INSTITUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY

Auditory Subliminal Stimuli

Malihe Ilkhani
Master-degree examination !!"-!#
S$%er&isor' Pro(essor Ingegerd Carlsson
Abstract
The aim )as to st$d* )hether stim$li that +annot ,e dete+ted +ons+io$sl* might ne&ertheless
in(l$en+e s$,-e+t.s higher +ogniti&e ($n+tions/ and )hether s$+h an e((e+t di((ers in
indi&id$als )ith di((erent le&els o( state-trait anxiet*/ so+ial desira,ilit* and 01e%ressor23
Parti+i%ants 4N 5 678 listened to a +lassi+al %ie+e o( m$si+ in )hi+h s$,liminal messages )ere
em,edded3 These messages +o$ld ,e either %ositi&e 40I am +le&er28 or negati&e 40I am
)orthless283 9(ter listening to the m$si+ %arti+i%ant had to +om%lete the Standard Progressi&e
Matri+es test 41a&en/ Co$rt : 1a&en/ ;##83 Le&els o( state and trait anxiet* and so+ial
desira,ilit* )ere e&al$ated ,* means o( <$estionnaires/ )hi+h the s$,-e+ts (illed in ,e(ore and
a(ter the* listened to the m$si+3 1es$lts re&ealed an intera+tion e((e+t ,et)een so+ial
desira,ilit* and the s$,liminal messages (or the de%endent &aria,le s+ore on the Matri+es test3
=i((erent %ossi,le ex%lanations (or the res$lts are gi&en> and (inall* s$ggestions (or ($t$re
resear+h are re+ommended3

Subject Register
PAGE
Abstract
Introduction 6
State ? Trait 9nxiet* ;!
1e%ressors ;;
So+ial =esira,ilit* ;
H*%othesis ;@
Method ;6
Pilot St$d* ;6
S$,-e+t ;A
Pro+ed$re ;"
Material !
State- Trait 9nxiet* In&entor* !
Nor)egian short-(orm o( the Marlo)e-Cro)ne So+ial =esira,ilit* S+ale ;
Standard Progressi&e Matri+es 4SPM8
B$estion a,o$t m$si+ and B$estion a,o$t Matri+es Test @
Result 6
9ge 6
S+ore 1a&en 4SPM8 6
Trait anxiet* 6
So+ial desira,ilit* 6
9NOC9S 7
S+ore 1a&en' Trait anxiet*/ so+ial desira,ilit* and s$,liminal messages 7
S+ore 1a&en' High so+ial desira,ilit* and Lo) trait anxiet* 01e%ressor2 A
S+ore 1a&en' So+ial desira,ilit* and s$,liminal messages A
S+ore 1a&en' Trait anxiet* and s$,liminal messages "
Discussion #
The (irst/ se+ond : third h*%othesis/ in ,rie(/ s$ggestion (or +oming st$d*
References @7
9%%endix 092 D!
9%%endix 0E2 D;
@
9%%endix 0C2 D
9%%endix 0=2 D@
9%%endix 0F2 DD
9%%endix 0F2 D6
9%%endix 0G2 D7
D
Introduction
The %resent st$d* examines s$,liminal %er+e%tion3 This +on+e%t has o(ten met o%%osition/ and
man* %eo%le a+t$all* )ant to ,elie&e that it does not exist at all3 9++ording to Hassin/ et al3
4!!68 the (ear is that o$r o)n +ons+io$sness is not in +ontrol o( o$r ,eha&ior3 9lso it is
,elie&ed that +ons+io$s tho$ght sho$ld mediate e&er*thing )e do/ at least )ith regard to
im%ortant ,eha&ior and de+isions3 E$t do )e reall* al)a*s )ant +ons+io$s tho$ght to
%rod$+e/ or at least mediate/ o$r ($n+tioning in generalG 4Hassin> Uleman > Eargh/ !!68
In short )e +an state a,o$t the theor* ,ehind s$,liminal stim$li' Messages )hi+h are ,elo) a
%ersonHs a$dio le&el or &is$al le&el )ill ,e re+ei&ed dire+tl* ,* the I$n+ons+io$sI mind - that
is +ons+io$s e&al$ation is ,*-%assed3 9t the audible le&el/ s$,liminal messages ma* +ontain
m$si+ or so$nds (rom nat$re3 In the %resent resear+h )e $sed the %ie+e o( Ea+h and it is +alled
the 0Sixth Eranden,$rg Con+erto23 Eelo) these a$di,le so$nds )ere &er,al messages that
are inaudible as (ar as +ons+io$s %er+e%tion +on+erns3 9++ording to the theor*/ the
Is$,+ons+io$sI mind )ill disting$ish the inaudible &er,al messages (rom the audible ones/
res%ond to them/ and a+t $%on them3
In agreement )ith the initial st$d*J%ilot st$d*/ the de(inition o( 0Un+ons+io$sness2 %er+e%tion
is identi+al )ith the +on+e%t o( s$,liminal materialJmessages in the %resent st$d*3
The present theoretical understanding
Hassin/ et al3 4!!68 states that the ne) $n+ons+io$s +on+e%t is m$+h more +on+erned )ith
a((e+t/ moti&ation/ and e&en +ontrol and meta-+ognition than )as the old +ogniti&e
$n+ons+io$s3 The ne) +on+e%t in+l$des the +a$ses o( the %henomenal ex%erien+e/ o( ha&ing
intentions and (ree )ill/ o( attri,$ting these to onesel( and others3 4Hassin> Uleman > Eargh/
!!68
The existen+e o( the $n+ons+io$s has ,een do$,ted (or de+ades3 9 large amo$nt o( resear+h/
ho)e&er/ no) s$ggests that the existan+e o( $n+ons+io$s %ro+esses is no longer <$estiona,le
4Lo(t$s : Klinger/ ;##83 9(ter man* *ears o( denial o( the $n+ons+io$s %ro+esses/ the* are
no) a++e%ted ,* the great ma-orit* o( %s*+hologists 4Kihlstrom/ Earnhardt : Tatar*n/ ;##83
Green)ald 4;##8 states that $n+ons+io$s +ognition is no) solidl* esta,lished in em%iri+al
6
resear+h/ and the +on+e%t seems to ,e m$+h sim%ler than the so%histi+ated +on+e%ts that are
$sed in %s*+hoanal*ti+ theor*3 So/ at the moment attem%ts are made to sim%li(* the
$nderstanding o( the mental %ro+esses in&ol&ed in the $n+ons+io$s3 To %$t it in a sim%le
<$estion'2Is the $n+ons+io$s smart or d$m,G 4Lo(t$s : Klinger/ ;##8
The idea that the $n+ons+io$s re+ei&es messages dire+tl* thro$gh (iner %er+e%tion rather than
the +ons+io$s mind is ,ased Sigm$nd Fre$ds theories3 He ta$ght that the main dri&er ,ehind
h$man ,eha&io$r is the $n+ons+io$s mind/ and des+ri,ed the mind as ,eing like an i+e,erg
)ith most o( the mass ,elo) the s$r(a+e3 9++ording to Fre$d/ it is (rom this area/ o( )hi+h )e
are $na)are/ that o$r external ,eha&io$r arises3 There(ore/ the %romoters o( s$,liminal are
,asi+all* Fre$dian3
=$ring the !3th +ent$r* man* di((erent a%%roa+hes ha&e ,een taken )ith res%e+t to the
existen+e o( the $n+ons+io$s3 The s+e%ti+al &ie)/ that %s*+hoanal*ti+ +on+e%tions o(
$n+ons+io$s +ognition la+k em%iri+al +on(irmation/ )as %re&alent in the ;#6!Ls3
In a +lassi+ )ork/ Er$ner 4;#6A8 )as talking a,o$t a 0Ne) Look2 in %er+e%tion/ and
mentioned +olleag$es/ )hi+h )ere ,eginning to ex%lore the %ro,lem o( s$,liminal
4$n+ons+io$s8 %er+e%tion3 Er$ner and his +ontem%oraries said that )hat )e see not onl*
de%ends on )hat is o$t there/ ,$t also on inner (a+tors s$+h as ex%e+tations/ moti&ations/ and
a((e+t 4Er$ner ;#6A/ ;##83
In an ex%eriment Er$ner and Postman sho)ed to*s and %lain ,lo+ks o( e<$al height to *o$ng
+hildren3 The +hildren/ d$e to their ex%e+tations/ tho$ght the to*s )ere taller3 The to*s also
seemed to in+rease in siMe )hen the resear+hers made them $na&aila,le to the +hildren3 This
a%%roa+h/ the INe) LookI/ )as in +ontrast to the %re&ailing I(ormalI one that treated
%er+e%tion as a sel(-s$((i+ient %ro+ess to ,e +onsidered se%aratel* (rom the )orld aro$nd it3
Ee+a$se there )ere not eno$gh methodologi+all* so$nd demonstrations o( $n+ons+io$s
%er+e%tion 4Lo(t$s : Klinger/ ;##8/ the Ne) Look )as )idel* re-e+ted ,* the late ;#6!Ls3
Frdel*i 4;#AD8 started a se+ond Ne) Look/ and made a strong +ase (or theoreti+al +onne+tions
,et)een +ogniti&e %s*+holog* and $n+ons+io$s +ognition3 Ne&ertheless/ Ne) Look has not
%rod$+ed )idel* a++e%ted e&iden+e (or %s*+hoanal*ti+ inter%retations o( $n+ons+io$s
in(l$en+es on %er+e%tion or -$dgement3
7
9 third Ne) Look is )ell $nder )a* a++ording to Green)ald 4;##8/ and the most
$nex%e+ted as%e+t here/ is the s$%%ort (or a sim%ler &ie) o( $n+ons+io$s +ognition than that o(
%s*+hoanal*ti+ theor*' Green)ald disting$ishes t)o meanings o( $n+ons+io$s +ognition' ;8
+ognition )itho$t attention/ and 8 &er,all* $nre%eata,le +ognition3 9++ording to him/ a
re+ent ,lossoming o( resear+h on these t)o t*%es o( $n+ons+io$s +ognition has esta,lished
se&eral %ro+ed$res that ha&e re%li+a,le (indings3 He %oints to resear+h on sele+ti&e attention
and s$,liminal a+ti&ation3 For exam%le/ Sil&erman : Nein,erger 4;#"68 ha&e (o$nd e((e+ts
o( s$,liminal %resentations that res$lted in +ogniti&e e((e+ts o( m$lti)ord strings3 It is +alled
S$,liminal Ps*+hod*nami+ 9+ti&ation/ $sing 0Momm* and I are One2 as the text o( a
s$,liminal stim$l$s3
Sil&erman and Nein,erger state/ the %hrase IMomm* and I are one2 )orks ,e+a$se Ithere are
%o)er($l $n+ons+io$s )ishes (or a state o( oneness )ith the good mother o( earl* +hildhood
and grati(i+ation o( these )ishes +an enhan+e ada%tation3 Sil&erman and Nein,erger sa* that'
-Ne$tral s$,liminal messages/ s$+h as 0%eo%le are )alking2 ha&e no e((e+t on s$,-e+ts3
-=ist$r,ing messages/ s$+h as I=estro* Mother/I ha&e a negati&e e((e+t3 -In areas )here the
$s$al term (or mother is something di((erent/ s$+h as IMamaI rather than IMomm*I/ the
%hrase IMomm* and I are oneI has no e((e+t3 Some (ollo)-$% )ork has +laimed that in a
game o( darts/ the %hrase IItHs OK to ,eat dadI im%ro&ed s+ores3 Sil&erman/ L'H' :
Nein,erger/ O3 4;#"683
There is strong e&iden+e (or the e((i+a+* o( the 0Momm* and I are one2 message3 Th$s t)o
meta-resear+hes )ere %$,lished in ;##! in ma-or %eer re&ie)ed -o$rnals 4Harda)a* in
Ps*+hologi+al E$lletin and Nein,erger and Harda)a* in Clini+al Ps*+holog* 1e&ie)83 The
res$lts o( these meta-anal*ses indi+ated that the message did s$%%l* relia,le e((e+ts3 The
meta-anal*ses on 0Momm* and I are one2 indi+ated that the e((e+ts are relia,le/ o( reasona,le
siMe/ did not de%end $%on )ho +ond$+ted the st$d*/ and )ere $nlikel* to ,e a res$lt o( ,iased
re%orting o( %ositi&e res$lts3 It a%%ears that something is ha%%ening )hen this message is
(lashed3
Ho)e&er/ this st$d* has ,een met )ith +onsidera,le ske%ti+ism in the s+ienti(i+ +omm$nit*'
Criti+al %oints o( &ie) re&eal that s$,liminal messages in general ha&e not ,een (o$nd to ,e
A
so e((e+ti&e3 IMomm* and I are oneI is a (airl* +om%li+ated %hrase that seems to re<$ire
+ognition to %ro+ess/ $nlike a &is+eral image o( a ,ear or sim%l* the )ord Ienem*3I
9n instr$ment (or meas$ring &is$al and a$ditor* stim$li has ,een de&elo%ed ,* Sil&erman
4;#"@83 It is +alled S$,liminal Ps*+hod*nami+ 9+ti&ation 4SP983 SP9 has ,een $sed to
intensi(* or red$+e $n+ons+io$s +on(li+ts in +lini+al and non-+lini+al %o%$lations and as an
