by trading in human hair. As soon as the professor manages to get her a forged green card, Jasmine flees from the Vadhers apartment and takes ne more plunge into America. Jasmine gets a job with the Hayeses through Kate Gordon Feldstein,, Lillians photographer daughter who lives only an hours drive from flushing but whose life style seems to be miles and miles away from the Vadheras. It is in the two years that Jasmine spends with the Hayeses that she emerges as completely her own woman and begins living the American dream. Jasmine wants to embody the sprit of America because what America offers her is the hope that things will turn out all right. Taylor and Wylie continue the process of teaching Jasmine to walk and talk American that Lillian Gordon had begun. Jasmine finds fulfillent in mothering Duff. Significantly, she wants to be American and accepts everything that she comes across in the Hayeses apartment or the world outside it. As she notes the conversation of guests, television the language she heard on the street, all became my language, which I learned like a child from the first words up. The squatting fields of Hasnapur receded fast. (174). Taylor called her Jase and Wylie called her Jassy which typifies the casual yet intimate ambience of the couples apartment. Jasmine prefers Jase to Jassy because she is attracted to Taylors careless confidence and graceful self-absorption (171)and

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partly because this name gives her the feeling that she was living for the first time for herself and seizing the day. Since the Hayeses treated her as a part of their family, she feels that she had landed and was getting rooted (179). Even when the Hayeses separated; as Wylic fell in love with an economist named Stuart Eschelman; Jasmine is reminded of the essential fludity of America, she is able to take the break-up of the family in stride. She concedes that the hardest lesson of all she had to learn about America was that in this country nothing lasts (181) Absorbing the alien culture rather greedily, Jasmine becomes a confident individual. The transformation is quite fast but she is unable to slow down the pace as she is .....unwilling to abandon the ride she is on (139). She is not compelled by anyone to change her but it is she who wants to change herself because she feels it is cowardly to ... bunker oneself inside nostalgia (185). With the healing touch of people like Lillian Gordan, Kate and Taylor, who treat her as an intelligent, refined, sincere and affectionate person,. Jasmine blooms from being a diffident alien with forged documents into adventurous Jase, living only for the present. Her American education continues at a brisk pace despite Wylies absence, since everyday she made discoveries about the city (184). But almost as soon as Taylor makes his declaration of love to her in the park, her fate catches up with her again in the shape of the Sikh terrorist who had killed her husband and who has now become a hot dog vendor in New York. The sight of the murderer is a sharp reminder to her that Gods plan for her was to be an exile; fate had decreed that she must unhouse herself again and move on. And so she heads for Baden country, Iowa. Iowa as a state where miracles still happened. (197), the place where Duff was born. Her main reason for running away is the fear that her presence in their household may jeopardize the safety of Taylor and Duff. Iowa holds in store yet another transformation from Jase to Jane. She becomes a common-law wife of the prosperous but middle aged banker, Bud Ripplemeyer.

Jasmine meets Bud through his mother, Ma Ripplemeyer who like Lillian Gordon, is a do gooder, helping uprooted people restarts their lives in new surroundings. Despite her help and Buds instant attraction to an exotic woman for whom he is willing to leave Karin, his wife of many years. Jasmine finds adjusting to Iowa another trial The novelists use of friendly souls readily helping has to be understood as a tribute she wants to pay to the American generosity. Jasmine thinks of Lillan Gordan and mother Ripplemeyer who .....represented .... the best in the American experience and the American character (137). Her social ambition is .... one day I want to belong to that tribe. (197)]. In some ways , Iowa is like the Punjab she had left behind a land of farmers, a place where traditional ways are suddenly being threatened and a few disgruntled people are reacting to difficult conditions caused by a drought either by leaving the state or by sudden acts of violence. There is a lot of hate around. Not only is Bud shot by a bankrupt client but Jasmine has t face racist taunts from drunks in a bar that make her wish, for once, that she had known America before it got perverted (201). Although she is a Lazarus always rebounding from deathin-life-it hurts to be labelled a gold digger by Karin, Buds ex-wife(201) Occasionally, she feels too out of place and hears the astrologer of her childhood jibe at her, foolish and wicked girl, did I not tell you youd end up among aliens (203). Bud courts Jasmine because she is the very embodiment of Eastern mystery. Bud courts me because I am alien. I am darkest, mystery, inscrutability. The East plugs me into instant vitality and wisdom. I rejuvenate him simply by being who I am (200). Again violence follows Jane. Bud is shot and is confined to a wheel chair. The maiming of Bud leaves Jasmine insecure and she has moments of guilts about not reacting quickly to save him from his assailant, just as she had felt quilty about the death of Prakash. Jane takes over the duties of a wife. For all America has given her, Jasmine pays back with gratitude and love. When Karin, attempting to hurt her, compares her to a tornado that

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leaves a path of destruction behind it, she feels stung. She feels an instinctive bond with another Asian immigrant learning to be American; Du. whom Bud has adopted to atone for deserting Karin. She has forced herself to have Buds baby, but he has developed a dependency complex that she finds stifling. Moreover, he seems not to be interested in her except as an exotic though her genuine foreignness frightens him (26) and he appears intent on remarking her in his own image by calling her in a colonizing move, Jane or as he puts it jokingly when they first get to know each other, Me Bud, you Jane.... Jane as in Jane Russell (26). Her confidence in herself falters and she begins to think that Karin was right in comparing her to a tornado for she had created confusion and destruction wherever she had gone (215). Shaken she asks herself as she hits another low in her life; How many more shapes are in me, how many more selves how many more husbands? (215) Jasmine comments: I have had husband for each of the women I have been. Prakash for Jasmine, Taylor for Jase, Bud for Jane, Half Face for Kali (197) Throughout the narrative Jasmine underscores the problems she has in her Jane Ripplemeyer reincarnation. But her narrative is almost always one of pain and hope, hope and pain (125) and just when we are able to understand the extent of her unhappiness in Iowa. She gets a ray of hope from Taylor. Taylor sends a card to her telling her that he and Duff are waiting for her return and warns her not to run away from him again. Although a part of her cautions her not to give up the duty and prudence she has been showing in her relationship with Bud, what excites her is the thought that Taylor would rescue her from the moress her life has become in Baden and that she would be able to relive the headiness, dizziness, porousness she has experienced twice before in her life once with Prakash and then with Taylor in New York city (211). Her choice is a deliberated rejection of the roles prescribed for the subaltern under colonialism, the female under patriarchy. Jasmine comes to realize that the world is divided between those who stay and

those who leave (228). She understands that a brave new world has come into being, changing even agrarian and conservative Iowa and in that world bold decisions have to be made (229). In addition it occurs to her that the blind submission to fate preached by the Punjabi astrologer ages ago is no longer acceptable. At first when the Indianess comes into her she says; I cant leave...... I want to do the right things. I dont mean to be a terrible person. (239) But the Americaness in her has made her accept Taylors offer to go to California to have another adventure leaving Bud. Having seen death and worst of life closely many times, having suffered and survived several times, she seems to regard her relationship with Bud just another phase in her journey of self. It is America that has taught her that nothing lasts in that country. Taylors arriving with Duff reminds her of her most important American lesson: Its a free country (239). And so she abandons the mask she had put on to be Jane, embraces the frontier values of adventure, risk, transformation (240)and like Huck Finn at the end of his classic tale, wanting to be adopted by none, lights out for what is her equivalent of Hucks Territory California. The character of Jasmine has been created to depict Mukherjees belief in the necessity of inventing and re-inventing ones self by going beyond what is given and by transcending ones origins. Jasmine is one who is ready to go beyond conventional morality to seek fulfillment. Mukherjee has made Jasmine, lovable, but ..... not moral in the conventional sense. She knows whats right and wrong for her. But she does end up being a tornado who leaves a lot of debris behind (1990 interview, 25) ======================== References1. G. A. Ghanshyam, "Jasmine: A rebel Against Traditional Conservatism" Studies in Women Writers in English (Atlantic Publishers & Distributors) Vol. V ed., Ray, Mohit K. and Kundu, Rama. Interviews. Ed., Sybil Steinbery Publishers Weekly 1990. Mukherjee, Bharati. Jasmine New Delhi: Viking, Penguin, Penguin India 1990. Subsequent page numbers in parentheses are from this edition.

2. 3.

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Status of Dalit Women in India: SocioPolitical Dimensions

* Seema Sharma
Dalit termed as Shudra which was placed at the bottom of the ladder in the caste hierarchies dalit women face more violence, social humiliation every day and they will continue to do so until society changes and accepts them as equals focus on improving the socio-political conditions of dalit women, not merely create reservation for women but give enough knowledge, support and resources to stand up for themselves. The condition of dalit women in the contemporary society however, has not been pathetic. Dalit womens agency, would contribute to social change not only for their families and their communities, but also for the wider Indian society. The progress of the dalit community should be measured in terms of the progress made by its women folk. The present paper seeks to highlight the same. Keywords: Dalit Women, Society, Social Conditions. Introduction- The total population of dalits is 20% (CERDI 919970 0 out of the 22 million population of the country. Dalit women occupy half of that population. Except for a few, the total segment of this population leads a miserable life. To understand the situation of the dalits, go back to its history. Based on the hindu caste system the social system is divided into hierarchies since long; where people are divided into various castes and ethnic groups. The position of dalit women is one of the lowest from all these aspects. Shidra which was placed at the bottom of the ladder in the caste hierarchies is termed as dalit these days which is an untouchable group of society. The word Dalit itself connotes the
=========================== * Assistant Professor in Political Science D.A.V. College, Sec-10, Chandigarh

lowest strata of the society in all the aspects, a term which is condemnable itself. Dalit at many places are still prohibits using the public facilities: such as water taps, schools, temples, hotels etc. There have been cases where the dalit women have been beaten up by the upper caste women while filling water from public taps. Dalit women have to bear both social humiliation as well as male dominance in the family.Dalit Women experience endemic gender and caste discrimination and violence as the outcome of severaly imbalanced social, economic and political power equations. Violence against dalit women presents clear evidence of widespread exploitation and discrimination against these women subordinated in terms of power relations to men in patriarchal society, as also against their communities based on caste. Social Status of Dalit Women in India- A Glance i. Ancient or Medieval Period- In ancient India ( 3200-2500 B.C.) , the caste system was non-existent since even the most learned men were good householders and had varied occupation. The women of ancient India were just as supervisor as men in learning, education, and Intellect. The choice for her mate was according to her own wishes and marriage was practiced after coming age. The creation of a number of Hindu religious books including Smirti, Atharva Vedas, Vishnu Smriti, and many other like these and their strict compliance by Brahamas ( Upper priestly Hindu Caste), led to a society in which equality to men and women was far from existent ( Aggarwal, 1999). The Rise and fall of Hindu Woman that the root cause of suffering for women in India are these so called Hindu religious books (Thind, Aggarwal, 1999). According to the Manu Smriti, women have no right to study the Vedas, that is why their sanskars are performed without veda mantras. Women have no knowledge of religion because they have no right to know the Vedas. A Brahman, Kshatriya, or vaishya man can sexually exploit any shudra woman even the killing of a dalit woman is explicitly justified as a minor offence for the Brahmans; equal to the killing of an animal. In a male dominated society, Dalit women suffered unimaginable oppression, not only through caste, but gender too, from which there was no escape. ii. Modern or Contemporary Period- The hardships of dalit

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women are not simply due to their poverty, economic status, or lack of education but are a direct result of the severe exploitation and suppression by the upper classes. Dalit women always face violence from men equality is only preached, but not put into practice. Ruth Manarama, an active member of the National campaign on dalit human rights and the national alliance of women, once stated that in a male dominated society, Dalit women face a triple burden of Caste, Class and Gender in which she sums up the plight of dalit women, highlighting the fact that dalit women are distinct social group and cannot be masked under general categories of Women or Dalits (News Archives). The vulnerability of dalit women as depicted by a nepali writer can be taken as an example on how these women are oppressed in the social and family context. The woman works so hard digging the sand in the Bagmati River during the cold and chilly winter of Kathmandu. During the cold winter she has wrapped herself in a thin saree and blouse without proper winter clothes. She returns home at 4 oclock in the evening. She then begins to cook the evening meal and waits for her drunken husband to come home from playing cards which is his daily job. He still demands money, she earned by her hard work as his right, to drink alcohol; after completing her household cares she sleeps in her wet clothes, that is all she has to wear. She can neither revolt nor fight against this injustice. This story gives a clear picture of what Indian dalit woman confronts in her day to day life. Violence against dalit women is systematically utilized to deny them opportunities, choices and freedoms at multiple levels, undermining not only dalit womens dignity and self-respect, but also their right to development. Dalit women endure violence in both the general community and in the family, from state and non-state actors of different genders, castes and socio-economic groupings. It is not the cruelty which is limited to domestic violence but laid wide open in the society. The dalit women are discarded and pushed away in the name of their caste and creed. They are not left much choice of occupation but to become sweepers the bais or maid servants in the upper caste houses. Dalit women were actively participating in the Ambedkar led movement in the Pre-

Independence period. Today we see no protests against the so called 30% reservations for women in the local self government which further denies the possibility of dalit women getting any representation (Sharma, N, 2012) According to the national commission for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes 2000, approximately 75 % of the dalit drop out of primary school despite the strict laws of the Government of India, which hold reservations for dalit children (National Commission). Despite showing keen academic aptitude, reasons for this early dropout from the education system is poverty or to escape humiliation, bullying and isolation by classmates, society, and even their teachers (Thind, 1999). The Annual Report of university grant commission for 1999-2000, shows that dalit in general have very low participation rates in higher education (Annual reports of Universities) . The main reason for the very low literacy rate among dalit women could be the lack of educational resources especially in rural areas. Extreme poverty, because of which they cannot afford the expensive fees for the private schools. Humiliation and bullying by the high caste students and teachers (Thind). They demand for an increase in the dowry for educated girl. According to Indias ministry of labor, 85% of the dalit women have the most formidable occupations and work as agricultural laborers, sweepers and disposers of human waste. Many of these women work for minimal wages under the upper caste landlords. According to the human Right watch report in 1992, as estimated 50,000 girls were sold every year to Hindu organization that are involved in Devdasi System. These girls are called the Female Servants of God and are sexually exploited (Thind, 1999). The 1992-93 annual report from the Ministry of Welfare shows 1,236 reported cases of rape on dalit women and the national commission for SC/ST shows that approximately 10,000 cases of human rights violations on dalits are reported every month. Dalit Women -A wave of Transformation- Mayawati is an Indian politician. She was the chief minister of Uttar Pradesh, Indias most popular state. Her supporters refer to her as BEHANJI, which means sister. At the age of 39, she become the youngest

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politician to be elected chief minister IN Uttar Pradesh and the first dalit woman chief minister of any Indian State. She is regarded as a symbol of dignity and Political inspiration for millions of Indias dalits who were oppressed by the Hindu upper castes for centuries. According to an article in the Indian subcontinent Times,(2008) Uttar Pradesh chief Minister and Dalit Leader Kumari Mayawati has found a place among the forbes100 most powerful women in the world according to the forbes list released on 28th Aug., 2008, Mayawati is ranked 59th just behind Queen Elizabeth of UK. Taking her to be an inspiration; many more women from dalit community are educating themselves and moving ahead with a conviction to declare the change they will bring in their unsought for lives. It seen so many law makers in its legislative chambers although the panchayats already have a large number of women members and office bearers because of reservations. Even then, there is little doubt that the country is on the threshold of a new beginning. As the halls of the parliament house echo with the words Madam speaker, believe India has reached a new threshold in writing its own history, Meira Kumar, daughter of former Deputy Prime Minister and dalit icon Babu JagJivan Ram, left her job as a diplomat 24 years ago to join politics. Today she stands tall as the first woman speaker of the Lok Sabha in 57 years. Many Dalit non-government organization (NGOs), both in India and abroad, have been involved in raising the plight of Indias 250 million untouchable one of the most important tasks of these dalit NGOs is to bring the plight of dalit people to attention of the International Community and document and publicize human right violation. Many dalit women have formed NGOs through which they collectively fight against abuse from the upper classes. Today dalit women are working in various government officers, they are active members of Zila parishads. Recommendations to uplift status of dalit women- A beginning towards empowerment. 1) Womens Bill; A momentous development towards emancipation of women. The womens reservation bill appears justified. The bill ensures 33 percent reservation for women in parliament as well as other state legislative bodies. The move will

not only help women have their concerns addressed more effectively. It will hopefully enable Indian women to break the shackles of cultural stereo types [6] (1) 2) The Indian Government has identified in its 10th 5 years plan (2002-2007) Empowerment of socially disadvantaged groups such as dalits and women as priority strategies for development of the nation. Complementing this development priority is the elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against women and the girl child, which is a central objective of the national policy for the empowerment of women 2001. 3) The Indian state could contribute to enlarging the choices and agency of dalit women increased dalit womens agency, in turn would be contribute to social change not only for their families and their communities, but also for the wider Indian society. As the national federation of dalit women has stated in its declaration of dalit womens right 2002, dalit women have the right to life and to freedom from an oppression and violence the right to expression, conscience and autonomy. 4) To stop violence against the dalit women, The Indian Government has an obligation under international human rights law to act with due diligence to prevent, investigate and punish acts of violence against dalit women in both the general community and in the family at the hands of state or non-state actors. Any case of violence against dalit women to receive justice under the law. The Indian Constitution stipulates in Article 14 that all Indian citizens have the right to equality before law. Conclusion- The courage, struggle and persistence of todays dalit women against suppression, exploitation and torture has the power to ensure that the future generations will not have to face the bleak reality dalits have faced for the past two thousand years. Dalit will have equal rights, access to education, and a chance to succeed and prosper. Many of the dalit NGOs are involved in establishing schools scholarships, and basic supplements to dalits in the rural parts of India. NGOs such as Ambedkar Centre for peace and justice and the national campaign on dalit Human rights are involved in bringing the plight of the dalit people to the attention of the international community and to document and publicize

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human right abuse. The Long term objectives are to dalit as full citizens of their society and eliminate caste-based discriminations. Indian women have been subjected to cultural biases and atrocities since times memorial. Women will play a major role in bringing an end to social evils. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Luital, Samira (2001); occasional papers; position of dalit women in India. The India news magazines (2010); Indo-Asian New Service. Sharma, N (2012); The status of dalit women in India; from depravity to supremacy.[ Lapis Lazuli-Vol. 2910] Akhter Jamil. (1999) Mayawati: The Iron Lady. The Indian Subcontinental Times; Mayawati sneaks into Forbes' list of 100 most powerful women; 29th Aug., 2008. Thind, G.S. (1999); [Our Indian Sub-Continent Heritage] B.C.: Crosstown Press Ltd. Agarwal, S (1999); [Genocide of Women in Hinduism]. Jabalpur; India: Sudrastan books. News Archives. http//www.ambedkar.org. The National Commission for Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes (2000); Government of India. The Annual Reports of University Grant Commission (1999-2000); Government of India. National policy for the Empowerment of Women (2001); Government of India.

Development of Scheduled Caste Women: through Reservation Policy

(With special reference to w estern Uttar Pradesh) * Dr. Lajwant Singh
Introduction- Indian Hindu society divided four Varna such as Brahmins Kshatrias, Vaishyas and Sudras. It was considered that Brahmins were originated from the mouth of Brahminis, Kashatriyas from the arms, vaishyas from the thighs, sudras from the feet, since sudras were supposed to have spring from the lowest part of the body, they were assigned the more lowest position in the varna heirarchy. The scheduled castes of today belong to untouchable sudras. The various terms by which identified early in 19th century, e.g. Mahatma Jyoti rao Phule used the term dalit to describle them as the most oppressed and broken victims of the caste ridden society. Though it is also believed that the term was first coined by Dr. Ambedkar. The term Dalit as understood by the Dalit Panthers, indicates that the dalit (Scheduled caste) are those bearing the worst from of atrocities, having no power to counter it and thus need to take the support of similar groups of people such as scheduled caste, scheduled tribes, neo Buddhists, the working people. The landless and poor peasants, Women and all those who are exploited politically, economically, socially. Scheduled caste mean such castes, races or tribes, parts or groups within such castes, race or tribes as are deemed Article -341 to be the scheduled castes for the purpose of the constitution of India. To put it briefly, it may be said that all the Depressed classes are Harijans. All the Harijans denote untouchables and are scheduled castes.The efforts of social reforms and politicians helped a lot in improving scheduled castes status and also their civil position.
=========================== * Senior Asstt. Professor, Dept. of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Dayalbagh Educational Institute (Deemed Univeristy) Dayalbagh Agra

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Mahatma Jyoti rao Phule and Dr. Ambedker was the first Indian to carry on an organized movement against the atrocities practiced towards the depressed castes. The insisted that the untouchables should be treated as Hindus with all the rights which castes Hindus enjoyed and such as he paved the way to social mobility among scheduled castes. Dr. B.R. Ambedkarss efforts in securing social mobility for the dalits in the economic, political ,occupational and religious fields had been widely acknowledged. The appointment of a commissioner for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes to look after the interest and welfare of these people was a landmark in the history of the country.The untouchability offence Act, 1955 or Act No. XXII of 1955 was still further step towards the removal of the social disabilities, and social disabilities are treated as offences punishable. Concepts of Reservation Policy- Reservation policy has as its avowed aim the amelioration of scheduled caste, scheduled tribes, other back ward classes who were victims prevalent caste system, a feature unique to the Indian social milieu. Hence Scholars have not been able to provide a composite definition of this policy. It is generally understood as involving three aspects-positive discrimination, reverse discrimination and compensatory discrimination. Positive discrimination involves providing special treatment to those who are susceptible to exploitation. Reverse discrimination is a sort of vindictive measure, which in other words mean discrimination against those who had discriminated a particular class for decades. Compensatory discrimination involved adoption of measures to safe guard the interests of historically disadvantage sections of people. However all these policies do require a certain amount of sacrifice by one section of the society? Certain castes are to be discriminated against to provide sustenance to certain other castes. Evolution of reservation System in India- The princely state of mysore was the first to take note of representation to backwards communities. My formulated its own measures to ameliorate and provide representation to the deprived sections of the society. During the period between 1874 and 1885 the Government of Mysore reserved 20% of middle and lower level jobs in police

department for the Brahmins and 80% for Muslim, Hindus and Indian Christians. Again, from 1914, the Government of Mysore introduced a system of nomination of Qualified backward class candidates to the post of Assistant commissioners. A great innovation by M. Vishweshvaraya, the dewan of Mysore, was the institution of scholarship for backward class of students: In 1917, a sum of one Lakh Rupees was provided in the budget to provide scholarship for backward class and depressed classes. On 26th January 1950 we are entering in to a world of contradictions. In politics, we will have equality and in caste and society inequality. In politics, we will be recognizing the principle of one man, one vote and one vote, one value. On the social plane, we have a society based on the principle of group inequality, which means the elevation for some and degradation for others. On the economic plane, we have a society in which there are some who have immense wealth as against many who live in object poverty. In our social and economic life, we shall, by reason of our social and economic structures continue to deny the principle of one man, one value. How long shall we continue to live this life of contradictions we must remove this contradiction at the earliest possible moment or else those who suffer from inequality will blow up the structure of political democracy which this Assembly has so laboriously built up. The Indian constitution, promulgated in 1950, recognized the scheduled castes, and scheduled tribes as two of marginalized social groups needing special protections. A number provisions, therefore. were specifically in corporate for the two social groups with a view to abolish all forms of discrimination, untouchability, and social exclusion emanating from the caste system and to alleviate the peripheral condition of these social groups. Methodology- The system of reservation mean to upliftment of the weaker sections as (SC/ST) has in fact, succeeded in the creation of creamy layers with in the marginalized social groups to the extent that the percolation of the benefits have been marginal and differenctially accessed. The vision of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Mahatma Jyoti rao phule, E.V. Rama Swami Periyar, Sahuji Maharaj, as initially envisioned under the aegis of the reservation policy and reforms in to the Hindu society structure of governance

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was to completely negate the deleterious impacts of caste based discrimination and exclusions. The Indian and Uttar Pradesh government has used a two fold strategy for the empowerment of the scheduled caste, scheduled tribes and back ward classes which included firstly, the provision of legal safe guards against inequality and discrimination and secondly, pro active measures in the form the reservation policy for all educational institutions and services in Govt sector, and semi Govt sectors. These measures have been in corporate to ensure to ensure the proportional participation of scheduled caste, scheduled tribes and other back ward classes in the public domain-memocrativ decision making bodies. It is equally important to understand that the reservation policy is confined to the state-run and supported sectors. The private sector, where in, 90% scheduled caste and scheduled tribe workers are engaged is excludes and therefore, remains out side the preview of the reservation policy and open to possible discrimination. Objective of the study- The main objective of this study are follows1. To find out educational development of scheduled caste daughter generations comprising old generations. 2. To find out Advantages of education in employment opportunities of scheduled caste women. 3. To ascertain the proportional share in the cultural activities of scheduled caste women. Tools of data Collection- Data for the empirical study are collected mainly through interview schedules. Two separate schedules were prepared for scheduled caste women of two generations. The schedule elicited information of the development in family and marriage, education, employments social and cultural sphere, political participation. Most of questions were pre-coded for easy tabulation and analysis. The interview schedule consisted mostly open and closed questions and only few were open ended. Analysis of Data- The data collected are tabulated manually. Statistical test like chi-square and correlations are applied in most cases. In a few cases, the data clearly indicate the trend, and as such, no statistical correlations have been worked out. In some cases- chi-square test and contingency coefficient of correlation

have been calculated to facilitate comparison. These calculations are done on the basis of the variables like age, education and getting the joins. Scheduled caste women and Education- Education helps in promoting value4s and achieving new goals. It is widely recognized that formal education plays a vital role in development, both horizontal and vertical. If formal education seen as a socializing agency preparing individuals for a style of life associated with a stratum, it is at the same time an agency helping individuals to over come prejudices, and promoting values and behavior of a more universalistic nature. During the recent years, Uttar Pradesh has shown an increase in literacy rate of scheduled castes than some other states of India.This study, also indicates age as an important influencing education. Age of the respondents and their level of education are significantly related to each other, i.e. as age increases, the level of education decreases Table No-1, Makes it clear. Table No-1, Daughters Age and level of Education
Daughter's Age Illiterate Primary Level of Education Junior High InterHigh School Mediate School 9 18 19 (15.79%) (31.58%) (33.33%) 9 22 25 (11.84%) (28.95%) (32.89%) 6 12 16 (13.33%) (26.67%) (35.56%) 4 5 10 (13.33) (16.67) (33.33%) 2 3 1 (11.76%) (17.65%) (5.88%) 30 60 71 (13.33%) (26.67%) (31.55%) Degree Total 10 (17.54%) 12 (15.79%) 2 (4.44%) 1 (32.33%) 0 57 (25.33%) 76 (33.78%) 45 (20.00%) 30 (13.33%) 17 (7.56%) 25 225 (11.11%) (100%)

Below-20 20-29 Years 30-39 Years 40-49 Years 50+years Total

1 (1.75%) 3 5 (3.95%) (6.58%) 5 4 (11.11%) (8.89%) 8 2 (26.67%) (6.67) 10 1 (58.82%) (5.88%) 26 13 (11.56%) (5.78%)

The table reveals that none of the respondents who belonged to the age group below-20 was illiterate, 58.82% of the respondents belonged to the age group below 20 was illiterate, 58.82% of respondents belonging to the above 50 age group illiterate and none of them had college education this may be because in older days womens education was not common. The are not aware of the educational facilities and their advantage in life. Elder generation of scheduled caste women never got the chance to attend

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schools, owing to many reasons. But today parents are more ambitions about the future of their children and therefore, pay more attention to education and given facilities by the Govt of their children. So scheduled caste children younger age groups are having higher education. The same trend could be seen in the case of mothers generations, it noticed that there is a sudden fall in the illiteracy rate in the older generation between age groups 40-49, and 50-59: It may be stated that this is the group which benefited from the reservation policy and Government welfare programme since independence, which may be due to special component education plans given to scheduled castes by the central and state government. Level of Educational Aspiration of the Generations- Level of aspiration is a determining factor in formation and achievement of goals, in the life of individuals. We therefore, examined the level of aspiration for education of both mothers and daughters. Table No.2 makes clear that 63.11% of mother wanted only to learn how to read and write. At the same time, 88.89% of their daughters desired to study up to the degree level. The vast intergenerational difference in the level of aspiration and younger generation were highly ambitious. The younger generation is more aware the social value of education in the society. ?The parents who took an interest in the education of their children also motivated the younger generation for high aspirations. The importance of educational as a means of achieving upward social mobility is grasped by the scheduled caste and there is a conscious effort on their part to get there children education. Table No-2, Level of Educational Aspiration of Mothers and Daughters
Level of educational Aspirations For reading and Writing Intermediate Diploma in various course Degree Total Mother's 142 (63.11%) 68 (30.22%) 3 (1.33%) 12 (5.33%) 225 (100%) Daughter's 16 (7.11%) 9 (4.00%) 25 (28.89%) 175 (60.00%) 225 (100%) Total 158 (35.11%) 77 (17.11) 28 (10.00%) 187 (37.78) 450

Advantage of Education- When we asked about their opinion about the advantages of education, they expressed three advantages viz. Education helps to get a Job, helps to improve status to get a good alliance in marriage. The opinion in this regard was seen to be influenced by age and education. As age increased the desire to achieve status improvement also increased. Both X2 (chi Square) Value and contingency coefficient showed significant relationship. The table No-3 will make it clear. Table No-3 Daughters Age and Advantages of Education
Daughter's Age Helps to get a Job 40 (31.58%) 47 (61.84%) 22 (48.89%) 13 (43.33) 3 (17.65%) 125 (55.56%) Level of Education Helps to get a Helps to improve good status marriage Alliance 10 7 (33.33%) (17.54%) 20 9 (26.32%) (11.84%) 17 6 (37.78%) (13.33%) 15 2 (50.00%) (6.67%) 11 3 (64.70%) (17.65%) 73 27 (32.44%) (12.30%)

Total 57 (25.33%) 76 (33.78%) 45 (20.00%) 30 (13.33) 17 (7.56%) 225

Below-20 20-29 yuears 30-39 years 40-49 years 50+years Total

X2 = 41.68 Degree of freedom (D.F.)=8 Df=8 Table Value at .01 = 20.090 C=0.395 The above table below it was found that the majority of the younger generation of below 20 age group, (70.18%) said that the most important advantage of education was that it helped them to get a modern job. At the same time, majority of the elder generation of above 50 age group, (64.70%) expressed the advantage of education as a status raising factor. It can be noted that the younger age group was having a clear idea about the advantage f education for getting in Higher education and all government jobs. (as civil service etc). But the elder age group felt that the factor which was responsible for their backwardness was lack of education, so they

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thought that education could raise their status in society. Conclusion- Scheduled caste one of the groups which are most back ward. The basic determinants of scheduled caste women status lack of education and facilities, related impure occupations, other determinants were their low economic, political and educational conditions after independence, the scheduled caste receives special mention in the constitution of India with special provisions in education, employment, political representation, Article 46 for instance declares. Even for reservation system .18% central level 21% Seat reserved for scheduled caste in state government Jobs and entry in educational institutions as medical education, Engineering courses, under graduate, post graduate course etc. we have seen largest change of scheduled caste women status, aster the start of reservation in India. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Atal yogesh: (1979): Changing frontiers of cste, New Delhi, National publishing House, P.P. (146-175). Ambedkar B.R.: The Unthouchables, Amrit book Co. New Delhi, 1948 Singhi K. Narendra:"Education and Social change", Rawat Publications, Jaipur, 1979. Mumtaz Ali Khan :Scheduled castes and status in India. Uppal publishing House. New Delhi, 1980, p. 101 Mishra Naragan: Scheduled castes educcation issues and aspacts, Kalpaz Publications. New Delhi, 2001 Nalwde, M.D:Chhatrapati Shahuji and His Reservation Policy; Ma hatma Publications, 2003. Prasad Ishwari: Reservation-Action for social Equality, Critarian publication New Delhi, 1986. Kirpal, V. and Gupta, M: Equality through reservations, Rawat ,Publications, Jaipur, 1999 D. Souza, Victor :"Changing status of Scheduled Castes", Economic Weekly, Vol. XIV, No. 48. Goyal, B.R. :Educating Harjans, The Academic Press, India, 1981 Kamble, N.D.: Deprived Castes and Their struggle to Enquality, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi, 1983.

