Emotion perception in music is mediated by socio-emotional competence
Suvi Saarikallio*1, Jonna Vuoskoski*2, Geoff Luck *3,
*
Finnish Centre of Excellence in Interdisciplinary Music Research, Department of Music, University of Jyvskyl, Finland
1
ABSTRACT
This study investigated how adolescents general socio-emotional
competence, in terms of empathy and problem behavior, would relate
to a) biases in emotion perception, b) ability to recognize emotion in
music, and c) biases in emotions felt as a response to music. Sixtyone 14-15-year-old adolescents (26% males) filled in self-report
scales for empathy (IRI), and adolescent conduct problems (SDQ).
For measuring emotion perception, they rated 50 music excerpts
regarding 8 emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, tenderness,
hope, longing, and potency), and for measuring emotion recognition,
they were asked to identify emotions from 15 music excerpts
representing five emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear,
tenderness). In addition, they rated their personally felt emotions
regarding the excerpts. Empathy was related to increased, and
problem behavior to decreased, perception of emotion in music.
Empathy was also related to higher, and problem behavior to lower,
recognition rates of emotion (tenderness) in music. Furthermore, the
results showed that the affect-related sub-components of socioemotional competence correlated with perception biases, while the
cognition-related aspects correlated with emotion recognition. As
regards felt emotion, problem behavior correlated with lower ratings
of felt emotion in music. The results show that general socioemotional competence indeed is related to adolescents perception of
emotions in music, and broaden our knowledge on musical behavior
as a part of adolescents socio-emotional development.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Music provides a great means for studying emotional
communication: music has been called the language of
emotions, and been shown to accurately communicate basic
emotions between performers and listeners (e.g., Gabrielsson
& Lindstrm, 2001; Juslin & Laukka, 2003; 2004). Responses
have been collected through free descriptions, adjective
ratings, multivariate analysis techniques, and continuous
measurement paradigms, (e.g., Gabrielsson & Lindstm,
2001), using both listener judgments and the analysis of the
acoustic characteristics of the music (e.g., Luck, et. al., 2008;
Friberg & Bresin, 2008). A wide range of studies have
identified certain musical features (e.g., tempo, sound level,
timbre) that relate to the performers expression (Juslin &
Timmers, 2010) and the listeners perception (Juslin &
Laukka, 2004) of various discrete emotions such as happiness,
sadness, anger, fear, and tenderness in music. Overall, the
agreement between individuals regarding the identification of
the expression of basic emotions in music appears extremely
high (Juslin & Laukka, 2004; Juslin & Timmers, 2010;
Vieillard et al. 2008). There is also little difference between
musically trained and untrained individuals regarding
judgments of basic emotions expressed by music (Bigand,
Vieillard, Madurell, Marozeau, & Dacquet, 2006; Fredrickson,
2000; Juslin, 1997).
870
Nevertheless, a variety of studies on emotion perception in
general have shown that emotion perception (in facial, vocal
and bodily expression) is not a pure bottom-up process.
Instead, several top-down processes related to individual
differences and situational factors actually influence
recognition as well (e.g., Kret, Sinke, & de Gelder, 2011).
Indeed, recent studies have also found that broad individual
differences in state and trait emotionality cause biases in
emotion perception in music. State negative mood has been
shown to correlate with higher ratings of perceived negative,
and lower ratings of perceived positive, emotion in music
(Vuoskoski & Eerola, 2011a), and clinical depression has
been found to bias emotion perception towards perceiving
more negative emotion in music (Punkanen, Eerola, & Erkkil,
2011). Personality can be seen as an integrative, long-term
representation of a persons emotional behavior, and many
researchers refer to extraversion as trait positive emotionality,
and neuroticism as trait negative emotionality (Revelle &
Scherer, 2010). Regarding the connection between personality
and emotion perception in music, Vuoskoski and Eerola
(2011a) showed trait-congruent biases, with extraversion
correlating with lower, and neuroticism correlating with
higher, ratings of perceived negative emotion in music.