ad-$n+t to thera%* and ed$+ation st$dies 4Sil&erman/ ;#"@83 9$ditor* stim$li ha&e man*
ad&antages +om%ared to &is$al stim$li3 For exam%le/ sin+e the area o( the &is$al (ields that
im%inges on the (o&ea 4the 0(o&ea2 also kno)n as the 0(o&ea +entralise2 )hi+h is a %art o( the
e*e lo+ated in the +entral o( the ma+$la region o( the retina3 The (o&ea is res%onsi,le (or shar%
+entral &ision/ )hi+h is ne+essar* in h$mans (or an* a+ti&it* )here &is$al detail is o( %rimar*
im%ortan+e8 is relati&el* small and the dimensions o( that area limit the length o( a &is$all*
ex%osed message3 In +ontrast/ a$ditor* SP9 messages o( an* length/ )ithin reason/ +an ,e
%resented 4F$din : Een-amin/ ;##;8
The theoretical methodology
Ur,an 4;##@8 agrees )ith F$din and Een-amin that m$+h o( the de,ate regarding the
likelihood o( 4a$ditor*8 s$,liminal stim$lation a%%ears to ,e se+ondar* to the (a+t that ;8 no
standardiMed methods (or the %resentation o( s$,liminal stim$li exist/ and 8 there are no
agreed $%on %roto+ols (or the testing o( methods3 He also +laimed that this la+k o(
standardiMation seems +riti+al to address i( +onsens$s is to ,e rea+hed regarding the realit* o(
a$ditor* s$,liminal stim$lation3 F&en a +$rsor* reading o( the literat$re indi+ates ho)
ex+eedingl* di((i+$lt it is to make +om%arisons ,et)een or ,ase in(eren+es on st$dies )ith
+om%letel* dissimilar methods and %roto+ols and methods 4Ur,an/ ;##@83
Erie(l*/ related to the st$dies o( $nattended stim$li 4di+hoti+ listening and di+hoti+ &ie)ing8/
Green)ald 4;##8 sho)s that lo) le&els o( anal*sis 4i3e3/ (or %h*si+al (eat$res8 o++$r (or
in(ormation in se+ondar* +hannels3 9t intermediate le&els/ &ario$s %ro+ed$res indi+ate that
)ord meaning is %ro+essed at least %artiall* in a se+ondar* a$ditor* or &is$al +hannel3
F$rthermore/ in do$,le-,lind tests o( +laimed ,ene(i+ial e((e+ts o( &er,al s$ggestions ,$ried
s$,liminall* in sel(-hel% a$diota%es/ onl* negati&e res$lts ha&e ,een re%orted 4(or exam%le
Green)ald/ S%angen,erg/ Pratkanis : FskenaMi/ ;##;83
"
Green)ald and +olleag$es 4;##8 also (o$nd a h$ge %la+e,o e((e+t3 9%%arent (rom this st$d*
is that ex%e+tan+* +an a++o$nt (or most o( the satis(a+tion ex%ressed ,* s$,liminal sel(-
im%ro&ement %atrons3
9 st$d* ,* Cheesman : Merikle 4;#"78 +ontains a good exam%le o( s$+h a disso+iation
e((e+ts3 The* make a distin+tion ,et)een an o,-e+ti&e threshold and a s$,-e+ti&e threshold3
9 s$,-e+ti&e threshold re(ers to the le&el o( dis+riminati&e res%onding at )hi+h o,ser&ers
+laim not to ,e a,le to identi(* or re+ogniMe %er+e%t$al in(ormation 4)hen (or+ed the* might
dete+t it at a ,etter than +han+e le&el o( %er(orman+e83 9nd an o,-e+ti&e threshold is the le&el
o( dis+riminati&e res%onding +orres%onding to +han+e le&el %er(orman+e3
Chesman : Merikle 4;#"78 %oints o$t' i( one a++e%ts that s$,-e+ti&e meas$res +an ,e &alid
indi+ators o( a)areness/ then there is +onsidera,le e&iden+e (or %er+e%tion )itho$t a)areness3
9++ording to Merikle/ it is relati&el* eas* to demonstrate that %er+e%tion o++$rs )hen
s$,-e+ts do not ,elie&e that the* ha&e either seen or heard an ade<$ate stim$l$s3 9s an
exam%le (or this he %oints to +orti+all* ,lind %atients 4Merikle/ P3M3 ;#"783
There are se&eral resear+h indi+ates that $n+ons+io$s stim$li ma* ha&e e((e+ts on ,odil*
%ro+esses 4F&ans : 1i+hardson/ ;#""> M+Linto+k/ 9itken/ =o)nie : Kenn* ;##!83 That is/
d$ring s$rgi+al o%erations %ositi&e s$ggestions )ere gi&en to s$,-e+ts d$ring $nder nar+osis3
1es$lts sho)ed that %eo%le )ho )ere gi&en these %ositi&e messages re+o&ered more <$i+kl*
and )ere in need o( less %ain red$+ing medi+ation than those s$,-e+ts )ho had ,een listening
to an em%t* ta%e d$ring the o%eration3 KotMP : MQller 4;##!8 +on(irmed )ith their st$d* the
h*%othesis that a$ditor* s$,liminal stim$lation )o$ld e((e+t a signi(i+ant in+rease in gal&ani+
skin res%onse3 4Gal&ani+ skin res%onse o++$r a +hange in the ele+tri+al resistan+e o( the skin
that is a %h*sio+hemi+al res%onse to emotional aro$sal )hi+h in+reases s*m%atheti+ ner&o$s
s*stem a+ti&it*8
9ltho$gh $n+ons+io$s emotional stim$li/ ha&e hardl* ,een $sed in the st$d* o( +ogniti&e
%ro+esses and the existing res$lts a,o$t this to%i+ area are in +on(li+tion3 Ho)e&er/ Chakalis
: Lo)e 4;##8 (o$nd a %ositi&e e((e+t on a memor* task in a gro$% that had ,een gi&en
s$,liminal %ositi&e s$ggestion/ +om%ared to a +ontrol gro$%3 The* sho)ed that s$,liminal
%ositi&e a((irmations 4em,edded in relaxing m$si+ ta%es8 +o$ld enhan+e re+all %er(orman+e
#
on e&er*da* memor* tasks/ %rimaril* )hen the s$,liminal messages are s%e+i(i+all* related to
the %arti+$lar memor* +om%onent3
9 st$d* on %ersonalit* test ,* Meehl : Hatha)a* 4;#D78 and Cron,a+h 4;#D78 ha&e ,oth
+ogentl* des+ri,ed/ ho) %arti+i%ant &ario$s sel(-im%osed +an gi&e intr$de attit$de $%on
%ersonalit* tests3 More re+entl*/ Fd)ards 4;#6A8 has stressed the im%ortan+e o( So+ial
=esira,ilit* stereot*%es as a ,iasing (a+tor3 He seems to s$ggest that this %arti+$lar res%onse
set is so %er&asi&e that it im%airs the &alidit* o( most standard %ersonalit* in&entories3 For
Fd)ards/ the (or+ed +hoi+e te+hni<$e a((ords a %ossi,ilit* o( minimiMing the e((e+ts o( so+ial
desira,ilit*3 The (or+ed +hoi+e (ormat +alls (or res%onses to %airs o( statements> the %airs
%res$ma,l* ha&e ,een e<$ated (or so+ial desira,ilit* on the ,asis o( %rior ratings o( the
se%arate +om%onents o( the %air3 4Fd)ards/ 93 L3 ;#6A83
State-Trait Anxiety
9++ording to S%iel,erger 4;#"@8 the term anxiety is $sed to re(er to at least t)o related/ *et
logi+all* <$ite di((erent +onstr$+ts3 Fm%iri+all*/ anxiet* is %erha%s most o(ten $sed to
des+ri,e an $n%leasant emotional state or +ondition3 9nxiet* is also $sed to des+ri,e relati&el*
sta,le indi&id$al di((eren+es in anxiet*-%roneness as a %ersonalit* trait3
Fmotional states exist at a gi&en moment in time and at a %arti+$lar le&el o( intensit*3 9nxiet*
states are +hara+teriMed ,* s$,-e+ti&e (eeling o( tension/ a%%rehension/ ner&o$sness/ and
)orr*/ and ,* a+ti&ation or aro$sal o( the a$tonomi+ ner&o$s s*stem 4S%iel,erger/ ;#"@83
In +ontrast to the transitor* nat$re o( emotional states/ %ersonalit* traits +an ,e +on+e%t$aliMed
as relati&el* end$ring di((eren+es among %eo%le in s%e+i(ia,le tenden+ies to %er+ei&e the
)orld in a +ertain )a* and in dis%ositions to rea+t or ,eha&e in a s%e+i(ied manner )ith
%redi+ta,le reg$larit*3 In his man$al/ S%iel,erger ex%lains trait anxiety as re(erring to
relati&el* sta,le indi&id$al di((eren+es in anxiet*-%roneness> i3e3/ di((eren+es ,et)een %eo%le
in the tenden+* to %er+ei&e stress($l sit$ations as dangero$s or threatening and to res%ond to
s$+h sit$ations )ith ele&ations in the intensit* o( their state anxiety reactions. Persons )ith
high trait-anxiety exhi,it state-anxiety ele&ations more (re<$entl* than lo) trait-anxiet*
indi&id$als/ ,e+a$se the* tend to inter%ret a )ider range o( sit$ations as dangero$s or
threatening 4S%iel,erger/ ;#"@83
;!
In the st$d* o( 1o,les/ Smith/ Car&er : Nellens 4;#"A8 the ma-or h*%othesis )as that
ex%os$re to negati&e stim$li )o$ld res$lt in higher le&els o( state anxiety and that ex%os$re to
%ositi&e stim$li )o$ld res$lt in lo)er le&els o( state anxiety/ +om%ared )ith the ne$tral
+ondition3 9n additional %redi+tion )as that ex%os$re to the s$,liminal stim$li )o$ld ha&e no
e((e+t on trait anxiety3 The res$lts o( this st$d* are +onsistent )ith the h*%othesis that
in(ormation %resented o$tside +ons+io$s a)areness +an exert an in(l$en+e on s$,-e+ti&e
emotional ex%erien+e3 S$,-e+ts ex%osed to h$moro$s s$,liminal stim$li re%orted lo)er le&els
o( state anxiety than did the same +ontrol gro$%3 These e((e+ts )ere s%e+i(i+ to state anxiety/
)ith no s$+h di((eren+e emerging in sel(-ratings o( trait anxiety3 41o,les/ Smith/ Car&er :
Nellens/ ;#"A8
Repressors
The repressor concept has traditionall* ,een $sed to signi(* %eo%le )ith heightened
re+ognition thresholds (or anxiet*-%ro&oking stim$lation 4Nein,erger/ S+h)artM/ :
=a&idson/ ;#A#83 Repressors sho) an o,&io$s in+onsisten+* ,et)een ho) the* des+ri,e
themsel&es ? +alm/ ha%%*/ )ith high sel(-esteem and their o$ter a%%earan+e/ as others
%er+ei&e it3 Those )ith high on so+ial desira,ilit* and lo) on anxiet* )ere th$s termed
repressors/ )hile other gro$%s )ere la,elled tr$e low anxious, high anxious/ and de(ensi&e
high anxious3 Nein,erger et al3 4;#A#8 (o$nd that the repressors )ere more stressed
4a++ording to three %h*siologi+al and three ,eha&io$ral meas$res8 then the tr$e lo)-anxio$s
%eo%le des%ite +laims o( lo)er trait anxiet*3 S$,se<$ent em%iri+al resear+h has (o$nd that
repressors sho) high rea+ti&it* in a n$m,er o( %h*siologi+al meas$res/ ,$t re%ort &er* little
negati&e a((e+t/ %res$ma,l* ,e+a$se the* are highl* moti&ated to maintain a %ositi&e image o(
themsel&es 4as re&ie)ed in Nein,erger : =a&idson/ ;##D83
Ins%iration ,* %s*+hoanal*ti+ de(en+e me+hanisms theor*/ the idea that a repressor $ses
strong de(ensi&e str$+t$res in order to $%hold an image o( himJher that is <$ite di((erent (rom
the more o,-e+ti&e realit*/ as others see it3 To test this in+onsisten+* a +lassi(i+ation )as mad
,* Nein,erger et al3 4;#A#8 ,* )a* o( %s*+hologi+al s+ales/ one that meas$red social
desirability and another s+ale meas$ring anxiet* le&el 4Nein,erger/ S+h)artM/ : =a&idson/
;#A#83 The Marlo)e- Cro)ne So+ial =esira,ilit* S+ale 4;#7!8 )as a++orded to the
+onstr$+tors/ meas$ring a((e+t inhi,ition and %rote+tion o( sel(-esteem3
E* Marlo)e- Cro)ne so+ial =esira,ilit* S+ale %redi+ted a re%ressi&e st*le in&ol&ing an
a&oidan+e o( dist$r,ing +ognitions3 This +on+l$sion )as s$%%orted ,* the repressors
;;
%arti+$lar denial o( +ogniti&e 4relati&e to somati+8 anxiet* and their re%orts o( de+reased trait