Changing Role of Women Entrepreneurs in Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in India
* Dr. Sangeeta Kumar
Introduction- The Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) play a pivotal role in the economic and social development of the country, often acting as a nursery of entrepreneurship. They also play a key role in the development of the economy with their effective, efficient, flexible and innovative entrepreneurial spirit. The MSME sector contributes significantly to the countrys manufacturing output, employment and exports and is credited with generating the highest employment growth as well as accounting for a major share of industrial production and exports. MSMEs have been globally considered as an engine of economic growth and as key instruments for promoting equitable development. The major advantage of the sector is its employment potential at low capital cost. The labour intensity of the MSME sector is much higher than that of large enterprises. MSMEs constitute more than 90% of total enterprises in most of the economies and are credited with generating the highest rates of employment growth and account for a major share of industrial production and exports. In India too, MSMEs play an essential role in the overall industrial economy of the country. In recent years, the MSME sector has consistently registered higher growth rate compared with the overall industrial sector. With its agility and dynamism,
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Economics, Faculty of Social Science, D.E.I. Deemed University, Agra

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the sector has shown admirable innovativeness and adaptability to survive the recent economic downturn and recession. On the other hand, the role of women has been changing substantially over the last decade and half, both inside and outside homes. In addition to their role within households, they are now having a larger role in the outside world also, especially in the labour market. It has often been argued that women face a segmented labour market with sector specific jobs and often gender specific wages assigned to them. However, the world is witnessing a significant change in this traditional thinking regarding ability of women to work only in a few specific sectors. Gone are the days when women were employed mostly as low paid casual workers in agricultural and construction activities. Moreover, it is often argued that globalisation is leading to feminisation of labour force through putting out system or subcontracting as employing women under informal conditions involve lower labour cost (Sethuraman, 1998). It is also believed that such feminisation is the result of growing flexibility in the labour market whereby women find themselves in traditionally male dominated jobs. In addition, certain jobs may have changed their characteristics and acquired those associated traditionally with womens work - informal contracts, lower remuneration, less security, lower skills etc. (Unni and Rani, 2000). Others have argued that these trends are partly due to improvements in the measurements of womens activities or extension of the definition of economic activities, and partly due to significant entry of women into the labour market at the face of global structural adjustment whereby it becomes necessary for them to undertake market activities to maintain their families (Charmes, 1999). In spite of all these, women still find themselves at the receiving end in the labour market. Even within the informal sector most of the women are own account workers or home-based workers. However, this traditional setting is changing, albeit slowly, and the share of women in wage employment is increasing along with intrusion of more and more

women into hitherto male bastions. Apart from agriculture, women in India are mostly employed in manufacturing activities (NSSO, 2001). In addition, the process of feminisation has been fastest in the manufacturing sector. A substantial part of this is in the form of employment in micro, small enterprises and medium enterprises (MSMEs), especially in the household enterprises. In this way, Micro Small and Medium Industrial Enterprises (MSMEs) can also be termed as a gender sensitive sector, as we have women entrepreneurs as well as women workers. This sector is a soft option for women as they generally have lower capital base and technical know- how. It also gives them more flexibility in terms of working from home and makes fewer demands on them by way of time, because women are time-poor as they have to look after their households too. Contribution of women Entrepreneurs in Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises- Entrepreneurship refers to the act of setting up a new business or reviving an existing business so as to take advantages from new opportunities. Thus, entrepreneurs shape the economy by creating new wealth and new jobs and by inventing new products and services. However, an insight study reveals that it is not about making money, having the greatest ideas, knowing the best sales pitch, applying the best marketing strategy. It is in reality an attitude to create something new and an activity which creates value in the entire social ecosystem. It is the psyche makeup of a person. It is a state of mind, which develops naturally, based on his/ her surrounding and experiences, which makes him/ her think about life and career in a given way. The women have achieved immense development in their state of mind. With increase in dependency on service sector, many entrepreneurial opportunities especially for women have been created where they can excel their skills with maintaining balance in their life. Accordingly, during the last two decades, increasing numbers of Indian women have entered the field of entrepreneurship and also they are gradually changing the face of business of today, both literally and

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figuratively. But still they have not capitalized their potential in India the way it should be. In order to bring about all round development of the secondary sector of the economy under the given resource crunch and lack of modern entrepreneurship qualities, the govt had visualized that there has to be synchronization among the large scale and small scale industries in the economy. Therefore post 1947 the govt has consciously planned for heavy industrialization and the small scale industries as well. Apart from this, the role of women participation and its impact on the micro, small and medium as a whole was also given importance. The wide spread prevalent economic conditions of the poor people and their day to day difficulty made the females to move out of their houses and involve themselves in remunerative economic activities. The small scale sector has two bifurcations as registered and unregistered units. According to the latest data available, in 2006-2007, 13.83% of all registered and 7.83% of all unregistered MSME enterprises were owned and managed by women. In terms of employment, about 103 lakh women workers were employed in this sector. As against 15.85% of male workers in the registered segment, the percentage of female workers was 22.81. This clearly indicates that women find MSME sector a decent source of livelihood. But if we look at the MSME Annual Report 2010-2011 then some positive sign is visible in this field as it was found that 13.72% (2.15 lakh) of the units in the registered MSME sector were women enterprises, whereas the share of enterprises actually managed by females was also 13.72%. So still Indian women have to go a long way ahead to grab entrepreneurial dominance in the field of micro, small and medium enterprises.
No. of enterprises managed by : Male Female Total No. in lakh 13.49 (86.28%) 2.15 (13.72%) 15.64 (100%)

Source: MSME-Annual Report 2010-2011

Socio-Economic Problems Faced by Women Entrepreneurs-

Women entrepreneurs face many problems especially in a developing country like India where the problems are of different magnitudes and dimensions. Also a large number of womens enterprises are operating on an informal basis and many a times not identified in the economic activities of the country. Some psycho-social factors impede the growth of women entrepreneurs are as follows: Poor self-image of women Inadequate motivation Discriminating treatment Faulty socialization Role conflict Cultural values Lack of courage and self-confidence Inadequate encouragement Lack of social acceptance Unjust social, economic and cultural system Lack of freedom of expression Afraid of failures and criticism Susceptible to negative attitude Low dignity of labour 1. A majority of women entrepreneurs are from the middle class families who have low technical education, less family responsibilities but desire to become entrepreneurs. This potential should be identified and tapped. The greatest deterrent to women entrepreneurs is that they are women. A kind of patriarchal male dominant social order is the building block to them in their way towards business success. Male members think it a big risk financing the ventures run by women. 2. The financial institutions are sceptical about the entrepreneurial abilities of women. The bankers consider women loonies as higher risk than men loonies. The bankers put unrealistic and unreasonable securities to get loan to women entrepreneurs. According to a report by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), despite

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evidence that womens loan repayment rates are higher than mens, women still face more difficulties in obtaining credit, often due to discriminatory attitudes of banks and informal lending groups (UNIDO, 1995b). 3. Entrepreneurs usually require financial assistance of some kind to launch their ventures -be it a formal bank loan or money from a savings account. Women in developing nations have little access to funds, due to the fact that they are concentrated in poor rural communities with few opportunities to borrow money (Starcher, 1996; UNIDO, 1995a). The women entrepreneurs are suffering from inadequate financial resources and working capital. The women entrepreneurs lack access to external funds due to their inability to provide tangible security. Very few women have the tangible property in hand. 4. Womens family obligations also bar them from becoming successful entrepreneurs in both developed and developing nations. Having primary responsibility for children, home and older dependent family members, few women can devote all their time and energies to their business (Starcher, 1996, p. 8).The financial institutions discourage women entrepreneurs on the belief that they can at any time leave their business and become housewives again. The result is that they are forced to rely on their own savings, and loan from relatives and family friends. 5. Indian women give more emphasis to family ties and relationships. Married women have to make a fine balance between business and home. More over the business success is depends on the support the family members extended to women in the business process and management. The interest of the family members is a determinant factor in the realization of women folk business aspirations. 6. Another argument is that women entrepreneurs have lowlevel management skills. They have to depend on office staffs and intermediaries, to get things done, especially, the marketing and sales side of business. Here there is more probability for

business fallacies like the intermediaries take major part of the surplus or profit. Marketing means mobility and confidence in dealing with the external world, both of which women have been discouraged from developing by social conditioning. Even when they are otherwise in control of an enterprise, they often depend on males of the family in this area. 7. The male - female competition is another factor, which develop hurdles to women entrepreneurs in the business management process. Despite the fact that women entrepreneurs are good in keeping their service prompt and delivery in time, due to lack of organisational skills compared to male entrepreneurs women have to face constraints from competition. The confidence to travel across day and night and even different regions and states are less found in women compared to male entrepreneurs. This shows the low level freedom of expression and freedom of mobility of the women entrepreneurs. 8. Knowledge of alternative source of raw materials availability and high negotiation skills are the basic requirement to run a business. Getting the raw materials from different souse with discount prices is the factor that determines the profit margin. Lack of knowledge of availability of the raw materials and low-level negotiation and bargaining skills are the factors, which affect women entrepreneurs business adventures. 9. Knowledge of latest technological changes, know how, and education level of the person are significant factor that affect business. The literacy rate of women in India is found at low level compared to male population. Many women in developing nations lack the education needed to spur successful entrepreneurship. They are ignorant of new technologies or unskilled in their use, and often unable to do research and gain the necessary training (UNIDO, 1995b, p.1). Although great advances are being made in technology, many womens illiteracy, structural difficulties, and lack of access to technical training prevent the technology from being beneficial or even available to females (Women Entrepreneurs in Poorest

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Countries, 2001). According to The Economist, this lack of knowledge and the continuing treatment of women as secondclass citizens keep them in a pervasive cycle of poverty (The Female Poverty Trap, 2001). The studies indicate that uneducated women do not have the knowledge of measurement and basic accounting. 10. Low-level risk taking attitude is another factor affecting women folk decision to get into business. Low-level education provides low-level self-confidence and self-reliance to the women folk to engage in business, which is continuous risk taking and strategic cession making profession. Investing money, maintaining the operations and ploughing back money for surplus generation requires high risk taking attitude, courage and confidence. Though the risk tolerance ability of the women folk in day-to-day life is high compared to male members, while in business it is found opposite to that. 11. Achievement motivation of the women folk found less compared to male members. The low level of education and confidence leads to low level achievement and advancement motivation among women folk to engage in business operations and running a business concern. 12. Finally high production cost of some business operations adversely affects the development of women entrepreneurs. The installation of new machineries during expansion of the productive capacity and like similar factors dissuades the women entrepreneurs from venturing into new areas. Initiative by Government for Women Entrepreneurs- Women entrepreneurs have achieved remarkable success. The Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises Development Organisation (MSME-DO), the various State Small Industries Development Corporations (SSIDCs), the nationalised banks and even NGOs are conducting various programmes including Entrepreneurship Development Programmes (EDPs). To cater to the needs of potential women entrepreneurs, who may not have adequate educational background and skills, MSME-DO has introduced

process/product oriented EDPs in areas like TV repairing, printed circuit boards, leather goods, screen printing etc. A special prize to Outstanding Women Entrepreneur of the year is being given to recognise achievements made by and to provide incentives to women entrepreneurs. The Office of DC (MSME) has also opened a Women Cell to provide coordination and assistance to women entrepreneurs facing specific problems.There are also several other schemes of the government like the Income Generating Scheme, implemented by the Department of Women and Child Development, which provides assistance for setting up training-cum-income generating activities for needy women to make them economically independent. The Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) has been implementing two special schemes for women namely Mahila Udyam Nidhi which is an exclusive scheme for providing equity to women entrepreneurs and Mahila Vikas Nidhi which offers developmental assistance for pursuit of income generating activities to women. The SIDBI has also taken initiative to set up an informal channel for credit needs on soft terms giving special emphasis to women. Over and above this, SIDBI also provides training for credit utilisation as also credit delivery skills for the executives of voluntary organisations working for women. Grant for setting up a production unit is also available under Socio-Economic Programme of Central Social Welfare Board. Suggestions for the Growth of Women Entrepreneurs- Right efforts from all areas are required in the development of women entrepreneurs and their greater participation in the entrepreneurial activities. Entrepreneurship basically implies being in control of ones life and activities and women entrepreneurs need to be given confidence, independence, and mobility to come out of their paradoxes. The following measures are suggested to empower the women to seize various

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opportunities and face challenges in business. There should be a continuous attempt to inspire, encourage, motivate and cooperate women entrepreneurs. An awareness programme should be conducted on a mass scale with the intention of creating awareness among women about the various areas to conduct business. Attempts should be there to enhance the standards of education of women in general as well making effective provisions for their training, practical experience and personality development programmes, to improvise their over-all personality standards. Organize training programmes to develop professional competencies in managerial, leadership, marketing, financial, production process, profit planning, maintaining books of accounts and other skills. This will encourage women to undertake business. Vocational training to be extended to women community that enables them to understand the production process and production management. Skill development to be done in womens polytechnics and industrial training institutes. Skills are put to work in training-cum-production workshops. Educational institutes should tie up with various government and non-government agencies to assist in entrepreneurship development mainly to plan business projects. International, National, Local trade fairs, Industrial exhibitions, seminars and conferences should be organized to help women to facilitate interaction with other women entrepreneurs. Women in business should be offered soft loans & subsides for encouraging them into industrial activities. The financial institutions should provide more working capital assistance both for small scale venture and large scale ventures.

Making provision of micro credit system and enterprise credit system to the women entrepreneurs at local level. The weaker section could raise funds through various schemes and incentives provided by the government to develop entrepreneurs in the state. E.g. the Prime ministers Rozgar Yojana, The Khadi and Rural village industries scheme, etc. In the initial stages women entrepreneurs may face problems but they must persevere, believe in themselves and not give up mid way. Attempts by various NGOs and government organizations to spread information about policies, plans and strategies on the development of women in the field of industry, trade and commerce. Women entrepreneurs should utilize the various schemes provided by the Government. Women should try to upgrade themselves in the changing times by adapting the latest technology benefits. Women must be educated and trained constantly to acquire the skills and knowledge in all the functional areas of business management. This can facilitate women to excel in decision making process and develop a good business network Self help groups of women entrepreneurs to mobilize resources and pooling capital funds, in order to help the women in the field of industry, trade and commerce can also play a positive role to solve this problem. Womens entrepreneurship must be examined both at the individual level (i.e. the choice of becoming selfemployed) and at the firm level (the performance of women owned and managed firms) in order to fully understand the differences between mens and womens entrepreneurship. To establish all India forums to discuss the problems, grievances, issues, and filing complaints against constraints or shortcomings towards the economic

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progress path of women entrepreneurs and giving suitable decisions in the favour of women entrepreneurs and taking strict stand against the policies or strategies that obstruct the path of economic development of such group of women entrepreneurs. Thus by adopting the following aforesaid measures in letter and spirit the problems associated with women can be solved. Entrepreneurship is not a bed of roses to women. Women participation in many kinds of economic activities to complement to their family income, their participation in no way reduces their family duties. The task of women has become more tedious and full of challenges. Let us all make efforts to help women rediscover her. Conclusion- An enabling macroeconomic environment is a key requirement for a free market economy .Business operated by women were particularly disadvantaged with regards to access to finance, shortage of managerial and technical skills and inability to convert profit back into investment .More than half of women entrepreneurs who failed (53%) were unable to secure badly needed loans from the commercial banks. At a time when an economy without a well functioning financial sector is unable to generate the rate of growth and investment needed for promoting viability in business operated by poorly equipped women. This shows that intervention is needed by the national govt of India if the acute shortage of finance experienced by small business and enterprises is to be alleviated efficiently by fundamentally rationalizing the lending principles of commercial bank of India. The presence of well defined business laws and property rights improves the likelihood of survival in most small businesses. Removing gender based barriers and promoting competition and entrepreneurial activities with a specific focus on women is essential for the creation of vibrant business and enterprises that could ultimately improve the plight of improvised women. ========================

References1. Dr. Sunil Deshpande, Sunita Sethi (2009), Women Entrepreneurship in India, Shodh, Samiksha aur Mulayankan (International Research Journal), Vol.II, Issue 9-10. 2. Dr. M. Danabakyam, Swapna Kurian (2012), Women Entrepreneurship in Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in Chennai City, International Journal of Marketing, Financial Services & Management Research, Vol. 1, Issue 10 3. Meenu Goyal, Jai Prakash (2011), Women Entrepreneurship in India- Problems and Prospects, International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, Vol. 1, Issue 5 4. Dr. Roshan Lal, Dr. H.S. Badrinarayan (2011), The Role of Women Entrepreneurs as a Change Agent in the Society: A Case Study, ZENITH International Journal of Business Economics & Management Research, Vol. 1, Issue 1 5. Dr. Dil Pazir, Shokit Hussain (2012), Women Participation in Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises, ZENITH International Journal of Business Economics & management Research, Vol.2, Issue 3, pp- 183-194 6. T. S. Papola, Partha Pratim Sahu (2012), Growth and Structure of Employment in India. 7. Manisha Raj (2012), Women Participation in MSMEs. Websites1. http://dcmsme.gov.in/schemes/wenterpre.htm 2. http://www.iimahd.ernet.in/publications/data/2005-08-07indirap.pdf 3. http://www.ssmrae.com/admin/images/0ef9e4a1b7f8d4040fa33261b46a338d.pdf 4. http://mospi.nic.in/mospi_new/upload/women_men_2012_31oct12.pdf 5. http://www.isb.edu/faculty/shamika/MSME%20chapter_Shamika%20Ravi.PDF

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Women Empow erment in Rural Rajasthan

* Dr. Seema Pandey
Discrimination of women from womb to tomb is well known. The National Perspective Plan for Women (1988) gives us the following profile of women in India: There is inequality and vulnerability of women in all sectors - economic, social, political, education, health care, nutrition and legal. As women are oppressed in all spheres of life, they need to be empowered in all walks of life.The concept of womens empowerment appears to be the outcome of several important critiques and debates generated by the womens movement throughout the world. Its sources can be treated between feminism and concepts of popular education developed in Latin America in the 1970s. According to Walter (1991), the conspicuous feature of the term empowerment is that it contains the word power. The process of challenging existing power relations, and of gaining greater control over the sources of power, may be termed as empowerment. This broad definition is defined by feminist scholars and activities within the context of their own regions. Batliwala (1995) also writes that empowerment is the initial phase of womens liberation, freedom and equity as well as long term goal of womens political participation. This is the first step towards formulation and realization of human rights and responsibilities that transcend gender role stereotypes and the objectification of men and women. Empowerment means many things to Kamla Bhasin (1992): Recognizing her knowledge and contribution to society. Enabling women to fight feelings of inadequacy and inferiority. Enhancement of their self respect and dignity.
=========================== * 202, Sunischit Apartment, Plot No 96, Sector 54, Gurgaon, Haryana.

Control over their bodies. Self reliance and economic independence. Control over land and property. Reducing womens burden of domestic chores. Creation and strengthening of Womens Groups and organizations. Promoting qualities of Nurturing, caring and gentleness, not just in women but also amongst men. As explained by Apte (2000) empowerment implies control over material assets, intellectual resources and ideology. The material assets over which control can be established may be of any type physical, human, financial such as land, water, forests, peoples bodies and agencies, labor, money and access to money. Knowledge, information and ideas can be included in intellectual resources. Control over ideology signifies the ability to generate , propagate, sustain and institutionalize specific sets of beliefs ,values , attitudes, actions and behaviors virtually determining how people perceive , think and function in a given socio-economic and political environment. It has been strongly felt that unless women are involved effectively in the development process; our goal of overall socio-economic development cannot be accomplished. The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments for ensuring one third reservation for women in panchayat and municipal elections were brought about in April 1993. This ensured their participation in political process at grass root level. As a consequence of this landmark step today we see women matching their male counterparts stride by stride and proactively getting involved in the political process. The researcher had posed these pertinent questions regarding political participation of rural women while her study in Dangarwara village of Jaipur district through schedule and intensive interview. We interacted with eighty ever married rural women. Sixty five percent of them were illiterate, eleven percent were educated till middle school, and thirteen percent were educated till primary level while eleven percent were barely literate. Dangarwara was a multi caste village, located 58 km towards south of Jaipur. Out of total 221 families residing in this village, 76

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belonged to upper castes, 57 to Scheduled Castes, 21 to Scheduled Tribes and 67 to OBCs. Members of a similar caste reside adjacent to one another. Streets are named after the class dominant in it. As per norms untouchables and lower class families reside on village outskirts and central part is occupied by higher caste families. However, in recent years, this caste based settlement pattern is changing. Each caste has its own panchayat which deals with cases of deviation from accepted norms of behavior. In terms of infrastructure, Dangarwara village is electrified and boasts of a middle school, an ayurvedic doctor, post office and panchayat building. Primary occupation is agriculture in this village. It is pertinent to note that this village had a women sarpanch. I was intrigued and tried to draw a connection between increased political participation and overall development. Political participation of women is an important determinant of their modernization. It enables women to break the shackles of tradition and secluded life and increases social and political awareness. Women in politics could effectively represent the opinions of other women and deal effectively with problems of society in general and women in particular. Although women do not have intricate knowledge of legal nuances, they are efficient in management of budget in meager resources. They can sympathize with difficulties faced by womenfolk regarding access to fuel, drinking water etc. Hence they are determined to eradicate above problems and uplift the status of women. Before implementation of Panchayati Raj system there were a lot of unanswered questions and people were apprehensive if women who were unexposed for decades would be outgoing and could deliver speeches, organize people and present their problems effectively in front of government officials. However, encouraged by an overwhelming response from women, many sections are advocating reservation of 33 percent seats in state assembly and parliament as well for women. While reservation for women in local bodies has provided opportunities to a large number of women to enter decision making process but majority of them act as mere mouthpieces of powerful men in their village. Also the violent power struggle prevalent in many villages does not allow poor, unprotected women to contest elections. When

asked for their opinion, 50% of rural women in Dangarwara could not frame any opinion on political participation as they felt they had no time and energy for such broader issues. While awareness levels regarding political process have risen substantially in urban set-up, rural women still feel their hands are full with their primary concerns (husband, children and home) and are oblivient to other issues. Only 20% rural women felt strongly that educated local women would be able to best represent their problems like access to drinking water, basic infrastructure, health and medical facilities and hence justified reservation for women in local body elections. Another 30% of women moderately subscribed to this view. When further prodded for reasons a large chunk of respondents cited patriarchal social system as the main stumbling block for women to participate in politics. They also felt that illiterate women are vulnerable for exploitation in politics. Majority also felt that women are unable to enter politics as their priorities are towards their household chores and responsibilities. Raghvendra Rao (1999) says it is imperative to face the hard fact. Womens participation in PRIs or any other association is only minor measurement of their empowerment. This is only a small circle of power. There are also large circles of power attached to many institutional structures to which women have limited access. Education, Economy, Culture and ideology are some other areas where women can enter only through protracted struggles. We would also like to say that empowerment is not merely a legal or political concept as it is made out to be. It is multilateral and multidimensional too. Apart from the legal / political aspects empowerment embraces social, economic and cultural dimensions too. The real empowerment works only in ambience of equal distribution of assets between males and females in all spheres of private and public life. Genuine empowerment is realized through politics of struggle and not politics of reservation. Empowerment by reservation buttressed with the help of NGOs and state may act as a soporific against womens struggle against the state and society and typify the project of gender discrimination and equality. This, in the long run, may strengthen the status quo rather than transform it.

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All respondents were euphoric in their response on the need to empower women. Majority of respondents considered education as a critical success factor for their progress which would develop their perception of local and regional problems and help them in effectively participating in all spheres of life. Significant portion of the respondents also felt that empowerment can come best through their husband. Outlook of the husband is important since they are dependent on him for decisions like family planning and participation in outside activities. Most of respondents also expressed that parents can also play a major role in empowerment since they bring up their child during their critical formative age. Parents in Indian family perceive male child as investment good and future assets. In contrast girl child is treated as consumer goods and source of pleasure and gratification. Their home is elsewhere and they have to be gifted away in marriage. Hence the neglect of girls and apathy towards women depict the metaphor of female being Grihalaxmi and Annapurna. If the women in future have to be treated at par with men, the basic attitude towards girls within family needs to change. During the course of our fieldwork in Dangarwara village, we came across a case which is worth elucidating. Thirty two year old and barely literate, she was barely able to write. It was astonishing to note that she was elected as sarpanch on seat reserved for ST woman, since she owed her allegiance to Congress party. Her husband was middle pass and managed the fields. His two brothers were well educated and taught in a senior secondary school. It was collective feeling within family that if she became sarpanch, it would enhance the prestige and status of her husband and family. Due to her illiteracy she was drawn into a conspiracy wherein her assistant made her sign voucher for smaller amount and siphoned off one thousand. Due to the humiliation and trauma of constant trials and explanations, she was hesitant to attend any meeting alone and depended upon her husband to accompany her. On being asked if she would like to get elected again as sarpanch, she replied in affirmative as exposure to problems had hardened her resolve to deal more effectively with them. She also decided to learn to read and write from her daughters. Yet another case

worth illustrating is of an illiterate 27 year old woman who was a member of village panchayat due to her loyalty to a major political party. She felt that educated women can participate more effectively in panchayat meetings as compared to an illiterate like her. She agreed that household work suffers due to political activity but she has aspirations for the post of sarpanch due to respect, privileges and authority which it commands. To sum up, while the importance of political participation can hardly be overemphasized, yet, this alone is not the panacea of all the ills and wrongs that are plaguing women community in our society. Continuous exposure to the realities of a fast changing world cannot be undermined in the process of empowering women. Illiteracy, ignorance and economic deprivation have long prevented them from taking an active part in decision making process. Increase in enrolment of girl child in primary education, access to improved health care and avenues for higher education ,skill development and jobs to make her economically self reliant would go a long way in preparing a proper base and spring board for educated , conscious and confident women to leapfrog in political arena. Only then can we move significantly towards realizing our long cherished dream of Women Empowerment. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. Apte, J.S., 2000. "Education and Women's Empowerment", Indian Journal of Adult Education, Volume 56, July-Sept. Batliwala, Srilata, 1995. "The meaning of Women's Empowerment", Women's world, pp23-34. Bhasin,Kamla, 1998. "Education for Women's Empowerment: Some Reflections", Adult Educational Development, March. National Perspective Plan for Women, 1988. "1988-2000AD Report of the Core Group set up by the Department of Women and Child Development", Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Raghvendra Rao, J.V., 1999. " Panchayati Raj, Women and the problems of Empowerment", in R. Indira and Deepak Kumar Behera (eds.), Gender and Society in India, New Delhi: Manak Publications, p.99. Walters, S, 1991. Her words on His Lips: Gender and Population Education in South Africa, ASPBAC Counter 52, p.17.

5.

6.

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Childhood : Sexual Abuse and Prevention

* Mr. Rajendrakumar Muljibhai Parmar ** Mr. Harendra Parmar
School is the social institution outsides the family. Today, many schools striving to become more effective participant in preventions of child abuse and interventionsdesigned to reduce this complex problem. Number of children does missing every year.Some are sold by their families, some are kidnapped and others trapped by promise of a better life both for themselves and their relatives. According to Child Rights and You (Wadia, 2011),8,945 children go missing in India every year, 71% of them are illiterate; 500,000 children are estimated to be forced into the sex trade every year.Approximately 2 million children commercial sex workers are between the ages of 5 to 15 years, approximately 3.3 million child commercial sex workers are between 15 to 18 years, and80% of these children are found in the five metro cities of Indiai.e., Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Bangalore. Sexual abuse- Sexual abuse is sexual contact that involves physical or psychological pressure on individual who cannot reasonably consent to the contact. Such abuse includes paedophilia and rape. Sexual abuse may be committed by a person under the age of 18 when a person is either significantly older than the victims or when the abuser is in a position of power or control over the victimized child/adolescent. When
=========================== * Assistant Professor,Shree J M Patel Institute of Social Work and Applied Arts, Anand, Gujarat ** Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat

an adult or older child, who is Sapinda or legal relative,abuse the victim isincest perpetrates sexual abuse. Child sexual abuse- Child sexual abuse or child molestation is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent uses a child for sexual stimulation. In most states, the legal definition of child molestation is an act of a personadult or childwho forces, pressures or threatens a child to have any form of sexual contact or to engage in any type of sexual activity at the perpetrators direction. Forms of child sexual abuse include asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual activitieslicentious exposure of the genitals, or female nipples, etc. to a child with intent to gratify their own sexual desires. This also include intimidate or groom the child, physical sexual contact with a child, or using a child to produce child pornography. The effects of child sexual abuse can include depression, post traumaticstress disorder, anxiety disorder, tendency to further victimization in adulthood, and physical injury to the child, along with other problems. Sexual abuse by a family member is a form of incest, and can result in more serious and long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental incest. The global prevalence of child sexual abuse has been estimated at 19.7% for females and 7.9% for males, according to a 2009 study published in Clinical Psychology Review that examined 65 studies from 22 countries. Using the available data, the highest prevalence rate of child sexual abuse geographically was found in Africa (34.4%), primarily because of high rates in South Africa; Europe showed the lowest prevalence rate (9.2%); America and Asia had prevalence rates between 10.1% and 23.9% (Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse, 2013). In the past, other researchers have concluded that in North America, for example, approximately 15 to 25% of women and 5 to 15% of men were sexually abused when they were children (Julia, 2007; Finkelhor, 1994; Gorey & Leslie, 1997). Most sexual abuse offenders are acquainted with their victims.Approximately 30%

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are relatives of the child, most often brothers, fathers, uncles or cousins; around 60% are other links such as friends of the family, babysitters, or neighbours; strangers are the offenders in around 10% of child sexual abuse cases(Julia, 2007). Studies done by Julia(2007), Finkelhor (1994), Dube, Anda & Whitfield (2005)show that women commit 14 to 40% of offenses reported against boys and 6% of offenses reported against girls. However, Men commit most child sexual abuse (Julia, 2007; Finkelhor, 1994; Dube et al., 2005). Most offenders who sexually abuses children are paedophiles, but some offenders do not meet the diagnostic criteriaof paedophilia. Actions included in Child Sexual Abuse- At the extreme of the spectrum, sexual abuse includes sexual intercourse or its deviations. Yet all offences that involve sexually touching a child, non-touching offenses and sexual exploitation, are as harmful and devastating to a childs well-being.Touching sexual offenses includemaking a child touch an adults sexual organs; and penetrating a childs vagina or anus no matter how slight with a penis or any object that does not have a valid medical purpose. Non touching sexual offenses includeengaging in crude exposure or exhibitionism;exposing children to pornographic material;deliberately exposing the act of sexual intercourse andmasturbating in front of a child.Sexual exploitation can include engaging a child or soliciting a child for the purposes of prostitution; and using a child to film, photograph or model pornography.It is beginning to be acknowledged that Childhood Sexual Abuse happens far more frequently than most people believed or previously wanted to believe do. Around 65% of women that contact rape crisis centres are adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Sexual abuse involves an abuse of power and an abuse of trust the abuser being an adult or sometimes an older child. A child looks to adult and older children for guidance about how to be in the world to show what is right and what is not. A manipulative adult /older child abuses and forces a child into a

sexual situation, possibly by saying that it is rightto do or something bad will happen if the child does not follow as they are told so. It is impossible for the child to disobey even when it results in distress and confusion in the childs mind. In determining whether the actions of an adult or older child can be defined as sexual abuse, it is necessary to understand the intention and motivation behind the behaviour. Watchinga child in the bath is not necessarily sexually orientated or abusive. In addition, sexual abuse has nothing to do with sex play, which can often be spoiled in quite normally by agreeable same age children and is a part of their learning experience. It is also important to believe that there is never a fault of a child when s/hehas been abused theblame and guilt always lie with the abuser. Abuse succeeds on confidentiality. Speaking out and acknowledging what had happened is an important part of healing. Some survivors find it easier to speak to people over the phone to begin with; others find it helpful to read books on different subjects. Reading the testimonies of other survivors can help to feel less isolated. As a first step,it can be tried to talk through the options with a rape crisis worker on helpline that is completely confidential. Types of Child Sexual Abuse- Child sexual abuse includes a variety of sexual offenses Sexual assault is a term defining offenses in which an adult touches a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification.For example, rape (including sodomy), and sexual penetration with an object (Finkelhor & Ormord, 2001). Sexual exploitation is a term defining offenses in which an adult victimizes, a minor for advancement sexual gratification or profit; for example, prostituting a child (Finkelhor & Ormrod, 2004) and creating or trafficking in child pornography (child sexual exploitation, 1995). Sexual grooming defines as the social conduct of a potential child sex offender who seeks to make a minor more accepting of their advances.

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Causal Factors that promote sexual abuse- Causal factors of child sex offenders are not known conclusively. The experience of sexual abuse as a child was previously thought to be a strong risk factor, but research does not show a causal relationship; as the vast majority of sexually abused children do not grown up to be adult offenders nor does the majority of adult offenders report childhood sexual abuse. Recent prospective longitudinal research studying children with documented cases of sexual abuse over time to determine what percentage become adult offenders hasdemonstrated that the cycle of violence theory is not an adequate explanation for why people abuse children. Offenses may be facilitated by cognitive distortions of the offender such as minimization of the abuse, victim blaming and excuses (Ward, Hudson & Marshall, 1995). Child sexual abuse in India- In the famous show Satyamev Jayte(EPISODE NO 02 - 13 MAY 2012 - BREAK THE SILENCE- CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE.), Amir Khan said that 50% of the children are abuse in India. Each two out of one has been child abused during the childhood. 19% of the worlds children live in India, which constitutes 42 percent of Indias total population. In 2007, the Ministry of Women and Child Development published the Study on Child Abuse: India 2007. It sampled 12447 children, 2324 young adults and 2449 stakeholders across 13 states. It looked at different forms of child abuse: physical abuse, sexual abuse and emotional abuse and girl child neglect in five evidence groups, namely, children in a family environment, children in school, children at work, children on the street and children in institutions. The studys (Study on child abuse: India 2007) main findings included, 53.22% of children reported having faced sexual abuse. Among them 52.94% were boys and 47.06% were girls. Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar and Delhi reported the highest percentage of sexual abuse among both boys and girls, as well as the highest incidence of sexual assaults. 21.90% of child respondents faced severe forms of sexual abuse, 5.69%

had been sexually assaulted and 50.76% reported other forms of sexual abuse. Children on the street at work and in institutional care reported the highest incidence of sexual assault. The study also reported that 50% of abusers are known to the child or are in a position of trust and responsibility and most children had not reported the matter to anyone. Despite years of lack of any specific child sexual abuse laws in India, which treated them separately from adults in case of sexual offense, the Protection of Children Against Sexual Offences Bill, 2011 was passed in the Parliament of India on May 22, 2012 (Parliament passes bill, 2012). Currently, the Indian Constitution (Wadia, 2011) recognises various crimes against children that are linked to their sexual abuse. The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Actthat protects children below the age of 16 from being used for the purposes of commercial sex. The Juvenile Justice Act,section 26 provides for punishment if a person acquires a juvenile for hazardous employment. The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act also makes punishable the practice of marrying girls under the age of 18 and boys under the age of 21. In addition to these legislations, there is also a commissionfor the protection of the rights of children which inquiries into various violations of child rights and recommends initiation of proceedings as seen necessary. It is thus apparent that a network of deprivations and vulnerabilities poverty, age, gender, caste, lack of safe spaces, lack of schools, and lack of proper institutional care for children without functional family create situations where children are sexually exploited (Wadia, 2011). Effects of sexual abuse on children Psychological effects- Child sexual abuse can result in both short-term and long-term harm, including psychopathology in later life (Dinwiddie, Heath &Dunne, 2000; Nelson, Heath & Madden, 2002). Indicators and effects include depression,eating disorders, eating disorder, poor self-esteem, somatisation, sleep

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disturbances, and dissociative and anxiety disorders including post-traumatic stress disorder. While children may exhibit regressive behaviours, such as a return to thumb sucking or bed wetting.The strongest indicator of sexual abuse is sexual acting out and inappropriate sexual knowledge and interest. Victims may withdraw from school and social activities and exhibit various learning and behavioural problems including cruelty to animals, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), conduct disorder Post traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Teenage pregnancy and risky sexual behaviours may appear in adolescence. Child sexual abuse victims report almost four times as many incidences of self-inflicted harm. A causal relationship has been found(Julia, 2007) between childhood sexual abuse and various adult psychopathologies, including crime and suicide, in addition to alcoholism and drug abuse (Childhood sex abuse, 2002). Males who were sexually abused as children more frequently appear in the criminal justice system than in a clinical mental health setting. A study (Bonomi, Anderson & Rivara, 2008) comparing middle-aged women who were abused as children with non-abused counterparts found significantly higher health care costs for the former. Intergenerational effects have been noted, with the children of victims of child sexual abuse exhibiting more conduct problems, peer problems, and emotional problems than their peers do. The risk of harm is greater if the abuser is a relative, if the abuse involves intercourse or attempted intercourse, or if threats or force is used. The level of harm may also be affected by various factors such as penetration, duration and frequency of abuse, and use of force. The social stigma of child sexual abuse may compound the psychological harm to children, and adverse outcomes are less likely for abused children who have supportive family environments. Physical effects Injury-The victims ranged in age from 2 months to 10 years in

whichdepending on the age and size of the child and the degree of force used, child sexual abuse may cause internal cuts and bleeding. In severe cases, damage to internal organs may occur; which in some cases may cause death. Causes of death included trauma to the genitalia or rectum and sexual mutilation. Neurological damage- Teicher et al. (1993) found that an increased likelihood of temporal lobe epilepsy-like symptoms in abused subjects.Anderson et al. (2002) recorded abnormal transverse relaxation time in the cerebellar vermin of adults sexually abused in childhood; Teicher et al. (1993) found that child sexual abuse was associated with a reduced corpus callosum area; various studies have found an association of reduced volume of the left hippocampus with child sexual abuse. Treatment- The initial approach to treating a person who has been a victim of sexual abuse is dependent upon several important factors: Age at the time of presentation Circumstances of presentation for treatment Co-morbid conditions The goal of treatment is not only to treat current mental health issues, but also to prevent future ones. Children and adolescents- Children often present for treatment in one of several circumstances, including criminal investigations, custody battles, problematic behaviours, and referrals from child welfare agencies. The three major modalities of therapy for children and teenagers are family therapy, group therapy and individual therapy. Which course is used depends on a variety of factors that must be assessed on a case by casebasis. For instance, treatment of young children generally requires strong parental involvement, and can benefit from family therapy. Adolescents tend to be more independent and can benefit from individual or group therapy. The modality also shifts during the course of treatment, for example, group therapy is rarely used in the initial stages, as the subject matter is very personal and/or embarrassing. Major factors that affect both the

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pathology and response to treatment include the type and severity of the sexual act, the age at which it occurred and the childs family of origin. Adults- Adults with a history of sexual abuse often present for treatment with a secondary mental health issue that can include substance abuse, eating disorders, personality disorders, depression and conflict in romantic or interpersonal relationships. Generally, the approach is to the present problem rather than the abuse itself. Treatment is highly varied and depends on the persons specific issues. For example, a person with a history of sexual abuse suffering from severe depression would be treated for depression. However, there is often an emphasis on cognitive restructuring due to the deep-seated nature of the trauma. Some newer techniques such as Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) have been shown to be effective. Sexual abuse is associated with many sub-clinical behavioural issues as well, including re-victimization in the teenage years, a bipolar-like switching between sexual compulsion and shutdown, and distorted thinking on the subject of sexual abuse. When first time presenting for treatment; the patient can be fully aware of their abuse as an event but their appraisal of it is often distorted. Frequently, victims do not make the connection between their abuse and their present pathology. Prevention from Sexual Abuse What should you do If You Suspect Sexual Abuse?- Children who are sexually abused may exhibit behavioural changes, based on their age.Children up to age 3 may exhibitfear or excessive crying, vomiting, feeding problems, bowel problems, sleep conflicts, failure to thrive and children ages.2 to 9 may exhibit:fear of particular people, places or activities, regression to earlier behaviours such as bed wetting or stranger anxiety, victimization of others, excessive masturbation, feelings of shame or guilt, nightmares or sleep disturbances, withdrawal from family or friends and fear of attack recurring, eating

disturbances.Symptoms of sexual abuse in older children and youths includedepression, nightmares or sleep disturbances, poor school performance, promiscuity, substance abuse, aggression, running away from home, fear of attack recurring, eating disturbances, early pregnancy or marriage, suicidal gestures, anger about being forced into situation beyond ones control and pseudo-mature behaviours. Protecting children from sexual abuse- Teach your children what appropriate sexual behaviour is and when to say no if someone tries to touch sexual parts of their bodies or touch them in any way that makes them feel uncomfortable. Also, observe your children when they interact with others to see if they are hesitant or particularly uncomfortable around certain adults. It is critical to provide adequate supervision for your children and only leave them in the care of individuals whom you consider safe. Support child abuse victims- Children need to know that they can speak openly to a trusted adult and that they will be believed. Children who are victims of sexual abuse should always be reassured that they are not responsible for what has happened to them Offer encouragement for victims by supporting organizations that help victims of incest or by simply reassuring victims of sexual abuse that they should not feel shame or guilt. It is important to understand that troubled families can be helped and that everyone can play a part in the process. Teach others about child abuse- Help make others aware of sexual abuse by arranging for educated guest speakers to present to your organizations or groups. Encourage your local school board to establish programs to educate both teachers and students about the problem.Sexual abuse is usually discovered in one of two ways:Direct disclosure (e.g., the victim, victims family member or parent seeking help makes a statement), andIndirect methods (e.g., someone witnesses the abuse to the child, the child contracts a sexually transmitted disease or the child becomes pregnant). Sometimes the child may be so traumatized

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by sexual abuse that years pass before he or she is able to understand or talk about what happened. In these cases, adult survivors of sexual abuse may come forward for the first time in their 40s or 50s and disclose the horror of their experiences. Can children recover from sexual abuse?- In an attempt of better understanding, the ill effects of child abuse, psychologists and other researchers have studied what factors may lessen theimpact of the abuse. More research needs to be done, but factors that seem to affect the amount of harm done to the victim include the age of the child; the duration, frequency, and insensitivity of the abuse; the degree of force used and the relationship of the abuser to the child.Childrens interpretation of the abuse, whether or not they disclose the experience and how quickly they report it, also affects the short and long termconsequences. Children who are able to confide in a trusted adult and who are believed experience fewer traumas than children who do not disclose the abuse. Furthermore, children who disclose the abuse soon after its occurrence may be less traumatized than those children who live with the secret for years.Some researchers have begun to look at the question of whether someone can recover from sexual abuse and if so what factors help in that recovery. Children and adults who were sexually abused have indicated that family support,familialsupport, high self-esteem, and spirituality were helpful in their recovery from the abuse. It is important for victims of abuse to surrender any guilt they may feel about the abuse. Victims also report that attending workshops and conferences on child sexual abuse, reading about child sexual abuse, and undergoing psychotherapy have helped them feel better and return to a more normal life. Research has also shown that often the passage of time is a key element in recovery.Counselling and other support services are also important for the caregivers of abused children. One of the strongest predictors of the childs recovery from the abuse experience is a high level of maternal and family functioning.