Similarly, Liljestrm (2011) found that extraversion, openness,
and agreeableness were all related to higher ratings of
perceived positive, and lower ratings of perceived negative,
emotions in music, while people scoring high on neuroticism
gave higher ratings of perceived negative, and lower ratings of
perceived positive, emotions in music. Ladinig &
Schellenberg (2011) found that agreeableness was related to
more intense emotional responses to music, and proposed that
this was due to the connection between agreeableness to
empathic responding in emotional situations. This notion is
further supported by the findings of Vuoskoski and Eerola
(2012), who reported that empathy relates to the intensity of
emotional responses induced by sad music. General
emotionality may also relate to the ability to recognise
emotions in music: Resnicow, Salovey, and Repp (2004)
showed that better identification of emotions in classical
music performances (Bach, in particular) was related to
certain aspects of general emotional intelligence (Perceiving
Emotions and Using Emotions to Facilitate Thought).
Similarly, Wllner (2012) found that higher empathy was
related to better recognition of musicians intended expression
of emotion.
Thus, there is good evidence that general emotionality
plays a role in music-related emotion perception. In the
current paper, we further investigate how emotion perception
in music relates to broader socio-emotional competence in
adolescence. It has been proposed that music enhances social
bonds, as it is communication through abstract patterns that
are emotionally meaningful to other humans (Dissanayake,
2008). Communication through music is thus somewhat
isomorphic to communication of emotion. Indeed, emotional
contagion, a sub-component of empathy, has been proposed as
one of the mechanisms through which music induces
emotions in listeners (Juslin & Vstfjll, 2008). We therefore
propose that emotion perception in music should be reflective
of both adaptive (e.g., empathic responding towards others)
and maladaptive (e.g., conduct problems) aspects of general
socio-emotional communication.
Empathy and prosocial behavior have both been shown to
relate to the general ability to recognize and identify emotions
in self and in others (Gohm, 2003). Empathy refers to a
persons responsiveness to the observed experiences of
another person, involving both affective and cognitive
components (Davis, 1980). The affective, other-oriented
sympathetic responding component (empathic concern), in
particular, has been shown to correlate with prosocial
behavior (e.g., altruism, helping behavior) (Eisenberg, Lennon,
& Roth, 1983; Eisenberg, Shell, Pasternack, Lennon, Beller,
& Mathy 1987; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1990; Eisenberg, Miller,
Shell, & McNalley, 1991; Eisenberg, Carlo, Murphy, & Van
Court, 1995; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1999). As regards age
differences, several aspects of emotionally competent
behavior develop relatively late, i.e., not only during
childhood, but also over the course of adolescence (e.g.,
Eisenberg, 1990; Eisenberg, et.al, 1987; 1991; 1995). This is
due to the fact that empathy requires complex cognitive
abilities related to perspective-taking and understanding of the
feelings of others (Moore, 1990). As regards age differences
in musical emotion perception, it is known that the ability to
perceive emotion in music begins to develop very early (e.g.,
5-7-month-olds already showing a preference for happy over
sad expression (Nawrot, 2003), three-year-olds distinguishing
happy and sad music (Kastner & Crowder, 1990), and 4-6year olds correctly identifying happiness, sadness, anger, and
fear in music (Dolgin & Adelson, 1990; Cunningham &
Sterling, 1988)), but there is virtually no research on emotion
recognition in music during adolescence. Knowledge on how
emotion perception in music relates to adolescents general
socio-emotional competence and emotional tendencies is also
lacking. In light of the relatively slow development of general
socio-emotional competence, this is a serious deficit.