anxiet*/ (ollo)ing a stress($l ex%eriment3 The repressors de(ensi&eness and %reo++$%ation
)ith a&oiding a)areness o( anxiet* o(ten ma* inter(ere )ith e((e+ti&e +o%ing and/
%aradoxi+all*/ %romote ,eha&io$ral and %h*siologi+al res%onses indi+ati&e o( high anxiety3
9++ording to Ero)n : Friksson/ repressors traditionall* de(ined as %ersons )ho mani(esting
heightened re+ognition to thresholds (or anxiet* %ro&oking stim$li/ and the* +onsistentl*
a&oid dist$r,ing +ognitions a+ross a &ariet* o( %er+e%t$al/ %ro-e+ti&e/ and learning tasks
4Ero)n/ ;#7;> Friksson/ ;#7783 Repressors de(ensi&eness and %reo++$%ation )ith a&oiding
a)areness o( anxiet* o(ten ma* inter(ere )ith e((e+ti&e +o%ing/ and %aradoxi+all*/ those
%romote ,eha&io$ral and %h*siologi+al res%onses/ )it+h indi+ati&e o( high anxiet*3
Nein,erger/ S+h)artM : =a&idson 4;#A#8/ )ith in a st$d* in&estigated the distin+tion
,et)een> a8 tr$l* lo) anxio$s s$,-e+ts/ )ho re%ort lo) trait anxiet* on the Ta*lor s+ale and
lo) de(ensi&eness on the Marlo)e-Cro)ne s+ale and ,8 repressors )ho re%ort lo) anxiet*
,$t high de(ensi&eness3 1esear+h has s$%%orted the +laim that the repressor is not a so +alled
other de+ei&er/ i3e3 a+t$all* a)are o( his or her o)n (eelings ,$t aiming at making a good
im%ression on others 4=erakshan : F*sen+k/ ;##"> Nein,erger : =a&idson/ ;##D83
The %s*+hod*nami+ theor* o( an a+ti&e a&oidan+e o( +on(li+ting/ anxiet* aro$sing stim$li
th$s seemed an a%%ro%riate (rame to the repressor +on+e%t3 Nhen it +ame to %arti+$lar
de(en+e me+hanisms it )as s$ggested that the me+hanism o( %ro-e+tion )as rele&ant (or
repressors/ sin+e it )o$ld seem a +on&enient strateg* to attend to negati&e material in others
)hen a&oiding it in onesel(/ em%iri+al s$%%ort (or this s$ggestion )as (o$nd ,* Ne)man/
=$(( : Ea$meister 4;##A83 F$rthermore %re&io$s resear+h has leaded $s to resem,ling a
s%e+i(i+ h*%othesis a,o$t 1e%ressor that +an ,e testing in statisti+al anal*ses3
Social Desirability
In %ro%ortion to en+*+lo%aedia o( %s*+holog*/ Social Desirability )as des+ri,ed ,* Fd)ards
in ;#6A and has ,een long dis+$ssed )ithin %s*+hometri+s3 Holden 4;##D8 social desirability
,ias is the tenden+* (or indi&id$als to %ortra* themsel&es in a generall* (a&o$ra,le (ashion
and in a++ordan+e )ith 1$dmin 4;###8 this tenden+* &aries a+ross indi&id$als +ontexts and
ma* re<$ire a trait o( high sel(-regard andJor deli,erate im%ression management3
Meas$res o( social desirability are $se($l (or identi(*ing s$s+e%ti,le items d$ring the
de&elo%ment o( %s*+hometri+ s+ales 41$dmin/ F3 N3 ;###83
;
9mongst esta,lished social desirability s+ales/ the Marlo)e Cro)ne S+ale is one o( the oldest
and most )idel* s+ales $sed 4Cro)ne : Marlo)e/ ;#7!83 It )as de&elo%ed to ,e a meas$re
o( ,ias to)ards a((irming so+ial norms and to ,e inde%endent o( %s*+ho%atholog*3 Holden :
Cro)n-Marlo)e (o$nd that this s+ale is inde%endent o( gender and has items (o+$sed on
inter%ersonal sensiti&it* and +onsiderateness3 Pa$lh$s 4;##;8/ in a (a+tor st$d* o( ten so+ial
desira,ilit* s+ales/ +on+l$ded that the Marlo)e-Cro)ne S+ale is a meas$re o( im%ression
management and to a lesser degree/ sel(-de+e%tion 4Pa$lh$s/ ;##;8
Hypothesis
9(ter o$tlining some o( the resear+h done in the (ield o( the 4+ogniti&e8 $n+ons+io$s/ and
mentioning some o( the +ontro&ersies a,o$t the 4+ogniti&e8 $n+ons+io$s in the ongoing
de,ate/ it is im%ortant to mention that this st$d* is ,ased on Pro(essor Ingegerd Carlssons
earlier resear+h3 E* ha&ing her earlier %ilot st$d* as a +ontrol-gro$% the stage )as set (or this
st$d*3
The general idea is that the +ontent o( the s$,liminal message )o$ld a((e+t the s+ore on the
test o( logi+al-ind$+ti&e a,ilit*/ meas$red ,* the Standard Progressive atrices !SP"3
S$,-e+ts )ho got the negati&e message )o$ld ha&e a lo)er s+ore than s$,-e+ts )ho got the
%ositi&e message3
The #irst hypothesis )as that the +ontent o( the s$,liminal messages )o$ld a((e+t the s+ore on
the test o( logi+al-ind$+ti&e a,ilit* as meas$red ,* the SPM3 S$,-e+ts )ho got the negati&e
message )ere likel* to ha&e a lo)er s+ore than s$,-e+ts )ho got the %ositi&e message3
The second hypothesis )as that the +ontent o( the negati&e s$,liminal message 40I am
)orthless28 )o$ld a((e+t the indi&id$als identi(ied as 01e%ressor2 4i3e3/ %eo%le )ith High
so+ial desira,ilit* s+ales and Lo) trait anxiet*83 The* are more a((e+ted than s$,-e+ts )ith
Lo) so+ial desira,ilit* and high trait anxiet*3 This e((e+t )o$ld meas$re on the le&el o(
Standard Progressi&e Matri+es test 4SPM83
The third hypothesis )as that the +ontent o( the negati&e or %ositi&e s$,liminal message
40I am )orthless28 and 40I am +le&er28 )o$ld a((e+t the s$,-e+ts )ith High so+ial desira,ilit*
no matter ho) lo) or high the* are on trait anxiet*3
;@
This +orrelation matrix
ta,le %ortra*s the design o(
the third h*%otheses and
relationshi% ,et)een high and lo) so+ial desira,ilit*/ negati&e and %ositi&e s$,liminal
messages/ on Standard Progressi&e Matri+es Test s+ores/ )hi+h are ,ased on the estimated
mean o( di((erent gro$%s3
Method
S$,liminal
Messages
So+ial =esira,ilit*
Lo) High
4 C 8
Positi&e
SPM ?Test
Mean 5 G
SPM - Test
Mean 5 G
@ 4 N 8
negati&e
SPM ?Test
Mean 5 G
SPM -Test
Mean 5 G
;D
Pilot Study
The %ilot st$d* mentioned a,o&e/ )as $ndertaken ,* Carlsson/ Erakel/ et al 4;###83 Their
%ilot st$d* ser&ed to +hoose the le&el o( the &oi+e on the ta%es (or this resear+h in order to
make s$re that masked s$,liminal messages )ere %ro%er or )ith in good &ol$me in dE3 In
this )a* a +orre+t threshold (or s$,-e+ti&e s$,liminalit* +o$ld ,e esta,lished (or t)o
messages3
Cheesman and Merikle 4;#"78 introd$+ed a distin+tion ,et)een ob$ective threshold 4a le&el o(
stim$l$s %resentation at )hi+h (or+ed-+hoi+e res%onding indi+ates that a stim$l$s is
$ndete+ta,le8 4In (or+ed +hoi+e/ the s$,-e+t is %resented )ith a n$m,er o( s%atial or tem%oral
alternati&es in ea+h trial/ in )hi+h the stim$l$s is %resented3 The s$,-e+t is (or+ed to +hoose
the lo+ation or inter&al in )hi+h the stim$l$s o++$rred8 and sub$ective threshold 4a le&el o(
greater d$ration/ energ*/ or signal/ noise ratio at )hi+h s$,-e+ts re%ort a)areness o( stim$l$s
%resen+e8 that is a,o&e +han+e res%onding3
Initial +o$rse o( a+tion ,et)een So+ial =esira,ilit* and Trait 9nxiet* to this %oint essentiall*
s$%%orted ,* Ingegerd Carlsson methodi+al +on+e%t that +onstr$+ting on SPSS3 In the %resent
st$d*/ the ,o$ndar* ,et)een +ons+io$s and $n+ons+io$s %er+e%t$al %ro+esses )ill ,e e<$ated
)ith a s$,-e+ti&el* de(ined threshold )hi+h ,ased on +laimed a)areness rather than an
o,-e+ti&e threshold )hi+h ,ased on dis+riminati&e res%onding 4Cheesman : Merikle/ ;#"783
The (irst resear+hers to mention ob$ective threshold and sub$ective threshold )ere Cheesman
: Merikle/ ;#"D3 In a t*%i+al s$,liminal %er+e%tion ex%eriment/ s$,-e+ts are gi&en a
se<$en+e o( trials in )hi+h a stim$l$s is either %resented or not3 For ea+h trial/ s$,-e+ts sa*
)hether a stim$l$s )as %resented on that trial3 S$,-e+ti&e threshold o++$rs at the le&el o(
dis+riminati&e res%onding (or )hi+h s$,-e+ts +laim not to ,e a,le to dete+t %er+e%t$al
in(ormation 4that is/ the* +laim to ,e literall* g$essing8> )hereas o,-e+ti&e threshold o++$rs at
the le&el o( dis+riminati&e res%onding +orres%onding to a+t$al +han+e %er(orman+e 4that is/
s$,-e+ts +laim a stim$l$s )as %resent no more (re<$entl* )hen it )as %resent than )hen it
)as not83 Th$s/ the s$,-e+ti&e threshold is the %oint at )hi+h s$,-e+ts do not kno) that the*
kno) that a stim$l$s )as %resented> the o,-e+ti&e threshold is the %oint at )hi+h s$,-e+ts do
not kno) that a stim$l$s )as %resented3 Cheesman : Merikle 4;#"D8 (o$nd that s$,liminal
%er+e%tion o++$rred in the sense o( a stim$l$s ,eing ,elo) s$,-e+ti&e ,$t not o,-e+ti&e
threshold3 The* res$lts im%l* that s$,liminal %er+e%tion exists in one sense meant ,* the la*
;6
%erson might not ,elie&e that the* sa) an*thing and *et still sho) ,* their a,o&e +han+e
g$esses/ and ,* relia,le %riming/ that the in(ormation nonetheless a((e+ted their ,eha&io$r3
The st$d* here $ses t)o di((erent &er,al messages/ a %ositi&e and a negati&e3 The %ositi&e
message is 0I am +le&er2 4in S)edish' 0Oag Rr d$ktig283 The negati&e message is 0I am
)orthless2 4in S)edish' 0Oag Rr &RrdelQs283 9 )oman is sa*ing the S)edish senten+es in an
a%%ro%riate tone o( &oi+e3
Ka%%as/ Hess : S+here 4;##;8 gi&e a s$mmar* o( the &o+al intonation (or di((erent emotions3
The a((e+ti&e state o( sadness-de-e+tion 40I am )orthless28 is des+ri,ed ,* a de+rease in mean
F! 4($ndamental (re<$en+*8/ F! range/ do)n)ard-dire+ted F! +onto$rs and also/ mean
intensit* high-(re<$en+* energ* and %re+ision o( arti+$lation de+rease3 1e+itation o( F! in
en+*+lo%aedias/ F$ndamental (re<$en+* is a +on+e%t in m$si+ or %honeti+/ o(ten re(erred to as
sim%l* a 0($ndamental23 The n$m,er o( )a&es that %ass a (ixed %oint %er $nit time is also the
n$m,er o( +*+les o( &i,rations $ndergone in $nit time ,* a ,od* in %eriodi+ motion3 The
($ndamental (re<$en+* 4also +alled a nat$ral (re<$en+*8 o( a %eriodi+ signal is the in&erse o(
the %it+h %eriod length3 The %it+h %eriod is/ in t$rn/ the smallest re%eating $nit o( a signal3 One
%it+h %eriod th$s des+ri,es the %eriodi+ signal +om%letel*3 The signi(i+an+e o( de(ining the
%it+h %eriod as the smallest re%eating $nit +an ,e a%%re+iated ,* noting that t)o or more
+on+atenated %it+h %eriods (orm a re%eating %attern in the signal34 Fn+*+lo%aedia/ !!"8
Ho)e&er/ the a((e+ti&e state -o*Jelation 40I am +le&er28 is des+ri,ed ,* in+reases in mean F!/
F! range/ F! &aria,ilit*/ and mean intensit*3 I( listeners are a,le to de+ode the sender.s
emotional state (rom &o+al +$es/ the &oi+e m$st ,e +arr*ing that in(ormation in its a+o$sti+al