Thisis of course assumes that the abuser was not a member of the immediate family or if soit is not still living within the family. Lasting Impact of Sexual Abuse- Previous studieson women have shown that childhood sexual abuse increases the risk of mental health problems as well as social problems, and the study confirmed that men share that risk.The study showed that a history of attempted suicide was more than twice as likely among both male and female victims of childhood sexual abuse compared with others.In addition, sexually abused adults of both genders had a 40% greater risk of marrying an alcoholic and they were 40%-50% more likely to report current problems in theirmarriage. Protecting children from sexual abuse The typical advice Do nottalk to Strangers does not apply in this case. Their victims know most sexual perpetrators.Do not instruct children to give relatives hugs and kisses. Let them express affection on their own terms. Teach your children basic sexual education. Teach them that no one should touch the private parts of their body. A health professional can also help to communicate sex education to children if parents are uncomfortable doing so. Develop strong communication skills with your children. Encourage them to ask questions and talk about their experiences. Explain the importance of reporting abuse to you or another trusted adult. Teach your children that sexual advances from adults are wrong and against the law. Give them the confidence to assert themselves against any adult who attempts to abuse them. Make an effort to know childrens friends and their families.Instruct your child never get into a car with anyone without your permission.Teach your children that their bodies are their own. That it is OK to say they do not want a hug or that certain kinds of contact make them

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uncomfortable. Give the child a safe environment in which to talk to you or another trusted adult. Encourage the child to talk about what he or she has experienced, but be careful not to suggest events to him or her that may not have happened. Watch against displaying emotions that would influence the childs telling of the information.Reassure the child that he or she did nothing wrong. Seek mental health assistance for the child. Arrange for a medical examination for the child. Select a medical provider who has experience in examining children and identifying sexual and physical trauma. It may be necessary to explain to the child the difference between a medical examination and the abuse incident. Be aware that many states have laws requiring that persons who know or have a reason to suspect that a child has been sexually abused must report that abuse to either local law enforcement officials or child protection officials. It is important to remember that physical force is often not necessary to engage a child in sexual activity. Children are trusting and dependent and will often do what is asked of them to gain approval and love. Conclusion- Childhood sexual abuse is associated with a broad array of adverse consequences for survivors throughout their lifetime. As a result of more severe research studies in this field, our understanding of the impacts of childhood sexual abuse is becoming more touch and a healthy body of research evidence now clearly demonstrates the link between child sexual abuse and a spectrum of adverse mental health, social, sexual, interpersonal and behavioural as well as physical health consequences. The strongest links have been found between child sexual abuse and the presence of depression, alcohol and substance abuse, eating disorders for women survivors, and anxiety-related disorders for male survivors. An increased risk of re-victimization of survivors has also been demonstrated

consistently for both men and women survivors. Some more recent research has also revealed a link between child sexual abuse and personality, psychotic and schizophrenic disorders, as well as a heightened risk for suicide ideation and suicidal behaviour. Many questions remain unanswered. For example, we need to better understand the experiences of boy victims of child sexual abuse particularly within the context of institutional cases of child sexual abuse and the impact of such experiences on key areas of victims functioning.Future research in this area needs to continue to work out gender differences in victims experiences of childhood sexual abuse, the impact of mediating variables on survivors future functioning and their adjustment in all spheres of their life. This understanding will assist in the identification, treatment and prevention of child sexual abuse. Importantly, this knowledge is important to survivors of childhood sexual abuse being able to disclose their experiences in a safe and supportive environment and gaining access to effective services and the support they need to deal with those experiences and all its effects. ======================== References1. Anderson CM, Teicher MH, Polcari A, Renshaw PF (2002). Abnormal T2 relaxation time in the cerebellar vermis of adults sexually abused in childhood: potentia l role of the vermis in stress-enhanced risk for dru g a buse. Psychoneuroendocrinology 27 (1-2): 231-44. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(01)000476. Bonomi AE, Anderson ML, Rivara FP, et al. (2008). Health care utilization and costs associated with childhood abuse. Journal of General Internal Medicine 23 (3): 294-9. doi:10.1007/s11606-008-0516-1. Child Sexual Exploitation: Improving Investigations and Protecting Victims, Massachusetts Child Exploitation Network, U.S. (1995) Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Childhood Sex Abuse Increases Risk for Drug Dependence in Adult Women. (2002) NIDA Notes, National Institute of Drug Abuse, volume 17, no. 1. National Institutes of Health. http://www.nida.nih.gov/NIDA_Notes/NNVol17N1/ Childhood.html. Dinwiddie S, Heath AC, Dunne MP, et al. (2000). Early sexual abuse and lifetime psychopathology: a co-twin-control study. Psychological Medicine 30 (1): 4152. doi:10.1017/S0033291799001373. Dube SR, Anda RF, Whitfield CL, et al. (2005). Long-term consequences of

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childhood sexual abuse by gender of victim. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 28 (5): 430-8. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2005.01.015. Finkelhor D (1994). Current information on the scope and nature of child sexual abuse. The Future of Children 4 (2): 31-53. doi:10.2307/1602522. Finkelhor, David; Ormrod, Richard (2004). Prostitution of Juveniles: Patterns From NIBRS. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. http://www.ncjrs.gov/html/ojjdp/203946/ contents.html. Finkelhor, D; Ormrod, (2001). Child Abuse Reported to the Police. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/187238.pdf. Gorey KM, Leslie DR (1997). The prevalence of child sexual abuse: integrative review adjustment for potential response and measurement biases. Child Abuse & Neglect 21 (4): 391-8. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(96)00180-9. Julia Whealin, Ph.D. (2007). Child Sexual Abuse". National Center for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, US Department of Veterans Affairs. http:// www.ptsd.va.gov/public/pages/child-sexual-abuse.asp. Nelson EC, Heath AC, Madden PA, et al. (2002). Association between self-reported childhood sexual abuse and adverse psychosocial outcomes: results from a twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry 5 9 (2): 13 9-45 . doi:10.100 1/ archpsyc.59.2.139. Parliament passes bill to protect children from sexual abuse. (2012) NDTV. http:/ /www.ndtv.com/article/india/parliament-passes-bill-to-protect-children-fromsexual-abuse-214437. Study on Child Abuse: India 2007 (PDF). Published by the Government of India, Ministry of Women and Child Development.http://wcd.nic.in/childabuse.pdf. Teicher MH, Glod CA, Surrey J, Swett C (1993). "Early childhood abuse and limbic system ratings in adult psychia tric outpatients". The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 5 (3): 301-6. PMID 8369640. Wadia, H. (2011). The sounds of Silence: Child Sexual abuse in India http:// infochangeindia.org/children/analysis/the-sounds-of-silence-child-sexual-abusein-india.html retrieved on Jan 1, 2013 Ward, T.; Hudson, S. M.; Marshall, W. L. (1995). "Cognitive distortions and affective deficits in sex offenders: A cognitive deconstructionist interpretation". Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment 7: 67-83. Saytamev Jayate (2012) Episode No02 - 13 May 2012 - Break The Silence- Child Sexual Abuse, Star TV

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Punishment : Analysis about its Justifiability

* Sima Baruah
A state or society governs the moral life of the individuals through the ways of reward and punishment. Good deeds of the individuals are rewarded by the society. Similarly, a man is punished for his evil deeds. But all crimes are not same, so as all punishments are also not same. Different theories of punishment suggest different views in inflicting punishment to the offender. According to the preventive theory the aim of punishment is to prevent others from committing similar offences. This theory justifies capital punishment as an extreme form of punishment. According to the reformative theory the aim of punishment is to educate or reform the offender himself. According to the regoristic retributive form, punishment is inflicted according to the nature of the offence. According to the mollified retributive theory punishment should be inflicted by taking into account all the factors such as the circumstance, the age of the offender etc. Punishment should not aim at causing harm to the offender. But the offender should not get scot-free. And education is not generally a form of punishment. Therefore the retributive theory in its mollified form is a satisfactory theory of punishment which takes into account the age, circumstances and social environment while inflicting punishment to an offender. But punishment is not inflicted to a person if he does the action involuntarily or unintentionally. Introduction- Crime is an anti-social act. Crime is violation of the laws of society. The re-nown moral philosopher J.S
=========================== * Research Scholar, Department of Philosophy, Gauhati University

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Mackenzie opines that a wrong against social law is a wrong against humanity and it cannot be forgiven until the offended majesty of the law is appeased. Society or state punishes the wrong-doer because the later has degraded the majesty of the social law by its violation. If the offended majesty of the social law is not indicated by administrative proper punishment to the wrong-doer, the social unity and harmony will degenerate, and the moral ideal will degrade. Law gives a guarantee to the members of the society that the offenders will not get scot-free. If the majesty of law becomes indulge the social unity disintegrates correspondingly. Punishment is necessary for upholding the idea of humanity and morality. Punishment is inflicted on the wrong-doer, because he has earned it by violating the ethical law. The wrong-doer is shown the nature of right through punishment because the wrong-doer has disturbed the social peace and harmony through his criminal acts. A criminal feels that his personality is degraded when he is punished for his wrong deeds. An individual is criticised for his inappropriate actions and penalised for his offences. Punishment makes a wrong-doer conscious of the social ideal as also of the disagreement of his action with this ideal. Punishment is negative reward. Justice demands that there should be appropriate distributions of reward and punishment in proportion to the merit and demerit of actions. Punishment plays its path in maintaining the general integrity of a society. Punishment is a means to the spiritual good of the criminal and society Theories of Punishment- No society can tolerate anti-social acts. Anti social acts are subversive of the economic, social and moral laws of society. Those who are against these laws are punished in various ways by the society or the state. Every punishment inflicts upon the criminal, physical or mental pain. Normally we do not justify the infliction of pain of an individual. A question may therefore naturally arise as to why we make an exception to this rule in the case of administrating punishment to the wrong-doer. This question has given rise to different

theories as to the aim of punishment. Three principal theories have been put forward to justify punishment. They are known as the Preventive (or deterrent) theory, the Reformative (or educative) theory, and the Retributive theory. 1. The Preventive Theory- The Preventive Th This theory is also known as Exemplary or Deterrent theory. According to the advocates of the Preventive theory the primary aim of punishment is to prevent the recurrence of crime. Its damage done to the society by the criminal is irreparable. But other man may be tempted to indulge in anti-social act if no example of what happens to the criminal when he does wrong to the society is placed before them. A criminal is ought to be punished in order to prevent others from committing similar crimes. It should be an exemplary punishment. It serves as a warning to the offender not to repeat the crime in the future. The main theme of this theory has best been expressed through the maxim- You are not punished for stealing sheep, but in order that sheep may not be stolen. This theory justifies capital punishment as an extreme form of punishment. Kants Second Categorical Imperative: Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end. This injunction requires each person of the society to be treated as being of value in him or herself, and not merely as one among many whose benefits and sufferings may be aggregated for the common good. Kant did not develop a theory of punishment of his own in any systematic fashion. He makes it plain that he prefers a retributive account- one that would make the persons punishment depend on his own deserts rather than on the penaltys societal benefits. A man is an end in himself. He is a person, and not a thing. He should not be used as a means for the good of any other persons. It is unjust to inflict pain on one man merely for the benefit of others. A person should not be treated as a thing, as a mere means for the good of others. A person should not be

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punished to prevent others from committing a crime. He should not be made an example of for the benefit of others. It is not just that one man should suffer pain not for his own benefit, but for that of others, who will refrain from committing similar offences. 2. The Reformative Theory- This theory is also known as Educative theory. According to the advocates of Reformative theory the aim of punishment is to reform the criminal himself. It is hoped that a man with pure character cannot do evil deeds. So the evil-doer should be educated and reformed. The idea behind this theory is that no one is born as a criminal. The criminal is a product of the social, economic and environmental conditions. It is believed that if the criminals are educated and trained, they can be made competent to behave well in the society. The offender was prior to the commission of offence a member of the society. It should be the duty of the society to rehabilitate the offender. The offender should be punished for his own good. Punishment aims at reforming the offender of his anti-social tendencies, so that he may regain his position in the society. Punishment should educate the offender in the consciousness of the moral ideal and moral duties. The Reformative theory has been supported by the psychologist and the sociologists. Psycho-analysis maintained that crimes are manifestation of repressed desires of a person. Therefore the treatment of such forms of crime should be medical or educational, rather than purely punitive. According to Criminology crime is due either to hereditary or acquire psychological defect of personality. Criminal should therefore send to hospitals, asylums and reformatories, rather than to prison houses. Advocates of Criminal Sociology maintain that crimes are outcomes of unfavourable social circumstances. Crimes are due to social and economic inequalities, maladjustments, and corruptions. For example, theft; is due to poverty. Therefore punishment for crime without improving the social and economic conditions of criminals is useless and injurious. Reformation of criminal is desirable from the standpoint of social welfare. The

one important aspect of this theory is it emphasises only the role of a man as an end not as a means to any end. The Reformative theory is proved to be successful in cases of young offenders. But all the crimes cannot be attributed to social maladjustment, insanity or psychological defect. Crimes are deliberately committed by persons, who are not necessarily under adverse pecuniary or social conditions. Rich merchants deliberately indulge in black-marketing, hoarding, adulteration of food, and other criminal acts. To ascribe all crimes to social distempers is to miss the distinctive character of crimes. Education is not generally a form of punishment. Education is accompanied with learning and shaping human beings. The aim of education is to impart knowledge of the world among the learners. In modern system of learning the process of education is presented as pleasure. 3. The Retributive Theory- The Retributive theory explains reward and punishment by reference to the sense of justice. The objective of this theory is to make the offender realise the suffering or the pain. The supporters of this theory says that if punishment is to be effective, than it must be appealed to the moral sense of human mind. Punishment and reward should be given on the basis of eternal and unchangeable principles of justice and equality. According to this theory punishment is an act of justice. Punishment is an end in itself, not a means to any end beyond itself. The primary aim of punishment is retribution. The aim of punishment is to defend the supremacy and authority of the moral law. To appease the offended majesty of the moral law, punishment ought to be inflicted on the criminal as a vindication of its authority. If the criminal is not punished, the moral law loses its dignity, authority and majesty. Punishment is the act of restoring the moral order which has been broken by the criminal. The guilt of the offence is wiped out by the punishment of the criminal. Punishment is inflicted on the offender neither for his good nor for that of others. It is demanded by the sense of justice. The Retributive theory justifies capital

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punishment under exceptional circumstances. The retributive theory has two forms- Regoristic and Mollified. (a) Regoristic Retributive Theory- According to the Regoristic Retributive form, punishment is inflicted according to the nature of the offence. If the offence is severe, the punishment should be not light. Eye for the eye, Tooth for the tooth is the motto of this theory. In inflicting punishment the circumstances should not be taken into account. For exampleA man has killed a person. Therefore he should be hanged. (b) Mollified Retributive Theory- According to the Mollified Retributive theory the punishing authority should take into consideration the motives and intention of a wrong-doer while punishing the latter. Punishment should not be indicated mechanically. All possible factors which are responsible for the preparation of a crime by an individual must be taken into consideration before punishing. Here the age of the criminal, his intention, provoking circumstances should be taken into account. Rashdall criticises the retributive theory. He brands it as a vindictive theory. The amount of pain to be inflicted on the criminal in proportion to the crime cannot be ascertained. There is absolutely no commensurability between them. Again retributive theory is objected by some that this theory is based on the base passion of revenge. At last, it may be said that the Retributive theory in its Mollified form is the most satisfactory theory. Because it refers to the universal serve of justice. Moreover in inflicting punishment, according to this theory, the necessary circumstances are rightly considered. But neither reformation of the crime nor prevention of the crime is possible, unless it is recognized that punishment is a vindication of the authority of the Moral law. It is only when a criminal realizes that he is punished to vindicate the authority of the Moral law and that it is his right to get his desert; that he repents and is reformed.

Again the recognition of this fact leads others also to recoil from crimes. Retribution also brings about prevention and reformation. Capital Punishment- Capital punishment is the death sentence incurred on a wrong doer. It is the extreme form of punishment. It is inflicted upon a wrong-doer to prevent others from committing such crimes. So the Preventive or Exemplary theory of punishment supports capital punishment. According to the Preventive theory, a person who deliberately commits murder should be given capital punishment. He has deprived a person of his life, and so should be hanged to prevent others from committing the heinous crime. He should be made an example of. The Reformative theory of punishment does not support capital punishment. The aim of the theory is to reform and educate the offender, so this theory does not advocate capital punishment. There is no scope of reformation in case of capital punishment. According to the Retributive theory also a murderer should be given capital punishment. He has taken away the life of a person in cold blood. So justice demands that he be deprived of his life. There is nothing unjust in this act of justice. The rigorous form of the Retributive theory does not make any concession. But the mollified form of it recommends taking into consideration the criminals age, provocation, education and other extenuating circumstances in softening the rigour of justice. All kinds of humanistic philosophers hold that death sentence cannot be justified on humanistic ground. It is a kind of murder. It is done in cold blood. Right to live is the fundamental right. As we cannot revive life, so we have no right to take the life of a man. So capital punishment cannot be accepted. According to them capital punishment should be abolished. The British Government abolished capital punishment in 1969. But in India capital punishment is still prevailing. Sometimes innocent persons are hanged in the name of capital punishment. After the execution of capital punishment, there is

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no way of re-thinking, reformation and re-judgement. A man is a member of a society; he cannot work alone, aloof from the society. What he does is always related to the other people of the society. So he is not solely responsible for what he does. The modern civilisation does not support the view that punishment should be purely retributive. Man is a finite individual with many divisions. Any offence committed by him should be considered sympathetically before administrating any punishment to him. So some thinkers uphold the view that life sentence is better than capital punishment. In this way the society should try to create a good social atmosphere free of crimes and evils. It has been found that even capital punishment could not prevent the recurrence of similar crimes. Though prevention of crime is one of the duties of society, yet it should not unnecessarily harass the criminal where a soft punishment may be fruitful. Punishment in Involuntary Action- Strawson was an optimist; he defined freedom as nothing but the absence of certain conditions the presence of which would make moral condemnation or punishment inappropriate. It means that punishment is inflicted to a person if he does the action freely or voluntarily. Punishment is not inflicted to the person if he does the action under certain conditions or if his action is involuntary. Moral justification or evaluation is possible only in case of voluntary actions. Punishment becomes meaningless in some cases. They are1. When the act is unintentional, i.e. when the act is performed on ignorance or if it is an accident/compulsion. 2. When the circumstances are abnormal or not in a conscious state of mind like dream/ asleep/ hypnotism etc. 3. When the agent himself is not treated as a normal human being like hopeless, schizophrenic, insane, child etc. The first one is under compulsion and the other two are quite abnormal. But what we observe in our actual life is that even in those exceptional cases we used to inflict punishment.

For example: we know that the kleptomaniac is guided by an irresistible tendency to steal, not for his personal gains, but he does it out of his nature. He does not do it intentionally. But we, who are the victims of the actions of the kleptomaniac, cannot but punish. Even sometimes we punish other lower creatures, e.g. we speak of getting angry with a cow when it eats up a flower-plant in my garden. Again, when a lorry-driver hits a child to death purely accidentally, i.e. when he is not at fault, we the onlookers still have a tendency to blame the lorry-driver. In some other cases it becomes difficult to say whether an action can be treated as morally evaluable or not. We may consider the case of the man at gun-point. Clearly he is not free. He has to comply with the assailants order. We do not feel any moral indignation at his actions. But suppose the assailant demanded of the man at gun-point an action the consequence of which will be very much harmful to the society or humanity at large; then shall we refrain from exhibiting any moral reaction (supposing that the man complies with the order) on the plea that the man was not free? For example if the demand was to obtain a permit for selling contaminated baby-food? Or shall we suggest the man to get killed rather than to comply with such a demand? Morality thus becomes an extremely complex phenomenon to define. It is very difficult to say which action is a moral action and which one is morally neutral. In cases of moral dilemma, we have to take into account the whole situation, its history as well as its possible consequences. The man at gunpoint, in the example given above, must take into account the possible consequences of his issuing a permit to sell contaminated baby-food. If he is convinced that this will cause more harm to the society than his death (but also, how can he consider his own life to be less valuable!) he should opt for his death rather than issuing the permit. Again it is very heartening to see that the highly respectable persons of the society like lawyers and doctors help the offender to hide his crime by

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proving the criminal as mentally ill. Comments- Punishment is fruitful if it is administered with celerity (swiftness) and certainty. There is a famous saying, Justice delayed is justice denied. When a crime is committed, it becomes issue for some days. Public shows much concern about it, but as time passes people forgets to fight for it. Our judicial system is such that it takes 15 to 20 years to investigate and punish the criminal. During this year the victim and his family suffers but the criminal is free all this time. The criminal would not repent for his crime. And most of the time the criminal does not get appropriate punishment for his offence because of the delay. And it is not justifiable to give punishment to a person after so long time. Delayed justice is justifiable neither to the offender nor to the society or the victim. Crimes can be prevented only if the human society is reconstructed on the basis of justice and equity. Laws should be used to maximize the happiness of society. ======================== References1. 2. 3. Acton,H.B. (1963) The Philosophy of Punishment, London: Macmillan Ewing,A.C.(1929)The Morality of Punishment, London: Kegan Paul, French, Trubner Bedau, Hugo Adam.(1986) "Capital Punishment". In Matters of Life and Death: New Introductory Essays in Moral Philosophy, Ed. Tom Regan, New York: Random House Ezorsky, Gertrude.(1972) "The Ethics of Punishment". In Philosophical Perspectives on Punishment, Ed. Gertrude Ezorsky, Albany: State University of New York Press. Sinha, J.N. (2009),A Manual of Ethics, New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd. Strawson, P.F. (2008), Freedom and Resentment and other Essays, Ed. Reprint, Taylor and Francis U.S.

Law as a Means of Social Change

* Dr. Alka Verma
Introduction- Law is rooted in social institutions, in socioeconomic network. These social factors influence the course of law or the direction of legal change. This is the outcome of personal and social interactions which are variable and often unpredictable. At the same time, law may itself change social norms in various ways. For example, in free India, legal abolition of untouchability is an attempt to change a long-standing social norm. Yet it has not succeeded much due to inadequate social support. Thus there is a reciprocal relationship between law and society. This article will discuss about the law and its impact in social change with special reference from Indian society. Definition- Lawrence Friedman and Jack Ladinsky, however, in the context of a discussion of the social effects of law adopt a definition of social change as any non-repetitive alteration in the established modes of behaviour in society. The qualification nonrepetitive is important here for the definition recognize that few societies, if any, are wholly statie. The term social change is also used to indicate the changes that take place in human interactions and inter-relations. Society is a web-relationship and social change obviously means a change in the system of social relationship where a social relationship is understood n terms of social processes and social interactions and social organizations. Thus, the term, social change is used to indicate desirable variations in social institution, social processes and social organization. It includes alterations in the structure and the functions of the society.
=========================== * School of Social Science, U. P. Rajarshi Tandon Open University, Allahabad (U.P.)

4. 5. 6.

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Correlation Between Law and Social Change- Closer analysis of the role of law vis--vis social change leads us to distinguish between the direct and the indirect aspects of the role of law. 1. Law plays an important indirect role in regard to social change by shaping have a direct impact on society. For example: A law setting up a compulsory educational system. 2. On the other hand, law interacts in many cases indirectly with basic social institutions in a manner constituting a direct relationship between law and social change. For example: A law designed to prohibit polygamy. Law plays an agent of modernization and social change. It is also as and indicator of the nature of societal complexity and its attendant problems of integration. Further, the reinforcement of our belief in the age old panchayat system, the abolition of the abhorables practices of untouchability, child marriage, sati dowry, etc are typical illustrations of social change being brought about in the country through law. Law is an effective medium or agency, instrumental in bringing about social change in the country or in any region in particular. Therefore, we rejuvenate our belief that law has been pivotal in introducing changes in the societal structure and relationships and continues to be so. Role of Legislation and Supreme Court of IndiaA. Legislation- An important instrument of change the state employs in the legislative weapon. To start with, it gives expression to the goal towards which the state is moving. India is an outstanding example of the employment of the legislative measures to initiate change. The promulgation of Indian Constitution was the first step in this direction. In stitutionalised inequality was an accepted principle of Indian caste system; equal justice under equal circumstances was unknown under the traditional Indian set up; equality of opportunity was meaningless under a system where education and occupation was caste-based. A variety of social legislations are being introduced in independent India to bring about change. They cover legislations for the welfare of the downtrodden in the agrarian sector, to emancipate women, to eradicate untouchability, to facilitate the social and economic development of the tribunal population, etc. All these legislations

are slowly but surely making their impact on the Indian social fabric. B. Supreme Court- As of today, the decisions of the Court are not just being tested on the touch stone of social justice, but indeed they are being cited of as precursors to social rights. The Court has pro-actively and vigorously taken up to cause of social justice and has gone to the extent of articulating newer social rights such as the right to food, right to health, right to education.Thus, the march of law is clearly in favour of Supreme Court having performed a pro-active role in social change of the languishing masses. It certainly has acted as a catalyst in the process of social transformation of people wherein the dilution of caste inequalities, protective measures for the weak and vulnerable sections, providing for the dignified existence of those living under unwholesome conditions, etc, are the illustrious examples in this regards Law and Social Change in India- Social change involves an alteration of society; its economic structure, values and beliefs, and its economic, political and social dimensions also undergo modification. However, social change does not affect all aspects of society in the same manner.While much of social change is brought about by material changes such as technology, new patterns of production, etc, other conditions are also necessary. For example, like we have discussed it before, legal prohibition of untouchability in free India has not succeeded because of inadequate social support. Nonetheless, when law cannot bring about change without social support, it still can create certain preconditions for social change. Moreover, after independence, the Constitution of India provided far-reaching guidelines for change. Its directive principle suggested a blue-print for a new nation. The derecognition of castesystem, equality before the law, and equal opportunities for all in economic, political and social spheres were some of the high points of the Indian Constitution. Some areas where law has given the influence for social change are: 1. Area of agrarian reform policy and legislation; 2. Area of implementation of untouchability abolition law; 3. The normative aspects of employment and educational reservation for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes

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under the Constitution; The allied field of abolition of bonded labour; The problem of substantive impact of changes in the family law marriage, equal rights of women to inheritance and dowry. Conclusion- The law through legislative or administrative responses to new social conditions and ideas, as well as through judicial re-interpretations of constitutions statues or precedents, increasingly not only articulates but sets the course for major social changes.The law is one of many responses to such change. In certain respects it is the most important, since it represents the authority of the state, and its sanctioning power. The legal response to a given social or technological problem is therefore in itself a major social action which may aggravate a given problem or alleviate and help to solve it. ======================== References4. 5.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. An Aspect of Sociological Jurisprudence and Social Change: Tracing the Role of Supreme Court of India by Tarun Jain. Commodity Form and Legal Form by I.D. Balbus. Law and Social Change by Yehezkel Dror. Law in a Changing Society (Chapter 1, Chapter 15 and Chapter 16) by W. Friedman. Nine Thesis on Social Movement by A.G. Frank and Marten Frentes. Personal Liberty and Social Relatives by V.K. Dixit. The Judicial Process Among the Barotse of Northern Rhodesia by Max Gluckman. Toward A Sociology of Law (Chapter 2, Chapter 3 and Chapter 4) by Upendra Baxi.

National Integration in India

* Dr. Hareshwar Roy
National integration is very important in the building of a strong and prosperous nation. How to foster national unity among Indians is the most serious problem of India today. A glance at the history of India tells us that internal quarrels have been her worst enemy. Separatist tendencies have always resulted in her fall. It was always divided into a large number of small states. National consciousness has always been lacking. That is why this vast nation was conquered by one foreign invader after another. Many effective steps have been taken to bring the people of India closer together, but still, after sixty six years of independence, casteism, communalism, provincialism and linguistic quarrels are the most serious threats to the freedom and the security of our beloved motherland. National integration is the awareness of a common identity amongst the citizens of a country. It is a feeling of oneness. All our countrymen must feel emotionally integrated. Though the individuals belong to different communities, castes, religions, cultures and regions and speak different languages, all of them recognize the fact that they are one. On the emotional or psychological front, patriotism is the foundation of national integration. The arrival of the British in India started a new chapter in Indias history. They tried their best to divide the people socially and economically in order to retain their supremacy. It was during the national freedom movement that the feelings and sentiments of nationhood emerged and the need for national integration was realized. During that movement people belonging to different regions, religions, cultures, communities, castes and creeds joined hands to drive out the British power from the soil of India.
=========================== * Assistant Professor, English, Govt. P.G. College Satna, Satna (M.P.)