Therefore, the current study focused on investigating the
connections between socio-emotional competence and the
perception of emotion in music, particularly in teenagers. The
aim of the study was to clarify whether individual differences
in adolescents levels of socio-emotional competence
(measured by empathy and problem behaviour) would be
reflected in a) biases in emotion perception in music, b)
ability to recognize emotions in music, and c) biases in the
emotions felt in response to music. We hypothesized that
empathy would be positively related to perceived and felt
emotions ratings and recognition ability, while problem
behaviour would be negatively related.
graders recruited from local schools. Consent to participate
was obtained from adolescents themselves, their parents, and
school officials. Approximately half of the participants (n =
32) had received music lessons. Participation was rewarded
with a movie ticket.
B. Procedure
The adolescents participated in all research settings alone.
They completed self-report scales on socio-emotional
competence (empathy and problem behavior), and took part in
two separate settings where they listened to musical stimuli
and rated them on emotion scales.
C. Socio-emotional competence measures
Empathy was measured with the Empathic Concern and
Perspective Taking subscales of the Interpersonal Reactivity
Index (IRI; Davis, 1980; 1983). The IRI is a self-report
measure of dispositional empathy consisting of four subscales: Perspective Taking, Empathic Concern, Personal
Distress, and Fantasy. In the current study, we particularly
focused on the Empathic Concern subscale because it assesses
sympathetic and compassionate responding towards others,
and is shown to be most relevant for prosocial behaviour
(Eisenberg & Fabes, 1990). In addition, we chose to use the
Perspective Taking subscale because it measures the tendency
to adopt other peoples viewpoints, and we therefore assumed
it could be relevant for the correct (congruent with others
opinions) recognition of emotion in music. Each sub-scale of
the IRI consists of 7 item statements, such as "I sometimes try
to understand my friends better by imagining how things look
from their perspective" (Perspective Taking). The items are
answered on a 5-point scale ranging from does not describe
me well to describes me very well.
Problem behavior was measured with the Conduct
Problems and Hyperactivity subscales of the Strengths and
Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). This is a brief self-report
measure for screening for behavioural and emotional
problems with children and adolescents, consisting of 5
subscales in total (Goodman, Meltzer, & Bailey, 1998). The
Conduct Problems subscale assesses a tendency to break rules,
fight, and lose ones temper, and the Hyperactivity scale
assesses the tendency to be restless, hasty, and easily
distracted. Both of these subscales focus on problems in
external social behavior and conduct, and it has been
suggested they could be combined into a unified scale of
externalized symptoms (Goodman, Lamping, & Ploubidis,
2010). However, as the scales have slightly different foci
(Conduct Problems being emotionally rude and
inconsiderate; Hyperactivity being unable to concentrate),
we assumed they might also have slightly different
connections to emotion perception and recognition in music,
and therefore used these scales separately. Each subscale
consists of five item statements such as I get very angry and
often lose my temper (Conduct Problems), which are
answered on a 3-point scale with options Not True, Somewhat
True, and Certainly True.
II. METHOD
A. Participants
A total of 61 adolescents took part in the study (45 females;
average age: 14.72, SD: .45). All participants were eighth-
871
D. Emotion perception ratings
The first research setting was designed to measure emotion
perception in music. Participants listened to 50 short music
excerpts (approximately 15s each) selected from a broader set
of music from movie soundtracks (excerpts 001-050 from
Eerola & Vuoskoski, 2011). Based on previous research on
the original sample set, we selected excerpts that had been
rated as expressive of a range of emotional characters
(happiness, sadness, tenderness, fear, anger), with a varying
degree of clarity/conformity regarding the emotional
expression. The stimuli were played through loudspeakers (in
a different random order for every participant) using a
specially designed Max/MSP application running on Mac OS
X.
After listening to each music excerpt, the adolescents were
asked to rate how much they perceived 8 different emotions in
the excerpt. The list of emotion words for the ratings was
carefully selected based on previous research (e.g., Juslin &
Laukka, 2004; Zentner & Scherer, 2008), pilot data of free
descriptions collected from 20 adolescents, and a pilot
listening test with 30 students using the next-to final list of
emotion words in rating the actual stimulus data. The final list
of emotion words consisted of the following: happiness/joy,
sadness, anger, fear, tenderness, longing, power, and hope.