%arameters/ re+orded &er,al messages> in this st$d*/ s$%%osed to ha&e these di((eren+es in
a+o$sti+al %arameters/ ,$t it )as not +he+ked (or3
These &er,al senten+es 4ad-$sted to )hi+h a((e+ti&e state the* ha&e to re%resent8 ha&e ,een
em,edded three times in a short m$si+al %ie+e3 9 +om%$ter )as $sed in this %hase3 The
m$si+al %ie+e takes a,o$t 6 se+onds and has ,een +hosen ,e+a$se it )as (o$nd to ,e a
ne$tral kind o( m$si+3 The %ie+e is +om%osed ,* Oohann S3 Ea+h and is +alled the 0Sixth
Eranden,$rg Con+erto23 In another st$d* in )hi+h m$si+all* $ntrained listeners had to rate
(o$rteen di((erent +om%ositions 4NielMPn : Cesares/ ;#"83
;7
Next ste% )as to trans(er the em,edded &oi+e %l$s m$si+ to a ta%e3 Se&eral &ersions )ere
trans(erred $sing di((erentl* strong &ersions o( the &oi+e/ (rom a &er* )eak to a &er* lo$d
&oi+e3 The +om%$ter re+orded the +lassi+al %ie+e o( m$si+ at ;! dE and added the messages at
the (ollo)ing lo$dness in the (ollo)ing order' -A dE/ -A dE/ -D dE/ -D dE/ -; dE/ -; dE/ - dE/
dE/ 6 dE/ 6 dE/ " dE/ " dE/ ;! dE/ ;! dE3
There a(ter a +ohort o( 66 (emales listen to the ta%e/ and the* des+ri,e e&er*thing the* heard3
Most o( the )omen )ere st$dents 4N 5 DA8 and +ame (orm di((erent de%artments at the
Uni&ersit* o( L$nd 4S)eden83 These de%artments in+l$ded the te+hni+al/ medi+al/
h$manisti+/ %h*siolog* and (a+$lt*3 The other )omen 4N5 "8 )ere em%lo*edJ$nem%lo*ed3
Their ages ranged (orm ;" to D! 4mean 5 6 *ears> S= 5 D/ DD83
In the ,eginning o( de&elo%ing the method o( the %ilot st$d* the %arti+i%ating )omen )ere
instr$+ted as (ollo)s' 0Yo$ )ill listen to se&eral re%etitions o( a short %ie+e o( m$si+3
Eet)een ea+h re%etition I )ill sto% the ta%e re+order3 Please noti+e )hether the m$si+ so$nds
the same (orm on %ie+e to the next or that it is +hanging3 Nrite do)n an* +hange that *o$ are
a,le to o,ser&e23
From -A dE $% to -D dE none o( the )omen heard an*thing that )as +om%ara,le to a &oi+e/ at
the -; dE lo$dness le&el onl* one s$,-e+t mentioned that she 0S +o$ld hear someone
s%eaking )eakl* in the ,a+kgro$ndS2 and (rom dE $% till ;!dE man* more )omen did
hear someone s%eaking3 For the message to ,e s$,liminal 4)ith a s$,-e+ti&e threshold8 the
m$si+al %ie+e )as +hose to ,e re+orded at ;! dE and the &er,al message at -; dE3
9s a +ontrol to (ind o$t i( the messages 4I.m )orthlessJI.m +lea&er8 )ere s$,liminal/
%arti+i%ants (illed in a <$estionnaire )ith three <$estions on/ )hether the* ha&e heard
an*thing )ithin the m$si+ the* listened to3 The res$lt )as that none o( the s$,-e+ts had heard
an* )ords or &oi+e )hile the* listened to the +lassi+al m$si+3

Subject
The %arti+i%ants in this %resent st$d* )ere 7 $ndergrad$ate (emale st$dent (rom the
Uni&ersit* o( L$nd : MalmQ HQgskola 4in S)eden83 Sin+e the )oman in the messages
s%eaks in S)edish/ the %arti+i%ants o$ght to ,e o( the same sex and the same lang$age3
Parti+i%ants +ame (rom di((erent %art o( MalmQ and L$nd Uni&ersit* )ith &ariet* o(
;A
,a+kgro$nd3 Their ages ranged ,et)een ;" and D6 *ears 4mean age 5 6 *ears> SD 5 63"D8
and all had ade<$ate hearing3 Fa+h st$dent %arti+i%ated &ol$ntaril*3 9(ter the* had let kno)n
that the* )ere interested in %arti+i%ating/ the* )ere a%%roa+hed ,* %hone/ +ell %hone text
message 4sms8/ and e-mail3 The* )ere told that the testing )o$ld take a%%roximatel* one ho$r
and an a%%ointment )as made3
S$,-e+ts )ere randoml* assigned to one o( the t)o +onditions/ )ith @; s$,-e+ts getting the
%ositi&e s$,liminal message/ and @; s$,-e+ts getting the negati&e s$,liminal message3
Finall* )ithin statisti+al data/ (or the reason o( high distri,$tion in data/ some red$+es hade to
,e do)n/ those s$,-e+ts )ho had extreme high or lo) distri,$tion )ere red$+e/ and the
n$m,er o( %arti+i%ant +hange (rom 7 to 67 s$,-e+ts3 Nith di&ision o( " s$,-e+ts in negati&e
s$,liminal message 40I am )orthless28 and " s$,-e+ts )ith %ositi&e s$,liminal message 40I
am +le&er283
Procedure
Fa+h indi&id$al tested/ )as met ,* the ex%erimenter and taken to a <$iet room3 The s$,-e+ts
had their o)n ta,le to )ork on3 9(ter a short introd$+tion/ the s$,-e+t (illed in a %eneral
in#ormation #orm3 49%%endix 092 and 9%%endix 0E2 (or translation in S)edish8 This (orm
ser&ed to get some %ersonal in(ormation a,o$t the s$,-e+t like name/ age/ o++$%ation/ high-
s+hool grades/ and in(ormed +onsent3 4E$t $nl$+kil*/ man* o( %arti+i%ants )here not %re%ared
to (ill +om%letel* in the 0general in(ormation2 <$estionnaire/ )hi+h )ere im,edded/ and
re<$ested3 this gro$nds make onl* 0age &aria,le2 %ossi,le to ex%loit in statisti+s data83
Then/ the s$,-e+t +om%leted ,oth %ortions o( the State & Trait 'nxiety (nventory 4ST9I/
S%iel,erg/ ;#"@83 4T)o test and ! <$estion ea+h o( the <$estionnaires83 Next ste% )ere a
<$estionnaire a,o$t arlowe- )rowne Social Desirability Scale/ )hi+h ,ase on ;! <$estions
4;###83 49t this moment had to ,e (illed in another <$estionnaire a,o$t Sel# *steem Scale ,*
1osen,erg/ 4;#7683 ,$t this instr$ment is not anal*se in this arti+le8 Nhen the* (inished doing
this/ the s$,-e+ts got the instr$+tions o( the Raven atrices Test 4Standard Progressi&e
Matri+es/ 1a&en/ Co$rt : 1a&en/ ;##8 and a )ritten m$si+ instr$+tion3 49%%endix 0C2 and
a%%endix 0=2 (or a translation in S)edish8
Next ste% )as to let the s$,-e+ts listen to one o( the randoml* sele+ted ta%es 4s$,liminal
messages8 (or a%%roximatel*/ (o$r min$te3 9 do$,le-,lind %ro+ed$re )as $sed> i3e3/ the
ex%erimenter )as $na)are o( )hi+h ta%e +ontained )hi+h message/ (or the reason that/
;"
%arti+i%ant )ere $na)are o( the $se o( s$,liminal messages/ s$,-e+ts had a %assi&e attit$de
to)ards the stim$l$s message in the m$si+3 The s$,-e+ts )ere e<$i%%ed )ith ear%hones )hen
the* listened to the m$si+3 9(ter m$si+ %la*ed +om%letel* to the end/ dire+tl*/ s$,-e+t started
to )ork on the 1a&en Matri+es Test3
The s$,-e+ts +o$ld ha&e as m$+h time as the* needed to (inish the test3 The instr$+tions o( the
1a&en Test )ere also gi&en ,e(ore the* listened to the m$si+/ ,e+a$se o( a %ossi,le
inter(eren+e %ro,lem/ ,et)een the instr$+tions and the s$,liminal message/ i( the instr$+tions
)ere gi&en a(ter the m$si+3
There )ere t)o <$estionnaires le(t to +om%leted a(ter the* (inished there MT-test3 The (irst
one )as the State %ortion o( the State ? Trait 9nxiet* In&entor* 4ST9I/ S%iel,erger/ ;#"@83
4Criti+all*/ at this %art o( the ex%eriment/ in+orre+tl*/ %arti+i%ants o,tain )ith the )rong
<$estionnaire> instead o( State 9nxiet* In&entor* <$estionnaire/ Trait 9nxiet* <$estionnaire
took the %la+e83 The last one )as a <$estionnaire )ith three <$estions a,o$t the M$si+ the*
listened to and t)o <$estions a,o$t the Matri+es-test 49%%endix 0F283 (inal*/ the s$,-e+ts
)ere thanked them (or their %arti+i%ation and ex%erimenter ga&e them a )oncluding
(n#ormation a,o$t the %$r%ose o( ex%eriment 49%%endix 0F283
Material
;#
State- Trait Anxiety Inventory
Pre&io$sl*/ mentioned in the introd$+tion the term anxiety is $sed to re(er to at least t)o
related/ *et logi+all* <$ite di((erent/ +onstr$+ts3 Fm%iri+all*/ anxiet* is %erha%s most o(ten
$sed to des+ri,e an $n%leasant emotional state or +ondition3 9nxiet* is also $sed to des+ri,e
relati&el* sta,le indi&id$al di((eren+es in anxiet*-%roneness as a %ersonalit* trait 4S%iel,erg/
;#"@83
The State & Trait 'nxiety (nventory 4ST9I8 has ,een $sed extensi&el* in resear+h and +lini+al
%ra+ti+e3 It +om%rises se%arate sel( ?re%ort s+ales (or meas$ring state and trait anxiety3 The
state anxiety scale +onsists o( t)ent* statements that e&al$ate ho) res%ondents (eel 0right
no)/ at this moment32 The trait anxiety scale +onsists o( t)ent* statements that assess ho)
%eo%le 0generall*2 (eel3 The state anxiety s+ale has ,een (o$nd to ,e a sensiti&e indi+ator o(
+hanges in transitor* anxiet* ex%erien+ed ,* +lients and %atients in +o$nselling/
%s*+hothera%* and ,eha&io$ral modi(i+ation %rograms3 The s+ale has also ,een $sed
extensi&el* to assess the le&el o( stats anxiety ind$+ed ,* stress($l ex%erimental %ro+ed$res
and ,* $na&oida,le real-li(e stress (a+tor/ s$+h as/ imminent s$rger*/ dental treatment/ -o,
inter&ie)s/ or im%ortant s+hool tests 4S%iel,erg/ ;#"@83
The trait anxiety s+ale has ,een $sed/ among others/ (or s+reening high s+hool and +ollege
st$dents and militar* re+r$its (or anxiet* %ro,lems3 In +lini+al and ex%erimental resear+h/ the
ST9I trait anxiety scale has %ro&en $se($l (or identi(*ing %ersons )ith high le&els o( ne$roti+
anxiet* and (or sele+ting s$,-e+ts (or %s*+hologi+al ex%eriments )ho di((er in moti&ation or
dri&e le&el 4S%iel,erg/ ;#"@83 In one o( the st$d* on trait anxiety scale )as $sed to di&ide the
s$,-e+ts in a high trait anxiety gro$% and a low trait anxiety gro$%3 1elia,ilit* data gi&es
reasona,l* high test-retest +orrelation (or the trait anxiety scale/ ranging (rom3 3A@ to 3"7 (or
six s$,gro$%s )ithin a +ollege st$dent %o%$lation/ ,$t some)hat lo)er (or a high s+hool
st$dent.s %o%$lation/ ranging (rom 376 to 3A63 For the state anxiety scale/ the sta,ilit*
+oe((i+ients (or +ollege and high s+hool st$dents )ere relati&el* lo)/ ranging (rom 3;7 to 3763
Gi&en the transitor* nat$re o( anxiet* states/ meas$res o( internal +onsisten+* s$+h as the
al%ha +oe((i+ient/ %ro&ide a more meaning($l index o( the relia,ilit* o( state anxiety scales
than test-retest +orrelations3 For sam%les o( )orking ad$lts 4N 5 ;"@"8/ +ollege st$dents 4N 5
"668/ high s+hool st$dents 4N 5 DD8/ and militar* re+r$its 4N5 ;#7D8 it +an ,e noted that all
,$t one o( the state anxiety al%has )as a,o&e 3#! the al%ha +oe((i+ients (or the trait anxiet*
s+ale )ere also $ni(orml* high/ ranging (rom 3"# to 3#;3 Th$s/ sta,ilit*/ as meas$red ,* test-
!