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Simultaneously they laid emphasis on equality, liberty, secularism, socio-economic development, that formed the main objectives of the new independent nation that emerged after independence. National integration is essential for any nation with sociocultural, religious, linguistic and geographical diversities. And for a country like India, it is still more necessary. India is a very large country. A unique feature of our country is that all the major religions of the world are practiced here. There are more than one thousand languages. There are also great varieties in costume, food habits, and social customs. Geographically our land is diverse and there are amazing differences in climate. Despite all these differences India is one political entity. We have to co-exist with each other peacefully. This is possible only when national integration is realized in true sense of the term. National integration is essential for social peace and harmony. The safety and prosperity of our country depends upon it The need for national integration was never as great as it is today. Just after independence, India has been facing many challenges in its efforts to maintain and strengthen national integration. There are many forces that come in the way of our national integration. Often people have very strong feelings about their own religion and language and oppose those of others. Such feelings lead to clashes between different sects. Such occurrences damage our unity and prove to be a hindrance to our progress. Although various efforts have been made to solve those problems, the challenges are continuing. In the way of national integration the main obstacles are communalism, regionalism, linguism, extremism and casteism. Communalism is one factor that poses a great danger to our unity. It has been one of the most complex problems that India has been facing. This is generated when individuals belonging to one religion develop excessive affinity to their religion and hatred towards other religions. This kind of feeling promotes religious fundamentalism and fanaticism and proves to be dangerous for the unity and integrity of the country. India has been suffering from communalism since independence. As we know, we faced worst kind of communal riots on the eve of independence. A very

large number of people lost their lives and their homes and had to undergo a lot of suffering to resettle. But what is even more disturbing is that communal riots break out in India even after Independence. Sometimes these riots are not even pre-planned and they erupt suddenly. In the past, these riots were confined to the Hindus and the Muslims only, but now the Hindus belonging to different castes also fight among themselves. These riots take a heavy toll of life. The victims are generally the peace-loving and innocent people. There are people in this country who hold an exclusive view of religion, which drives them into a sectarian frenzy that does not admit of tolerance of other faiths. The British had encouraged communalism because a division between Hindus and Muslims made it easier for them to control our country. Unfortunately, even with the passage of time these communal feelings have not ended. More than sixty six years after independence communal feelings still exist and riots flare-up even now in different parts of the country. It is the result of narrowmindedness, prejudice, and lack of knowledge of other religions. Regionalism is another obstacle in the way of national integration. On many occasions it encourages people to promote regional interests even at the cost of national priorities. One may think that raising the problems of a particular region is needed to attract the attention of the decision makers and to compel them to fulfill justified regional demands. This thinking is reasonable. But when regionalism ignores national interests or encourages people to have negative feelings towards the interests of other regions, it becomes harmful. On many occasions regional protests and demonstrations are based on political considerations. Aggressive regionalism is still more dangerous, as it leads to separatism. We have been experiencing such feelings in certain parts of States of Assam and Jammu and Kashmir. Unfortunately, despite India having attained political unity and declared itself as a secular country, communal and separatist tendencies continue to raise their ugly head every now and then. The anti-national elements make demands for independent Nagaland, Mizoram, Khalistan and Gorkhaland etc. If such demands are accepted, it will upset the unity and territorial integrity of the country. Thus such demands

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should be curbed with a heavy hand. All of us know that India is a multilingual country. People of India speak more than 2000 languages and dialects. Despite a shared culture of so many years, linguistic diversities have often generated tensions and conflicts amongst different communities threatening the fabric of national unity. Sometimes people display hostility towards the language of other people. This is dangerous for national integration. Linguism has been negatively used on many occasions, particularly in the early decades after independence. When a recommendation was made in the Constituent Assembly to recognize Hindi as the official language of India, it was opposed by representatives of almost all the non Hindi speaking areas. When the Official Language Commission, set up in 1955, recommended in favour of replacing English by Hindi as official language, there were wide-spread protests in all the non-Hindi speaking regions. Such protests and demonstrations were seen once again in 1963, when the Official Language Bill was introduced in Lok Sabha. Such protests and demonstrations generate many challenges for national integration. Every country needs to have a common official language, but it has not been an easy task for India. The extremist movements going on in different parts of the country are yet another challenge to national integration. We are familiar with Naxalite movement or Maoist movement etc. These movements quite often use violence, create fear in public life, cause loss of lives of government personnel and people and destroy public property. Mostly the youth participate in such movements. The basic reason for taking up arms by the youth is the continuing state of socio-economic deprivations. Moreover, the day-to-day humiliation, denial of justice, human rights violations, various kinds of exploitation and political marginalization prompt them to join the Naxalite movement. But the extremist activities have been threat to law and order and peaceful living of the people residing in the affected areas. The age old caste system has also contributed in no small measure to weaken the bond of unity among different sections of the society. It poses a great threat to our unity. People of one caste

support each other and oppose the progress and development of people belonging to other castes. Appointments in jobs, admissions in educational institutions are often on the basis of caste considerations. People also avoid social interaction with other castes. Politicians often exploit such feelings at the time of elections. This leads to feelings of resentment and hostility that threaten the integrity of our country. All the above forces and factors do pose a serious challenge to Indias unity and integrity and, therefore, conscious efforts will have to be made by all concerned to preserve the same. Although the above stated challenges do exist, there are certain important factors that provide sound base for national integration. The Constitution of India lays great emphasis on national integration. Its Preamble includes unity and integrity of the nation as a major objective. It also stipulates that every citizen has the fundamental duty to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India. It has accepted socialism, secularism, democracy, liberty, equality, justice and fraternity as the goals of Indian political system. The Directive Principles of State Policy directs the State to promote equitable economic development, eliminate social discrimination, and promotion of international peace and security. And above all, the provisions related to various institutions and processes have been geared towards national integration. A National Integration Council has been set up to consider issues related to national integration and recommend suitable measures to be taken. A Single Planning Commission prepares plans for economic development of the entire country and one Election Commission conducts elections. These factors also bind the country together. National festivals also act as an important unifying force. Independence Day, Republic Day, and Gandhi Jayanti are festivals that are celebrated by all Indians and in all parts of the country, regardless of language, religion or culture. They remind us of our common nationality. We also observe the National Integration Day every year and take a pledge. This day is also known as Qaumi Ekta Divas. The Text of the National Integration Pledge: I solemnly pledge to work with dedication to preserve and strengthen

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the freedom and integrity of the nation. I further affirm that I shall never resort to violence and that all differences and disputes related to religion, language, region or other political or economic grievances should be settled by peaceful and constitutional means. Moreover, our National Symbols like the National Flag, the National Anthem, and the National Emblem also help to remind us that we all have one identity. For this reason we stress on the importance of showing proper respect to these symbols. These act as strong unifying forces both in times of celebration and adversity. Moreover, the All India Services, unified judicial system, postal and communications networks, including radio and television, and the internet promote the unity and integrity of the Indian nation. One may be aware that the members of the All India Services are recruited centrally, but they work in States. Many of them, after having long experiences at the state level come to work in the Central government and be a part of policy decision-making for the entire country. We need national integration on permanent footing. The most important for us as Indians is our national feelings. Only this feeling can develop a peace-based- society. This can be achieved when we enlighten our children. All the children, during their formative years, must be taught that we all are Indians belonging to the one Motherland. Youth are the pillars of national development of any country. In caseour youth are imparted moraland value based education, it may groom their personality and then only we can expect a prosperous nation. In order to sow the seeds of national integration among the youth, the initiatives of the establishment of NCC, NSS and the like, are laudable steps. We should encourage students for taking part in such organizations. The art and culture of the country should also be developed on nationalistic lines. Students in schools and colleges should be made aware of the need of national and emotional integration of the country. All the evils mentioned above must be removed if India is to remain united. India is unfortunate to some extent as she has seen many communal riots. These riots are a blot on the fair name of our country. India is a land of various religious communities. Each community should appreciate every other community. The feeling

of hatred must be replaced by love and affection. All Indians must consider one another as brothers and live peacefully. We have to develop tolerance and understanding for other religions. If we give more importance to our religion rather than our country we cannot contribute to its progress and development. There are in India, various linguistic groups speaking different languages. Each linguistic group should respect the language of every other linguistic group. Every Indian student should be given full facility to learn through his own mother tongue wherever he is in India. As responsible citizens we must give. To sum up, national integration is the crying need of the hour. It alone can lay the foundation of a strong, united and prosperous India. National integration does not mean that one should abandon regional, lingual and religious pride. On the contrary, the fact that one is recognized as a Rajasthani or a Bengali only when one is an inseparable part of the Indian identity. Therefore, it is the foremost duty of every citizen to do his best and work for the national integration of India. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Brass Paul R. Language, Religion and Politics in North India. Vikas Publishing House Delhi, 1974. Cutlat, J. A. Integration: a social and political problem. The Indian Anthropological Society, Calcutta, 1972. Desai, A. R. National Integration and Religion. Aalakh Publishers, Jaipur, 1976. Johari, J.C. Indian Political System, A Critical Study of the Constitutional Structure and the Emerging Trends of Indian Politics. Anmol Publications, New Delhi, 1996. Tirtha N. V. National Integration: A Study of Social Foundations of Education. University Publishers, Jallunder-Delhi, 1964. Tinker Hugh. Unity and Diversity. Oxford University Press, London, 1967.

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Inclusive Growth and Social Development through NREGA in Madhyapradesh

* Dr. Mrs. Sonal Rai
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is unique because of the demand based approach intended in the National Employment Guarantee Act. The Periodical watch by Civil Society Organizations is needed to understand the loopholes and strengths of the programmes for further rectification and up gradation to reap maximum benefit out of it. The NREGAs coverage has been expanded from 330 districts to all 604 districts of India beginning April, 2008. As the scheme is implemented throughout the country and as works begin everywhere, the magnitude of lives that will be touched by it will inevitably be massive. However, what is uncertain is the actual impact of the Act on the lives and livelihoods of people. Whether the Act actually makes a lasting impact on these millions of people it proposes to touch will depend on the extent to which the nation is able to extract the developmental potential of the Act. In this regard, as we move on the path towards nationwide implementation of NREGA it becomes imperative that we take stock of the experience so far in order to learn from the successes as well as failures. On January 13 2006, the cabinet of Madhya Pradesh Government approved the various proposals of Panchayats and Rural Development Department regarding implementation of the provisions of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005. Under the aegis of the Act, a scheme called the
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Commerce, St. Aloysius College Jabalpur (M.P.)

Madhya Pradesh Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme was floated by the Department of Rural Development. The scheme covers 18 districts of Madhya Pradesh including Jhabua, Mandla, Umaria, Shahdol, Badwani, Khargone, Shivpuri, Sidhi, Tikamgarh, Balaghat, Chhatarpur, Betul, Khandwa, Sheopur, Dhar, Seoni, Dindori and Satna in the first year of implementation. Since April 007, additional 13 new districts were included under the scheme viz. Rewa, Rajgarh, Damoh, Datia, Dewas, shoknagar, Guna, Anuppur, Burhanpur, Harda, Chindwara, Katni and Panna. In tune with the provisions of the Act, main aim is enhancement of livelihood security of rural households. Accordingly structured and planned implementation through convergence of MNREGA with other Government Schemes. Basic entitlements of NREGA: Work on Demand up to 100 days per household Payment of minimum wages Payment of wages with 15 days of completion of work Compensation, if work not provided within 15 days Basic worksite facilities, Drinking Water Shade First Aid Creche Adult members of a rural household, willing to do unskilled manual work, may apply for registration in writing or orally to the local Gram Panchayat The Gram Panchayat after due verification will issue a Job Card. The Job Card will bear the photograph of all adult members of the household willing to work under NREGA and is free of cost. The Job Card should be issued within 15 days of application. A Job Card holder may submit a written application for employment to the Gram Panchayat, stating the time and duration for which work is sought. The minimum days of employment have to be at least fourteen. The Gram Panchayat will issue a dated receipt of the

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written application for employment, against which the guarantee of providing employment within 15 days operates. Employment will be given within 15 days of application for work, if it is not then daily unemployment allowance as per the Act, has to be paid liability of payment of unemployment allowance is of the States. Work should ordinarily be provided within 5 km radius of the village. In case work is provided beyond 5 km, extra wages of 10% are payable to meet additional transportation and living expenses. Wages are to be paid according to the Minimum Wages Act 1948 for agricultural laborers in the State, unless the Centre notifies a wage rate which will not be less than Rs. 60/ per day. Equal wages will be provided to both men and women. Wages are to be paid according to piece rate or daily rate. Disbursement of wages has to be done on weekly basis and not beyond a fortnight in any case. At least one-third beneficiaries shall be women who have registered and requested work under the scheme. Work site facilities such as crche, drinking water, shade have to be provided. The shelf of projects for a village will be recommended by the gram sabha and approved by the zilla panchayat. At least 50% of works will be allotted to Gram Panchayats for execution. Permissible works predominantly include water and soil conservation, forestation and land development works. A 60:40 wage and material ratio has to be maintained. No contractors and machinery is allowed. The Central Government bears the 100 percent wage cost of unskilled manual labor and 75 percent of the material cost including the wages of skilled and semi skilled workers

Social Audit has to be done by the Gram Sabha Grievance redressal mechanisms have to be put in place for ensuring a responsive implementation process. All accounts and records relating to the Scheme should be available for public scrutiny. NREGA: Type of Works Water conservation and water harvesting; Drought proofing (including a forestation and tree plantation); Irrigation canals including micro and minor irrigation works; Provision of irrigation facility, horticulture plantation and land development facilities on land owned by households belonging the SC and ST or to BPL families or to beneficiaries of land reforms or to the beneficiaries under the Indira Awas Yojana of the Government of India; Renovation of traditional water bodies including de-silting of tanks;land development; Flood control and protection works including drainage in water logged areas; Rural connectivity to provide all-weather access; and Any other work which may be notified by Central Government in consultation with the State Government. Achievements Creation of 727 lakh mandays of work and provision of employment to 49,714 families by the month of October, 2010-11. M.P State stands third in spending maximum funds on material. State stands fifth in the country in creation of maximum number of mandays employment by the month of October, 2010-11. MP stands fifth in providing employment to maximum number of families during 2009-10 and by the month of October, 2010-11.

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State gets fifth place in the country in receiving maximum funds during the year 2010-11. During the year 2009-11, forty-four per cent women worked under the scheme. 42% women worked under the scheme by the month of October, 2010-11. NREGA - 2012-13 (till 16-3-13): Top 10 States in terms of person-days
S.N. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 NREGA - 2012-13 (till 16-3-13): Top 10 States in terms of person-days State Total Person-days (in crore) TAMIL NADU 34.46 ANDHRA PRADESH 27.32 RAJASTHAN 19.85 WEST BENGAL 16.01 UTTAR PRADESH 12.12 CHATTISGARH 10.03 MADHYA PRADESH 9.8 KERALA 7.49 MAHARASTRA 7.04 BIHAR 6.51

As the above table indicates, in terms of employment generation Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are far ahead of the others. For the third and fourth position, however, this year Rajasthan and West Bengal are close contenders. West Bengal would positively achieve its labour budget of 18.33 crore persondays. The State might even exceed the person-days generated by Rajasthan. Uttarpradesh and Chhattisgarh have generated 12.12 and 10.03 crore employments respectively. Where Madhya Pradesh has generated 9.8 crore employment under this scheme which is greater than Kerala , Maharashtra and Bihar. The position of Madhya Pradesh in employment generation is average and shows the lack of efficiency and proper implementation of the scheme. NREGA is a rights based programme, which guarantees 100 days of employment to poor household in rural areas. However due to poor awareness among rural population, people are not aware about their basic entitlements such as job cards, minimum wage amount, minimum number of employment days, unemployment allowance, etc. Even Panchayats, Rozgar Sevaks and block

development officers are ignorant about all the details of the scheme. They are poorly informed about various processes like registering household, forming vigilance committees, making muster roll, etc. Under NREGA there is a provision of unemployment allowance in case the local authorities fail to provide employment, however there is a widespread ignorance about how to avail the allowance. Sometimes even the officials deliberately do not give out this information as they fear punishment for not providing jobs. Limitations- Poor awareness not only leads to corruption but also to poor management of the scheme and thus true potential of NREGA is not being realized. At the local level, officials have made inadequate efforts to raise awareness about the scheme. The government must carry out an intensive training and awareness-building programme to make the officials and citizens fully aware of all the details of the programme. People at the grassroots level must be made aware of Right to Information (RTI) Act and be encouraged to use it. The desirous families have to get themselves registered with gram panchayat, which provides them job cards. When a job cardholder demands employment, it is provided within 15 days. If employment is not provided on demand, the applicant is provided employment allowance, which is one-fourth of the minimum wages for first 30 days and half of the minimum wages for the rest of allowance period. Rs 25 thousand or an amount fixed by the state government is given against the death or permanent disability suffered by him while working under the scheme. Suggestons1. To create awareness in NREGS active participation of civil society or NGOs can play an important role to spread awareness among rural people. 2. To maintain the accountability and transparency in implementation in NREGS institutionalization of certain process like social audit with establishment of formal

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system, personnel and training facilities should be improved. 3. Timely payment of wages can be the greatest help for smooth running of the scheme. 4. Specification of works in various projects may help in better supervision and execution of the scheme. 5. To convert unproductive land of the poor in to cultivate productive land augment their income. Expertise of project implementing agencies(PIAs) can be taken for improving planning and implementation under the scheme. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Yogesh Kumar Executive DirectorSamarthan, Centre for Development Support D. narsimha Reddy, C. Upendranath,Alakh N. Sharma and Rukmani Tankha" Mahatma Ganhi National Rural Empoyment Scheme(NREGS)as social protection in India Agarwal Harsh National Rural Employment Guarantee Act - A review Febuary 19, 2010 Ghosh Jyoti Social Policy in Indian Development.

Role of MNREGA and other Government Policies in Rural Development

(A Case Study of Jabalpur District) * Ms. Ashu Jain
The purpose of this study is to assess rural development efforts in India through governmental policies. It has described that social and economic changes and their impact on rural communities can be seen, and suggestions for implications for various development planners. Socio-economic changes that have occurred in India over the past four decades were examined using census data and published literature. Changes were documented in family structure and functioning, education, and social life. Economic changes included increased agricultural and industrial production, liberalization of economic and export policies, increase in number of rural bank branches, and increased coverage of rural masses under various credit programs. In the agrarian sector, the number of holdings increased while the average size of land holdings declined. Implications of these changes for rural development and agricultural extension pointed out in the paper include designing programs for farm families with limited land, public policy education on land subdivision, fragmentation and consolidation, and developing linkages with other disciplines to better understand problems and suggest solution strategies. This study is basically focused on the scheme MNREGA and other governmental policies run by the government. After the study we found some of the results regarding MNREGA, and socioeconomic development of Rural Ares through these schemes. The society comprises of people of different tastes, hobbies,
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Commerce, St. Aloysius College Jabalpur (M.P.)

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religion, culture, tradition, thought, style of living life and many more things. Social change is the result of a number of factors. Changes occur due to the process of formation, reformation or decay at various levels. In most of the cases, social changes occur as an imitation of the upper classes by their respective lower classes. In this process, there is always an internal conflict, continuously going on to excel others, which gives birth to unrest at mental level and a blind pursuit of availing luxuries of life, which generally end up on the form of confrontation and corruption. These changes are either positive or negative in nature. This work, namely, Social Change in India serves the very purpose of focusing on all such important issues. Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society. The base of social change is change in the thought process in humans. It may refer to the notion of social progress or sociocultural evolution, the philosophical idea that society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionary means. It may refer to a classical change in the socio-economic structure, for instance a shift away from feudalism and towards capitalism. Social change may be driven by cultural, religious, economic, scientific or technological forces. social change may include changes in nature, social institutions, social behaviors, or social relations. Rural Development- India is a country of villages; It is well known that one third population of India is still living in the villages or in rural areas. For developing such areas government has continuously been formulating policies, so that each develop state unitely make a developed India. Rural development has always been an important issue in all discussions pertaining to economic development, especially of developing countries, throughout the world. In the developing countries and some formerly communist societies, rural mass comprise a substantial majority of the population. Over 3.5 billion people live in the Asia and Pacific region and some 63% of them in rural areas. Although millions of rural people have escaped poverty as a result of rural development in many Asian countries, a large majority of rural people continue to suffer from persistent poverty. The socio economic disparities between rural and urban areas are widening and creating tremendous pressure on the social and economic fabric of many developing Asian economies. These

factors, among many others, tend to highlight the importance of rural development. The policy makers in most of the developing economies recognize this importance and have been implementing a host of programs and measures to achieve rural development objectives. While some of these countries have achieved impressive results, others have failed to make a significant impression in the problem of persistent rural underdevelopment. Rural is an area, where the people are engaged in primary industry in the sense that they produce things directly for the first time in cooperation with nature as stated by Srivastava (1961) Rural areas are sparsely settled places away from the influence of large cities and towns. Rural areas can have an agricultural character, though many rural areas are characterized by an economy based on logging, mining, oil and gas exploration, or tourism. Lifestyles in rural areas are different than those in urban areas, mainly because limited services are available. Governmental services like law enforcement, schools, fire, departments, and libraries may be distant, limited in scope, or unavailable. Utilities like water, sewer, street lighting, and garbage collection may not be present. Public transport is sometimes absent or very limited; people use their own vehicles walk or ride an animal. A society or community can be classified as rural based on the criteria of lower population density, less social differentiation, less social and spatial mobility, slow rate of social change, etc. Agriculture would be the major occupation of rural area. So for developing such rural area, providing employment to the villagers and for improving the life style of government has started so many policies and schemes. One of them is MNREGA. Rural Development (RD) is a process, which aims at improving the well being and self realization of people living outside the urbanized areas through collective process. According to Agarwal (1989), rural development is a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of rural poor. There are so many policies are being run by the MP Government. Some of these are as follows: 1. Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)- SGSY is a major on-going scheme for the self-employment of the rural

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poor. The basic objective of the scheme is to bring the assisted poor families (swarozgaris) above the poverty line by providing them income generating assets through a mix of bank credit and government subsidy. Credit is the critical component of the scheme whereas the subsidy is an enabling element. The scheme involves organisation of the poor into Self Help Groups (SHGs) build their capacities through a process of social mobilization, their training, selection of key activities, planning of activity clusters, creation of infrastructure, provision of technology and marketing support, etc. Under the scheme focus is on the group approach. However, individual Swarozgaris are also assisted. The SGSY is being implemented by the District Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs) with the active involvement of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), banks, line Departments and the NonGovernment Organisations (NGOs). The credit mobilization under SGSY has been abysmally low. Further, a large number of SHGs are formed but fizzle out midway after availing the revolving fund. To make the scheme more effective it is being re-structured with a sharper focus on poorest of the poor people. A suitable mechanism will be put in place for higher social mobilization, capacity building and institution building among the target population 2. Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)- The IAY is being implemented as an independent scheme since 1996. It aims to provide assistance for construction / upgradation of dwelling units to the Below Poverty Line (BPL) rural households, with special emphasis on SCs, STs and freed bonded labor categories. A maximum assistance of Rs 35,000 per unit is provided for construction in plain areas and Rs 38,500 per unit for hilly/difficult areas. Rs 15000 is given for upgradation of a dwelling unit for all areas. The funding of IAY is shared between the Centre and State in the ratio of 75:25. (100% in the case of UTs). 3. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)- The National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) was launched with the aim to provide social assistance benefit to poor households in the case of old age, death of primary breadwinner and maternity. The programme supplements the efforts of the State Governments

with the objective of ensuring minimum national levels of well being and the Central assistance is an addition to the benefit that the States are already providing on Social Protection Schemes. With a view to ensure better linkage with nutrition and national population control programmes, the Maternity Benefit Component of the NSAP was transferred to the Department of Family Welfare, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare with effect from 2001-02. The schemes of NSAP and Annapurna have been transferred to the State Plan with effect from 2002-03 with a view to provide requisite flexibility to the State / UT in the choice and implementation of the schemes. 4. PMGSY (Pradhanmantry Gram Sadak Yojna)- The primary objective of the PMGSY is to provide Connectivity, by way of an All-weather Road (with necessary culverts and crossdrainage structures, which is operable throughout the year), to the eligible unconnected Habitations in the rural areas, in such a way that all Unconnected Habitations with a population of 1000 persons and above are covered in three years (2000-2003) and all Unconnected Habitations with a population of 500 persons and above by the end of the Tenth Plan Period (2007). In respect of the Hill States (North-East, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttaranchal) and the Desert Areas (as identified in the Desert Development Programme) as well as the Tribal (Schedule V) areas, the objective would be to connect Habitations with a population of 250 persons and above. Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)- This scheme aims at increasing the food protection by the means of wage employment in the rural areas which are affected by the calamities after the appraisal of the state government and the appraisal is accepted by the Ministry of Agriculture. 5. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MNREGA)- The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act was notified by the Government of India on September, 2005 and was made effective w.e.f. 2nd February 2006. In the first phase, the National Rural Employment Guarantee scheme (NREGS) was introduced in District Chamba and Sirmour on 2nd February, 2006. In second phase NREGS was

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started in District Kangra and Mandi w.e.f. 1-4-2007. Now in the third phase all the remaining 8 districts of the State have been covered under the scheme w.e.f. 1.4.2008. Objective- The main objective of this scheme is to provide for the enhancement of livelihood security of the households in rural areas of the State by providing 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in every financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. Eligibility- The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is open to all rural households in the areas notified by the Government of India. The entitlement of 100 days of guaranteed employment in a financial year is in terms of a household. This entitlement of 100 days per year can be shared within the household. All adult members of the household who registered can apply for work. To register, they have toa. Be local residents local implies residing within the gram panchayat. b. Be willing to do un-skilled manual work. c. Apply as a household at the local gram panchayat. Application for registration and issuance of job cards- The application for registration can be given on plain paper or on the prescribed application format available at gram panchayat level or an oral request for registration can be made. The application should contain the names of those adult members of the household who are willing to do un-skilled manual work, and particulars such as age, sex and SC/ST status etc. After verification all particulars are entered in the registration register by the concerned Gram Panchayat. Every household is assigned a registration number. Job cards to every registered household are issued by the gram panchayat. The job cards are issued within a fortnight of the application for registration. Photographs of adult members who are applicants are attached to the job cards. The cost of job card and photographs is borne as part of the programme funds. The job card is valid for a period of 5 years. Permissible works- As per schedule 1 of the Act the focus of the scheme is on the following works in their order of priority: Water Conservation and Water Harvesting works;

Drought proofing works (including aforestation and tree plantation) Irrigation canals including micro and minor irrigation works; Provision of irrigation facility, horticulture plantation and land development facilities on land owned by the households belonging to the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes or to below poverty line families or to beneficiaries of land reforms or to the beneficiaries under the Indira Awas Yojana of the Government of India; 1. Renovation of traditional water bodies including desiliting of tanks ; 2. Land developments works; 3. Flood control and protection works including drainage in water logged areas; 4. Rural connectivity to provide all-weather access; and 5. Any other work which may be notified by the Government of India in consultation with the State Government. Wages- In MNREGA state government is liable to pay the wages to men and women at equal ratio. Table: 1 Percentage of Work Completed under MNREGA Scheme in Jabalpur District
Year Sr. No. Block No. of Works started 641 1018 1054 452 684 921 784 5554 436 525 690 465 209 848 291 3464 225 961 320 179 109 435 219 2448 Out of Coln(3) No. of Work Completed 456 661 844 286 551 623 426 3847 296 362 626 280 108 530 85 2287 56.962 70.3 66.116 58.497 51.174 60.754 47.609 62.116 Work Completion Rate 71.139 64.931 80.076 63.274 80.556 67.644 54.337 69.265 67.89 68.952 90.725 60.215 51.675 62.5 29.21 66.022 0.771 0.627 0.962 0.894 0.847 0.619 0.937 0.74 Work Completion Weightage 0.168 0.14 0.712 0.234 0.213 0.443 0.282 0.351 0.677 0.809 0.951 0.884 0.845 0.911 0.8 0.865 267 672 539 222 191 742 809 3442 No.of Works started 436 525 690 465 209 848 291 3464 395 1367 484 306 213 716 460 3941 0.771 0.627 0.962 0.894 0.847 0.619 0.937 0.74

Financial Year 200910

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Financial Year 201011

Financial Year 201112

JABALPUR KUNDAM MAJHOULI PANAGAR PATAN SHAHPURA SIHORA Total JABALPUR KUNDAM MAJHOULI PANAGAR PATAN SHAHPURA SIHORA Total JABALPUR KUNDAM MAJHOULI PANAGAR PATAN SHAHPURA SIHORA Total

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Financial Year 201213 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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JABALPUR KUNDAM MAJHOULI PANAGAR PATAN SHAHPURA SIHORA Total JABALPUR KUNDAM MAJHOULI PANAGAR PATAN SHAHPURA SIHORA Total JABALPUR KUNDAM MAJHOULI PANAGAR PATAN SHAHPURA SIHORA Total 267 672 539 222 191 742 809 3442 0 6 1 10 1 2 86 106 1739 3588 2768 1455 1298 3229 2430 16507 71 243 343 96 73 280 392 1498 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1048 2227 2133 841 841 1868 1122 10080 46.173 61.065 26.592 36.161 63.636 43.243 38.22 37.736 48.455 43.521 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60.265 62.068 77.059 57.801 64.792 57.851 0.699 0.648 0.911 0.756 0.996 0.996 0.93 0.87 0.997 0.927 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NaN 0.492 0.526 0.866 0.678 0.438 0.681 267 672 539 222 191 742 809 3442 0 6 1 10 1 2 86 106 1739 3588 2768 1455 1298 3229 2430 16507

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Financial Year 201314

people of villages are getting guaranteed employment opportunities and its helpful to restrict migration of rural people towards cities for employment opportunities. This scheme is enhancing the standard of living of rural people , giving equal opportunities to women , so, it can be said that MNREGA and Other Governmental Policies are enhancing and improving the rural areas and helping to improve infrastructure of rural areas. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Eisenstadt, SN (1973). Tradition, Change, and Modernity. Krieger Publishing Company. Giddens, A (2006). Sociology. Cambridge: Polity Press. Haralambos, M and Holborn, M (2004). Sociology: themes and perspectives. London: f Publishers Ltd. Harper, CL (1993). Exploring social change. Engelwood Cliffs: New Jersey http://nrega.nic.in/circular/WageRate_1jan2011.pdf Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act. Nrega.nic.in. Retrieved 2011-12-26. Govt gives NREGA the Mahatma Gandhi tag. webdunia.com. 2 October 2009 Tom Wright and Harsh Gupta (29 April 2011). "India's Boom Bypasses Rural Poor". The Wall Street Journal. The Economist. 5 November 2011. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-04-04/india-jobs-program-scam-payswages-to-dead-workers.html Printable version: Corruption dogs jobs plan for India's poor. San Francisco Chronicle. (28 November 2008). Retrieved 2011-12-26. Right to Work (RTW) - SWRC. Google. Retrieved 2011-12-26. ''States fail to provide 100-day employment to all under NREGA''. The Hindu. (6 August 2009). Retrieved 2011-12-26. Update 115: Hunger Strike in Sarguja, Delays in Wage Payments & More | Action for Employment Guarantee. Nrega.net.in (11 May 2010). Retrieved 2011-12-26. Govt. of India , Ministry of rural department 02 may 2013

Total

Source: Govt. of India Ministry of Rural Development Department of Rural Development The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 16-May-2013 According to the above table , Jabalpur District has been divided into seven Blocks they are : Jabalpur, Kundam, Majhouli, Panagar, Patan, Shahpura, SIhora where MNREGA scheme has Implemented. In the year 2009-10 total number of works started was 5554 in which total number of work accomplished was 3847, work completion rate was 69.265, and work completion weighted was 0.351. In the year 2010-11 total number of works started was 3464 in which total number of work accomplished was 2287, work completion rate was 66.022, and work completion weighted was 0.865. In the year 2011-12 total number of works started was 3941 in which total number of work accomplished was 2448, work completion rate was 62.116, and work completion weighted was 0.74. In the year 2012-13 total number of works started was 3442 in which total number of work accomplished was 1498, work completion rate was 43.521, and work completion weighted was 0.927. In every growing year the work completion rate is growing which shows the proper implementation of the scheme in rural areas of Jabalpur District. By this scheme, rural area of Jabalpur district are developing,

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Role of LIC in Economic Development

* Prof. B.M.Chachane
Insurance is basically a sharing device. The losses to assets resulting from natural calamities like fire, floods, earthquake, accidents etc, are met out of the common pool contributed by large number of person who are exposed to similar risks. Insurance does not protect the asset. It does not prevent its loss due to peril. The peril cannot be avoided through insurance. A human life is a unique income generating asset. This asset also can be lost through unexpectedly early death or made non functional through sickness and disabilities caused by accidents. For economic development investments are necessary. Investments are made out of saving. LIC posted a 50% growth in new premium collection in the first nine month of the 2010 fiscal, increasing its market share to 65% from a 56% a year ago. Life insurance products can be broadly divided into 9 categories which include disabled, money back, pension women, girl-child, endowment, whole life and child insurance. Post 1999 the private sector has been permitted to enter the insurance sector with minimum 74 % participation by an Indian company. An Independent Regulatory authority INSURANCE REGULATORY AND DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY Regulates the insurance sector. Consumers are satisfied with features and also with the services of LIC, the company should concentrate on its premium levels and it should introduce a wide range of policies with different features. Keywords- Liberalization, Health Claims, Surveyors, Economic Development, IRDA, Mobilization.
=========================== * Assistant Professor, G.S.College of Commerce & Economics, Nagpur

Introduction- Insurance is now fast growing area of academic study or profession. The recent financial crises have witnessed the indispensable need of professionals in the area of risk management. Due to complexity of the dynamic environment , new insurance products are evolving as well as the existing business models of insurance companies are undergoing significant change .After liberalization of the economic , large number of alternative products and financial services have evolved that paved the way for the potential and unconventional entrants to penetrate the financial market through innovative higher product profile and portfolios resulting into sudden spurt in the demand of insurance professionals . Insurance is basically a sharing device. The losses to assets resulting from natural calamities like fire floods, earthquake, accidents etc, are met out of the common pool contributed by large number of person who are exposed to similar risks. This contribution of many is used to pay the losses suffered by unfortunate events, which are beyond the beyond the human control. Secondly, insured person should not make any gain out of insurance. Insurance is a mechanism that helps to reduce the effects of such adverse situation. Definition of Insurance- Life insurance, usually referred to as Life assurance insurers the insured against the happening of certain events i. e., death through the time when it happen is uncertain. According to sction2(ii) of life insurance (amendment ) Act1950, life insurance is the business of effecting contracts of insurance upon human life including any contract whereby accidents or the happening of any contingency dependent on human life and contract which is subject to the payment of premiums for a term dependent on human life . Purpose of Insurance- Insurance does not protect the asset. It does not prevent its loss due to peril. The peril cannot be avoided through insurance. The peril can sometimes be avoided, through better safety and damage control management. Insurance only tries to reduce the impact of the risk on owner of asset and those

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who depend on that asset. It only compensates the losses and that too. Not fully. Only economic consequences can be insured. If the loss is not financial, insurance may not be possible. For example non economic losses like love and affection of parents, leadership of managers, sentimental attachment of family heirlooms, innovative and creative abilities, etc. Need of Insurance- A human life is a unique income generating asset. This asset also can be lost through unexpectedly early death or made non functional through sickness and disabilities caused by accidents. In case of human being, death is certain, but the time of the death is uncertain. If it happens around the time of death ones retirement, when it could be expected that the income will normally cease, the person concerned could have made some other arrangement to meet the continuing needs. But it happens much earlier when the alternative arrangement is not in place. Life insurance is necessary to help those dependent on the income. It means life insurance provides alternative income arrangements to dependent family. If this did not happen, another family would be pushed into the lower strata of society. The strata creates a cost on society. Poor people cost the nation by way of larger growth in population, poor education business and vagaries in behavior of children. Life insurance tends to reduce such costs in this sense the life insurance business is complimentary to the states efforts in social management. Indian Insurance Market- Insurance landscape in India is marked by regulator. Insurance companies, intermediaries like brokers agents & Bancassurance. Third party administrators for health claims, surveyors and others. An insurance company deals with either life insurance or general insurance. Up to 1999, insurance in India was done solely by government owned companies namely LIC in life insurance and four companies in general insurance namely NEW INDIA , UNITED, ORIENTAL AND NATIONAL INSURANCE. Post 1999 the private sector has been permitted to enter the insurance sector with minimum

74 % participation by an Indian company. An Independent Regulatory authority INSURANCE REGULATORY AND DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY regulates the insurance sector. Objectives of study: To know what is life insurance. To know the role of life insurance in Economic Development. To suggest some measures to improve the efficiency and performance of services offered by the Life insurances. To know the advantages of Life insurance. To know the Private Players in the Insurance sector. Research Methodology: The relevant data is collected through various insurance related books. Information also from the company websites, annual reports and company officials was also source of information. Role of Life Insurance in Economic Development - For economic development investment are necessary. Investments are made out of saving. A Life Insurance company is a major out of saving. It is a major instrument for the mobilization of savings of people, particularly from the middle and lower income groups. The saving is channeled into investments for economic growth. The LIC announces its plans to investment in shares this financial year may exceed last year figure of Rs 61,000 crore, and gross investment Rs 1,93,000 crores this year they should cross Rs 2,00,000 corers. The investment will be across Government securities, State and Corporate debt. Project Loan infrastructure, equity of the Rs 61,000 crores invest into equities market in the financial year 2010, the financial institution invested a little over Rs 12,000 crores in the primary market. LIC posted a 50% growth in new premium collection in the first nine month of the 2010 fiscal, increasing its market share to 65% from a 56% a year ago. The Life Insurance is not an

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exception. All good Life Insurance companies have huge funds, accumulated through the payment of small amount of premium of individuals. These funds are invested in ways that contribute substantially for the economic development of the country in which they do business. The private insurers in India are new and had not built up funds in 2002. But in course of time they also would be directly and indirectly contributing to the countrys economic development. LICs new premium collection US $ 9.58 billion in April to December 2009 period while in combined business of the 22 private insurance grew to US $ 5.07 billion from the previous year as per data collected by IRDA. Over all industry grew at 29% in the April to December period of the 2010. Apart from investment, business and trade benefit through insurance trade and commerce will find it difficult to face the impact of major perils like fire, earthquakes, floods etc. Financiers like banks, would collapse if the factory financed by it is reduced to ashes by a terrible fire. Insurers cover is also the loss to financiers, if their data default. Advantages of Life Insurance: In the event of death, the settlement is easy. The heirs can collect the moneys quicker, because of the facility of nomination and assignment. The facility of nomination is available in some bank accounts. Creditors cannot claim the life insurance moneys. They can be protected against attachment by courts. There are tax benefits, both income tax and capital gains. Life insurance is only the best possible way for family protection. There is no other way. Life insurance is the way to safeguard against the unpredictable risks of the future. It is unavoidable. The term of life are hard, the terms of insurance are easy. Life insurance is not surpassed by many other savings or investment, in terms of security, marketability, stability of value or liquidity. Life insurance enhances the existing standards of living.

Life insurance helps people live financially solvent lives. Life insurance perpetuates life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Life insurance is a way of life. Life Insurance Products- Life insurance products can be broadly divided into 9 categories which include disabled, money back, pension women, girl-child, endowment, whole life and child insurance: Money Back: Jeevan Sanchay, Money back with profits policy, Yerevan Surbhi. Pension: New Jeevan Dhara, Jeevan Surksha with life cover, Jeevan surksha without cover plan, Jeevan Surksha Endowment plan. Women, Child and Couple: Jeevan Sarathi-for married couples, Jeevan Saritha- for married couple, Jeevan Sukanya for woman only, Jeevan Sukanya for the girl child. Endowment: Jeevan Shree, Endowment Policy without profits, Endowment policy with profit, Limited payment endowment with profit, Jeevan Mitra, Jeevan Mitra-triple cover, Bima Kiran, Jeevan Ariha. Whole Life; Whole life policy with profits, Limited Payment whole life, Convertible whole life. Child Insurance Policy: Jeevan Kishore, Childrens deferred Assurance Plan, New Childrens deferred Assurance Plan, and BAL Vidya. Life Insurance Players in India- The year 2000 was a defining movement in the history of Indian Insurance Industry. For the first time, the sector was opened up to private companies .Now we find a number of private insurance companies entered into the Indian Insurance market. If the FDI is raised from 26% to 49%, the number will be multiplied. Following are the private insurance players in the life insurance sector of insurance: 1. Bajaj Allianz Life Insurance Co. Ltd 2. Birla Sun Life Insurance Co. Ltd

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

HDFC Standard Life Insurance Co. Ltd ICICI Prudential Life Insurance Co. Ltd ING Vysya Life Insurance Co. Ltd Max New York Life Insurance Co. Ltd Met Life insurance Co. Ltd Pvt. Ltd Kotak Mahindra Old Mutual Life Insurance Limited SBI Mutual Life Insurance Limited Tata AIG life Insurance Co. Ltd Reliance Life Insurance Co. Ltd Aviva Life Insurance Co. Ltd Pvt. Ltd Sahara Life Insurance Co. Ltd Shriram Life insurance Co. Ltd Bharti Life Insurance Co. Ltd Future Generali Life insurance Co. Ltd IDBI Fortis Life Insurance company Ltd Canara HSBC Oriental Bank of Commerce Life Insurance Company Ltd. 19. Aegon Religare Life Insurance Company Ltd 20. DLF Pramerica Life Insurance Company Ltd Suggestions: Brand building will be effective to improve the investment. Low premium of insurance will ultimately increase the investment policies. Frequent offers will improve the investment policies. LIC consumers are satisfied so try to keep up the goodwill already built. Effective campaigning should be properly organized in the different parts of the country regarding awareness about life insurance. LIC of India should make itself much efficient in the competitions of other private players. Conclusion- Consumers are satisfied with features and also with the services of LIC, the company should concentrate on its premium levels and it should introduce a wide range of policies with different features. On the advent of different types of private

players entered into insurance sector due to acceptance of FDI by the Government of India recently there should be no threats for the LIC India since it is an oldest organization in the field of insurance sector and consequently, contribution of LIC for the economic development of India will be constantly accorded. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. P.K. Gupta (2011): Insurance and Risk Management Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi, pp354-357. S.L. Kane (2003), Principles of Life Insurance, Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi, pp 240-242 P. Periasamy (2003): Principles and Practice of Insurance Management, Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi.pp34-41. D.C. Srivastava and S. Srivastava, (2010), Indian Insurance Industry- Transition and Prospects, New Century Publication. pp 289-294 LIC Journals.(2011) pp32-36 Practice of Life Assurance, IC02 (2003), Insurance Institute of India , Mumbai, pp 79-81 Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority,(2002) New Delhi, Notification (2002).pp 47-54 Insurance Laws and Practice,(2002) Vidhi Publication, p.2.1 IRDA Annual Report, (2001-02) pp 23-30 http:// www.licindia.in [last accessed on 25 Nov. 2012 ] http://www.indiaenfoline.coma [last accessed on 12 Oct.2012 ] http:// www.irdaindia.org [last accessed on 25 Nov. 2012 ] http://www.insure.com [last accessed on 13 Dec. 2012 ] http://www.insurance.yahoo.com [last accessed on 16 Dec. 2012] http://www.bimaonline.com [last accessed on 30 Nov 2012]

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Urban Growth of Luck now Metropolis and Its Consequences

* Dr. Sarika Shukla
For men may come and men may go but i go on forever.... These beautiful lines form the poem River hold ironically true for the baby of the 21st century i.e. urbanization. When such unrestricted flow is used to describe a man made phenomenon, the black spot on the canvas becomes very evident. The factor governing the spread of urbanisation is undoubtedly the intensity and magnitude of changing land use pattern. You may interject that change is the only constant in life. But to what end? This incessantly growing force of mankind is threatening the growth and survival of primary activities in the peripheral region. The degree to which it prevails can be determined by two indicatorsurban population and urban sprawl. India has been witnessing this phenomenon since the last few decades. According to recent estimates, 35 million cities encompass nearly 27.8% urban population in our country. Remarkable changes in urban land use patterns have been observed in all the big cities. Lucknow Metropolis has been chosen as study area which is one of the twelve million cities of Delhi Metropolitan region. Last decade this city of Nawabs has witnessed growth, dynamism and economic boom which has lead to numerous environmental scenes. Due to increasing urban sprawl, drastic land use change is taking in its RUF (rural-urban fringe) which is leading to inadequacy of public amenities and services. The paper attempts to portray Lucknow metropolis, the official seat
=========================== * I.T.P.G. College, Lucknow, (U.P.)

of U.P. government, as the epicentre of the urban land use changes in the state. As a capital city this has been continuously growing and its growth has its bearing on the land use pattern of the city. The paper also deals with the fallouts of the land use changes in Lucknow. Keywords: dynamics, peripheral region, economic boom, RUF(rural-urban fringe), epicentre Introduction- How do we determine if a particular region has potential or will be experiencing this force that is urbanisation? Well the answer is very simple. Economic Development! Yes, economic development of any region is the index of dynamism of that area. Here I would like to bring your attention to another crucial point. How are these urban areas created in the first place? Initially these urban oasis were created through internal forces. However, now they are more likely to be governed by secondary diffusion. Earlier, judging by modern standards, even the largest cities were small and few. But the present global scenario is witnessing numerous modern cities undergoing explosive urban growth. This is, in turn, inviting haphazard settlement. This is a major root cause for multi-faced environmental problems.Since cities and towns in India constitute the second largest urban system in the world, and contribute over 50 per cent of the countrys GDP, they are central to economic growth. For the cities to realise their full potential and become effective engines of growth, it is necessary that focused attention be given to the improvement of infrastructure. (Lucknow City Development Plan,2006) According to the 2001 census, India has a population of 1027 million with approximately 27.8% or 285 million people living in urban areas. As a result of the liberalization policies adopted by the Government of India, the share of the urban population may increase to about 40 per cent of total population by the year 2021. It is estimated that by the year 2011, urban areas would contribute about 65 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP). However, this higher productivity is contingent

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upon the availability and quality of infrastructure services. Urban economic activities are dependent on infrastructure, such as power, telecom, roads, water supply and mass transportation, coupled with civic infrastructure, such as sanitation and solid waste management.(LCDP,2006). Lucknow is the capital of Indias most populous state and is surrounded by a number of small towns. The city has seen a steady increase in population arising from natural growth, the incorporation of peri urban areas in the 1980s and migration. The Master Plan 2001 estimates the population at 4.5 million. The service sector forms the main economic base of the city. Lucknow is also an important education centre, especially for primary and secondary education (relative to higher education), and houses a number of research and development institutions. The state of infrastructure is one of several constraints that prevents the city from achieving its economic potential. (CDP, 2006). The fact has to be underlined that Lucknow is not only the administrative capital of UP-Indias most populous state but also the headquarters of the Lucknow revenue division or Commissionary comprising of six districts, also the District Collectorate of Lucknow District and the sub-district offices of Lucknow tehsils function from UA. The city also houses a major bench of the Allahabad High Court and several Central Government regional offices apart from premier institution of learning. It thus attract not only migrants in search of employment-full, partial, marginal or supplemental but also those in search of its institutions of health and learning. Thus high decadal growth rates are in conflict with traditions, making huge demands on land, transport and services. (Vision Statement, 2003) Study Area- Lucknow City is one of the fastest growing metropolitan regions in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Lucknow metropolis is 2nd largest urban centre of Uttar Pradesh and 12th largest in the country. (Map No. 1) It is a part of Central Ganga Plain and lies between North latitudes 2645 and 27 and East

longitudes 8050and 8150. Study area is spread over an area of 681.72 sq. kms on both banks of the river Gomti. The study area is bounded by other urban centres and villages of Lucknow district and Lucknow district is flanked by Sultanpur district in north; in the east by Barabanki district; in the southeast by RaeBarelli district; and in the north-west and south-west by Hardoi and Unnao district respectively. Lucknow metropolis has a tropical climate where temperature varies from 45oC in summer to 5 oC in the winter season. General elevation varies from 103m to 130m above msl showing south easterly slope. Lucknow Municipal Corporation (LMC) is divided into 40 wards, mostly lying in Cis Gomti with few planned in Trans Gomti region. Methodology- To perform the study, ancillary data has been taken from Census, RSAC, LDA, UPSIDC departments, Land use board etc. Papers published in national and international journals, magazines and official reports have also been incorporated in the study to get a meaningful result. Demographic data for the Lucknow Urban Agglomeration and Lucknow City from Census 2001 and other available documents was analyzed to understand the growth patterns. The Master Plan 2021 is the basis of information for the projected population and land use in peripheral areas where considerable private development is been taking place.Under the guidance of Mr. S.Shukla, Scientist, Remote Sensing Application Centre, Lucknow Chapter, map Gomti Channel Shift have been prepared by taking Survey of India Topographical sheets on 1:50000 scale , pertaining to Lucknow district have been used for preparation of base layers and. SRTM data has also been used to have the

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three dimensional picture of the area. Aims and Objectives To analyze the trend and pattern of urban growth. To study geomorphic processes and hydrological conditions which determine the impact of urban development. To investigate main conflict/ problems arising out the process of urban development. To give suggestion which could effectively maintained sustainable equilibrium between population growth and urban development. Findings- Lucknows tradition is centuries old and it is known for its unique ability to hold and achieve harmony, to assimilate the old order within the new, to look to the future and seek inspiration from the past. The unique fusion of cultures and traditions of two of Indias most vibrant communities the Hindus and the Muslims has imbued it with its own tehzeeb. (Vision Statement, 2003) 1. Topographical Feature: On the whole the district has a plain area but the level of the northern part is comparatively higher than the southern part. River Gomti is to Lucknow what River Thames is to London. Gomti is a colloquial derivation from Ghomti or Gaumati i.e. which turns/ wanders. The city lies at an average altitude of 120 meters above mean sea level and generally slopes to the east. Lateral slopes are towards the River Gomti, which flows from north-west to south-east through the heart of the city, dividing it into the Trans-Gomti (New & Planned Lucknow) and CIS-Gomti (Old Lucknow) regions. Broadly, Lucknow can be divided into three natural divisions: Gomti Basin, Sai and its catchment area and the Central upland on the higher watershed separating the above the two. 2. Geology and Soil Type: Lucknow city, falls in the central Ganga alluvial plain chiefly forms a part of Sai-Gomti sub basin, Hydro-geologically the city as a whole is represented by unconsolidated alluvial sediments, comprising sand of varying

grades with kanker and clay and their admixtures, wherein fine grained sand m o s t l y constitutes the aquifers, i.e. g r o u nd w a t e r bearing strata. (Map No.2) Jal Sans than provides the existing water supply in the city. The city falls in the central Ganga Plain and lies in the interfuvial belt of Gomti and Sai basins. It has conspicuous natural depression in northeastern part around Janki Puram and Bakshi Ka talab. The general slope of the area is from north and northwest to south and southeast. The highest elevation is 123.5 above mean sea level in the northwest and the lowest 110 msl in the east in flood plain of river Gomti. The whole area of Lucknow may be divided into two geologic units, namely, younger and older alluvium of quaternary age. The younger alluvial plain lies all along the river Gomti and forms a wide flood plain. Map no. 2 shows that river Gomti has shifted its channels in due course of time. The older alluvial plain occupies higher elevation than the younger alluvial plain. The alluvium consists of a sand clay and kanker of different proportions. (Shukla, etl., 2010) 3. Land use Pattern: The first Master plan for Lucknow was prepared in the year 1965 for a perspective year of 1995. Two revised master plans 2004 and 2021 were subsequently prepared by state government. Development of Lucknow in the

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past had not been according to any well conceived plan. The plan consciousness increased with the increase in population together with demand of land for several uses. The Table No.1a and 1b shows the data of these master plans in various categories Land use of residential purposes have shown the highest increase over the period from 1965-2004-05. Table No.1a Existing Land Use - Lucknow city area (in Hectares) 1987 2004-05
Land use Growth Residential Commercial Offices Industrial Parks/Playgrounds Public Services Traffic River/water bodies Open Land Total 4,485.98 223.77 474.69 596.22 346.48 902.02 952.00 193.66 996.14 9,170.96 1987 Percentage 48.92 2.44 5.18 6.50 3.78 9.84 10.38 2.11 10.86 100.00 2004-05 Land use 8,945.00 360.00 560.00 990.00 435.00 1,410.00 1,240.00 310.00 2,020.00 16,270.00 Area % 54.98 2.21 3.44 6.08 2.67 8.67 7.62 1.91 12.42 100 Growth in % Area % 99.40 60.88 17.97 66.05 25.55 56.32 30.25 60.07 102.78 77.43

The main reason behind this sharp change is construction of new residential colonies by both public and private sectors and due to decentralization of economic activity and dearth of space several offices have been shifted to Gomti Nagar and Indira Nagar. (Tandon, 2008). The area under cultivation is reported to be 146544 hectares constituting 58.1% of total geographical area of the district as against 62.5% in 1981 census. Thus 4.4% decrease in the area under cultivation during 1981-91. This happened probably due to speedy urbanization of the district. (Map No. 3 and Table No. 2&3) The highest increase has been in the residential areas between 1981 to 2001 nearly 99.4%. 76.37 sq. kms (62.98%) of agriculture land and 1.45 sq. kms (1.19%) of the wet lands, which are highly valuable lands and of ecological value has been totally distracted and ignored. More over approx. 36.52 sq. kms land which constitutes mainly agricultural land is in the process of urban transformation. There has been drastic change in land use pattern in Gomti Nagar, Mahanagar, Nirala Nagar, Chinhat and Indira Nagar from 2003 - 2010.It also indicates that there has been gradual increase in population and area of this metropolis.

Table No.1b
Existing & Proposed - Land Use of Lucknow city area (in Hectares) 2002 - 2021

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Table No. 2 Encroached Water Bodies

Water Bodies Moti Jheel Maunda Dighia Tal Liharu Tal Titariya Tal Near Jehta Asti Adjacent to Haibatman Adjacent to Kharagpur Adjacent to Utarathia Total Area Area Encroached(Hect.) 26.51 7.33 12.39 8.71 2.35 4.48 8.40 3.86 6.29 2.38 83.20

4. Urbanization- The spatial extent of Lucknow city as computed from survey of India topographical maps of 1973-74 is about 80 Sq.Km. In this study growth rate of the urban sprawl is calculated from temporal assessment of high resolution satellite data, that is 182.42 Sq.Km in 1997 to 212.24 Sq.Km in 2001 and 243.80 Sq.Km in 2005. (Map No.4) It is expected to increase to 451.5 Sq.Km by 2021. Previously, Lucknow was growing in a linear form along the Lu cknow-K anp ur highway and Lu cknow -F aiz ab ad highway but now it is evident that the urban growth is changing its morphology with radial growth. In the past three decades it was made to grow in a concentric form which carries its hazards. The urban ills like population,

pollution, traffic congestion are all due to the rise in urbanization and population density. In concentric growth the density is never arrested and puts never ending pressure on the core areas. At present, growth of the city is limited in the north-west due to the broken and water logged ravines and to the south and southeast by the presence of the considerably big cantonment and also due to water logged areas. The possible trend of growth of the city is towards north, north-east and south-west on both sides of Sitapur, Faizabad and Kanpur roads because they are situated within a distance of 5 to 6 miles from CBD area. The urban sprawl is actually the physical growth of an area beyond the limits of an incorporated urban entity. Lucknow Metropolitan is surrounded by its rural towns. Since 1981- 84 villages have been merged fully and 6 villages partly within the municipal limit of Municipal Corporation, Lucknow. The current analysis points to the fact that the growth has happened at a much faster pace than manageable efforts thus degrading the status of infrastructure and services in terms of water supply, sewerage and sanitation, housing drains, storm water drains, solid waste management and transport. Overall service levels are inadequate and the situation is worse for the urban poor. The service sector forms the main economic base of the city. Lucknow is also an important education centre, especially for primary and secondary education and houses a number of research and development institutions. The state of infrastructure is one of several constraints that prevent the city from achieving its economic potential. (CDP:2006) It is well known fact that in Lucknow city, a maximum urbanization growth has taken along the Faizabad road only. The settlement of the urban people into the surrounding areas and location of economic activities like malls, factories, amusement parks, commercial complexes, educational institutes etc gradually brings about a developmental change in the land use pattern in the rural areas that makes difficult to separate the urban area from rural one and forms a transition zone. This is

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the cause for the migration of the rural people into the city. Above all with the U.P. g ov e r n m e n t s upcoming dream project of Lucknow-Kanpur Industrial Corridor along NH 25 to be completed in five phases starting from Lucknow Metropolis by 2020 will categorically change the urban scene drastically because violation has already started in the first phase. Map No. 5 shows unauthorised development as well as underdeveloped areas as per 2004 existing land use in Lucknow Metropolis. 5. Hydrological Conditions- The dynamics of fresh water depletion not only holds true for the world and our own country but also for our state Uttar Pradesh where Lucknow City itself is an example of how a township is subjected to such hydrological stress. Gomti flows in the heart of the city from north-west (Gaughat) to south east (Piprahghat). The drainage of Gomti river is mainly through Haidar canal and Kukrail nala. Kukrail nala meets the river near Piprahghat whereas the Haidar canal meets it after Gomti barrage. The Gomti river continues to be the main source of water supply to the city though a number of tube-wells have been bored to exploit groundwater. However, the available discharge in the River Gomti as per CWPC at Lucknow during lean period is around 500 MLD, while in the monsoons the discharge is around 55,000 MLD. For most of the period the discharge on an average is around 1,500 MLD only. Hence during monsoons the river helps in recharge of the aquifer while in the low discharge season it is recharged from

the same aquifer. Considering that several towns like Jaunpur and other habitations also draw water from the River Gomti, it is not feasible to tap all the river water in Lucknow. Hence maintaining the river discharge is not only required for Lucknow city but also for other cities which rely on it. Also during the dry season, the river water level goes down to such an extent that there is need to request the State Irrigation Department to augment supplies to meet the drinking water needs. (Dutta et al. 87). Hydrogeology in Relation to Depth to Water and Groundwater Flow: Table No. 3 Characteristics of Waste Water in Lucknow City
Name of drains Sankata Nala Pata Nala Med. Coll. Nala Shamina Rd.Nala Habibulla Rd. Nala Wazirganj Nala Ghasiari M. Nala China Bazar Nala LaPlace Nala Japlin Rd. Nala Haidar Nala Mohan M. Nala Daliganj Nala Kedarnath Rd. Nala Nishatganj Nala Hyderabad Nala Kukrail Nala Temp 0 C 25.5 25.5 27.0 27.0 25.5 27.0 27.0 22.5 26.5 29.0 28.5 37.0 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.0 pH COD BOD Total Solids 600 1168 614 667 1332 756 1094 672 866 1302 746 6322 1054 326 822 1490 622 total volatile Solids 324 360 402 260 582 394 438 262 374 326 340 3408 236 1230 322 Susp. Solids 526 652 50 60 82 200 508 168 368 248 246 64 246 67 56 964 90 Susp. Volitile Solids 102 42 28 44 10 38 142 14 202 154 36 36 822 38 Total Nitrogen 117.6 39.2 70.0 39.2 19.6 11.2

8.0 7.6 8.0 7.6 8.3 7.7 7.6 7.5 7.5 8.0 7.6 6.2 7.9 7.6 7.9 7.9 8.0

26.8 448.9 41.8 202.1 6.9 383.3 634.2 376.3 432.1 139.4 299.7 4129.0 840.0 285.0 382.0 85.0 427.0

17 310 36 120 5 160 450 170 180 130 200 2000 400 116 140 40 140

Source: U.P. Pollution Control Board

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The area can be divided into two geological units, namely, younger and older alluvium of Quaternary age. The younger alluvial plain lies all along the river Gomti and forms a wide flood plain. The older alluvial plain occupies higher elevation than the younger alluvial plain and is underlain by thick alluvial deposits of quaternary age comprising of clay, kankar and sand. Subsurface geology is revealed by correlation based on the boreholes drilled by Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) and U. P. Jal Nigam. The CGWB and U. P. Jal Nigam have drilled a number of boreholes in the city which are located at (1) Mahanagar (2) Badshahnagar (3) Rajendra Nagar (4) Hevelock Road Victoria Hospital (5) IISR (6) Charbagh Station (7) Chandra Nagar (8) Mohanta Purwa (9) Chaupati (10) Sahdrara (11) Daliganj (12) Lucknow University and (13) Patang Park. The available data down to depth of 753 m reveal existence of three tier aquifer systems: (a) The upper or first aquifer extends down to depth of 100 mbgl and is unconfined in nature. It comprises of sand and normally yields good quality water. (b) The second aquifer lies in a depth range of 130 185 m to 165 - 235 m. It comprises of grained material and contains brackish water. Thus, this second aquifer is unsuitable. (c) The third aquifer is fine grained and less productive than the first aquifer. It ranges from 300 - 477 m and are semiconfined to confine in nature. The exploratory drilling results of CGWB reveal that aquifer groups below 450 m depth have auto flow conditions in Lucknow city area. The free flow discharge from deposit well at Badshah Nagar Railway Station is found to be 270 lpm. The discharge rate of tubewells screened up to 460 m depth varies from 1000 - 2000 lpm with draw down ranging between 20 and 35 m. It is found that tubewells constructed in the third aquifer (200 460 depth) group give comparatively low yield than the first aquifer due to low transmissibility. The main sources of recharge are:

1. 2.

Rainfall. Seepage from canal network (Haider canal flowing from West to East in the city). 3. Seepage from natural storm water drains (Pata drain, Sarkata drain, Kukrail drain etc.). 4. Seepage from return irrigation flow. Out of the above four, the main source of aquifer recharge in the city is rainfall. The quantum of recharge relates directly to the intensity of rainfall, nature of soil and its textural characteristics, local vegetation and land utilization pattern. Groundwater resource evaluation has been made as per the GEC norms by the CGWB. Huge demand of water for heterogeneous use by its increasing residents and equally generated waste water() which is mostly drained into the river without treatment, making it polluted downstream. Encroaching or disappearing and drying up of water bodies have resulted in the lack of availability of surface water. This scenario has made us dependent on the ground water which is not being replenished as infiltration of rain water into the ground has decreased due to concrete landscape. According to State Water Resource Agency, Government of U.P., ground water strata is lowering by 73 GWL decline/ year due to over exploitation. Furthermore, with the announcement of free power to small and marginal farmers of U.P. State by its CM and with no laws or regulations of how much water can be extracted, will further degrade the water stratum by the democratic or unsustainable use of this precious resource. Thus water management has emerged as the need of the hour. Also it can be seen that the urban area acts as a sink for the groundwater due to heavy extraction. The direction of groundwater flow is towards the river Gomti, and the river is effluent in nature (Report of Gomti Action Plant, 2000). Also the sustainability of this water supply will be of question unless there are strict measures taken in order to replenish the groundwater. The increased sealed surface of the city due to

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urban development has left less space for groundwater to infiltrate and the extensive groundwater extraction has raised more concerns. It has raised more questions about the sustainability of the water resources and immediate concerns are needed for sustainability of groundwater for urban requirements. The lateral expansion of the city in all the four directions has caused increasing pressure on existing natural drainage as well as built environments. The urban area is spread equally on both sides of the River Gomti. The commercial and residential areas on cis-Gomti side are Hazratganj, Alambagh, RDSO Colony, Charbagh, Aishbagh, Kaiserbagh, Aminabad, Husainganj, Model Houses, Lal Bagh, Golaganj, Wazirganj, Rajendra Nagar, Malviya Nagar, Sarojini Nagar, Aishbagh, Rajajipuram, Haiderganj, Thakurganj, Chowk and Saadatganj. The residential settlements in the trans-Gomti area are Nirala Nagar, Aliganj, Daliganj, Mahanagar, Old and New Hyderabad, Nishatganj, Indira Nagar, Manas Enclave near Kukrail, Gomti Nagar and Gomti Nagar Extn., Nilmatha cantt. Vikas Nagar, Khurram Nagar and Janakipuram. The natural water resources of the city were enough few decades back in order to meet the urban water demands. But in the last three decades the population of the city has grown two folds, stressing the natural water resources of the city. Also, the intensive agricultural practice in the nearby villages has overburdened the existing aquifers. (90 J. Geogr. Reg. Plann.) 6. Demography- Of all the resources bestowed on humanity, human resource is the dynamic one which is capable to transform any form of landscape. Magnitude of rural migration has somewhat changed the urban landscape with fostering sores like slum mushroom colonies. Influx of the population in Lucknow city has not only exerted colossal pressure on various socio economic services of the city but also has posed numerous problems like change in physical as well as social environment, slum development, waste management etc. Thus in order to study the effect of the expansion of the city land use pattern, one has

to view it in the light of growth of population of the city. For present study, population is used as base for studying the present arising problems. The more densely populated areas of the city are on the southern bank of the River Gomti and several planned residential colonies have been developed to the north of the River. In 1981 the population of Lucknow city was 10 lakh, in 1981-91 population growth was 65.66%. In 1991-2001 population growth was registered with 34.53 %, which in 2001 increased to 22.45 lakh. This growth was maximum in UP. According to 1981 census population density was 69 persons per hectare, which in 1991 decreased to 49 persons per hectare due to expansion of boundary (145.94 Sq. Kms to 337.5 Sq. Kms) In 2001 due to increase in urban population, density also increased to 67 persons per hectare and because its an administrative hub of the state this increase is likely to persist in future also. Census 2001 estimated the population of the Lucknow Urban Agglomeration at 22.46 lakhs. This included an estimate of about 60,000 as population of the Lucknow Cantonment and 21.85 lakh population of Lucknow City. The population of the Lucknow Cantonment has remained constant in the last three decades. (Table No.5a and Graph No.1) Table No. 5b shows the occupational structure with maximum working force, 80% in tertiary sector followed by 19.65% and 1 % in secondary and primary sectors respectively. By 2021 it is likely to increase to 79.5%, 20% in tertiary and secondary sector while a decrease Table No. 5a Existing and Projected Population of Lucknow City (in lakhs)
Area Existing Pop. 2001 22.07 0.59 22.67 Projected Population 2006 25.64 0.60 26.24 2011 29.66 0.60 30.26 2016 34.22 0.60 34.82 2021 39.40 0.60 40.00

Lucknow N.N. Cantonment Lucknow Town Group

Source: Master Plan (draft) 2021

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cites because Lucknow offers better social and physical infrastructure and amenities compared to other cities in the state. CDP, 2003 (Graph No. 2a and 2b) Graph No. 2 Migration in Lucknow City

Official records show that Lucknows population grew more than that of other cities in the 1980s mainly due to the extension of the jurisdiction of the Lucknow Municipal Corporation from 14,594 hectares in 1981 to 33,750 hectares in 1991. In the 1990s, average growth was comparable to that of cities of similar size, more than Kanpur and Nagpur, but lower than Jaipur and Surat. The expansion in the 1980s meant the population density decreased from 69 persons per hectare to 49 persons per hectare but has now increased to 67 persons per hectare due to population growth. The population growth projected varies from 3.51% to 4.37 % per year over different 5-year periods until 2021, which is somewhat higher than the average growth rate of cities of similar size in the country and the state. Migration into Lucknow city accounts for 36% increase in population over the last decade. Of the 5.76- lakh people added to the LUA during 1991-2001, about 2 lakh were migrants. In comparison, the natural growth was 3.68 lakh. According to the census, 22% of the migrants from rural areas and 27% from urban areas cited employment as the reason for migration. Census 2001 estimates that in the last decade, Lucknow received 2,07,307 migrants, 56.6% of which were from rural areas, and

Source: Census 2001

Illegal encroachments within the city also violate land use and leave sluggish land cover impression. Increasing number of urban poor and slums colonies day by day. In 1981-91 there were 40 colonies which in 2007 increased to 625. According to data provided by Remote Sensing Application Centre, in March 2012 slum colonies were 724. These colonies are concentrated in the centre of the city but new slum colonies are coming up in the open spaces in peripheral regions. Table No.6 projects that the data of slum population provided by various sources differ thereby putting a question mark on the methodology adopted by these agencies. Table No.6
Agencies
Total Population

1991
Slum Population Total Population

2001
Slum Population

Census Master Plan 2021 DUDA(2005) OXFAM(2005) SUDA(2005)

16.19 16.19 -

6.97 6.97 -

21.85 21.85 21.85 21.85 21.85

1.79 1.79 6.70 10.18 11.00

Source: LCDP, 2006

The draft plan 2021 has projected a population of 30.26 lakhs by 2011 and 40 lakhs by 2021 and necessary expansion of the existing infrastructure with measures for arresting

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degradation of environment while catering for growth is on the anvil. But in November 2011, census 2011 projected that the population of Lucknow city is 45 lakhs. If population growth trends remain the same then estimated population of Lucknow city in 2021 will be much more than 45 lakh, which will have direct effect on environment. 7. Transportation- Lucknow has grown all around in a radius of 25 km. taking the General Post Office in Hazratganj as the centre. The main office and commercial complexes are located in the central part of the town thereby making daily commutes a necessity. Considering the existing condition of the arterial roads from the north to south and from the east to west there is not much scope to augment the existing public transport system which includes public buses, three wheeler tempos and private vehicles. The growth of Lucknow in recent years has resulted in vastly increased demand for transport and a dramatic rise in the number of vehicles. Transport infrastructure, however, has not grown correspondingly and is therefore highly inadequate. With the number of registered vehicles rising by about 40,000 vehicles per year in the past decade, the roads and parking spaces in the City have become extremely congested, especially during peak hours. The U.P. Transport Corporation operates a fleet of ninety-eight buses on ten different routes and estimates that the total passenger load on these buses is around 47000 daily. Table No.-7 Registration of Vehicles in Lucknow
Types of Vehicles Two Vehicles Ca, Jeep. Vans Bus Truck/HCV Tractors/LCV Three Wheelers, etc Total 1994 212774 27608 1126 4219 10077 6487 262291 1998 285511 42855 1349 5264 11017 8579 354579 2005 601745 97878 3553 7742 19985 9567 749395 Annual Growth Rate (1994-2005) 16.62 23.14 19.59 7.59 8.94 4.32 16.88

Source: RITES Report and UP State Transport Department

According to Town and Country Planning Department,

Faizabad road, University road and Ashok Marg are the busiest roads but in present time almost every crossing has become a bottle neck of traffic conjunction. Prior of the shifting of most of government offices and commercial centres from the inner zone of the city to outer zone, high density traffic was observed. New Outer and link roads have also come up for traffic diversion and fast movement of vehicles but it seems that due to governments policy of cheap vehicles loans with 0% interest and low EMIs has promoted influx of heterogeneous traffic, neutralizes all positive efforts of reducing traffic congestions and smooth traffic flow. To overcome this problem in 2005 under Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Revival Mission, roads were widenup and new public ac and non ac buses were lunched and CNG transportation modes were operational but in present scenario it seems inadequate. Problems- The main hurdles in a planned integrated land use of Lucknow Metropolis are: 1. Land being scarce and fixed resource will experience a further pressure due to the ever increasing urbanization. As a result Lucknow city is witnessing the increasing trend of converting valuable land into built-up areas. Urbanization, industrialization, increasing number of transportation and influx of population are causing increase in all sorts of pollution which is degrading physical as well as social environment. 2. Urbanization is a continuous process and in context to Lucknow city there has been rise by leaps and bounds due to economic growth. By and large it is obvious that Trans Gomti is developing in a more planned way as compared to Nawabi Lucknow. In the name of planned development eg. Gomti Nagar, Indra nagar, Mahanagar etc which are posh colonies, all have come up on geologically weakest land of the city. Gomti nagar resides on the youngest flood plains of the Gomti River (To) Kapoorthala, Indra nagar etc. resides on (T1) This low-land terrain is prone to natural and manmade disasters. In the process of urbanization, unauthorized construction is done in low terrain (110 110 mts. above msl. & which should be left as open space) e.g. in the sides of Kukrail Nala area between Indira Nagar and Maha Nagar; area west to H.A.L.; Campvail road etc.