rest +oe((i+ients/ is relati&el* high (or the ST'( trait anxiety scale and lo) (or the state
anxiety scale/ as )o$ld ,e ex%e+ted (or a meas$re assessing +hange in anxiet* res$lting (orm
sit$ational stress3 The internal +onsisten+* (or ,oth the state anxiety and trait anxiety scales
are <$ite high as meas$red ,* al%ha +oe((i+ients 4S%iel,erg/ ;#"@83
Constr$+t &alidit* o( the state anxiety s+ale ma* ,e noted in the (inding that the state anxiet*
s+ores o( +ollege st$dents )ere signi(i+antl* higher $nder examination +ondition/ and
signi(i+antl* lo)er a(ter relaxation training/ than )hen the* )ere tested in a reg$lar +lass
%eriod
The State-Trait 'nxiety (nventory )as designed to ,e sel(-administering and ma* ,e gi&en
either indi&id$all* or to gro$%s3 The in&entor* has no time limits 4S%iel,erg/ ;#"@83
4Sin+e h*%othesiMed in this st$d* aim to anal*se the e((e+t o( +hanges in transitor* anxiet*
,e(ore and a(ter listening to s$,liminal messages> im%ortant to noti(* that the st$d* (ailed to
statisti+all* meas$re the di((eren+e on standard %rogressi&e matri+es test s+ores83
Nore!ian short-"orm o" the #arloe-$rone Social Desirability Scale
9n $n%$,lished Nor)egian translation o( S+h$esslerTs 4;#"8 ;!-item Fnglish short-(orm o(
the Marlo)e-Cro)ne S+ale )as made ,* Ni+hstrQm 4;##683 S+h$essler had sele+ted 6
%ositi&el* ke*ed and 6 negati&el* ke*ed items ,ased on highest item-total +orrelations
41$dmin F3 N3 ;###83 He de&elo%ed a short (orm o( the Marlo)e ? Cro)ne Social
Desirability Scale 4Cro)ne : Marlo)e/ ;#7!83 Eesides aiming at a shorter &ersion/ another
goal )as to attain a ,etter ,alan+e ,et)een %ositi&e and negati&e items3 The res$lting
Nor)egian short (orm +onsisted o( ;! items instead o( @@/ and sho)ed ,etter inter-item
+orrelation means and a mean +loser to the mid-%oint o( the res%onse s+ale than the original
s+ale3
So+ial desira,ilit* in its extreme ho)e&er/ +an +a$se di((i+$lties in resear+h/ %arti+$larl* in
%s*+hologi+al and medi+al resear+h3 Nhen %arti+i%ants in resear+h %ro&ide so+iall* desira,le
ans)ers/ res$lts +an o(ten ,e +on(o$nded3 O( the esta,lished so+ial desira,ilit* s+ales/ the
Marlo)e-Cro)ne S+ale is one o( the oldest and most )idel* $sed 4Cro)ne : Marlo)e/
;#7!83 It )as de&elo%ed to ,e a meas$re o( ,ias to)ards a((irming so+ial norms and to ,e
inde%endent o( %s*+ho%atholog*3 Holden : Fekken 4;#"#8 (o$nd that this s+ale is
inde%endent o( gender and has items (o+$sed on inter%ersonal sensiti&it* and +onsiderateness3
;
Pa$lh$s 4;##;8/ in a (a+tor st$d* o( so+ial desira,ilit* s+ales/ +on+l$ded that the Marlo)e-
Cro)ne S+ale is a meas$re o( im%ression management and to lesser degree/ sel(-de+e%tion3
T)o (a$lts )ith the Marlo)e-Cro)ne S+ale are 4;8 ex+essi&e length and 48 $n,alan+ed
%ositi&e and negati&e ke*ing3 Positi&el* and negati&el* ke*ed items sho$ld ,e e<$al in
n$m,er i( a+<$ies+en+e ,ias/ or the tenden+* to ans)er 0*es2/ is to ,e +an+elled o$t3 The
%$r%ose o( the %resent st$d* )as to %rod$+e a Nor)egian short-(orm o( the Marlo)e-Cro)ne
S+ale 41$dmin/ ;###83
Standard Pro!ressive #atrices %SP#&
The Standard Progressive atrices test )as +onstr$+ted to meas$re the eductive +om%onent
o( 0g as de(ined in S%earman.s theor* o( +ogniti&e a,ilit* to %er+ei&e/ and the a,ilit* to
identi(* relationshi%s3 Sin+e %er+e%tion is %rimaril* a conceptual %ro+ess/ the essential (eat$re
o( ed$+ati&e a,ilit* is the a,ilit* to generate ne)/ largel* non-&er,al +on+e%ts/ )hi+h make it
%ossi,le to think +learl*3 The Standard Progressive atrices )ere de&elo%ed (or $se in
homes/ s+hools/ and )ork%la+es 4)here testing +onditions and le&els o( moti&ation are o(ten
(ar (rom a %er(e+t %s*+hometri+ %oint o( &ie)8 as )ell as in la,oratories3 There(ore/ it had to
,e sim$ltaneo$sl* short/ attra+ti&e/ ro,$st/ and &alid 41a&en/ Co$rt : 1a&en/ ;##83
The s+ale is made $% o( (i&e sets/ or series/ o( diagrammati+ %$MMles exhi,iting serial +hange
in t)o dimensions sim$ltaneo$sl*3 Fa+h %$MMle has a %art missing/ the %erson taking the test/
has to (ind the missing %art among the o%tions %ro&ided3 The s+ale +onsists o( 7! %ro,lems
di&ided into (i&e Sets 49/ E/ C/ =/ and F8> ea+h made $% o( ; %ro,lems3 In ea+h Set the (irst
%ro,lem is as nearl* as %ossi,le sel(-e&identand the (ollo)ed %ro,lem/ )ere ,$ilt on the
arg$ment o( those %ass %ro,lem and ,e+ome %rogressi&el* more di((i+$lt3 The order o( the
items %ro&ides the standard training in the method o( )orking3 The (i&e Sets %ro&ide (i&e
o%%ort$nities to gras% the method o( tho$ght re<$ired to sol&e the %ro,lems and (i&e
%rogressi&e assessments o( a %ersons. +a%a+it* (or intelle+t$al a+ti&it*3 To ens$re s$stained
interest and (reedom (rom (atig$e/ ea+h %ro,lem is ,oldl* %resented/ a++$ratel* dra)n/ and as
(ar as %ossi,le/ %leasing to look at 41a&en/ Co$rt : 1a&en/ ;##83
9 %erson.s total s+ore %ro&ides an index o( intelle+t$al +a%a+it*3 9s an $ntimed 0+a%a+it*2
test/ the res$lts ha&e ,een (o$nd to ,e more relia,le and %s*+hologi+all* &alid than one might
ex%e+t (rom sixt* %ro,lems arranged in (i&e sets o( o&erla%%ing di((i+$lt* 41a&en/ Co$rt :
1a&en/ ;##83

There are man* st$dies dealing )ith the relia,ilit* o( the Standard Progressive atrices and
some o( them ha&e ,een re%orted in the literat$re3 The* +o&er a &er* )ide age-range/ man*
+$lt$ral gro$%s/ and +lini+al as )ell as normal %o%$lations3 The general %i+t$re is o( good
relia,ilit*/ )hether in terms o( internal +onsisten+* or re-test relia,ilit*3 The +on+$rrent and
%redi+ti&e &alidities o( the S P, &ar* )ith the age/ %ossi,l* sex/ the homogeneit* o( the
sam%le/ and the +on+e%t$al rele&an+e o( the +riterion to )hi+h the SP )ill ,e related and the
<$alit* o( the assessment3 9 re&ie) o( rele&ant resear+h/ ho)e&er/ allo)s some general
+on+l$sions to ,e (orm$lated3 9++ording to 1a&en et al3 4;##8';8 good +orrelations o( the
SP )ith +on+$rrent intelligen+e meas$res 8 good +orrelations )ith +on+$rrent a+hie&ement
meas$res/ and @8 %redi+ti&e &alidit* +oe((i+ients generall* ranging $% to 3A! 4ho)e&er/
resear+h on the %redi+ti&e %o)er o( SP has %rod$+ed some in+onsisten+ies in the
inter%retation o( these res$lts83
The +ontent &alidit* o( SP/ as meas$red ,* the internal +onsisten+* o( the test/ &aries
markedl* )hen di((erent test items are +onsidered3 9,o$t the 0(a+torial +onstr$+t &alidit*2'
the SP has ,een des+ri,ed/ as one o( the %$rest and ,est meas$res o( g or general
intelle+t$al ($n+tioning a&aila,le3 Ne&ertheless the e&iden+e (orm (a+tor-anal*ti+ resear+h
s$ggests that )hile SP is a relati&el* good meas$re o( general intelle+t$al a,ilit* it is not a
%$re g estimate3 The assessment o( other (a+tors ma* ,e o( %arti+$lar im%ortan+e in +ross-
+$lt$ral +ontexts 41a&en/ Co$rt : 1a&en/ ;##83
'uestion about #usic and (uestion about #atrices Test
The last <$estionnaire the s$,-e+ts got to (ill/ )as es%e+iall* made (or this st$d*3 It +onsisted
o( (o$r <$estions' t)o a,o$t the m$si+ the* )ere listening to and t)o a,o$t the 1a&en
Matri+es test the* +om%leted3
First the s$,-e+ts )ere asked to des+ri,e the m$si+ in their o)n )ords/ then the* hade to rank
the m$si+ on a 6- %oints s+ale (rom 0negati&e2 to 0%ositi&e2 and then the* )ere asked i( the*
heard something s%e+ial in the m$si+ 4like a &oi+e83 I( the* did hear something the* had to
des+ri,e )ith their o)n )ords )hat the* hear3
@
The t)o <$estions a,o$t the 1a&en Matri+es test ha&e 6-%oints s+ales as )ell3 First the
s$,-e+ts are asked ho) di((i+$lt the* (o$nd the matri+es test on a s+ale (orm 0eas*2 to
0di((i+$lt23 9(ter this the* hade to tr* to +om%are their o)n %er(orman+e )ith the %er(orman+e
o( %eo%le o( the same age on a s+ale ranging (orm 0,ad2 to 0good23
This last <$estionnaire had ,een added to +he+k a +o$%le o( things3 The most im%ortant %art o(
it )ere/ sub$e+tive a)areness/ The sub$ective threshold has alread* ,een mentioned a,o&e 4on
MethodJ%ilot st$d*/ %age;68 B$estion n$m,er t)o 40=id *o$ hear something s%e+ial in the
m$si+G I( *es' des+ri,eS28 ser&ed to +he+k this s$,-e+ti&e threshold 49%%endix 0F2 : 0F283
D
Result
Statisti+s data (or this ex%eriment sho)ed a normal distri,$tion3 Cron,a+hTs al%ha sho)ed
high item al%ha on trait-state %ortion o( the ST'( 4'lpha5 3#;8/ high on trait %ortion o( the
ST'( 4'lpha 53 "#8/ )hile it )as rather lo) on So+ial =esira,ilit* 4'lpha 5 36"83
A!e
The mean age (or the )hole gro$% )as 6 4SD 563"D83 The mean age (or the gro$% o(
s$,-e+ts )ho got %ositi&e s$,liminal message )as 637" 4SD 5 63@8 and (or the gro$% o(
s$,-e+ts )ho got negati&e s$,liminal message )as 73! 4SD 5 73DD8> )ith t 46D8 5 -3@ and
p 5 !3"3 Th$s/ there )ere almost no di((eren+es in age amongst the %arti+i%ants in the t)o
ex%erimental gro$%s3
Score on Raven %SP#&
The mean s+ore on the SP test/ (or the gro$% o( s$,-e+ts/ )ho got negati&e s$,liminal
message/ )ere 6#3A and the mean s+ore (or the gro$% o( s$,-e+ts )ho got %ositi&e s$,liminal
message )ere 6#3!@ and there )as no signi(i+ant di((eren+e (or age gro$%s on the res$lts on
SP3
Trait anxiety
The mean s+ore on the trait %ortion o( the ST'(/ (or the )hole gro$% )as D;37 4SD 5 #3D83
For ,oth 4%ositi&e and negati&e s$,liminal messages8 ex%erimental gro$%s the mean s+ore on
the trait %ortion o( the ST9I )as D!3A/ )hile the negati&e s$,liminal message had a SD e<$al
to #3D@ and %ositi&e s$,liminal message had a SD e<$al to #3!3 So/ there )as no signi(i+ant
di((eren+e ,et)een the ex%erimental gro$%s )ith res%e+t to the le&el o( trait anxiety3
9ltho$gh res$lts sho)ed a %ositi&e +orrelation ,et)een the trait and the state %ortion o( the
ST'( 4r 5 !3@7/ p 5!3 !!A8/ a negati&e +orrelation )as sho)n ,et)een trait %ortion and Social-
Desirability 4r 5 -3##/ p 5 !3!683
Social Desirability
The mean s+ore (or the )hole gro$% on the social desirability )as 73!" 4SD 5 D3683
The mean s+ore (or the gro$% o( s$,-e+ts )ho got negati&e s$,liminal message is 737@
4SD 5 D3!D83 The mean s+ore (or the gro$% o( s$,-e+ts )ho got %ositi&e message is 636A
4SD 5 D36;83 9s a res$lt/ the ex%eriment gro$%s )ere not di((erent )ith res%e+t to the le&el o(
6
Social desirability t 46D8 5 -3A6/ p53 D73
AN)*A+S
9 one-)a* 9NOC9 is em%lo*ed to test )hether there are signi(i+ant di((eren+es in the mean
s+ores o( the de%endent &aria,le a+ross the di&erse gro$%s3 The (ollo)ing anal*ses ha&e ,een
made3 The gro$%s o( s$,-e+ts (irst had to ,e s%lit/ ,e(ore the anal*ses +o$ld ,e made3 For
exam%le/ s$,-e+ts )ere ranked as 0highl* anxio$s2 a,o&e the median and as 0lo) anxio$s2
,elo) the median3 This )as done (or the (ollo)ing &aria,les' trait anxiet*/ so+ial desira,ilit*
and age on s+ore ra&en test 4SPM8 and t)o di((erent <$estionnaires a,o$t Matrix-test/ 4B3
1a&3 ; : 83
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: RAVEN.R
Subliminal
Messages
NTILES of
NEWS!.D Mean Std. De"iation N
#$%%
&ositi"e
Lo'
()$#%%% *$%)+%+ ,(
-ig.
()$(/,* *$0#1(, ,)
Total
(,$1+#+ *$*/*+* #1
)$%%
Negati"e
Lo'
(,$#,*) *$0,%0/ ,*
-ig.
(%.)1*0 )$+)0), ,*
Total
(#$)+#+ *$)/*(% #1
Total Lo'
(#$#*,* *$)0*#0 #+
-ig.
(#$%)/% *$(%,+1 #/
Total
(#$,*#+ *$)+,1( (0
This ta,le ill$strates the s$mmar* o( statisti+s )hi+h gi&en ,* the one-)a* 9NOC9 to test
)hether there are signi(i+ant di((eren+es in the mean s+ores o( the de%endent &aria,le3 The
(irst +ol$mn sho)s the di((erent gro$%s o( the s$,liminal message and the se+ond +ol$mn
re%resents the Lo) and High s+ore on so+ial desira,ilit*3
Score Raven %SP#&, trait anxiety- social desirability and subliminal messa!es
Statisti+s (rom the s+ore on the SPM )ere anal*Med in 9NOC9 )ith the &aria,les o( the trait
anxiet* <$estionnaire 4high and lo)8/ the so+ial desira,ilit* 4high and lo)8 and ,oth
messages3 1es$lts ill$strate an intera+tion e((e+t on the le&el o( high social desirability and
,oth %ositi&e and negati&e message' , 4;/ 68 5 63!D/ p 5 3!#3
7
Score Raven, Hi!h social desirability and .o trait anxiety /Repressor0
For high so+ial desira,ilit* and the gro$% )ho got %ositi&e s$,liminal messages )ith a mean
e<$al to 6@37! 4SD5 D3A7 and N5;@8 and the negati&e message )ith a mean e<$al to 63!
4SD5D36@ and N5;D83
The repressors had s+ores ,elo) the s+ore %oint on state anxiet* and a,o&e the median on
so+ial desira,ilit*> the lo) anxio$s gro$% had s+ores ,elo) the s+ore %oint on ra&en test/
)hile the high anxio$s gro$% had a high s+ore3 Trait anxiety +o$ld ,e either high or lo) on
so+ial desira,ilit*3 1es$lt o( the 9NOC9 sho)ed , 4;/ 68 5 63!D/ p5!3#3 The gro$%s did
not di((er signi(i+antl*3
Score Raven, social desirability and subliminal messa!es
Social desirability and s$,liminal messages ,oth negati&e and %ositi&e on the 1a&en s+ore/
+on(irm the intera+tion on , 4;/ 68 563!D/ p 5 3!#3 F$rthermore t-test (or e<$alit* o( means
sho)s t 478 5 73;#/ p U 3!63
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: RAVEN.R
Sour2e
T3pe III Sum
of S4uares Df Mean S4uare 5 Sig.
!orre2ted Model
+/$(+(6a7 ) )#$()# ,$/(0 $,0/
Inter2ept
,(,(/($%#0 , ,(,(/($%#0 1,1#$(%( $%%%
TA&E
($%)0 , ($%)0 $#/# $0%*
NS!
$/)) , $/)) $%*% $1*)
TA&E 8 NS!
+)$*%) , +)$*%) ($%*# $%#+
Error
+0)$#0) (# ,1$(#*
Total
,()),1$%%% (0
!orre2ted Total
,%0%$1(/ ((
a R S4uared 9 $%+# 6Ad:usted R S4uared 9 $%*%7
The ta,le sho)s a signi(i+ant intera+tions ,et)een s$,liminal messages 4T9PF8 and so+ial
desira,ilit* 4NSOC8 )ith , 4;/ 68 5 63!D 4p 5 3!#8
The matrix ,elo) %ortra*s the design o( the third h*%otheses )hi+h +on(irm the (inding a,o&e
and e((e+t ,et)een s$,liminal messages and so+ial desira,ilit*3 This e((e+t is ill$stration on
the a&erage SPM - test s+ore 4,ased on the estimated means o( the di((erent gro$%s8/ (or the
s$,-e+ts )ith high so+ial desira,ilit*3 9&erage s+ore is higher on %ositi&e s$,liminal message
than the a&erage SPM ? test s+ore on negati&e s$,liminal message3 9ltho$gh this e((e+t is
A
also tr$e (or the s$,-e+ts )ith a lo) so+ial desira,ilit*> the di((eren+e ,et)een a&erage SPM ?
test s+ores is less )ithin the latter gro$% +om%aring to s$,-e+ts )ith high so+ial desira,ilit*3
Score Raven, trait anxiety
and subliminal
messa!es
=ata thro$gho$t the s+ore on the SPM )ere anal*Med ,* 9NOC9 )ith the &aria,les o( the
trait anxiety <$estionnaire 4high and lo)8/ and ,oth %ositi&e and negati&e s$,liminal
messages3 9n intera+tion e((e+t ,et)een the le&el o( trait anxiet* and messages +annot ,e
(o$nd3
S$,liminal
Messages
So+ial =esira,ilit*
Lo) High
4 C 8
%ositi&e
SPM ?Test
Mean 5 6@3
SPM - Test
Mean 5 6@36A
@ 4 N 8
negati&e
SPM ?Test
Mean 5 6;3
SPM -Test
Mean 56!3@"
"
Discussion
The "irst hypothesis )as that the +ontent o( the s$,liminal message )o$ld a((e+t the s+ore on
the test o( logi+al ind$+ti&e a,ilit* as meas$red ,* the SP3 S$,-e+ts )ho got the negati&e
message )ere likel* to ha&e a lo)er s+ore than s$,-e+ts )ho got the %ositi&e message3 The
h*%othesis a,o$t %ro-e+tion )as not s$%%orted/ and there are se&eral ex%lanations (or this
)hi+h are dis+$ssed in the (ollo)ing'
First/ Ma*er and Mer+kel,a+h 4;###8 %oint to %arametri+ resear+h on s$,liminal stim$lation
)ith res%e+t to the <$estion o( ho) %ro(o$nd the e((e+ts o( s$,liminal stim$li are3 Their
%aradigm has *ielded t)o im%ortant insights' ;8 e((e+ts o( s$,liminal stim$lation are short
li&ed in the sense that the* onl* o++$r )ithin the ;!! ms time (rame a(ter %rime onset> 8
there is no +arr* o&er e((e+ts (rom one s$,liminal trial to the next/ )hi+h indi+ates that
s$,liminal stim$li ha&e no a++ess to memor*3 This is in line )ith Green)ald 4;##8 )ho is
sa*ing that $n+ons+io$s +ognition a%%ears to ,e intelle+t$all* m$+h sim%ler than the
so%histi+ated agen+* %ortra*ed in %s*+hoanal*ti+ theor*3
Se+ondl*/ Eegg/ Needham/ and Eook,inder 4;##@8 demonstrate that s$,-e+ts are not a,le to
re+ogniMe the 4(or)ard8 meaning o( ,a+k)ard s%ee+h3 Peo%le are a,le to make a++$rate
dis+riminations )ith regard to some %h*si+al +hara+teristi+s o( ,a+k)ard s%ee+h/ ,$t not )ith
regard to the +ontent o( the s%ee+h 4Eegg/ Needham/ Eook,inder/ ;##@83
Moreo&er/ as mentioned ,e(ore/ there are a n$m,er o( +om%lex iss$es hiding ,ehind the
sim%le <$estion o( ho) to make s$re that a stim$l$s has ,een %resented s$,liminall*3 Nhen
s$,-e+ts in a s$,liminal stim$lation st$d* are asked to s%e+i(* )hat stim$li had ,een
%resented/ and i( the* identi(* the stim$li at a le&el no ,etter than +han+e/ the resear+hers are
relati&el* +on(ident that the stim$li did not rea+h a)areness as ex%e+ted3 Ma*,e the set$%/
)hi+h has set the stage (or the a,o&e st$d*/ did not $se the %ro%er le&el o( s$,liminalit*3
9++ording to 1o,les/ Smith/ Car&er/ and Nellens 4;#"A8/ ,eing $na,le to identi(* )hat one
has seen/ ma* or ma* not re(le+t an a,sen+e o( a)areness at the instant o( initial ex%os$re3
Considering/ the time that %asses ,et)een ex%os$re and %resentation o( the <$estion/ is ,rie(/
it is arg$a,le that a real a)areness de+a* +an red$+e re+ognition to the le&el o( +han+e3 9
#
s$,-e+t ma* still ,e a)are o( ha&ing the stim$l$s message at the earlier moment/ ,$t that
+$rrent a)areness )o$ld not ,e re(le+ted in the meas$re that has ,een taken 4+orre+t
identi(i+ation o( the stim$li8 41o,les/ Smith/ Car&er : Nellens> ;#"A83 9s Frdel*i 4;##8 %$ts
it' 09n* $n+ons+io$s %ro+ess ma* in (a+t ha&e ,een (leetingl* +ons+io$s/ ,$t (orgotten23
9nother ex%lanation (or this st$d* is that the tho$ght )as to $se a s$,-e+ti&e threshold/ ,$t
instead $sed an o,-e+ti&e one3 9s Cheesman and Merikle 4;#"78 reason/ it ma* ,e im%ossi,le
to demonstrate ex%erimental e((e+ts )hen dis+riminati&e ,eha&io$r indi+ates a +om%lete
a,sen+e o( %er+e%t$al %ro+essing3 Ma*,e it )as ne+essar* to esta,lish an indi&id$al threshold
(or e&er* ea+h s$,-e+ts/ 4,$t this kind o( %ro+ed$re is totall* o$t o( +a%a+it* (or this st$d*83
9lread* mentioned in the introd$+tion/ Sil&erman and Nein,erger 4;#"68 ha&e (o$nd e((e+ts
o( s$,liminal %resentations that res$lted in +ogniti&e anal*ses o( m$lti)ord strings 4des+ri,ed
as S$,liminal Ps*+hod*nami+ 9+ti&ation/ $sing 0Momm* and I are One2 as the text o( a
s$,liminal stim$l$s83 One reason (or the di((eren+e ,et)een Sil&erman.s e((e+ts and the
tenden+* to res$lts in this st$d* +o$ld ,e that the senten+e $sed in Sil&erman.s st$d*
40Momm* and I are One28 is &er* s%e+i(i+ )ith res%e+t to the +ontent o( the s$,liminal
message3 It is %ossi,le that the s$,liminal messages $sed in this st$d* 40I am +le&er2/ 0I am
)orthless28 are too general/ the* +an ,e a%%lied to almost e&er*thing3 Pro,a,l* the s$,-e+ts
did not a%%l* the message to their o)n %er(orman+e3 F$rthermore s%e+$lation +an re(le+t to/
%ossi,ilit* o( 1a&en Matris Test that logi+al ind$+ti&e a,ilit* )as too eas* (or $ni&ersit*
st$dents sin+e the* had ro$ghl* good s+ores on ra&en test3 9ltho$gh 1a&en et al3 4;##8
stressed the %oint that the test is not short eno$gh to ,e $nd$l* exha$sting or $n)ield*/ and
that there are not eno$gh di((i+$lt %ro,lems to dis+riminate ,et)een ad$lts3
9++ording to Ur,an 4;##@8/ the &ario$s methods re%orted (or %resentation o( a$ditor*
s$,liminal stim$lation en+om%ass a range o( a%%roximatel* 7! dE3 Gi&en that @ dE re%resents
an a%%roximate do$,ling o( lo$dness in the a+o$sti+ energ* a&aila,le (or %eri%heral and
+entral a$ditor* %ro+essing/ it is readil* a%%arent that +om%arisons o( %resentl* a&aila,le
literat$re are inade<$ate and ina%%ro%riate3
The second hypothesis )as that the +ontent o( the negati&e s$,liminal message )o$ld a((e+t
s$,-e+ts )ith high so+ial desira,ilit* and lo) le&el o( trait anxiet* as it identi(ies 01e%ressor23
The res$lts sho)ed tenden+* (or signi(i+an+e on mean e((e+t3 The n$m,er o( %arti+i%ants in
the re%ressor gro$% )as limited (or this st$d*/ es%e+iall* in the lo) anxio$s gro$%/ and this
@!