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3. According to Master Plan 2021 there are 241 illegal colonies in Lucknow, mostly in low terrain: prone to floods and causing water logging and 81 illegal industries in residential areas. 4. Since last few years multi-stored/apartment culture trend has increased in Lucknow. Builders are overlooking the rules: sanctioned height, fire & water back-up etc. in this low terrain especially on the banks of river Gomti. Map No. shows that almost whole district is situated on the older alluvial plains while Lucknow city is on younger alluvial plain. Basically these are the root cause for present environmental degradation. Lucknow is located in the seismic zone III and one dont know when nature can be triggered. Therefore this trend of settlement in low terrain should be stopped because this time it will be a major disaster and low laying settlements will be the easy targets. 5. According to Lucknow City Development Plan 2006, there are 25 major drains 13 of which drain the Cis-Gomti area and 12 the Trans-Gomti area. Some of these drains are big and carry sullage discharge of as much as 78 mld during peak hours while the smaller drains carry only 0.5 mld discharge. Most of these drains are made of brick for most of their length except for a few metres at the head. But in the newly developed areas there is a good network of several drains but no storm water drains that follow the topography. These therefore cause water logging during monsoon season. 6. Fig. 4 Land Transformation of Lucknow City (1973-1997

burning issues to which administration should give priority. Conclusions- Lucknow city has seen a steady increase in population because of three major factors. These are natural growth, the incorporation of peri urban areas in the 1980s and migration. The process of urbanisation has led to massive violations of landuse and, if that was not enough, it also led to the creation of many health hazards. One of the prominent features of the citys growth has been an increase in the number of slums/ urban poor. They are one of the major factors responsible for the physical as well as social environment degradation. City authorities have miserably failed to check geo-environmental problems and their impact on all the sector of the citys economy. Only through disaster management, awareness programmes and mitigation we can ameliorate the problem and can definitely minimize impact thus provide a better environment to the people of the city who continue to reel because of the adverse effects. The CDP offers a city assessment, a vision for the future development of the city and a three pronged strategy: infrastructure and service delivery improvement; basic services to the urban poor and institutional and governance reforms. Thus it is there for all to see that the joint efforts of Centre - State government and public participation and commitment can place Lucknow city as a model of a vibrant city and achieve the Vision of Lucknow Metropolis as identified by various stakeholders: One of the five most liveable cities in India where every citizen enjoys a high quality of life and access to basic services and amenities, and where local culture, crafts and heritage are preserved and promoted. A city with a dynamic economy driven by service sectors such as knowledge-based education, health, tourism, and information technology that provides opportunities for all and makes it an attractive investment destination. ======================== References1. 2. 3. Jolly,U.S.(2012): Challenges for a Mega City, Concept Publishing Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi Ramachandran, R.(1992): Urbanization and Urban System in India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi Dutta,V., Singh,A. and Prasad, N.((2010): Urban Sprawl and water stress with

It can be generally observed that the ever increasing haphazard building construction in the vicinity of growing towns ultimately results into the all types of pollutions and traffic jams due to which Lucknow city is becoming crawling city and is a

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respect to changing landscape: Study from Lucknow, India, Journal of Geography and Regional Planning, Vol. 3(5),pp. 84-105 Geomorphology Symposium Geomorphology, Vol. 79, issue 3-4, pp 172-191 IITR(2008): Assessment of Environment Status of Lucknow City, Indian Inst. Toxicol. Res., Lucknow IRS-1C Application for Urban Planning and Development, Current Sci. 70(7): 582 Jain,V, Sinha,R.(2003): River systems in the Gangetic plains and their comparison with the Siwaliks: A rev., Current Sci., 84(8): 1025-1033 N.R.D.M.S., Lucknow District, Uttar Pradesh, D.S.T.-G.O.I. Sponsored Project no. ES/11/618/2001,pp.4,35 Shukla,S.,Shukla, S Kushwaha, R.K.(2009): Application and Importance of Advance Remote Sensing and GIS Technique in Identifying the Encroachment of Urban Areas into rural Areas- An Attempt in Selected Parts of Chinhat in Lucknow City, Paper presented at GIRI Institute of Development Studies, Lucknow, published by Concept Publishing Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi in the book 'Rural Urban Fringe: Problems and Management' edited by Dr. S.S.A. Jafri and Dr. B.K.Bajpai Tondon, B.(2008): The Urban land use in Lucknow Metropolis: A Review, Uttar Bharat Bhoogol Patrika, Vol. 38, No.1, March/June, pp 72-73 Taragi, RCS, Pundir PPS(1997): Use of Satellite data in Urban Sprawl and Land Use Studies- A Case of Lucknow City, J. Indian Soc. Remote Sensing, 25(2) A Report on Temporal Assessment of Landuse/landcover Status of Lucknow City and its Environs between 1988-1996, using IRS-IA, IRS-IB and IRS-IC satellite data, Remote Sensing Application Centre, Lucknow, U.P.,pp 1-5 Lucknow Master Plan 2001, 2021, Lucknow Development Authority, Gomti Nagar, Lucknow Natural Resource Data Management System, Lucknow District, Uttar Pradesh, Remote Sensing Application Centre, U.P., August, 2006 Vision Statement, Interim Report, Lucknow Development Authority, Gomti Nagar, Lucknow Census- 2011.co.in: http://www.census2011.co.in Feed Back venture Lucknow City Profile: http://localbodies.up.nic.in/luck/ chap2.pdf Jawaherlal Nehru Urban Revival Reform Mission: http://jnnurm.nic.in/wpcontent/uploads/2010/12/Lucknow_Chapter4.pdf

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4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

An Emerging Issue of 21st Century : Need of an Environment Accounting

* Dr. Anand Tiwari
Summary- The world has already evidenced and rain, effect of green house gases, dangerous skin diseases from ultra violet rays etc. Air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, destruction of forest etc. are the very common thing found today. Observing all there hazards in the human life, people all over the world are putting serious attention to the environmental degradation and trying to solve the problem. Introduction- Environment, the matter of all living beings takes care of all its creature but unfortunately the most developed creature of the world, the human being do not take care of their matter the environment. The net result is the importance in environment and thereby posing a threat to all its creatures. For comfort of the human beings has increased to such an extend and is increasing everyday, that the future of the living beings of the world gradually becoming uncertain and insecure. The world has already evidenced and rain, effect of green house gases, dangerous skin diseases from ultra violet rays etc. Air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, destruction of forest etc. are the very common thing found today. Observing all there hazards in the human life, people all over the world are putting serious attention to the environmental degradation and trying to solve the problem. Experts from all over the world are trying to solve the environmental problem and identifying the factor degrading environment, suggesting measures for the
=========================== * Professor & Head, Department of Commerce,Govt. Auto. Girls PG College of Excellence, Sagar (M.P.)

10. 11. 12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

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maintenance of environmental balance. Some experts are also trying to formulate some accounting techniques, but no such comprehensive accounting technique for the environment has been developed so far. Without proper accounting technique, responsibility cannot be fixed properly to the destroyer of environment and at the same time the responsibility of the person who are suppose to be fixed for this reason. On the one hand environmental pollution is increasing and on the other hand proper improvement work are not being undertaken the result is degradation of environment. Objectives- The present study is undertaken with an objective to find out a compressive technique/method which will be capable of making responsible both the destroyer of employment and the person/ organisation responsible to maintain the environment. Methodology- To carry out the study firstly, the available literature and materials relating to environmental degradation its improvement, measurement etc. will be studied. The secondary data available both in the government and NGOs level will be used. The measurement already adopted world over and the SCs verdict in connection with environment will be studied. In the sphere of primary information, both the parties of the environmental affairs, the destroyer and the improvement makers will be covered on random sampling basis. Different questionnaires will be prepared for different groups. Review of Literature- The literature available in connection with the pollution of environment, measurement of pollution, evaluation of pollution, work done already for the maintenance of environment, the authorities and organisation looking after the improvement/ maintenance of environment, the various views and opinions given by the various experts in the accounting of environment etc. will be studies and a review of all there literature will be made. Social Importance of Study- The study will provide an insight into the accounting aspect of environment, which in turn will

laid abase for the evaluation of environmental aspects, the accounting for environment and the utilisation of accounting technique for the maintenance of environment. If a suitable method can be found out then responsibility also can be fixed which will be helpful for maintaining environmental degradation and also will improve the maintenance of environment. Availability of Materials- Materials for the study will be available from the following sources : 1. Books available in the library of the Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre [INSDC] New Delhi. 2. Books available in the Ratan Tata library of the Delhi University, School of Economics, New Delhi. 3. World Environmental Report published by the World Bank. 4. Official statistics available with the Govt. of India and NGOs. 5. Primary materials may be collected through field survey. 6. Books and Journals of the Indian Institute of environmental science may be referred. Conclusion- It is a very important task today to out an operative environmental accounting technique. If by fixing proper responsibility environmental balance can not be maintained then the entire human race will face dangerous problem in the near future. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Environment resources planning, Chug Publication, Allahabad, 2006. Management Concept and Environment, S. Chand & Co., New Delhi. Environment and Natural Resources : Rules Bills and Amendment, Common Wealth Publication, Delhi. Environment : Problem of developed and developing country, Rama Rai. Indian Economy, Mishra & Pari, Himalaya Publication House, Mumbai, edition 2012. Environment accounting N. Das Wheeler Publishing New Delhi, 1997. World Bank, World Development Report 2010 (Washington D.C. 2010) UNDP Report, Human & Development Report, 2007-2008, Delhi (2007). Government of India, Economic Survey, 2011-12 (New Delhi). Environment Audit, The Institute of Cost and Work Accountant of India, July 1999.

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Water Resources and Management

* Dr. (Smt.) Kiran Singh
Introduction- Water is essential for human civilization, living organisms, and natural habitat. It is used for drinking, cleaning, agriculture, transportation, industry, recreation, and animal husbandry, producing electricity for domestic, industrial and commercial use. Due to its multiple benefits and the problems created by its excesses, shortages and quality deterioration, water as a resource requires special attention. Table 1 gives land & water resources of India. On a global scale, total quantity of water available is about 1600 million cubic km. The hydrologic cycle moves enormous quantity of water around the globe. However, much of the worlds water has little potential for human use because 97.5% of all water on earth is saline water. Out of the remaining 2.5% freshwater, most of which lies deep and frozen in Antarctica and Greenland, only about 0.26% fish in rivers, lakes and in the soils and shallow aquifers which are readily usable for mankind.

Water Resources Surface WaterIndias average annual surface run-off generated by rainfall and snowmelt is estimated to be about 1869 billion cubic meter (BCM). However, it is estimated that only about 690 BCM or 37 per cent of the surface water resources can actually be mobilised. This is because (i) over 90 per cent of the annual flow of the Himalayas rivers occur over a four month period and (ii) potential to capture such resources is complicated by limited suitable storage reservoir sites. RainfallThe average annual rainfall in India is about 1170 mm. This is considerable variation in rain both temporarily and spatially. Most rain falls in the monsoon season (June-September), necessitating the creation of large storages for maximum utilisation of the surface run-off. Within any given year, it is possible to have both situations of drought and of floods in the same region. Regional varieties are also extreme, ranging from a low value of 100 mm in Western Rajasthan to over 11,000 mm in Meghalaya in North-Eastern India. Possible changes in rainfall patterns in the coming decade, global warming and climate change and other predicted or observed long-term trends on water availability could affect Indias water resources. Ground WaterIndias rechargeable annual groundwater potential has been assessed at around 431 BCM in aggregate terms. On an all India basis it is estimated that about 30 per cent of the groundwater potential has been tapped for irrigation and domestic use. The regional situation is very much different and large parts of India have already exploited almost all of their dynamic recharge. Haryana and Punjab have exploited about 94 per cent of their groundwater resources. Areas with depleting groundwater tables are found in Rajasthan, Gujarat, most of western Uttar Pradesh and in all of the Deccan states.

=========================== * Head,Department of Political Science, Pt. S.N.S. Govt. P.G. College, Shahdol (M.P.)

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Figure 1 : Sectoral Water Demand Trends

Occurrence of water availability at about 1000 cubic meters per capita per annum is a commonly threshold for water indicating scarcity (UNDP). Investment to capture additional surface run-off will become increasingly more difficult and expensive in the future. Over time, both for surface and groundwater resources, a situation where resources were substantially under utilised and where considerable development potential existed, has transformed in little more than a generation to a situation of water scarcity and limited development options. India faces an increasingly urgent situation : its finite and fragile water resources are stressed and depleting while various sectoral demands are growing rapidly. Historically relatively plentiful water resources have been primarily for irrigated agriculture, but with the growth of Indian economy and industrial activities water demands share of water is changing rapidly. In addition increase in population and rapid urbanisation also put an additional demand on water resources. Summing up the various sectoral projection reveals a total annual demand for water increasing from 552 billion cubic meter (BCM) in 1997 to 1050 BCM by 2025 (Fig 1). Under current sectoral trends, precious little water will remain for environmental and other needs. This is untenable At Independence population was less than 400 million and per capita water availability over 5000 cubic meter per year (m3/yr). With

the population crossed 1 billion mark, water availability has fallen to about 2000m3/yr per capita. By the year 2025 per capita availability is projected at only 1500 m3/yr or 30% of availability levels at Independence. Populations Food Grain Requirement- In India the food grain availability is at present around 525 gms per capita per day whereas the corresponding figures in China & USA are 980 gms and 2850 gms respectively. If small raise is made in per capita consumption to 650 gms the food grain requirement will be about 390 MT of food grain. Taking the projections of about 1800 million by 2050 AD as reasonable, it would require about 430 MT of food grain annually at the present level of consumption. This will mean a much greater use of available inputs. First input is water, the second input would be fertilizers and third input would be much larger emphasis of research. This would also need increasing area under irrigation from present 28% to roughly 40% by the year 2050 and adopting drip and sprinkler irrigation in India. The total geographical area of land in India is 329 mha which is 2.45% of the global land area. The total arable land is 165.3 mha which is about 50.2% of total georgraphical area against the corresponding global figure of 10.2%. India possesses 4% of the total average run off in the rivers of the world. The per capita water availability of natural run off is at least 1100 cu.m per year. Water availability of both surface and groundwater is further reduced due to water pollution and in appropriate waste disposal practices. There are now few states or river basins in India where water quality issues are not present. Environmental problems include water quality degradation from agro-chemicals, industrial and domestic pollution, groundwater depletion, water-logging, soil salinization, siltation, degradation of wetlands, ecosystem impacts and various health related problems. Though India is facing various serious water constraints to-day, India is not on the whole a water scarce country. The present per capita availability of water in India of approximately 2200 m3 per annum, actually compares quite favourably with a number of other countries.

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Figure 2 : Water Resource

Policy, Legislative and Regulatory Framework- The Central Government plays an important role in framing policy guidelines, legislative and regulatory framework. The most comprehensive Government of India (GoI) statement on water is the National Water Policy (NWP) adopted by the National Water Resources Council in 1987, which calls for a holistic, and integrated basin-oriented approach to water development, promoting combined use of both the surface and groundwater, water conserving crop patterns as well as irrigation and production technologies. The National Water Policy in its present form appears to be a statement of intentions as it is not supported by any legislation and does not have an action. The NWP is undergoing revision. Water Sharing Issues- The existing Constitutional provisions and legislation in India do not provide an appropriate framework to deal with water sharing issues between states, sectors and individuals. In the present set up (i) primary powers are vested at state levels which do not correspond to river basin boundaries; (ii) surface water rights are not clearly defined and such rights cannot be commercially transferred; (iii) ground water rights are purely private, and; (iv) environmental laws have not been comprehensively operationalised and regularly standards are either not enforced or do not exist.

The legal and absolute right to groundwater rests with the owner of the overlying land, rrespective of the social and environmental consequences. Reforms in the Water Sector- Various reforms in the management of water resources are necessary but by its nature water is multidimensional it involves users from different sectors with widely different needs. Indias task is made all the more difficult by its enormous population and its federal administrative structure. The role of government needs to be more of a facilitation from a provider and financier of services, and an enabling environment to be put in place for the different stakeholders to play their role, with necessary incentive framework. As the reform programme is implemented a long-term vision needs to be conceived through a public debate and participatory process. Water Management- Half of the worlds people now live in towns and cities, a figure expected to reach two-thirds by 2050. In the areas surrounding urban centres, agriculture must compete with industry and municipal users for safe water supplies, while traditional water sources are becoming polluted with urban wastewater. As cities offer the best opportunities for selling produce, farmers often have no alternative to using polluted water to irrigate their crops. Depending on how developed a citys wastewater treatment is, there can be significant health hazards related to the use of this water. Wastewater from cities can contain a mixture of pollutants. There is usually wastewater from kitchens and toilets along with rainwater runoff. This means that the water usually contains excessive levels of nutrients and salts, as well as a wide range of pathogens. Heavy metals may also be present, along with traces of antibiotics and endocrine disruptors, such as estrogens. Summers are here and the cities in India are already complaining about water shortage not to mention many villages which lack safe drinking water. In the list of 122 countries rated on quality of portable water, India ranks a lowly 120.Although India has 4% of the worlds water, studies show average availability is shrinking steadily. It is estimated that by 2020, India will become

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a water-stressed nation. Nearly 50% of villages still dont have any source of protected drinking water. Figure 3 : Water Resource

The ground reality is that of the 1.42 million villages in India, 1, 95,813 are affected by chemical contamination of water. The quality of ground water which accounts of more than 85% of domestic supply is a major problem in many areas as none of the rivers have water fit to drink. 37.7 million People over 75% of whom are children are afflicted by waterborne diseases every year. Overdependence on groundwater has brought in contaminants, fluoride being one of them. Nearly 66 million people in 20 states are at risk because of the excessive fluoride in water. While the permissible limit of fluoride in water is 1 mg per litre in states like Haryana it is as high as 48 mg in some places. Delhi water too has 32 mg.But the worst hits are Rajasthan, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. Nearly 6 million children below 14 suffer from dental, skeletal and non-skeletal fluorosis. Arsenic is the other big killer lurking in ground water putting at risk nearly 10 million people. The problem is acute in Murshidabad, Nadia, North and South 24 Paraganas, Malda and Vardhaman districts of West Bengal. The deeper aquifers in the entire Gangetic plains contain arsenic. High nitrate content in water is another serious concern.Fertilizers, septic tanks, sewage tanks etc are the main sources of nitrate contamination. The groundwater in MP, UP, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Kanataka and Tamil Nadu has shown traces of nitrates.

However it is bacteriological contamination which leads to diarrhoea, cholera and hepatitis which is widespread in India. A bacteriological analysis of the water in Bangalore revealed 75% bore wells were contaminated.Iron; hardness and salinity are also a concern. Nearly 12,500 habitats have been affected by salinity. In Gujarat it is a major problem in coastel districts. Often babies die of dehydration and there are major fights in villages for freshwater. Some villages have seen 80% migration due to high salinity. Health is not the only issue; impure water is a major burden on the state as well. Till the 10th plan the government had spent Rs 1,105 billion on drinking water schemes. Yet it is the poor who pay a heavier price spending around Rs 6700 crore annually on treatment of waterborne diseases. There is an urgent need to look for alternative sources of portable water in places where water quality has deteriorated sharply. Community based water quality monitoring guidelines should be encouraged. People should be encouraged to look at traditional methods of protecting water sources. Also in places where groundwater has arsenic or fluoride, surface water should be considered as an alternative. ======================== References1. 2. Website: www.nih.ernet.in; National Institute of Hydrology Initiating and Sustaining Water Sector Reform: A Synthesis; World Bank in Collaboration with the Govt. of India, Ministry of Water Resources. Allied Publishers, 1999.

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Effect of Ecological Changes on Social Life

* Dr. Ananda Bhikuji Kale
Introduction- There are two types of Ecological atmosphere, one is natural and other is social. If natural ecology changes then definitely social ecology also changes favorably or unfavorably. Industrialization, Urbanization, Globalization are responsible for deterioration of ecology. As changing atmosphere affects mind and body of individual it also affects society. Emile Durkhim, a thinker postulates the theory of suicide, in which she has established the relation between Ecological change and Suicide.Ecology not only affects social life but also its component like Educational Institute, Religious Institute, Matrimony, Family, etc. Idiom like Old is Gold proves this. In 1990 I happen to meet Late Shrihari Jivtode, Founder President of Chanda Shikshan Prasarak Mandal. Over two decades have passed but his principles are still relevant today. His insight into the nature of things is praiseworthy. In first meeting itself he offered me a job. This quality of insightedness is rare in any other person. Education system changed inwardly and outwardly. Curriculums were changed accordingly, teaching and learning method were also changed but during the process principles were neglected resulting in sorry state of we people. Urbanization is the outcome of industrialization. Due to urbanization demand for bricks, cement, labor and other construction material had increased resulting in unavailability of worker working in farm. Fertility of farm is also affected. Following are the objectives and Hypothesis of this research paper:=========================== * Head, Department of Sociology, Shri Shivaji College Akola (M.S.)

Hypothesis and Objectives1) Ecological changes causing changes in social values, moralities, standards, rites and rituals, etc. 2) Concern for speedy increase in ecological change affecting people. 3) Separation of man from man, death of humanity in human are the results of ecological changes. Following are the effects of ecological changes on human beings1) Feeling of unity, sacrifice, devotion has lost both in rural as well as urban population. 2) Segregation of family, divorce, atrocity, sexual abuse, mental anxiety has increased. 3) Agricultural sector is worstly affected. Before presenting this research paper I have taken feedback from one hundred different people on the same topic which is in discussion. Among them 89% agreed or accepted the influence of ecology on social life. Conclusions1) Ecological change is affecting human life leading to many social problems. 2) Separation of man from nature will definitely affect mans life. ======================== References1. 2. 3. Indian Social Constitution by Prof. R.J. Lote. Economy of Labor by Prof. P. Deshmukh. Social Research Method by Dr. P.L. Bhandarkar.

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Global Climatic Changes of the World

* Dr Monika Kannan
Introduction- Global climate change is a change in the long-term weather patterns that characterize the regions of the world. The term weather refers to the short-term (daily) changes in temperature, wind, and/or precipitation of a region. Weather is influenced by the sun. The sun heats the earths atmosphere and its surface causing air and water to move around the planet. Some of the suns incoming long wave radiation is reflected back to space by aerosols. Aerosols are very small particles of dust, water vapor, and chemicals in Earths atmosphere. In addition, some of the suns energy that has entered Earths atmosphere is reflected into space by the planets surface. The reflectivity of Earths surface is called albedo. Both of these reflective processes have a cooling affect on the planet. Purpose of Study- The purpose of this study is to analyze and evaluate the present global climatic changes, their causes and their results being faced by human beings. The When weather patterns for an area change in one direction over long periods of time, they can result in a net climate change for that area. The key concept in climate change is time. Natural changes in climate usually occur over; that is to say they occur over such long periods of time that they are often not noticed within several human lifetimes. This gradual nature of the changes in climate enables the plants, animals, and microorganisms on earth to evolve and adapt to the new temperatures, precipitation patterns, etc. The real threat of climate change lies in how rapidly the change occurs. For example, over the past 130 years, the 7mean global temperature appears to have
=========================== * Sophia Girls' College, Ajmer, Rajasthan

risen 0.6 to 1.2 degrees Fahrenheit (0.3 to 0.7 degrees Celsius). The increasing steepness of the curve suggests that changes in mean global temperature have occurred at greater rates over time. This means during the history of the earth, there have been changes in global temperatures similar in size to these changes. However, the past changes occurred at much slower rates, and thus they were spread out over long periods of time..

The slow rate of change allowed most species enough time to adapt to the new climate. The current and predicted rates of temperature change, on the other hand, may be harmful to ecosystems. This is because these rates of temperature change are much faster than those of Earths past. Many species of plants, animals, and microorganisms may not have enough time to adapt to the new climate. These organisms may become extinct.
Average Global Temperature, 1880-2004 Temperature Degrees Celsius 1950 13.83 1960 13.98 1970 14.04 1980 14.27 1990 14.49 2000 14.41 2010 15.01 Source: Goddard Institute for Space Studies, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Earth Sciences Directorate, "Global Temperature Anomalies in .01 C,"January 2011. Year

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Location of Study- The area of study is the entire world, the different landforms, rivers and sea. The climatic changes like the Glacier melting, Sea level rising, The Asian Haze , The global warming, Green house effects and their results over the world, with the future predictions are to be studied. Methods of Analysis- Evaluating the climatic data taken from Institute for Space Studies, NASA. The method of this study is analysing the secondary data.available from reliable sources. GIS and Remote Sensing techaniques also facilitates this work,by providing Interpretation Sheets. Weathering Monitoring devices provide us with authentic data for study. The above source will be fruitful in generating knowledge which could predict the future climatic changes ,so that human beings could adapt themselves accordingly.These evaluations will also help us to be prepared of the future upcoming climatic hazards or extremities.
Highest Temperature Extremes
S. No Continent Highest Temp. F) Place Elevation Date

solvents. In 1989, after discovering the environmental impacts of CFCs, the leaders of 13 nations agreed to stop producing them by the year 2000. It will take some time, however, for the CFCs already in the atmosphere to be broken down. Figure: The concentration of chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere from 1977 to 1994.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Africa North America Asia Australia Europe South America Oceania Antarctica

136 134 129 128* 122 120 108 59

El Azizia, Libya Death Valley, CA Tirat Tsvi, Israel Cloncurry, Queensland Seville, Spain Rivadavia, Argentina

367 Ft -178 Ft -722 Ft 622 Ft 26 Ft 676 Ft

13Sep 1922 10 Jul 1913 22 Jun 1942 16 Jan 1889 4 Aug 1881 11Dec 1905 29Apr 1912 5 Jan 1974

Tuguegarao, 72 Ft Philippines Vanda Station, Scott 49 Ft Coast

Analysis and Discussion- The climatic changes are very complex in nature and requires a thorough study. The main elements of Global climatic chanage are discussed below. Atmospheric CFCs: Atmospheric concentrations of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), anthropogenic aerosol compounds containing chlorine, fluorine, and carbon, have increased dramatically in recent decades. These compounds, also known as freons, were commonly used in propellants, refrigerants, and

Atmospheric Methane- Freshwater wetlands are a common source of the atmospheric greenhouse gas methane (CH4). The methane produced in wetlands is the result of the metabolic process of certain mico-organisms called methanogens. This process occurs in nearly all freshwater wetlandsincluding those that are constructed by humans.One very important constructed freshwater wetland is the rice paddy. A rice paddy is a plot of land that is flooded in order to grow rice. As the human population grows, so does the area of land covered by rice paddies to produce the important food crop. This leads to an increase in the amount of CH4 released to the atmosphere. Tropospheric Ozone- Ozone (O3), in addition to nitrogen oxides (NOx) and hydrocarbons (-CH-), is a by-product of the combustion, or burning, of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels include oil, natural gas, and coal. These fuels are burned in automobile engines, as well as many power plants and industrial factories. Ozone occurs naturally in the upper layer of the atmosphere called the stratosphere. There, O3 protects the earth from the suns damaging ultraviolet rays. However, O3 produced by humans in the lower layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, is harmful. Tropospheric ozone is a major component of smog. Smog is the thick, brown haze that is often seen over cities and industrial regions. Besides being a

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powerful greenhouse gas, tropospheric ozone irritates the eyes and lungs, may cause lung cancer, and kills plant tissue. Discussion and Result- Scientific understanding of the causes of sea level rise in the 20th century is still not complete, so more work is needed, as well as on possible changes in wind and wave climate in a warmer world, as these can affect shoreline erosion. Protection options for developed coastal urban areas include sea walls and (along beaches) beach nourishment. Planning regulations for new development can be cost-effective now. There may be a need for a nationally-funded climate impact programme to compile recommendations for climatic change in specific locations. Sea Level and Climate- Global sea level and the Earths climate are closely linked. The Earths climate has warmed about 1C (1.8F) during the last 100 years. As the climate has warmed following the end of a recent cold period known as the Little Ice Age in the 19th century, sea level has been rising about 1 to 2 millimeters per year due to the reduction in volume of ice caps, ice fields, and mountain glaciers in addition to the thermal expansion of ocean water. If present trends continue, including an increase in global temperatures caused by increased greenhousegas emissions, many of the worlds mountain glaciers will disappear. For example, at the current rate of melting, all glaciers will be gone from Glacier National Park, Montana, by the middle of the next century. In Iceland, about 11 percent of the island is covered by glaciers (mostly ice caps). If warming continues, Icelands glaciers will decrease by 40 percent by 2100 and virtually disappear by 2200. As the climate warmed, sea level rose because the melting North American, Eurasian, South American, Greenland, and Antarctic ice sheets returned their stored water to the worlds oceans. During the warmest intervals, called interglacial epochs, sea level is at its highest. The evidence comes from two different but complementary types of studies. One line of evidence is provided by old shoreline features (fig. 2). Wave-cut terraces and beach deposits from regions as separate as the Caribbean and the North Slope of Alaska suggest higher sea levels during past interglacial times. A second line of evidence comes from sediments

cored from below the existing Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets. Future Sea Level Rise and Planning- Given current controversy regarding observed sea level rise in the 20th century, it is not surprising that there is a wide range of predictions of sea level rise for the 21st century. Future sea level rise consists of contributions from continued warming of the ocean as well as melting of glaciers, small ice sheets and Greenland. Apart from the fact that there is a wide range of estimates, planners would like a particular value of sea level rise to be associated with a specific probability of occurrence. Some methods have been suggested to do this, based on risk assessment methodologies (e.g. Abbs et al. [2000]; Jones [2001]), but to our knowledge application of these techniques to specific planning in Australia has not yet occurred. It is important to note that the main cause of uncertainty prior to about 2050 is caused by our lack of complete understanding of the processes that cause sea level rise. Because of the thermal inertia of the oceans, there is little difference in the various sea level rise projections before about 2050, after which different rates of warming due to different projections of future greenhouse concentrations cause large differences in sea level rise. Changes in wind and wave climate in a warmer world could have a substantial effect on shoreline erosion and much less work has been performed on the impact of climate change on these variables. A related issue is the relationship between mean sea level rise and storm surge occurrence. It is clearly the rare extreme sea level events that pose the most risk. Risk management in this context can be related to the concept of critical thresholds, whereby exceeding a specified critical threshold would lead to an unacceptable level of harm. Management options for sea level rise in urban areas are restricted by the cost of the infrastructure required to be protected. Therefore, abandonment is not usually an option. Protection options for urban or resort-area beaches may include a sea wall behind an artificially nourished beach. In tourism areas, aesthetic considerations may dictate careful design of such infrastructure to

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preserve the attractiveness of the location, which may tend to increase the cost. Nevertheless, the cost of such infrastructure and the limited supply of sand for nourishment may require some hard decisions in the next few decades, as choices may have to be made regarding which locations to protect in this manner. Towards the end of the next century, managed retreat may need to be considered in some locations, as other options become expensive. Approval for development in vulnerable locations may have considerable future costs, as protection may become prohibitively expensive. Planning decisions made now may be particularly costeffective in this regard. Recently, planning for sea level rise has been incorporated into various State strategic planning documents. In Queensland, a new State Coastal Management Plan prescribes the inclusion of climate change issues, including sea level rise, into local planning. ======================== References1. 2. Ruddiman, William F. (2001). Earth's Climate Past and Future. New York: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-716-73741-8. [89] Barnett, T. P., Adam, J. C., and Lettenmaier, D. P. (2005). "Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions". Nature 438: 303-309. [84] UNEP summary (2002) Climate risk to global economy, Climate Change and the Financial Services Industry, United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiatives Executive Briefing Paper (UNEP FI) (PDF) Accessed 7 January 2006 K. M. Walter, S. A. Zimov, J. P. Chanton, D. Verbyla and F. S. Chapin (2006). "Methane bubbling from Siberian thaw lakes as a positive feedback to climate warming". Nature 443: 71-75. DOI:10.1038/nature05040. Wang, Y.M., J.L. Lean, and N.R. Sheeley (2005). "Modeling the sun's magnetic field and irradiance since 1713". Astrophysical Journal 625: 522-538. [91],Wired Careful Where You Put That Tree.