+ontri,$ted to the la+k o( stronger di((eren+es3 Ho)e&er statisti+al res$lt +o$ld sho) greatl*
higher le&el o( signi(i+an+e i( the re%ressors +o$ld ,e identi(ied ,e(ore the st$d*3 For instan+e/
,* examining indi&id$als thro$gho$t di((erent <$estionnaires and (inding a higher n$m,er o(
re%ressor (or %er(orman+e o( this ex%eriment3 In this )a* the data +o$ld ill$strate a entirel*
di((erent signi(i+anse o( res$lts on the le&el o( a$ditor* s$,liminal messages and S+ores on
1a&en Matris Test3
9nother (inding in the Carlsson and Smith 4;##A8 st$d*/ namel* that $nlike re%ression taken
as a )hole/ the s%e+i(i+ s$,+ategor* o( immat$re re%ression sho)ed an o%%osite %attern' It
)as signi(i+antl* negati&el* related to the 1a&en s+ore on the SPM test/ and the s$,liminal
messages3 Carlsson et al 4;##A8 +on+l$sion )as dra)n/ more s*m,oli+ re%ression indi+ated
,etter ne$traliMation and hen+e a +ogniti&el* more mat$re de(ensi&e ($n+tion3 Used the term
0s$++ess($l re%ression2 as an e<$i&alent o( s$,limation/ is the same total s+oring o( immat$re
de(ines that limits the +om%arison )ith the %resent res$lts 4Carlsson : Smith/ ;##A83
The &o+al s$,liminal stim$li $sed %re&io$sl* in the %ilot st$d* ,* Carlsson/ Erakel et al
4;###8/ +ontain ,oth a semanti+ and a %rosodi+ +om%onent3 In +ontrast to the method st$dies/
the ex%erimental %arti+i%ants )ere not instr$+ted to attend to the m$si+/ or to ex%e+t an*
+hanges in3 Carlsson et al ex%e+ted that this/ together )ith the instr$+tion to relax/ might ha&e
+o$ntera+ted the %ossi,ilit* that the &oi+e )o$ld ,e noti+ed/ e&en tho$gh the stim$l$s )as
re%eated man* times3
9%%arentl* this is a methodologi+al %ro,lem/ sin+e it is $nresol&ed i( one s$,-e+t or the other
)as more in(l$en+ed ,* the &er,al s$,liminal stim$li/ or i( %rosod* )ere more im%ortant/ it
)orld ,e essential to ha&e +hosen stim$li )ith %re--$dged emotional &alen+e3 Maintaining o(
this arg$ment )as not +ontrolled (or in this st$d*/ ,$t i( the &er,al +ontent )ere more
im%ortant/ then %rosod* )o$ld ,e less %ro,lemati+3 Ho)e&er/ a s%oken %hrase )itho$t
%rosod* seems not to ($l(il all +riteria (or it to ,e an emotional message3 Sin+e &er,al
emotional stim$li ha&e ,een e((e+ti&e in earlier resear+h in the &is$al mode 4o( +o$rse
+ontaining no %rosod*8/
Carlsson et al3 (ind it likel* that the semanti+ %ro%ert* did +ontri,$te> at %resent the role o(
%rosod* is $nkno)n 4Carlsson/ Erakel/ et al>;###83 It is $nresol&ed and )as not e&en (o+$sed
on in %re&io$s resear+h - i( -$st one )ord )as %ro+essed or the entire short message3 Sin+e the
@;
onl* semanti+ di((eren+e )as ,et)een one emotional signi(i+ant )ord in ea+h message/ this
single )ord ma* ha&e had eno$gh in(l$en+e ,* itsel(3
In ,rie(/ a,o$t (irst and se+ond h*%otheses' it is +lear (rom o$r dis+$ssion that there are <$ite a
(e) n$m,er o( +riti+iMing %oints that ha&e ,een raised against the a+t$al e((e+t o( a$ditor*
s$,liminal messages3 The h*%otheses ha&e not ,een +on(irmed to the extent ex%e+ted3
The third hypothesis )as that the +ontent o( the either negati&e or %ositi&e s$,liminal
messages )o$ld a((e+t the s$,-e+ts )ith High so+ial desira,ilit* and no matter ho) Lo) the*
are on trait anxiet*3 The statisti+al res$lts sho) +learl* a signi(i+ant le&el on this de%enda,le
&aria,le3 This h*%othesis is &er* m$+h de(inite3 , 4;/ 68 5 63!D/ p 5 3!#3 F$rthermore t-test
(or e<$alit* o( means sho)> t 478 5 73;#/ p V 3!63
This data did ill$strate ho) a s*stemati+ ,ias ,* high so+ial desira,ilit* gro$%s o( %eo%le and
%ositi&e s$,liminal message +an +a$se the a%%earan+e o( a signi(i+ant +orrelation3 9ltho$gh
this e((e+t is also tr$e (or the s$,-e+ts )ith a lo) so+ial desira,ilit*> the di((eren+e ,et)een
a&erage SPM ?test s+ores is less )ithin the latter gro$% +om%aring to s$,-e+ts )ith high so+ial
desira,ilit*3
9(ter %resentation o( the (irst man$s+ri%t/ at the ma-or seminar* 4@!J@-!A8 some $nex%e+ted
res$lts on some o( the (i&e di((erent h*%otheses/ ,ro$ght too m$+h (o+$s on missing %oints/
and generated a kind o( +on($sion +on+erning the general idea and the nat$re o( s$,liminal
messages3 There(ore it )as de+ided to +on+entrate the anal*sis on this +$rrent h*%othesis3

The essen+e o( this h*%othesis is +hara+teriMed/ ,* Ingegerd Carlsson/ to sta,iliMe trait anxiet*
and so+ial desira,ilit*/ )hi+h in(l$en+es the indi&id$al in +ertain sit$ations3 9s to the de,ate
on the e((e+t o( s$,liminal stim$li/ this h*%othesis s$%%orts the %osition that the* do in (a+t
ha&e an e((e+t3 The original h*%otheses in this st$d*/ ,e(ore this +om%leted &ersion/ didn.t
gi&e s$++ess($ll* signi(i+ant res$lt3
Ho)e&er/ a+hie&ement o( the so+ial desira,ilit* h*%othesis is s$%%lementar* to the other
arg$ment/ )hi+h ha&e ,een %resented on the (irst and se+ond h*%otheses3 The arg$ments on
the +hara+ter o( s$,liminal messages and e((e+t o( %ositi&e and negati&e message is <$ite
+on&in+ing in third h*%othesis3
@
Thro$gho$t the matrix ta,le o( the o,tained meas$rements the third h*%othesis is +on(irmed
as to the e((e+t o( s$,liminal messages and so+ial desira,ilit*3 The e((e+t is meas$red ,*
means o( the a&erage standard %rogressi&e matri+es test s+ore/ and ,ased on the estimated
means o( the di((erent gro$%s3 Con(irmation is (or the gro$% o( %arti+i%ant )ho identi(* as
high so+ial desira,ilit*3 9&erage o( standard %rogressi&e matri+es test s+ore is higher on
%ositi&e s$,liminal message 4M56@36A8 than/ the a&erage o( standard %rogressi&e matri+es
test s+ore on negati&e s$,liminal message 4M56!3@"83 9ltho$gh this e((e+t is also tr$e (or the
s$,-e+ts )ith a lo) so+ial desira,ilit*> the di((eren+e ,et)een a&erage %rogressi&e matri+es
test s+ores is less )ithin the latter gro$% +om%aring to s$,-e+ts )ith high so+ial desira,ilit*3
In the %resent st$d* so+ial desira,ilit* s+ale +ontains ;! items/ ea+h re<$iring a +orre+t or
in+orre+t ans)er3 The s+ale has ,een %ro&ed relia,le and +ontin$es to ,e $sed3 Those
%arti+i%ants )ho ans)ered A or more items +orre+tl* )ere +onsidered high so+ial desira,ilit*
%ersons/ and those )ho ans)ered (e)er than D items +orre+tl* )ere +onsidered lo) so+ial-
desira,ilit* %ersons3 9ll %arti+i%ants +om%leted t)o instr$ments meas$ring trait and state o(
anxiet*3
In one a%%roa+h 4Cron,a+h/ ;#D7> Cro)ne : Marlo)e/ ;#7D> Fd)ards/ ;#6A> Sei,old/ ;#""8
the ex%ression o( so+ial desira,ilit* is +onsidered an inter(ering &aria,le that sho$ld ,e
+ontrolled in an* st$d*3 This a%%roa+h arg$es that so+ial desira,ilit* is a tenden+* to res%ond
+onsistentl* in )hat is seen as a so+iall* a++e%ta,le and desira,le )a* 4Sohl,erg/ ;#A78 and
that this tenden+* al)a*s +a$ses ,ias in %ersonalit* assessment3
In another a%%roa+h/ instead o( ,eing treated as an inter(ering &aria,le/ so+ial desira,ilit* is
seen as an indi+ator o( a +hara+teristi+ rea+tion %attern o( an indi&id$al in +ertain sit$ations
4Sohl,erg/ ;#A7/ %3 @!8> it re(le+ts a %ersonal trait that ,e+omes a meaning($l %ersonalit*
&aria,le and/ in t$rn/ +orrelates )ith di((erent kinds o( h$man ,eha&iors 4Elo+k/ ;#76>
Crandall/ Crandall/ : Katko&sk*/ ;#76> Crandall : GoMali/ ;#7#> Cron,a+h/ ;#A!> Cro)ne
: Marlo)e/ ;#7D> =i+ken/ ;#7@83
9s a %ersonalit* &aria,le/ so+ial desira,ilit* is +onsidered an indi&id$al tenden+* to %er(orm
so+iall* and +$lt$rall* a++e%ta,le and a%%ro&ed ,eha&io$rs3 Cro)ne : Marlo)e 4;#7D8
+ond$+ted a series o( st$dies +on+erning the moti&ation o( indi&id$als seeking so+ial
@@
a%%ro&al3 The* (o$nd that high so+ial desira,ilit* indi&id$als tended to ,e more +a$tio$s/
+on&entional/ and easier to %ers$ade than lo) so+ial desira,ilit* indi&id$als3 Moreo&er/
Cro)ne : Marlo)e 4;#7D8 (o$nd that indi&id$als )ith a higher degree o( so+ial desira,ilit*
)ere less %ro(i+ient in $sing lang$age/ sho)ed a lo) degree o( task %rod$+ti&it*/ tended to ,e
more de%endent on others (or +om%leting assignments/ and )ere less aggressi&e &er,all* and
%h*si+all* in intera+ting )ith others3 F$rthermore some resear+h sho)ed that high so+ial-
desira,ilit* indi&id$als ex%ressed signi(i+antl* less aggression/ es%e+iall* in sit$ations in
)here the intention o( the (r$strating so$r+e )as not s%e+i(ied3
These resear+hes in s$mmar*/ has indi+ated that high so+ial desira,ilit* indi&id$als 4at least
among 9meri+ans8 are less aggressi&e/ are less )illing to talk/ a&oid so+ial intera+tion/ and
are more +onstrained3 These (indings are &er* likel* related to the %resent %ro%osition )hi+h
aimed to examine the im%a+t o( so+ial desira,ilit* in relation to the +ontent o( s$,liminal
messages3
The most %rominent res$lts )ere (o$nd )ith regard to masked s$,liminal messages3 Higher
le&els o( so+ial desira,ilit* indi&id$als )ere asso+iated )ith a de+rease in relati&e to ne$tral
ele&ated le&els o( trait anxiet*3 This latter e((e+t )ere (o$nd to ,e more e((e+ted on the
+ontent o( the negati&e or %ositi&e s$,liminal messages/ ho)e&er these (inding mainl* seen
among %arti+i%ants )ho sim$ltaneo$sl* s+ored high on so+ial desira,ilit* )o$ld ,e
signi(i+antl* lo)er in trait anxiet* than lo) so+ial desira,ilit* indi&id$als3
In brie"- this st$d* on the entire SPM %rod$+ed (airl* high degree o( +orrelation ,et)een
so+ial desira,ilit* rating and s$,liminal messages3 The %resent st$d* did +ontri,$te some o(
the %ositi&e res$lts in s$,liminal stim$lation st$dies3 Nith res%e+t to the link ,et)een
s$,liminal stim$lation/ trait anxiet* and so+ial desira,ilit*/ a large +ontri,$tion anal*sis has
,een made thro$gh statisti+al examination/ 9NOC93
Some limitations o( this st$d* ha&e ,een %ointed o$t/ and there )as not strong e&iden+e o(
+orrelation ,et)een re%ressor and s$,liminal messages3 The signi(i+ant +orrelation ex%e+ted
did not a%%ear3
There ma* ,e some $n+ertainties/ )hi+h the resear+h did not gi&e attention to/ s$+h as the test
%erson ma* ,e in(l$en+ed ,* (a+tors not kno)n to the resear+her3 The le&el o( 1a&en Matris
@D
Test +an ha&e di((erent im%li+ations ,e+a$se o( di((erent learning ,a+kgro$nd or toleran+e
le&el or some other %ro+ed$ral +om%lexities or la+k o( eno$gh %arti+i%ants/ s$+h as 1e%ressor
in this st$d*3 In s%ite o( this/ signi(i+an+e ,et)een the so+ial desira,ilit* <$estionnaire and
s$,liminal messages is +on(irmed3
Su!!estion "or comin! studies1 It is im%ortant to identi(*ing a s$((i+ient n$m,er o(
1e%ressors ,e(ore the st$d* is started3 F$rther more/ as it is dis+$ssed on the (irst h*%noses/
another s$ggestion +o$ld ,e to +lari(* the ,est le&el o( the 1a&en Matris Test/ )ith res%e+t to
the %arti+i%ants in <$estion/ e3g3 $ni&ersit* st$dent3
9n interesting next resear+h (or %ersistent e((e+ts also raises more a+$te ethi+al iss$es3 9ll
resear+hers in the (ield need to kno) ho) long s$,liminal e((e+ts )ill last3 M$+h o( modern
li(e and o$r %oliti+al instit$tions ass$me that h$mans +an make rational de+isions and exert a
high degree o( +ons+io$s sel(-esteems3 Ho)e&er/ someho) %ersistent e((e+ts (rom a$ditor*
s$,liminal stim$lation )o$ld +ast do$,t on the &alidit* o( ass$ming that h$mans ha&e a
+a%a+it* (or +ons+io$s sel(-esteem/ )hi+h +ann ,e +om%romised ,* $n+ons+io$s stim$lation
(or a (e) min$tes or ho$rs3
@6
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Hassin 1an 1> Uleman Oames S> Eargh/ Oohn 93 4!!683 Ne) Un+ons+io$s. Ne) resear+h on
the Un+ons+io$s Nas Fre$d NrongG
Holden/ 13 13/ : Fekken/ G3 C3 4;#"#83 Three +ommon so+ial desira,ilit* s+ales' Friends/
a+<$aintan+es/ or strangersG Oo$rnal o( 1esear+h in Personalit*/ @/ ;"!-;#;3
Holden/ 13 13 4;##D83 So+ial =esira,ilit*3 In 13 O3 Corsini 4ed383 *ncyclopedia o# psychology
4
nd
ed3/ &ol3 @/ %%3 D#-D@!83 Ne) York' Oohn Nile*
@A
Ingegerd Carlsson> 9nna &an Erakel> P3 OQnsson> F3 Ne$man/ T3 Persson3 F((e+ts on
1easoning ,* S$,liminal Stim$li3 *##ects on :ogical Reasoning 9y Subliminal *motional
'uditory Stimulation; (nteractions with Trait 'nxiety3 =e%artment o( Ps*+holog*/ L$nd
Uni&ersit*/ L$nd/ S)eden =e%artment o( Medi+al/ Clini+al and Fx%erimental Ps*+holog*/
Uni&ersit* o( Maastri+ht/ Maastri+ht/ Holland
Ka%%as/ 93/ Hess/ U3/ : S+herer/ K3O3 4;##;83 Coi+e and emotion3 In 13S3 Feldman : E3 1imP
4Fds38/ ,undamentals o# nonverbal behaviour 4%%3 !!-@"83 Cam,ridge/ Ne) York'
Cam,ridge Uni&ersit* Press3
Kihlstrom/ OF3/ Earnhardt/ T3M3/ : Tatar*n/ =3O3 4;##83 The Ps*+hologi+al Un+ons+io$r'
(o$nd/ Lost/ and 1egained3 'merican Psychologist/ DA/ A""-A#;3
KotMP/ H3 F3 : MQller/ 93 T3 4;##!83 F((e+t o( a$ditor* s$,liminal stim$lation on GS13
Psychological Reports/ 7A/ #@;-#@D3
Lo(t$s/ F3F3 : Klinger/ M313 4;##83 Is the $n+ons+io$s smart or d$m,G 'merican
Psychologist, DA/ A7;-A763
Ma*er/ ,3 : Mer+kel,a+h/ H3 4;###83 Un+ons+io$s %ro+esses/ s$,liminal stim$lation/ and
anxiet*3 )linical Psychology Review.