Environmental Protection and Human Rights in Indian Perspective

* Dr. Jagat Singh Chandpuri
The problem of environmental pollution is becoming a matter of great concern not only in India but all over the world. Today, the word is concerned how to combat pollution and how to maintain the standard of human environment. Effective environment protection and improvement is therefore, a mater of legal rights and duties. Fortunately, in India the peoples response to ecological crisis has been very positive. It is interesting as well as significant to note that in India different laws relating to environment protection recognize the role of people in protecting the environment. The judicial response to almost all environmental litigations has been very positive in India. But the law alone cannot tackle the problem of pollution. There has to be awareness of the problem and sustained efforts are required to tackle it. Introduction- Pollution has became a great problem in present time. Today not only a human being is effected from pollution, but all creature, flora and fauna are also being disturbed by pollution. With the increasing industrialization and the tendency of the majority of industries to congregate in areas, which are already heavily industrialized, the problem of air, water, noise and soil pollutions has begun to be felt in the country. The presence in air, beyond certain limits, of various pollutants discharged through industrial emissions and from certain human Activities connected with traffic, heating, use of domestic fuel, refuse incineration, etc. has a detrimental effect on the health of the people as also on animal life, vegetation and property.
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, D.A.V. (PG) College, Dehradun (Uttarakhand)

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The problem of environmental pollution is as old as the evolution of homo sapiens on the earth planet. However, different dimensions of the problem of environmental protection and its management have taken a serious turn in the present era. This is so because societys interaction with the nature is so extensive that the environmental question has assumed proportions affecting all humanity. The dominant factors which are responsible to environmental deterioration throughout the word are industrialization, urbanization, population, explosion, poverty, over-exploitation of resources, depletion of traditional resources of energy and raw materials and research for new sources of energy and raw materials. Protection of Environment in India- In India, not only the government is taking the interest for environment protection, but the people are also involved to participate in protecting of environment from ancient era. In Hindu philosophy it is believed that Hindu Body is composed of five elements. (Pancha-tatva) viz. air, water, sky, earth and fire1. In this sense the human body is a creature of the nature, nature possesses an inherent quality of curing pollution by itself. Similarly in Narshimha Puran trees have been personified as God (Brahma) himself 2. It is said in Skand Puran that peepal is supreme of all other trees as lord vishnu is to all other gods3. In Yajana Valkasmriti cutting of trees and forest was a punishable offence, we also find reference of beautiful forests of Dhandaranya, Nandavana and Khandavana in Ramayana and Mahabharata. The destruction of forest ways considered to be great sin in the epic period. In the addition to forests and other components of nature under the Hindu theology animals stood to human beings in a relationships of mutual respect and kindness. Ancient Hindu scriptures strictly prohibited the killing of birds and animal. We find many references in yajur veda, brida smriti, yajna valkay smriti and vishnu samhita with regard to the protection of animals in Hindu period. In Yajurveda the tree is an important, like a son, a tree is deemd just like ten sons. The environmental conservation as it existed during Mauryan period continued more or less unuttered in subsequent regions until the end of the Gupta Empire in 673 A.D. prohibitions for forest destruction and animal

killing were announced by other Hindu kings for instance Ashoka in Pillar edict expressed his view point about the welfare of creatures in his state4. In India there are some N.G.O.s and others semi government institutions are also involved to participate in protecting of environment viz. Chipko Aandolen, Rural litigation and entitlement Kendra (RLEK) Dehradun. Narmada Bachao Aandolan, (Medha Patekar), Ganga bachao Aandolan, APPIKO Movement (Karnataka), Dasoli gram Swaraj Mandal Uttarakhand, Dalion Ka dagriya (Friends of trees) Maittee, etc. are best example who are taking interest for protection, conservation and preservation of environment. Besides this public interest litigations are playing a vital role in environmental cases. In spite of that the problem of environmental pollution is becoming a matter of great concern not only in India but all over the world. Today, the world is concerned how to combat pollution and how to maintain the standard of human environment. In the developing country where finance are a great constraint, the matter gets aggravated on account of lack of awareness. But none the less Indias efforts are not less than of any developing country. It is evident that in the past danger of polluting air, water and land was not fully realised but in the last three decades humanity has shown as greater concern for avoiding environmental pollution. The history of environmental management in India underwent a marked change for the united nations conference on human environment hold at Stockholm in 1972. Some of the notable principles5 of the Stockholm Declaration are as follows : 1. Man has the fundamental rights to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life in an environment of quality that permits, a life of dignity and well-being and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations. 2. The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, flora and fauna and especially representative sample of natural ecosystems must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning and management as appropriate. 3. States shall take all possible steps to prevent pollution of

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the sea by substances that are liable to create hazardus to human health, to harm living resources and marine life, to damage amenities or to interfere with other legitimate uses of the seas. 4. States have the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their environmental policies and responsibility to ensure that Activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other states or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. 5. State shall cooperates and develop further the international law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage caused by Activities within the jurisdiction or control of such states to areas beyond their jurisdiction. India participated in the World Conference held at Stockholms Mrs. Indira Gandhi the then Prime Minister of India declared a suitable environmental policy for India. But real awakening came when Bhopal Gas Tragedy happened on December 4th, 1984. Laws Relating to Environmental Protection in IndiaLegislative Activitism is responsible for passing of large number of statutes in India. According to the N.D. Tiwari committee report 19806, there are two hundred cnetral and state statutes that have some bearing on environmental protection. The principal statute, according to the report, are as follows :1. The Indian Forest Act, 1972 2. The Atomic energy Act, 1962 3. Factories Act 1948 4. The Insecticide 1968 5. The Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 6. The water (prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1974 7. The water (prevention and control of pollution) Cess Act, 1977. 8. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 9. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 10. The environments (protection) Act 1986. 11. The motor vehicles Act, 1988 12. The national environment tribunal Act, 1995.

Besides this there are some others laws which are basically introduced for conservation, protection and preservation of environment viz. 1. The police Act 1861. 2. The workmens compensation Act 1923 3. The air craft Act 1934 4. Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control ) Rules, 2000, 5. Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules 2008. 6. Hazardous Micro-organisms rules, 1989. 7. The chemical accidents (emergency planning preparedness and response) Rules, 1996. 8. The Bio-medical waste (management and handling) Rules 1998. 9. The plastics manufacture sales and usage rules, 1999. 10. The ozone depleting substance (Regulation and control) rules, 2000. 11. The municipal solid wastes (management and handling) rules, 2000. 12. The batteries (management and handling) rules, 2001. 13. The Indian Penal Code 1860 14. The criminal procedure code 1973. 15. The civil procedure code 1908. 16. The Law of Torts 17. The specific Relief Act 1963 18. The Constitutional Law etc. The above list of statutes, the environmental (protection) Act 1986 is a general legislation dealing with environment. It seeks to supplement the existing laws on control of pollution. It has been enacted to fill the gaps in the regulation of major environmental hazardous. Constitutional protection of Environment- India is the first country to provide constitutional protection to environment, originally, the constitution did not contain a specific provision of the protection and promotion for the protection and promotion of environment. However in course of time there are some provisions has been inserted in our constitution relating to environmental

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promotion and protection. Following are some specific provisionA) Fundamental Rights- Articles 14, 19 and 21 of the constitution of India dealing with the right to equality, freedom of expression and right to life and personal liberty respectively. Article 14 of the constitution deals with right to equality before law. Article 14 strikes at arbitrariness in state action and ensure fairness and equality of treatment. The principle of reasonableness, which logically as well as philosophically is an essential element of equality or non-arbitrariness pervades article 14 like a brooding omnipresence. Right to life- The concepts The right to life, personal liberty and procedure established by law7, contained on Article 21 of the constitution could not remain in state of inertia for a long time. A host of question were to be dealt with, when the judiciary came to review environmental decisions. Among them, the question how to bring about a balance between the environment and development poses a great dilemma. The Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra Vs. State of UP8 is the first case indicating the recognition of the right to live in healthy environment as a part of Article 21. In M.C. Mehta Vs. Union of India9 which is popularly known as oleum gas leakage case, the supreme court once again impliedly came to recognise the right to live in pollution free environment as a part of fundamental right to life under Article 21 of the constitution. The Rajasthan High Court held in L. K. Koolwal V. State of Rajasthan10, that the maintenance of health, preservation of the sanitation and environment falls within the purview of Article 21 of the constitution as it adversely affects the life of the citizen because of the hazards created, if not checked. In Subhash Kumar V. State of Bihar11 the supreme court remarked : right to live is a fundamental right under Article 21 of the constitution and includes the right of enjoyment of pollution free water and air for full enjoyment of life. If anything endangers or impairs that quality of life in derogation of laws, a citizen has right to have recourse to Article 32 of the constitution for removing the pollution of water or air which may be detrimental to the quality of life. In this was the right to live in healthy environment was specifically recognised to be a part of Article 21 of the constitution.

Right to livelihood : Judicial activism has further broadened the scope and ambit of Article 21by interpretation and now the right to life includes the right to livelihood12. This broad interpretation of the right to life is very helpful in checking the governmental action which has an environmental impact that threatness the poor people of their livelihood by dislocating them from their place of living or otherwise depriving them of their livelihood. Right to Freedom carry on Trade or Business Article 19(1)(g) provides that all citizen shall have the right to practice to any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business. However, their right is not absolute, it is subject to Article 19(6) under which reasonable restrictions can be imposed upon this right in the interest of general public. In this way environmental interests can be protected from the hazardous of any trade or business. Writ jurisdiction and prevention of environmental pollution : For exercise of writ jurisdiction, provision has been made under Articles 32 and 226 of the constitution. Environmental Law in general is a body of statutory principles. However, in India the position is that major part of environmental jurisprudence has been developed through writ jurisdiction. Judicial activism and the evolution of the concept public interest litigation or social action litigation under the writ jurisdiction of the supreme court and high courts have brought a revolutionary change in the processual jurisdiction and it has played a pivotal role in designing and developing environmental jurisprudence with human right approach. This remedy has become most popular as it has ensured public participation in matters like environmentally protection. B) Directive principles of State Policy Relating to Environmental Protection- Part IV of the constitution is concerned with the directive pr inciples of state policy, constitutional direction to state, concerning environment has been incorporated in Part IV by constitution 42nd Amendment Act 1976. The followings principles are led to environment protection and conservation. Duty to raise the level of nutrition and the standard for living Article 47 provides The state shall regard the raising of the

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level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as among its primary duties and in particular, the state shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption except for Medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health. Organisation of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry - Article 48 requires that the stat shall endeavour to organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines and shall, in particular, take steps for preserving and improving the breeds, and prohibiting the slaughter of cows and calves and other milch and draught cattle. Protection and Improvement of Environment and Wild Life Article 48(A) requires the state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forest and wild life of the country. Protection of monuments : Article 49 provides it shall be the obligation of the state to protect every monuments or place or object of artistic or historic interest declared by or under law made by parliament to be national importance, from spoilation, disfigurement, destructions, removal, disposal or export, as the case may be. C) Fundamental Duties and Environment Protection Part IVA, for the constitution which contains the fundamental duties of the citizen of India was added by the constitution (42 nd Amendment Act) 1976. It contains Article 51-A only, there are 11 fundamental duties provided in this article, one of them is related to environmental protection as follows :It shall be the duty of every citizen of India (g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures. The supreme court in Shri Sachidanand Pandey V. State of West Bengal13 held that when ever as problem of ecology was brought before the court, the court was bound to bear in mind article 48-A and Article 51-A (g). Human beings and living beings are product of their environment, A Good environment helps all round development

of ones per sonality and a bad environment inhibits its development. It affects human beings and living beings directly and indirectly. Even from mothers womb a man needs unpolluted air to breathe, uncontaminated water to drink, nutritious food to eat and hygienic conditions to live in. These elements are sine qua non for sound development of human personality. In the absence of these seldom all the facilities of man grow to their fullest extent. Man in order to survive, adapts himself to his environment but he rarely pays due attention for its improvement either because of his indifference towards it or because of his lack of ability to improve or because of his lack of ability to improve or change it or because of his ignorance of it. Conclusion and Suggestions : Environmental protection and its preservation is today the concern of all. The environment is one of the clearest example that all human activities on this earth are inter connected. Today, societys interaction with nature is so extensive that environmental question has assumed all proportions affecting all humanity. Environmental destruction and pollution has seriously threatened the human life, health and livelihood. Thus, there was been a thrust on the protection of environment the world over. If the quality of life is to be assure to the present generation and if the future generation is to be saved from the environmental catastrophe, the natures gift to us in the form of flora and fauna has to be preserved in the natural form. The proper balance of the ecosystem is the need of hour. The only answer to tackle this problem is sustainable development. The object of the environmental law is to preserve and protect the natures gifts to men and women such as water, air, earth and atmosphere from pollution. But the law alone cannot tackle the problem of pollution. There has to be awareness of the problem and sustained efforts are required to tackle it. Both development and environment must go hand in hand, in other words, there should not be development at the cost of environment and vice-versa, but there should be development while taking due care and ensuring the protection of environment. Therefore, it is essential that the people should be aware of the adverse consequence of environmental pollution and they should not only protect and improve the environment but also

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ensure the compliance of anti-pollution laws, and if need be to take help of the judicial forum to enforce such laws to maintain the ecological balance. ======================== References1 2 3 4 5 6 S.S. Sharma, Environmental Pollution and Human Rights, p. 184 B.N. Tiwari Hindu Culture and Ecology in Gautam Sharma edition environment, man and nature 1989 p. 23-27. Ibid. p. 24 R. Thapar Ashoka and The decline of Mauryas 1973, p. 264 For the text of declaration, see Indian Journal of International Law, Volume 12, (1972), p. 328. This committee was constituted by the Government of India, Department of Science and Technology to made recommendation regarding legislative measures and administrative machinery for ensuring environment protection report was submitted in 1980. No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law. AIR 1985 SC 652, 1259 AIR 1987 SC 1086 AIR 1988 Raj. 02 AIR 1992 SC 420 See Olga Tellis V. Bombay Municipal Corporation AIR 1980, SC 180, Sodan Singh V. N.D.M.L. (1989) 4 SCC 155, Ramesh Chandra V. Imtiaz Khan (1998) 4 SCC 760, State of H.P. V. Umed Ram Sharma, AIR 1986 SC 847 AIR 1987 SC 1109

Social Environmental Changes in Wood Craft Tradition of Sank heda

* Dr. Anjali Pandey
Changes are characteristics of all cultures. Traditional workmanship in wood is handed down from father to son; and their instinctive sense is shown in continuity of pattern and design over a long period of time. Tradition is not only a repetitive behavioral pattern it is also a revival, an identity of society. The crafts man modified the forms according to their own requirements. Earlier natural materials were used as time changed, synthetic materials are in vogue. The new economic approach changed the social structure, and raised the matter to think about it. Introduction- In India the human thought kept alive in folk tradition. It is deep rooted and need not to emphasis on assert. It has its existence from unfold generations. The study of Indian wood craft reveals artistic sensibility of Indian craftsman, who maintained the popular standard, local touch and regional identity with flexibility in design and art forms. Indian crafts and toys have a unique place among the worlds market. Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan, Bihar are figure on this list. Gujarat has a rich back ground of wooden craft; Sankheda, Mahuva, Kutch, Junagarh, Dharoji are the prime centres1.The artisans of Sankheda; near the Vadodara have majestic designs for wooden furniture and utilitarian articles. Most widely seen items include: cradle with stand, chourang, (square seat for religious ceremonies), machia legs, chair and sofa sets, doublebed are in furniture, while bangle-stand, flower-vases, chakla-belan, dandia-sticks, lamps; toys are some of the utilitarian items. This
=========================== * Assistant Professor (Drawing & Painting), Govt. MLB Collage, Bhopal (M.P.)

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work is generally done on teak which being naturally light coloured is given a dark stain2. The artisans of Sankheda have become masters of wood craft, as they have been practicing this craft for generations. It is a small village about 80 K.M. away from Vadodara in Gujarat. Over 200 craftsmen are engaged in the craft in this region. Lacquered furniture, cradle, pithas are specialty of this place. Objectives To find out the identity, uniqueness and specialty. The process and technique of arty-craft. To emphasize the changes of social, materialistic and professional aspect. Adoption of modern trends and impact on art work. Role of social and environmental changes, in changing pattern of regional art. To suggest the promotion of ecofriendly technique and process. Method & Material- The method of Wood art is traditional one, with its own identity. The use of lathe machine for spinning the wood to give them new characteristic, cylindrical, round shapes and specific sizes as per the demand of the article.3 Firstly the wood is purchased locally from log storage, according to requirement. Hand saws and axes are used to cut the wood to turn into pieces. Chisel, gauges and snappers are used for scrapping, shaping and carving. After giving the desired shape to the wood pieces, sometimes putti is used for leveling them and again the smoothing has been done on the surface by sand paper before they apply the coating of primer. The process of coating primer has been done in three stages. Firstly they coat yellow row siena or ramraj on the surface of the wood. In second and third step they use gray coloured readymade coat on the revolving wood piece, while it is still turning on the lathe. The skill of craftsmen express through the kinetic rhythm of the work. The decorations for vanity, the creativeness with the integrity of simplicity, emerge with needs and interest, and elaborate the skill of artisan. When the article is ready to be lacquered, they use the synthetic enamel paint for colouring the surface. This work is done in revolving manner with the help of

flat brush. They fit the carved and finished wooden rod having hole at the edge from both side, with the pivot, fixed on heavy wooden log. Sometimes they use the two or three colours side by side in strips with the help of brush in required colour scheme. After colouring the surface; further ornamentation has been done.4 It is specific design of Sankheda which represents its identity. The simple evocative brush strokes ornate depiction of aesthetics. The synthesis of floral and geometrical designs gives the significant effect. After designing the surface the rod is taken out from the pivot and filled with floral or geometrical pattern with the help of round pointed brush. The thinner is used to dilute the colour as required. Again they fix the coloured rod on the pivot for melamine coating, which is the last step of colouring. When the colour dries the process of fitting continues and the article takes shape. Art carries the tradition and hand over to new generation with experiences of experiments, failures and success. Due to social changes and demands, new forms come out. It gives the new birth to craft. Life and creativity are in separable in this art the unique sensibility, and the intense awareness gives the new birth to the craft. Lack of availability of the material, buyers demand and introducing new technique reforms their skill. They have learnt the secret of the business for the survival, changing with the times. Tools- Jigsaw machine, Stand and portable drill machine, compressor, hand- saw, axe, chisel, gauges and snappers etc. Social Changes- The art of Sankheda lacquered work is now moderating with the new facts. The skill of ancient art and craft technique is converting into full fledged industry. Now the artisans are skilled and much more aquatint with new upcoming material.Early the lathe was run manually. Now these days the machine runs on electricity.5 Chisel and gouges are in use to carve out the shapes. Sensitivity and creativeness transforms the wood into different variety of articles. The turning job of lathe machine makes the process of finishing, coating and colouring easy. Artificial colours replaced the natural colours. Now the artisans use the Emulsion colour to paint the surface. This work is done in revolving manner with the help of flat brush. Use of Melamine replaced the lacquer.

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Conclusion- Art reveals itself. The changes in society and environment reflect in art tradition. The interpretation of art and culture comes out as an extract of deep experimental knowledge. Need of entrepreneur, demand of buyer and change of social concept; due to new upcoming technologies gives birth of new ideas and effective causes for the change. The traditional shilpi embraced the full range of flexibility with coordination of deep rooted tradition.6 Materialistic availability in the market also effects the productions. Professionalism also changed the social scenario, as craftsman is also a part of society, the effect of the causes, sometimes reflects in the patterns. As life and creativity are inseparable, sensibility and awareness of an artist works with intense perfection. Social and economical support can give them mental strength, to generate the traditional creativity and typological perfection with new explorations. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Mookerjee Ajit, (1986) Metal, Wood and Ivory; Folk Art of India; Clarion Books, N.Delhi, Pg- 77-81. Saraf D.N., (1982) Indian Crafts-Development and Potential, Vikas Publishing House PVT. LTD. Marg -A Magazine of Arts,(1966) Vol XXI, Lac Turnery, Pg- 16-19. An Interview with Manu Bhai (Sankheda-Gujarat) Pandey Anjali; (2010) Grameen Vikas Ke Sandarbh Mein Madhya Pradesh Ki Budhni Ghat Kharad Kala; Bharat Mein Grameen Vikas; Gayatri Publications Rewa, Pg-254-258. Jayakar Pupul; (1987) Craftsmen and the creative process; Brij Basi Printers New Delhi. Pg 69-75.

Effect of Overpopulation on the Environment and Society

* Dr. Anita Sarin ** Dr. Dipti Jha
There is a close relation between global warming and population growth. Today the large population on earth is using the technologies which are destructive for the earth Approximately, 80 perscent of atmospheric CO2 increases are due to mans use of fossile fuels either in the form of coal, gas or oil . A large portion of carbon emission is attributed to the burning of the gasoline in internal combustion engine of vehicles. Vehicles with poor gas mileage contribute the most to global warming. Man-made causes probably do the most damage. There are many man-made causes Pollution is one of the biggest man-made problems. Pollution comes in many shape and size. Burning fossile fuels is one thing that causes pollution. Fossile fuels are burned they give off a green house gas called CO2 . Also mining coal and oil allows methane to escape. Methane is naturally in the ground. Another major manmade cause of temerature rising is population. As population increased, so did the need for land for homes and farms. Due to rapid increase in population the demand of land for agriculture, settlement and industry is increasing rapidly but on the other hand good land is shrinking considerably because of soil degradation problems. Another problem with the increasing population is transportation. More people means more cars and more cars means more pollution. Also many people more than one car.Human population is growing like never before. The list of problems this
=========================== * Dr. R.B. Government Navin Girls Collage, Raipur (C.G.) ** Raipur (C.G.)

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is causing or at least complicating, is a long one. It includes shortages of all our resources, war and social conflict, limits on personal freedome, over crowding and the health and sarvival of other species. Over popullation is not the sole cause of these, it is certainly a root cause. We hope to see more media coverage of this link in the future We can do something about population and we can solve all these problems more easily if we do. Many basic resources are strained by our current population. Food : One billion people, one out of every seven people alive go to bed hungry. Every day 25,000 people die of malnutrition and hunger related diseases. Almost 18,000 of them are children under 5 years old. Water shortages : About one billion people lack access to sufficient water for consumption, agriculture and sanitation. Melting glaciers threaten the water supply for billions. Wouldnt an ethic of population reduction now, make people live much better? Air quality : In many regions of the country, childhood asthama rates have risen dramatically in the past 20 years. Children in undeveloped countries, where people depend on burning wood and dung for their heat and cooking are also at risk. Half the world population relies on burning wood and dung for cooking and for heating. The Ozone layes : 50 years ago parents told their kids to go play outside because sunshine is good for you. Many parents today dont think that way because the ozone layer of the atmosphere no longer protect us aswell from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. Currently the layer is being destroyed at a rate of aout 4 % per decade. The worlds forests are another resource that is strained by our growing population. Not only are they a source of fuel and building material, recent research has focused on forests ability to sequester green houses and protect us from global warning. Even the earths topsoil itself has limits. Most people dont realize that in many regions good growing soil is limited to the top 6 inches of topsoil and that heavy crop growing is depleting this. Social ProblemsOvercrowding : It is a common observation that people in small

towns are friendlier than people in cities. One recent study from U.C. Irvine found that less densely packed people are friendlier towards their neighbors. If we live in a growing Metropolitan area, we notice, the cost of housing is rising significantly. Usually, the denser the city, the higher the cost of housing and taxes. Where we live, the developers with a complicit city counsil just build, build, build new housing, blocks after blocks of 5 & 6 story buildings. They do not contain ample parking for thair residential units and they bring many more people into the town. And the developers have gobbled up several of the convenient down parking lots and turned them into more gigantic housing blocks, doubly compounding the problems. Unfortunately for residents of the city, the outcome for many local businesses has been termination. We certainly try our best to support local businesses and would strongly prefer to shop where we can see the merchandise and talk to an informed sales person, but we wont fruitlessly try to park, circle the block and pay to park in a lot 3 blocks from the store. As the problems of higher population density become worse, there are more and more restrictions placed on our freedoms. Traffic and congestion themselves put limits on our freedom to travel when and where we please. Cities that are overly crowded are not good places to go shopping, for meals or entertaiments because it is overly difficult to get their and park. In rural areas people are freer to build what they want and do what they want on their own land. When people are packed in close together, our actions impinge much more directly on our neighbours and more restrictions must be enacted. These are some of the ways our growing population is impinging on our quality of life and in many regions of the globe, life itself. Its a long list and more could be added, As some point out, these problems are not entirely the result of overpopulation. We could consume less, we could use resources more efficiently and we can distribute them in ways that would not deprive so many access to the basics, But there is no doubt that these problems could be solvad more easily if we dont add 3 billion or 5 billion or many many more people to our lovely planet.

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Increasing Noise Pollution in Society

* Rupa Salhotra
Noise Pollution is a big problem now-a-days. Major source of noise pollution is road traffic. Besides this there are many other sources which are responsible for noise pollution. Here we give introduction about noise pollution, how it is calculated, drawbacks and harmful effects of noise pollution and at the end we will give suggestions and strategies to control noise pollution in our country. Introduction- Noise means an unwanted sound that causes irritation. Sound is a form of energy which is emitted by a vibrating and on reaching the ear causes the sensation of hearing through nerves. Sounds produced by all vibrating bodies are not audible. The typical cry of a child produces a sound which is mostly unfavorable to normal hearing; we may call it a noise. Noise may be continuous or intermittent. It may be of high frequency or of low frequency. The frequency range audible to normal human ear lies between 20 Hz to 20000 Hz. Sound of frequency less than 20 Hz is called infrasonic and greater than 20000 Hz is called ultrasonic. Sources of noise- The sources of noise may be : Domestic : movement of utensils, cutting of vegetables Natural : birds/animals shout , sea tide, wind movements, waterfall Commercial : vendor shouts, automobiles, airplanes, laboratory, machinery Industrial: generator sets, boilers, trolley movements, transport vehicles, pumps, motors. Impact of noise- Noise induces a severe impact on human beings. Some of them are:
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Mathematics, Govt. Navin Kanya College Raipur

Loss of hearing Sleeplessness Physiological effects Nervous system Damage to materials Annoyance (short temper) How we compute the noise pollution- The intensity of sound is measured in sound pressure levels (SPL) and common unit of measurement is decibel (dB). The sound pressure is the pressure exerted at a point due to a sound producing source. The community noise levels are measured in the A-weighted SPL, abbreviated dB(A). This scale resembles the audible response of human ear. Sounds of frequencies from 800 3000 Hz are covered by the AWeighted scale. If the sound pressure level, L1 in dB is measured at r1 meters then the sound pressure level, L2 in dB at r2 meters is given by L2 = L1 20 log10(r2/ r1) (1) If the sound levels are measured in terms of pressure, then, sound pressure level, Lp is given by Lp = 20 log10-(P/Po) dB(A) (2) The Lp is measured against a standard reference pressure, P-o = 2x10-5 N/m2 which is equivalent to zero decibels. Day and night equivalent noise levelsThe day night equivalent noise levels of a community can be expressed as Ldn, dB(A) = 10xlog10[15/24(10Ld/10)+9/24(10(Ln+10)/10)] .....(3) Where, Ld=day equivalent noise levels (from 6 a.m. 9p.m.), dB(A) Ln= night equivalent noise levels (from 9p.m. 6 a.m.), dB(A) The day hours with respect to assessment of noise levels, is fixed from 6 a.m. 9p.m. (i.e. 15 hrs) and night hours from 9p.m. 6 a.m. (i.e. 9hrs). A level of 10 dB is added to Ln due to the low ambient sound levels during night for assessing the Ldn values. Addition of sound level- The effective sound levels from two or more sources cannot be simply added algebraically. Example: the effective sound levels from two air conditioners 63dB

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(A) each, say is 60+3=63dB(A) instead of 63+63=126 dB(A). Frequency analysis- The frequency analysis allow to separate the main components of the signals by dividing the frequency range of interest into smaller frequency bands using a set of filters. The lower the frequency, the longer is the wave length (wavelength = velocity of sound/frequency).The noises may consist of regularly repeated or periodic sounds and aperiodic sounds. The noise produced by most sources of community noise, such as automobiles or aircraft engines, are examples of aperiodic sounds Such sounds cannot be subdivided into sets of harmonically related pure tones but can be described in terms of components extending over finite frequency bands. Such frequency analysis are often done in bands of octaves or 1/3 octaves. An octave band is a frequency band with upper and lower cutoff frequencies having a ratio of 2. The cut off frequencies of 707 HZ and 1414 HZ define an octave band, whose band centre frequency is 1000 HZ and would be referred to as the 1000 HZ octave band. Frequency analyzers can be divided into two groups e.g. constant band width analyzer and constant percentage bandwidth analyzer. The constant percentage bandwidth analyzer is widely used. The nine preferred centre frequencies for noise level measurement are 31.5, 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000yu, 2000, 4000 and 8000 HZ. As the sound generating frequencies are not fully covered under dB(A), for detailed evaluation and engineering design, the multiple-number descriptions provided by frequency analysis are often required. Control of noise pollution- Due to the various adverse impact of noise on humans and environment, noise should be controlled. It can be controlled by 1. Reducing the noise level from domestic sector 2. Maintenance of automobiles 3. Control over vibrations 4. Low voice speaking 5. Prohibition on usage of loud speakers 6. Selection of machinery 7. Maintenance of machines 8. Installation of panels or enclosures 9. Green belt development.

National Rural Health Mission and Rural Poor : New Hope for Livelihood
* Sukanta Sarkar
Introduction- Health is the general condition of a person in all aspects. The framework of predictable and growing federal support for health care would not have been possible without the Government maintaining balanced budgets or better. At the time of the creation of the World Health Organization (WHO), in 1948, health was defined as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.State has the responsibility for the health of its citizens.(1) In developing nations like India, non-profit organizations often join hands with corporate houses to execute rural health projects and bring about improvements in the health levels of rural people. The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) is a National effort at ensuring effective healthcare through a range of interventions at individual, household, community, and most critically at the health system levels.(2) The Mission seeks to provide universal access to equitable, affordable and quality health care which is accountable at the same time responsive to the needs of the people, reduction of child and maternal deaths as well as population stabilization, gender and demographic balance. In this process, the Mission would help achieve goals set under the National Health Policy and the Millennium Development Goals.(3) The NHRM was launched in 2005 to provide effective healthcare to rural population throughout the country with special focus on 18 states, which have weak public health indicators and weak infrastructure. These are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh,
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Faculty of Management Studies, ICFAI University, Agartala, Tripura.

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Jharkhand, Jammu & Kashmir, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh. While all the Mission activities are the same for all the States/UTs in the country, the high focus States would be supported for having an Accredited Social Health Worker (ASHA) in all villages with a population of 1000 and also in having Project Management Support at the State and District level. New components have been added to the existing Primary Health Care delivery system in the country, like supply of AYUSH drugs, horizontal integration of vertical national health programs, annual grant of Rs. 10,000 per sub-center, integrated disease surveillance programme, provision of 24-hour service through mainstreaming AYUSH manpower etc. Hence, training of the health functionaries at various levels is envisaged. (4) The Mission is an articulation of the commitment of the Government to raise public spending on Health from 0.9% of GDP to 2-3% of GDP, over the next 5 years. It aims to undertake architectural correction of the health system to enable it to effectively handle increased allocations as promised under the National Common Minimum Programme.(5) National Rural Health Mission (NHRM)- The National Rural Health Mission was launched by the Honble Prime Minister on 12th April 2005, to provide accessible, affordable and accountable quality health services even to the poorest households in the remotest rural regions. The thrust of the Mission was on establishing a fully functional, community owned, decentralized health delivery system with inter sectoral convergence at all levels, to ensure simultaneous action on a wide range of determinants of health like water, sanitation, education, nutrition, social and gender equality. The main activities under NRHM initiatives are as follows, 1. Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA). 2. Mainstreaming AYUSH 3. Untied funds to Sub-Centers. 4. Formation of Rogi Kalyan Samities. 5. Mobile Medical Unit.(8) Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHA)-

Currently Anganwadi Workers (AWWs) under the Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) are engaged in organizing supplementary nutrition programmes and other supportive activities. The very nature of her job responsibilities (with emphasis on supplementary feeding and pre school education) does not allow her to take up the responsibility of a change agent on health in a village. Thus a new band of community based functionaries, named as Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) is proposed to fill this void. The NRHM covers all the villages through village-based Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHA) who would act as a link between the health centers and the villagers. One ASHA will be raised from every village or cluster of villages. The ASHA would be trained to advise villagers about Sanitation, Hygiene, Contraception, and Immunization to provide Primary Medical Care for Diarrhea, Minor Injuries, and Fevers; and to escort patients to Medical Centers. (10) If rural women want counselling on important issues such as birth preparedness, importance of safe delivery, breastfeeding and complementary feeding, immunization, contraception and prevention of common infections including Reproductive Tract Infection/Sexually Transmitted Infection (RTIs/ STIs) and care of the young child, they may contact the concerned ASHA who shall be happy to provide them with all relevant guidance and assistance. Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY)- Janani Surakha Yojana is another important component under NRHM. JSY is a centrally sponsored scheme to benefit pregnant women & certified poor families. The Government has introduced the Janani Suraksha Yojana to provide comprehensive medical care during pregnancy, child birth and postnatal care and thereby endeavour to improve the level of institutional deliveries in low performing states to reduce maternal mortality. There are basically two features of JSY, 1. The scheme focuses on the poor pregnant woman with special dispensation for states having low institutional delivery rates namely the states of Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Rajasthan, Orissa and Jammu and Kashmir. While these states have been named as Low Performing States, the remaining states have been

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named as High performing States. 2. Each beneficiary registered under this Yojana should have a JSY card along with a MCH card. ASHA/AWW/ any other identified link worker under the overall supervision of the ANM and the MO, PHC should mandatory prepare a micro-birth plan. Challenges before NRHM- Health is a state subject and the NRHM is an effort at building a partnership with the States to ensure meaningful reforms with more resources. Ultimately, the success of NRHM will depend on the ability of the Mission interventions to galvanize State Governments into action, pursuing innovations and flexibility in all spheres of public health action. Ensuring availability of fully trained and equipped resident health functionaries at all levels and large scale demand side financing under initiatives like the Janani Suraksha Yojana for institutional deliveries are a few priorities for action. Partnerships with non governmental providers to strengthen pubic health delivery are also an important need given the distribution of Specialist doctors in India. The challenge before the NRHM is to craft credible public systems. This would call for new systems of public recruitment that are institution-specific and based on service guarantees with complete local-level accountability. The NRHM has promoted this culture of local recruitment and local accountability through contractual appointments. There is the need to develop a new paradigm of public recruitment based on the learning of the last five years. (12) Work and social security are the central concerns of the poor in our country. Most of our nations poor or almost 400 million workers are engaged in the informal economy, also called the informal or unorganized sector. There are a large number of agricultural labour who fall in the below poverty line category. Among these workers, women are the poorest and most vulnerable of all. Their lives are marked by a struggle to attain basic security of employment and livelihood with social security. Among poor working people, and especially women, risks are varied and frequent at all stages of their lives, contributing to their vulnerability and continuing poverty. Risk pooling has to therefore, be inclusive, in order to meet specific household needs.

Conclusion- The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) is trying to carry out fundamental reforms in the basic health care delivery system in order to meet peoples needs. Exploring new health care financing mechanisms and developing credible community based health insurance schemes is its mandate. The NRHM envisages a strong District Health Mission with adequate technical, managerial and accounting support in managing risk pooling and health security. The NRHM is also providing Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) in the EAG states for every 1000 population. The NRHM effort is to strengthen the 3222 Community Health Centres and to establish 24 hour round the clock hospital like services in every Block in the country. Janani Suraksha Yojana support for institutional deliveries is available to every Below Poverty Line pregnant woman and is expected to meet the maternity care needs. The strengthening of the public health delivery system and the availability of an army of health workers in the field provides an opportunity to improve risk pooling through community based health insurance. NHRM shows new hope for the rural people for getting health benefits. Rural people are always suffering from various diseases and NHRM shows new opportunity for them. ======================== References1. 2. 3. Rural Health (2010), Available at http://www.gujhealth.gov.in/health_programmes/ rural%20health/Index.htm National Rural Health Mission (2010), Available at http://nrhmrajasthan.nic.in/ The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight international development goals that all 192 United Nations member states and at least 23 international organizations have agreed to achieve by the year 2015. They include eradicating extreme poverty, reducing child mortality rates, fighting disease epidemics such as AIDS, and developing a global partnership for development National Rural Health Mission 2005-2012, Mission document, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Government of India 2005 Na tional Ru ral Health Mission (2 010 ), Ava ila ble at http:// www.mysarkarinaukri.com/national-rural-health-mission-nrhm Abjit Das (2005), NHRM: New Hope for the Rural Poor, Available at http:// infochangeindia.org/20050603393/Agenda/Access-Denied/NRHM-New-hope-forthe-rural-poor.html Kapil U. After RCH program be ready for IMCI strategy. Indian Pediatr (1999); 11: 1177-1178 National Rural Health Mission (2007), Available at http://nuapada.nic.in/nrhm/ NRHM%20intro.asp

4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

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Central mulls NRHM clone for urban poor (2 010 ), Ava ila ble at http:// www.dailypioneer.com/275147/Centre-mulls-NRHM-clone-for-urban-poor.html National Rural Health Mission (2005), Available at: http://india.gov.in/spotlight/ spotlight_archive.php?id=14 Abhijit Das (2005), NHRM: New hope for the rural poor, Available at http:// infochangeindia.org/20050603393/Agenda/Access-Denied/NRHM-New-hope-forthe-rural-poor.html National Rural Health Mission Completes Five Years, Available at http:// peopleforsocialcause.blogspot.com/20 10/04/na tional-rural-hea lth-missionnrhm.html

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12.