M+Linto+k/ T3 T3 C3/ 9itken/ H3/ =o)nie/ C3 F3/ : Kenn*/ G3 N3 4;##!83 Post-o%erati&e
analgesi+ re<$irements in %atients ex%osed to %ositi&e intrao%erati&e s$ggestions3 9ritish
edical -ournal, @!;/ A""-A#!3
Merikle/ P3 M3 4;##83 Per+e%tion )itho$t a)areness3 'merican Psychologist/ DA 478/ A#-
A#63
Ne)man/ L3 S3/ =$((/ K3 O3/ : Ea$meister/ 13 F3 4;##A83 9 ne) look at de(ensi&e %ro-e+tion'
Tho$ght s$%%ression/ a++essi,ilit*/ and ,iased %erson %er+e%tion3 O3 o# Personality and Social
Psychology' ;66 ? ;73
NielMPn/ S3/ : Cesare+/ W3 4;#"83 Fmotional ex%erien+e o( m$si+ as a ($n+tion o( m$si+al
str$+t$re3 Psychology o# usic/ ;! 483
Pa$lh$s/ =3 L3 : 1eid/ =3 E3/ 4;##;8/ Fnhan+ement and =enial in So+iall* =esira,le
1es%onding/ -ournal o# Personality and Social Psychology/ Col3 7!/ No3 / @!A ? @;A3
1a&e/ O3C3/ Co$rt/ O3H3/ : 1a&en/ O3 4;##83 1a&en man$al' Standard Progressive atrices3
Ox(ord' Ox(ord Ps*+hologists Press3
1o,les/ 13/ Smith/ 13/ Car&er/ C3S3 : Nellens/ 9313 4;#"A83 In(l$en+e o( s$,liminal &is$al
images on the ex%erien+e o( anxiet*. Personality and Social Psychology 9ulletin/ ;@/ @##-
D;!3
1osen,erg/ M3 4;#7683 So+iet* and the 9doles+ent Sel(-Image3 Prin+eton/ New -ersey.
Princeton <niversity Press.
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1$dmin Flo*d N3 4;###8 Nor)egian short-(orm o( the Marlo)e Cro)ne So+ial =esira,ilit*
S+ale3 Scandinavian -. o# Psychology/ D!'# ? @@
Sei,old/ =3 13 4;#""83 9 res%onse to HItem =esira,ilit* in Com%lian+e-Gaining 1esear+h3H
H$man Comm$ni+ation 1esear+h/ ;6/ 6-;7;3
Sil&erman/ L3H3 4;#"@83 The s$,liminal %s*+hod*nami+ a+ti&ation method' o&er&ie) and
+om%rehensi&e listing o( st$dies3 In Masling 4Fd38 *mpirical Studies o# Psychoanalytic
Theories 4%%3 7#-;!!83 Hillsdale/ N3O3> Frl,a$m3
Sil&erman/ L'H' : Nein,erger/ O3 4;#"683 MOMMY 9N= I 91F ONF' Im%li+ations (or
%s*+hothera%*3 'merican Psychologist/ D!/ ;#7-;@!"3
Sohl,erg/ S3 C3 4;#A783 So+ial desira,ilit* res%onses in Oe)ish and 9ra, +hildren in Israel3
Oo$rnal o( Cross-C$lt$ral Ps*+holog*/ A/ @!;-@;D3
S%earman/ C3 4;#A83 The Nat$re o( =intelligence> and the Principles o# )ognition3 London/
Fngland' Ma+Millan3
S%iel,erger/ C3=3 4;#"@83 Man$al (or the State ? Trait 9nxiet* In&entor* 4Form Y83
)onsulting Psychologists Press/ In+3/ Palo 9lto/ Ca3
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A7/ ;;!@-;;!73
Caillant/ G3 F3 4;#A;83 theoreti+al hierar+h* o( ada%ti&e ego me+hanisms3 'rchives o# %eneral
Psychiatry/ D';!A ? ;;"3
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=isting$ishing re%ressi&e +o%ing (rom im%ression management3 -ournal o# Personality,
7'6"A ? 7!#3
Nein,erger/ =393/ S+h)artM/ G3F3/ : =a&idson/ O3F3 4;#A#83 Lo)-anxio$s/ high-anxio$s/ and
re%ressi&e +o%ing st*les' Ps*+hometri+ %atterns and ,eha&io$ral and %h*siologi+al res%onses
to stress3 -ournal o# 'bnormal Psychology/ ""/ @7#-@"!3
@#
Appendi A
GE!ERA" I!#$RMATI$!
I )o$ld like *o$ to (ill in this (orm3 Nith this in(ormation I +an +he+k )hether m* s$,-e+t
gro$%s are e<$al o( +om%ilation3 9ll *o$r data )ill ,e treated anon*mo$sl*3 It is *o$r right to
sto% *o$r +o-o%eration )ith this resear+h %ro-e+t )hene&er *o$ )ant to3 Yo$ )ill re+ei&e
more in(ormation a,o$t the %ro-e+t a(ter *o$ ha&e (illed in the %a%er : %en+il <$estionnaires3
9(ter that in(ormation *o$ +an still de+ide to sto% *o$r %arti+i%ation3
The next ho$r *o$ are going to do the (ollo)ing things in the (ollo)ing order'
Fill in the general in(ormation (orm
B$estionnaire a,o$t anxiet*
Statements (rom )hi+h *o$ ha&e to +hoose the ten )hi+h (it *o$rsel( ,est
B$estionnaire a,o$t sel( +on+e%t
Listening to m$si+
The 1a&en Matri+es Test
B$estionnaire a,o$t anxiet*
Some <$estions a,o$t the m$si+
Here *o$ )ill get some +on+l$ding in(ormation
Name'---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9ddress and Tel3nr'-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Year o( ,irth'-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9&erage high s+hool grade'--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
O++$%ation'
o Fm%lo*ee--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
o St$dent at the de%t3
o(------------------------------------------------------------------------------
o Flse---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I ha&e read and agree to %arti+i%ate/
=ate' J !!7
Pla+e'----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Signat$re '----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
D!
Appendi %
A""M&! I!#$RMATI$!
FXr -ag ,e dig (*lla i detta (orm$lRr3 =et ska an&Rndas (Qr att kolla/ att (QrsQks%ersonerna Rr
-Rm(Qr,ara i olika a&seenden3 9lla data ,ehandlas anon*mt/ o+h ,lanketter med namn %X
(Qr&aras inlXsta3 =$ har rRtt att a&,r*ta med&erkan st$dien $tan att $%%ge nXgot skRl3 =$ (Xr
*tterligare in(ormation e(ter att d$ har (*ll i (orm$lRren/ o+h d$ kan R&en dX ,esl$ta att
a&,r*ta din med&erkan3
Under den (Ql-ande timmen 4dr*gt8 kommer d$ att gQra (Ql-ande saker'
Tre olika (rXge(orm$lRr om> h$r d$ kRnner dig/ o+h $%%(attar dig s-Rl&/ i olika
a&seenden3
Kort m$sikst*+ke3
Matris-testet3
Fn (rXge(orm$lRr om> h$r d$ kRnner dig/ o+h $%%(attar dig s-Rl&/ i olika a&seenden3
FrXge(orm$lRr om testet o+h m$siken3
9&sl$tande in(ormation3
Namn'---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ylder'---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9dress'--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tel3nr'---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Genomsnitts,et*g (rXn g*mnasiet'------------------------------------------------------------------------
S*sselsRttning'-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9nstRlld3 &arG------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
St$derande3 CarG--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9nnat3 CadG--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Oag har lRst o+h a++e%terar att delta'
=at$m J !!7
Plats ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Namnte+kning'----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
D;
Appendi '
MUSIC INST1UCTION
No) *o$ are going to listen to some m$si+3 It )ill take a%%roximatel* 6 min$tes3 The m$si+
is di&ided into shorter %ie+es/ and the* are also se%arate ,* a %a$se3 F&er*one gets another
%ie+e o( m$si+ and )e )ant to +he+k )hether di((erent kinds o( m$si+ ha&e a di((erent e((e+t
on %er(orman+e3 Tr* to relax )hile listening to the m$si+3 I )ill sto% the ta%e and then *o$
start making the Matri+es test *o$ -$st %ra+tised3
D
Appendi D
MUSIK INST1UKTION
N$ kommer d$ att (X l*ssna till klassisk m$sik3 =et tar +irka 6 min$ter3 M$siken s%elas $%% i
korta a&snitt med liten %a$s emellan3 Olika gr$%%er (Xr olika m$sik/ o+h &i &ill st$dera
in&erkan (rXn m$siken %X det man ska $t(Qra3 L*ssna till m$siken i ett a&s%Rnt lRge3 NRr -ag
har stRngt a& m$siken/ (ortsRtter d$ med en gXng med Matris-Testet som d$ (i+k instr$ktioner
om (Qr$t3
D@
Appendi E
#R(G$R $M M)SI*E!
;3 H$r ,edQmer d$ m$siken %X nedanstXende skalaG 1inga in ett alternati&Z
Negati&t - - ! [ [[ %ositi&t
3 HQrde d$ nXgot s%e+iellt i m$sikenG 4Fx3 &is rQster> skorranden e3 d*l3G8
o Oa
o Ne-
Om Oa/
,eskri&'---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
#R(G$R $M MATRIS+TESTET
;3 H$r $%%(attade d$ detta testG 1inga inZ
LRtt ; @ D 6 s&Xrt
3 H$r tror d$ att d$ klarade testet 4-Rm(Qrt med andra i din Xlder8G
=Xligt ; @ D 6 Era
DD
Appendi #
'23STI)N A4)2T #2SI$
;3 Ho) do *o$ des+ri,e the m$si+G
Negati&e -- - ! [ [[ %ositi&e
3 =id *o$ hear an*thing like a &oi+e/ in m$si+G
Yes
No
I( *es/ %lease des+ri,e -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
'23STI)N A4)2T #ATRI$3S T3ST
;3 Ho) di((i+$lt the* (o$nd the matri+es test on a s+ale (orm 0eas*2 to 0di((i+$lt2G
Fas* ; @ D 6 di((i+$lt
3 Ho) do *o$ think *o$ %er(ormed the test/ +om%aring )ith other %eo%le at *o$r ageG
Ead ; @ D 6 good
D6
Appendi G
'oncluding infor,ation
Tank *o$ &er* m$+h (or *o$r %arti+i%ation3 No) I )ill gi&e *o$ some more in(ormation a,o$t
the %ro-e+t3 The m$si+ *o$ ha&e ,een listening to )as the same (or e&er*one3 The onl*
di((eren+e )as the &er,al message it +ontained3 In ea+h small %ie+e o( m$si+ there )as hidden
message3 There )as a %ositi&e message and there )as a negati&e message/ I don.t kno)
)hi+h message *o$ got3 Ne )ant to +he+k )hether this message has had either a %ositi&e or a
negati&e e((e+t on *o$r %er(orman+e on the 1a&e Matri+es Test3 =on.t )orr*/ i( there is an*
e((e+t/ it is onl* short-li&ing/ and so it )on.t dist$r, *o$ an* moreZ The <$estionnaires *o$
had to (ill in ser&e to +he+k )hether there exist an* di((eren+es in e((e+t in di((erent
indi&id$als3 Please do not tell *o$r (riends an* details $ntil the* ha&e %arti+i%atedZ B$estionsG

D7