Heart Patients and their Family Relation

* Dr. Indra Barman
A study of heart patients and their family relation were examined, among a purposive sample of 240 heart patients (120 men, 120 women) from Government, private Hospitals and Private Clinics of Jabalpur, Bhopal and Gwalior Cities. Family Relation Scale was used covering 24 items, Age, Sex and occupation are used as independent variables. Family relation is used as dependent variable. Control variable are also used like occupational group of servicemen, Businessmen, Working and non working women. Age groups between 40- 55, 56-70, results indicated that different age groups of servicemen, Businessmen, Working women and Non working women heart patients have good & same family relation. Key words: heart patients, family relation, occupation. Heart Patients and their Family Relation Introduction- Society is a structure made up of families and the peculiarities of a given can be understand by family relation. The earliest moral and ethical writing suggest that a society losses its strength if people fall in their family obligation confusion thought, for example that happiness and prosperity would prevail in the society if only every one would behave correctly as a family member which primary meant that no one should fail in his obligations.The relation between husband and wife is shaped by the network of friends and kin in which they like. In the major Civilization of the post it is likely that the kinship network was important. But through Friends may subtended for Kin in the modern social network to same extent certain general relationship between husband and wife seems to because by the nature of
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Home Science College, Hoshangabad ( M.P.)

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network itself. Most families now live in social network rather than in groups. That is, they are not post of social boundaries. Having certain norms and having some clear identity rather one family is in the social interaction with a large on small number of other families, each of which may have 1Interaction with one or other families in that number. 2Interaction with still other families in that number. 3Interaction with still other families. Medical researches indicate that the risk of cardiovascular disorder increases as a function of genetic predisposition plus such physical factors and environmental stress. Personality factors are found to play a role in heart disease (Krentz, Gronberg and Balem 1985). According to Mascarentas has (1986"A family is a community of people living in an environment which is a center of healing, a place where one can admit ones frustration, stupidities and anger to people who do not have a realistic, to be one self without pretence, where the family relation is on interaction between husband and wife as well as parents and their children. An individuals personality is a direct results of relationship that a person has with his spouse and children. Friend and Hoggard (1953) Conducted research on WORK ADJUSTMENT IN RELATION TO FAMILY BACKGROUND the family of highly adjusted group were found to be closely and strongly unified, where as the family of a badly adjusted group showed lack of togetherness. Gluecks (1957 ) research indicates that in adequate supervision of children, lack of family cohesiveness weaker family ties are responsible for family disorganizations. Problem- A study of heart patients and their family relationship Hypothesis- Their is no relationship between family relation, age, sex and occupation of heart patients. Sample- The total purposive sample for the study consisted 240 subjects, 120 men, 120 women heart patients, age group from 40 to 55, 56 to 70 year. Tool used- Family relationship Questionare developed by Dr Indira

Burman Covering 24 items related to husband-wife, parent-child relationship. The subject were supposed to answer each question with Yes or no responses. A high number of responses in yes category to positive answer and high number of responses in no category for the Negative answer mean better family relationship. Variables Independent Variables- Heart Patients Dependent Variables- Family Relationship Control VariablesA. Years as heart patients. B. Sex - Both males and females, another factor is effecting heart attack. Type of Family- Nuclear family when both spouses were alive and having children. Subject having separation, divorce were no included. Procedure- Family relation questionnaire was given to them and they were asked to fill up the introductory column in which they were required to give their Name, Age, Sex, occupation etc. There the instructions were given on the front the questionnaire and to a head as instructed. Results- The results of the study have been tabulated and presented as follows. Table No.-01 Result of Family Relation of Both Male and Female Heart Patient
Group Male H.P. Female H.P. mean 14.95 12.15 S.D. 5.62 7.09 "t' value 1.34 "p" value <.05

df=38

for significance at . 01 level-2.71 for significance at. 05 level-2.02 From the above table it appear that the mean of male H.P. is higher than that of female H.P. it have a difference of 2.80. The mean of the group male H.P. 14.95 and mean of female H.P. is 12.15 To find out the significance between the difference of mean the t value was determined which came out to this by 1.34 which is less than 2.02 minimum value for significance of .05 level hence the difference is significant.

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The standard deviation of both group of male and female H.P. are 5.62 and 7.09 respectively. The variability of the female H.P. is slightly higher than male H.P. From the above results it can be concluded that there is no difference in family relations between male and female H.P. Table No. 02 Relation of Family Relation of Both Servicemen and Busnessmen
Group Mean Servicemen 16.60 Businessmen 13.30 S.D. 5.30 5.61 "t" value 1.28 "p" value <.05

df=18

For significance at.01 level 2.88 For significance at .05 level 2.10 From the above table it is clear that there difference If 3.30 between the two groups. The mean of group servicemen is 16.60 and means group of Businessmen is 13.30. To find out the significance of difference between the means of measurement t value determined. This difference is statistically insignificant. The standard deviation of both groups of servicemen and Businessmen are 5.3 and 5.6 respectively. The variable of the Businessmen is slightly higher than Servicemen. From the above results it can be concluded that there is no difference in family relation between Service and Businessmen. Table No.-03 Family Relation of Both Non Working and Working Women
Group Mean Non working 11.10 working 14.40 S.D. 6.81 7.83 "r value .095 "p" value <.05

the working women is slightly higher then nonworking women. From the above results it can be concluded that there is no difference in family relation of between nonworking and working women. Discussion- It was assumed that there will be no: difference in the family relation of both male & female. The difference between means of male and females was found to be statistically insignificant which accepted our hypothesis and-showed that both and females are similar their family relation. The reason for accepted of our hypothesis that they feel their spouse always fulfill the promises. They always talk freely with their spouses. They are not facing the communication barrier. They have significantly expressed their views that their spouses have effect ion for them. They also feel that their spouses are understanding their thought and feelings. They feel that their spouses are not only good life partner but good friends as well. They feel that their spouse always understand their thoughts and feelings and have full confidence in them. Their spouse always encouraged them. They do not experience many conflicts within them selves due to familial problems. while comparing the means of family relation of both non working and working women, Businessmen and servicemen. It was found to be statistically insignificant which occupation hypothesis it should that both males group females group are similar in their family relation. ======================== References1. 2. Billing A.G. And Moss R.H. (1988), Work Stress And Stress Buffering Roles Of Work And Family Resources. Journal Of Occupational Behavior, 3,215-232. Coplan, R.D. (1971), Organizational Stress And Individual Stress And Individual's Strain, A Social Psychological Study Of Risk Factors In C.H.D. Among Administers, Engineers And Scientists. An- Abor-Published Doctoral Desertation. Osipow, S.H. And Danis. A.S. (1988), The Relationship Of Coping Resources To Occpational Stress And Strain. Journal Of Vocational Behavior, 27,98,108. Prakash, C.P. (1990), Occupational Stress Strain And Coping In University Faculty Members. Indian Journal Of Psychology. 64,77,82. Russek, H,I. And Zohman B.C. (1958) :- Relative Significance Heredity, Diet And Occupational Stress In Coronary Heart Disease Of Young, Adults, American Journal Of Medical Science. 223, 266, 277.

df=18

For significance at.01 level 288 For significance at .05 level 2.10 From the above table it is clear that there is a difference of 3.30 between the two groups. The means of group nonworking women is 11.10 and means of group of working female is 14.40. To find out the significance at difference between means the T value is the difference is statistically determines insignificant. The standard deviation of both groups of nonworking and working female are 6.81 and 7.83 respectively. The variability of

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A Study of the Sociology of Disability

* Dr. M. P. Maheta
The American Psychological Association style guide states that, when identifying a person with an impairment, the persons name or pronoun should come first, and descriptions of the impairment/ disability should be used so that the impairment is identified, but is not modifying the person. Improper example are a borderline, a blind person, or a man who has schizophrenia. It also states that a persons adaptive equipment should be described functionally as something that assists a person, not as something that limits a person, e.g., a woman who uses a wheelchair rather that a woman in/confined to a wheelchair. A similar kind of people-first terminology is also used in the UK, but more often in the form people with impairments (e.g., people with visual impairments). However, in the UK, the term disabled people is generally preferred to people with disabilities. It is argued under the social model that whiles someones impairment (e.g., having spinal cord injury) in an individual property, disability is something created by external societal factors such as a lack of wheelchair access to the workplace. This distinction between the individual property of 1. Introduction- The American Psychological Association style guide states that,when identifying a person with an impairment, the persons name or pronoun should come first, and descriptions of the impairment/ disability should be used so that the impairment is identified, but is not modifying the person. Improper example are a borderline, a blind person, or a man who has schizophrenia. It also states that a persons adaptive
=========================== * Head of Department in Psychology, Arts & Commerce College Mendard, Guajart

equipment should be described functionally as something that assists a person, not as something that limits a person, e.g., a woman who uses a wheelchair rather that a woman in/confined to a wheelchair.A similar kind of people-first terminology is also used in the UK, but more often in the form people with impairments (e.g., people with visual impairments). However, in the UK, the term disabled people is generally preferred to people with disabilities. It is argued under the social model that whiles someones impairment (e.g., having spinal cord injury) in an individual property, disability is something created by external societal factors such as a lack of wheelchair access to the workplace. This distinction between the individual property of impairment and the social property of disability is central to the social model. The term disabled people as a political construction is also widely used by international organizations of disabled people, such as Disabled Peoples International (DPI). Literature- Many books on disability and disability rights point out that disabled is an identify that one is not necessarily born with, as disabilities are more often acquired than congenital. Some disability rights activists use an acronym TAB, Temporarily AbleBodied, as a reminder that many people will develop disabilities at some point in their lives due to accidents, illness(physical, mental or emotional), or late-emerging effects of genetics. Masculinity- According to author Daniel J. Wilson, the characteristics of masculinity include strength, activeness, speed, endurance, and courage. These characteristics are often challenged when faced with a disability and the boy or man must reshape what it means to be masculine. For example, rather that define being a man through what one can physically do, on must redefine it by how one faces the world with a disability and all the obstacles and stereotypes that come with the disability. In Leonard Kriegels Kriegels book, Flying Solo, he describes his fight with poliomyelitis and the process of accepting his disability in a world that values able-bodied ness. He writes, I had to learn to be my own role model which is another way of saying that I had to be my own hero, my own role model which is another way of saying that I had to learn to live with neither heroes nor role models.

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2. Femininity- Some note that woman who are disabled face what is called a double disability, meaning they must not only deal with the stereotypes and challenges posed by felinity, but the must also deal with those posed by being disabled. Culture also tends to view women as fragile and weaker than men, stereotypes which are only heightened when a woman has a disability. According to the Survey of Income and Program Participation, as described in the book Gendering Disability, 74 percent of women participants and 90 percent of men participants without disabilities were employed. In comparison, of those with a from of disability, 41 percent of women and 51 percent of men were employed. Furthermore, the no disabled women participants were paid approximately $4.00 less per hour than the no disabled men participants. With a disability, women were paid approximately $1.00 less than no disabled women participants and the men were paid approximately $2.00 less than the no disabled men participants. As these results suggest, women without disabilities face societal hardships as compared to men, but disability added to the equation increases the hardships. 3. Aspects of Theory- The International Classification of functioning, Disability and Health(ICF), produced by the Worked Health Organization, Distinguishes between body functions (physiological or psychological, e.g., vision) and body structures (anatomical parts, e.g., the eye and related structures). Impairment in bodily structure or function is defined as involving an anomaly, defect, loss or other significant deviation from certain generally accepted population standards, which may fluctuate over time. Activity is defined as the execution of a task or action. The ICF lists 9 broad domains of functioning which can be affected: Learning and applying knowledge General tasks and demands Communication Basic physical mobility, Domestic life, and Self-care(i.e., activities of daily living) Interpersonal interactions and relationships Community, social and civic life, including employment Ohter major life areas

In concert with disability scholars, the introduction to the ICF states that a variety of conceptual models has been proposed to understand and explain disability and functioning, which it seeks to integrate. These models include the following : 4. The medical model- The medical model is presented a viewing disability as a problem of the person, directly caused by disease, trauma, or other health condition which therefore requires sustained medical care provided in the form of individual treatment by professionals. In the medical model, management of the disability is aimed at a cure, or the individuals adjustment and behavioral change that would lead to an almost-cure or effective cure. In the medical model, medical care is viewed as the main issue, and at the political level, the principal response is that of modifying or reforming healthcare policy. 5. The social model- The social model of disability sees the issue of disability as a socially created problem and a matter of the full integration of individuals into society (see Inclusion (disability rights)). In this model, disability is not an attribute of an individual, but rather a complex collection of conditions, many of which are created by the social environment. Hence, the management of the problem requires social action. 6. Other models1. The spectrum model refers to the range of visibility, audibility and sensibility under which mankind function. The model asserts that disability does not necessarily mean reduced spectrum of operations. 2. The moral model refers to the attitude that people are morally responsible for their own disability for example disability may be seen as a result of bad actions of parents if congenital, or as a result of practicing witchcraft if not. This attitude may also be viewed as a religious fundamentalist offshoot of the original animal roots of human beings when humans killed any baby that could not survive on its own in the wild. Echoes of this can be seen in the doctrine of karma in Indian religions. 3. The expert/professional model has provided a traditional response to disability issues and can be seen as an offshoot

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4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

of the medical model. Within its framework, professionals follow a process of identifying the impairment and its limitations (using the medical model), and taking the necessary action to improve the position of the disabled person. This has tended to produce a system in which an authoritarian, over-active service provider prescribes and acts for a passive client. The tragedy/charity model depicts disabled people as victims of circumstance who are deserving of pity. This, along with the medical model, are the models most used by non-disabled people to define and explain disability. The legitimacy model views disability as a value-based determination about which explanations for the atypical are legitimate for membership in the disability category. This viewpoint allows for multiple explanations and models to be considered as purposive and viable. The social adapted model states although a persons disability poses some limitations in an able-bodied society, oftentimes the surrounding society and environment are mire limiting than the disability itself. The economic model defines disability by a persons inability to participate in work. It also assesses the degree to which impairment affects an individuals productivity and the economic consequences for the individual, employer and the state. Such consequences include loss of earnings for and payment for assistance by the individual; lower profit margins for the employer; and state welfare payments. This model is directly related to the charity/tragedy model. The empowering model allows for the person with a disability and his/her family to decide the course of their treatment and what services they wish to benefit from. This, in turn, turns the professional into a service provider whose role is to offer guidance and carry out the clients decisions. This model empowers the individual to pursues his/her own goals. The market model of disability is minority rights and consumerist model of disability that recognizing people with

disabilities and their stakeholders as representing a large group of consumers, employees and voters. This model looks to personal identity to define disability and empowers people to chart their own destiny in everyday life, with a particular focus on economic empowerment. By this model, based on US Census data, there are 1.2 billion people in the world who consider themselves to have a disability. An additional two billion people are considered stakeholders in disability (family/friends/employers), and when combined to the number of people without disabilities, represents 53% of the population. This model states that due to size of the demographic, companies ad governments will serve the desires, pushed by demand as the message becomes prevalent in the cultural mainstream. 7. Conclusion- The social model of disability sees the issue of disability as a socially created problem and a matter of the full integration of individuals into society (see Inclusion disability rights). In this model, disability is not an attribute of an individual, but rather a complex collection of conditions, many of which are created by the social environment. Hence, the management of the problem requires social action. ======================== References1. American cancer society of fissures-1989

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Study Of Wild Edible Plants of Balaghat District. (M.P .)

* B.K. Bramhe
The forest of the Balaghat provide a large number of plants whose fruits, seeds, tubers shoots, leaves etc. make important contribution to the dite of tribals. These plants not only proide inexpensive food but several other useful products like medicine, fiber, fooder, dyes etc. they also provide useful genus for crop improvement. The study of wild edible plants is important not only to identify the potential sources which could be utilized as alternative food or in time of sacricity but to select promising types for domestication. Introduction- Balaghat district is mainly tribal dominated areas and most part of its cover with forest. Balaghat district forms a part of Satpura hills. Its lies between the latitude 21019' and 22024' north and longitude 79031' to 8103' east. The tribal people here are mainly dependent on agriculture and forest resources for their socio-economic requirements. Recently the role of ethno botanical studies in trapping the old traditional folk knowledge as well in searching new plant sources of food drug etc. In India, studies on wild food plants have been carried out by several workers. (See Jain 1991). The author, while working on the medicinal plants of Balaghat, collected information on the subject. The study indicated the presence of a large number of wild edible plants in the district; however the paper enumerates only those species which are used as food by the people of this region. Materials and Methods- The method adopted for the ethno botanical survey was the one adopted by Schultes (1962) and Jain
=========================== * Assistant Professor, Department of Botany, Govt. P.G.College, Balaghat (M.P.)

(1981). Extensive survey was carried out in different seasons. Several field trips were made to different localities of the district during 2008-2011.The detailed information regarding of edible plants from local people, Gunia (Medicine man). Effectiveness of the usage was also verified by local peoples of that area. The detailed information of plants, regarding species, its local name, family and food values are described. Results and Discussion- The present study records 15 wild plants which are eaten whole or in part by the local people. A list of these plants along with their family, local name, habit, extant of use, parts used and mode of usage have been provided. The plant species have been arranged alphabetically with their family, application and mode of administration in a table given belowSN 1 Name of Taxa and family Amorphallus campanulantus L. (Araceae) Amaranthus spinosus (L.) (Amaranthaceae) Bauhinia Vahlii Benth. Caesalpiniaceae Cassia tora (L.) (Caesalpiniaceae) Chenopodium album Amaranthaceae Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) Discoria hispida (Dennst.) Dendrocalamus Strictus Poaceae Ipomoeia aquatic (Forsk) Convolvulaceae Phonix sylvestris (L.) Arecaceae Momordica dioca (Roxb.) Cucurbitaceae Madhuca latifolia Roxb. (Sapotaceae) Vernacular name Jangali suran Locality Lougoor Baihar Bithali, Gadhi, Mukki Bithali, Bithali, , Mukki Baihar, Gidori Katangi, Baihar Gidori, Logoor, Mukki Bithli, Songudda Bithli, Logur Katangi , Bithli Baihar, Ukwa Baihar, Lougoor Bithli, Baihar Part use as food Boiled petiole and corm.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Choulai Maur patta, Chatodi patta Chakauda, Chirotha Bathua Tikhur Baichandi kanda Bans Karma bhaji Chhind Kakora, katwal Mahua

Leaves as vegetable Unripe Pods are used as vegetable. Cooked leaves as vegetable. Cooked leaves as vegetable. Boild or roasted rhizome used as vegetable. Treated tuber eaten, made in to chips. Young green shoots are eaten & seeds also eaten. Leaves as vegetable. Ripe fruits Unripe Fruits are used as vegetable. Seed oil is used to cooked vegetable and flower also eaten. Rhizome as vegetable. Leaves as vegetable. Unripe Fruits are used as vegetable.

13 14 15

Nelumbo nucifera Kamal (Gaertn.) Nilumbonaceae Ophioglossum reticulatum Fern L. Ophioglossaceae Solanum xanthocarpum Bhata kateri (Solanaceae)

Baihar, Supkhar, Bithli Baihar, Damoh

Conclusions- The present study records 15 wild growing plants which are eaten whole or in part by the local people. During present

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observation and interaction with Baiga and Gond tribes 15 wild plants has been enumerated with their edible value. From the survey conducted, it is seen that the tribals are utilizing the resources in a sustainable manner by maintaining them as a renewable resource. The tribals by their natural instinct have perfected this technique without compromising the welfare of future generations. Acknowledgement- The author is indebted to Dr. A. A. Khan, Prof. A. P. S. University Rewa, for their supervision and valuable suggestion throughout the course of the study. Author also thankful to tribals and local peoples and forest authorities for their cooperation and sharing their knowledge during study period. ======================== References1. 2. 3. Jain, S.K. 1981 (Ed.) Glimpses of Indian Ethno botany. Oxford & I.B.H. Publishing Co. New Delhi. Jain S. K. 1991. Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany. Deep Publisher, New Delhi. Sing, H. B. & Arora, R. K. 1978, wild edible plants of India, ICAR, New Delhi.

Development of Rural Education in India

* Dr. Alka Saxena ** Archna Saxena
Need for Rural Education- India is an agricultural country and an overwhelming majority of its people lives in villages. A vast majority of Indians are engaged in agricultural profession. At present village in India beset with problems which are a challenge to the ingenuity of the rural sociologist, economist and planner. As village women folk are illiterate, orthodox and tradition-bound they do not bring up their children in a proper way. As a result of this improper care and rearing of children their personalities do not flower and become stunted. Illiteracy is a vicious circle. It breeds poverty because illiterate persons have fewer opportunities of employment and poverty makes for illiteracy because the poor have neither will nor where withal to educate themselves. Bertrand Russel has very aptly observed in his book Principles of Social Reconstruction that it is impossible to sustain modern democracy in conditions of low rate of literacy. That is why Mahatma Gandhi attached so much importance to Basic Education in his scheme of rural upliftment. The education which would help villagers must be based on the principles of integral personality making, that is developing mans personality on the tripartite levels of physical, mental and spiritual. True education must bring out and bring to flower all the hidden resources of man, be they physical, mental or spiritual. Only if an education helps development of all the three aspects of human personality can it be considered complete and real.
=========================== * Deptt. of B.Ed.D.B.S. College, Kanpur (U.P.) ** Deptt. of B.Ed.D.W.T. College

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Education in Pre-British Period- Before the advent of British the condition of education in India was not good. On account of decline in powers of Hindu Rajaas and Mughal Kings, the governmental aid to educational institutions had stopped. In villages we had two types of educational institutions. One type was run by Hindus and was called Pathshala; and the second type was run by Moslems and was known as Maktaba. Not every village had provision of education. In several villages there used to be a single Pathshala or Maktaba and students from far off distances used to come to them. The majority of people however were indifferent to education. There were no separate institutions for professional education and training. The social education was imparted exclusively in the family. In joint families elders used to instruct young ones in morals and conduct. Among primitives dormitories used to be the places of education and training. The religious education was imparted by Priests, Maulvis, Sadhus, Fakirs and professional story-tellers. Education was primarily in the province of religious priests and maulvis and was, therefore, ridden with superstitions. Therefore, it needed big reform. Rural Education in British Period- Through the rule of Britishers brought many changes in India, and some of these were salutary, there was no significant improvement in the condition of rural education. There were no provisions to give aid on behalf of government to educational institutions in villages. This was a major setback to the development of education in rural India. The fundamental principles, upon which education in cities was based, were foreign and not indigenous.- Almost every thinker has severely criticized the state of affairs in education during British period. Education in Free India- After independence, special attention has been given to rural education and a big effort made to improve it. India is a democracy; and in a democratic country the rule and administration is, in the hands of publicly chosen representatives. The success of democracy requires widespread literacy and education. Therefore, it has been realized from the very beginning that a massive effort was required to take education to the very

heart of India; that is to give priority to rural education. Rural Education in Modern India- It is now generally recognized that there are basic differences in local rural and urban condition and, therefore, it is not advisable to adopt a single pattern of education for villages and town. The Constitution of India declares our country to be based on the universal principles of equality, freedom and fraternity. In order to attain such high aim we need to overhaul the whole Indian society. With this aim numerous primary and middle schools have been started in villages. In primary schools education is given up to class IVth or Vth. In Middle or Junior Schools education up to VIIth standard is imparted. In many Junior Schools there is provision for education up to High School. However, a recent study has revealed that basic education has not achieved desired objectives and that there are serious lacunas in its implementation. According to Honorable Minister the main reason for this sad state of affairs was our failure to adopt any single standard of basic education; various persons interpreted it different. According to Shriman Narayan emphasis on education of English at the expense of regional languages was the basic obstruction in the development of basic education. Means of Rural Education- Besides schools and educational institutions there are certain other means of rural education: These include : (1) Libraries, (2) Reading Rooms, (3) Radio, (4) Movies, (5) Mobile Vans, (6) Exhibition, (7) Museum, and (8) Play-grounds or Entertainment Centers. However, rural education should be integral. Under the following heads we can study and discuss the means of rural education. The section of books for village libraries should be made with due direction. Besides books for entertainment and children books on culture economics, literature, regional and philosophy must be given due share. That is, the stock of fiction and light reading should not be more than 25% of the total stock. In recent years, the governments in states and at centre have made provision for the mobile, libraries in villages; but due to certain reason villagers have not been able to derive full benefits from this scheme. More important than libraries is the provision of

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reading rooms in villages. The provision of reading rooms and study centers where newspapers and periodic literature is available will go a long ay in imparting proper education to villagers. Radio or wireless is also an eminent means of education. Every broadcasting centre in India broadcasts daily programmes of rural listeners. These programmes are popular. They educate villagers in scientific farming, animal husbandry and daily hygiene. The pictures and movies have tremendous impact on the minds of villagers. In order to acquaint villagers about developments in various parts in India; in order to educate villagers in matters of hygiene and physiology; in order to educate them about other cultures and in order to teach them without tears, movies have proved to be ideal. Mobile vans, contain books, photographic, exhibits, musical records, tapes of important speeches and loud-speakers. Such vans, on account of variety of attractive material in them, can be highly fertile source of rural education; but unfortunately, the number of such vehicles is very limited in India. For technical and professional education, arrangement of exhibitions is required in which latest techniques can be actually demonstrated by putting together all necessary materials. Such exhibitions draw big crowd from far and wide; people from distant places come to visit these exhibitions. After introduction of Community Development Projects, arrangement of various types of exhibitions in village has become quite popular and common. Museum offers us by far the best means of lively conditions and can help to liberalize the outlook of villagers by exposing them to multiplicity of cultures and the tremendous variety of subjects, there is need to give proper attention to this subject and devise ways and means to diversify and enlarge scope of museums. Rural Education should be Integral- In employing the above means of education for the purposes of rural education it needs to be borne in minds that rural education must be integrated with rural environments. It is of utmost value to bear in mind the local conditions. For rural education mere schooling is not adequate nor would the provision of libraries and reading rooms suffice.

The rural education has to be supplemented by other means like instructive use of radio, television and movie and setting up of museums and play-fields and gymnasiums. Conclusion- Such education would undoubtedly resolve most of the problems being faced today. However important a factor or cause of rural backwardness of education may be it is by no means the only cause. Therefore education would not solve all problems unless supplemented by other important measures. Along with education it is also important to improve the, economy of villagers by introducing new methods of farming, various cottage industries and by improving means of communication. It is also important to decentralize administrative machinery and introduce self rule or Panchayati system vigorously. Only by having direct participation of villagers in rural development is it possible to make real and true progress in village development. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Dube, D.C., et al, Village Level Workers : Their Work and Result Demonstration, Govt. Press, Delhi, 1962. Gillette, J.M., Rural Sociology, Macmillan, New York, 1936. ., Village Volunteer Force, Govt. Press, Delhi, 1961. ., Manual on Village Road Construction, Govt. Press, New Delhi, 1961. Krishanamachari, V.T. Community Development in India, Govt. Press, Delhi, 1962. Kumarappa, J.C. Overall Plan for Rural Development, Fourth ed., Akhil Bharat Serva Seva Sangh, Varanasi, 1960. Loomis, C.P. & Beegle, J.A., Rural Sociology: The Strategy of Change, PrenticeHall, New Jersey, 1963. Vatsyan, Rural Sociology: Educational aspect of Rural Life, Meerut.

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Social Change and Development through Five Years Plans in India

* Dr. Akhilesh Shukla
TheeconomyofIndiaissocialchange anddevelopmentis based in part on planning through its five-year plans, which are developed, executed and monitored by the Planning Commission of India. The Planning Commission is an institution in theGovernment of India, which formulatesIndiasFive-Year Plans, among other functions. 1FirstPlan(1951-1956) 2SecondPlan(19561961) 3ThirdPlan(19611966) 4FourthPlan(19691974) 5FifthPlan(19741979) 6SixthPlan(19801985) 7SeventhPlan(19851990) 8EighthPlan(19921997) 9NinthPlan(19972002) 10TenthPlan(20022007) 11EleventhPlan(20072012) 12TwelthPlan(20122017) Twelth Plan (20122017)- Indias 1.25 billion citizens have higher expectations about their future today, than they have ever had before. They have seen the economy grow much faster in the past 10 years than it did earlier, and deliver visible benefits to a large number of people. This has understandably raised the expectations of all sections, especially those who have benefited less. Our people are now much more aware of what is possible, and they will settle for no less. The Twelfth Five Year Plan must rise to the challenge
=========================== * Department of Sociology, Government T. R. S. College Rewa (M.P.)

of meeting these high expectations. Though expectations have mounted, the circumstances in which the Twelfth Plan has commenced are less favourable than at the start of the Eleventh Plan in 200708. At that time, the economy was growing robustly, the macroeconomic balance was improving and global economic developments were supportive. The situation today is much more difficult. The global economy is going through what looks like a prolonged slowdown. The domestic economy has also run up against several internal constraints. Macro-economic imbalances have surfaced following the fiscal expansion undertaken after 2008 to give a fiscal stimulus to the economy. Inflationary pressures have built up. Major investment projects in energy and transport have slowed down because of a variety of implementation problems. Some changes in tax treatment in the 201213 have caused uncertainty among investors. These developments have produced a reduction in the rate of investment, and a slowing down of economic growth to 6.2 per cent in 201112, which was the last year of the Eleventh Plan. The growth rate in the first half of 2012 13, which is the first year of the Twelfth Plan, is even lower. The downturn clearly requires urgent corrective action but it should not lead to unwarranted pessimism about the medium term. Indias economic fundamentals have been improving in many dimensions, and this is reflected in the fact that despite the slowdown in 2011 12, the growth rate of the economy averaged 8 per cent in the Eleventh Plan period. This was lower than the Plan target of 9 per cent, but it was better than the achievement of 7.8 per cent in the Tenth Plan. The fact that this growth occurred in a period which saw two global crises, one in 2008 and another in 2011, is indicative of the resilience which the economy has developed. y challenge in the Twelfth Plan is, therefore, two-fold. The immediate challenge is to reverse the observed deceleration in growth by reviving investment as quickly as possible. This calls for urgent action to tackle implementation constraints in infrastructure which are holding up large projects, combined with action to deal with tax related issues which have created uncertainty in the investment climate. From a longer term perspective, the Plan must put in place policies that can leverage the many strengths of the economy to

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bring it back to its real growth potential. This will take time but the aim should be to get back to 9 per cent growth by the end of the Twelfth Plan period. The preparation of a Five Year Plan for the country is an opportunity to step back, take stock of the big picture, identify the strengths that can be leveraged to enable the country to move forward, and the constraints that could hold it back, and on this basis develop a strategic agenda. In developing such an agenda, the Planning Commission has relied on four key elements. First, the strategy must be fir mly grounded in an understanding of the complexities of the development challenges that India faces, recognising the transformation that is taking place in the economy and in the world. This understanding of the ground reality must be used to identify the critical leverage points where government action could have the maximum impact. The focus must be on identifying the strategic leverage points where successful action could trigger many supportive reactions rather than fixing everything everywhere. Second, progress will be achieved through a combination of government action in both policies and public programmes, and the efforts of many private actors that are important in the economy. Much of the inclusive growth we hope to achieve depends on investment in the private sector which accounts for over 70 per cent of total investment. This includes not only the organised corporate sector, but also Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs), individual farmers and myriads of small businessmen who add to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and create jobs. The dynamism of this segment, and its ability to seize economic opportunities, is critical for inclusive growth and the Plan must address the constraints faced by all these private actors in achieving better results. Third, the outlay on government programmes has to increase in many areas but this must be accompanied by improved implementation. For this, it is necessary to focus on capacity building and governance reforms, including system change that will increase accountability in the public sector. The Twelfth Plan must back this focus by making specific allocations to improve

the ability of government to work better. Finally, the planning process must serve as a way of getting different stakeholders to work together to achieve broad consensus on key issues. These stakeholders include (i) different levels of the government sector: Centre, States and Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)/Urban Local Bodies (ULBs); (ii) the private sector, both big companies and small businesses, whose investments will drive our growth and (iii) citizens groups and the voluntary sector, who bring the key element of peoples participation and can greatly help improve the quality of government action. The main features of 12th plan towards development are as under 12th Five Year Plan of the Government of India (201217) had decided for the growth rate at 8.2% but NDC on 27 Dec 2012 approved 8% growth rate for 12th five-year plan.;[12] With the deteriorating global situation, the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission Mr Montek Singh Ahluwalia has said that achieving an average growth rate of 9 per cent in the next five years is not possible. The Final growth target has been set at 8% by the endorsement of plan at the National Development Council meeting held in New Delhi. It is not possible to think of an average of 9 per cent (in 12th Plan). I think somewhere between 8 and 8.5 per cent is feasible, Mr. Ahluwalia said on the sidelines of a conference of State Planning Boards and departments. The approached paper for the 12th Plan, approved last year, talked about an annual average growth rate of 9 per cent. When I say feasible...that will require major effort. If you dont do that, there is no God given right to grow at 8 per cent. I think given that the world economy deteriorated very sharply over the last year...the growth rate in the first year of the 12th Plan (2012-13) is 6.5 to 7 per cent. He also indicated that soon he would share his views with other members of the Commission to choose a final number (economic growth target) to put before the countrys NDC for its approval. Though the 12th Plan has taken off, it is yet to be formally

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approved. The Planning Commission has set a deadline of September for taking the approval of the National Development Council. The council is expected to meet after July subject to the convenience of the Prime Minister. Poverty-the government intends to reduce poverty by 10 per cent during the 12th Five-Year Plan. Mr Ahluwalia said, We aim to reduce poverty estimates by 9 per cent annually on a sustainable basis during the Plan period. Earlier, addressing a conference of State Planning Boards and Planning departments, he said the rate of decline in poverty doubled during the 11th Plan. The commission had said, while using the Tendulkar poverty line, the rate of reduction in the five years between 200405 and 200910, was about 1.5 percentage points each year, which was twice that when compared to the period between 1993-95 to 2004-05. What is the government focus of now a five-year plan, i.e. 20122017. Thus five year plans in India have brought Social Change and Development in Indian Society. ======================== References1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Sustainable Growth, Volume I, SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi 110 044 Plan panel asks states to hike power tariffs. The Times of India. 18 July 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2012. Rs. 35 lakh spending: 50-yr-old toilets needed repair, says Montek Singh Ahluwalia.NDTV.2012. Retrieved 2012-06-07. Planning Commission, Government of India : Five Yea r Plans. Planningcommission.nic.in. Retrieved on 2012-03-17. Planning Commission (24 February 1997). A Background Note on Gadgil Formula for distribution of Central Assistance for State Plans. Retrieved 201009-17. Politics in India since Independence, Chapter 3, Politics of Planned Development First Five Yea r Plan, Planning Commission, Government of India. Planningcommission.gov.in. Retrieved on 2012-03-17. L. N. Dash (2000). World bank and Economic Development of India . APH Publishing. p. 375. Economy Watch Website-First Five Year Plan Review National Development Council approves 12th Five Year Plan. Indian Express. 2012-12-27. Retrieved 2013-07-10

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.