Each music excerpt was rated on these eight emotions on a 7point scale ranging from not at all to very much.
E. Ratings for emotion recognition and the intensity of
perceived and felt emotion
The second research setting focused on measuring emotion
recognition ability as well as the intensity of felt emotions in
music. Participants were presented with 15 music excerpts
expressive of five basic emotions (happiness, sadness,
tenderness, fear, anger). The excerpts were selected based on
pre-ratings of a panel of three judges (music & emotion
researchers): only excerpts receiving the highest score on the
target emotion (5 on a scale of 1 to 5) by all of the judges
were included in the stimulus set.
After listening to each music excerpt, the participants were
asked to select which of the abovementioned five basic
emotions they found the music to be most representative of
(the recognition task). Thereafter, they rated how intensely on a 5-point scale ranging from not at all to very much - they
felt the selected emotion in response to the music.
III. RESULTS
A. Emotion perception in music
The socio-emotional competence measures were first
correlated with the emotion perception ratings. The ratings
were averaged across all 50 excerpts for all participants, thus
reflecting each persons evaluations given to the whole
stimulus set. This allowed us to measure overall biases in the
emotion ratings. The correlations are presented in Table 1. As
regards empathy, the Perspective Taking subscale was not
related to any biases in emotion perception, but the Empathic
Concern scale correlated significantly with higher ratings for
perceived fear (r =..27; p < .05) and hope (r = .28; p < .05) in
the music. It thus appears not to be cognitively objective but
emotionally sympathetic responding towards others that
relates to increased perception of certain emotions in music.
Table 1: Correlations (Pearson) between the socio-emotional
competence measures and emotions perceived in music
Emotion
ratings
Perspective
Taking
Empathic
Concern
Conduct
Problems
Hyperactivity
Happiness
.02
-.10
.06
-.09
Tenderness
.13
.08
-.30*
-.16
Anger
.02
.02
.15
-.04
Sadness
.18
.03
-.01
-.12
Fear
.23
.27*
-.10
-.16
Longing
.10
-.02
.02
-.08
Hope
.10
.28*
-.32*
-.19
Power
.08
.07
-.012
-.16
** = p < .01; * = p < .05
As regards problem behaviour, the Hyperactivity subscale
was not related to any emotion ratings, but the Conduct
Problems subscale was negatively correlated with perceived
tenderness (r = -.30; p < .05) and hope (r = -.32; p < .05) in
the music. In line with the results on empathy, it appears that
it may not be problems in concentration (cognitive ability) but
problems in emotional behaviour towards others that relates to
biases in emotion perception in music. Overall, the results
confirmed the hypothesis that empathy would relate to
increased perception of emotions while conduct problems
would relate to decreased perception of emotions in music.
B. Emotion recognition in music
Next, we investigated whether the socio-emotional
competence measures would relate to emotion recognition
ability in music. Percentage of congruency with the intended
emotion was calculated for each participants ratings for each
emotion. We deliberately did not want to refer to correct but
to congruent recognition to stress that the task measures
recognition that was similar to the emotion intended by other
people (in this case, the expert judges). The correlations
between the socio-emotional competence measures and
emotion recognition rates for each emotion are shown in
Table 2.
Table 2: Correlations (Pearson) between the socio-emotional
competence measures and congruent emotion recognition in
music
Congruent
recognition
Perspective
Taking
Empathic
Concern
Conduct
Problems
Hyperactivity
Happiness
-.06
.05
-.06
-.02
Sadness
.06
-.03
-.09
-.09
Anger
-.14
.12
.03
-.02
Fear
.08
-.06
-.07
-.18
.54**
.26(*)
-.08
-.30*
Tenderness
** = p < .01; * = p < .05; (*) p = .056
As regards empathy, the Perspective Taking subscale was
significantly correlated with better recognition of Tenderness
872
in music (r = .54; p < .01). A similar, but lower (only
approaching significance, r = .26; p = .056) correlation was
found for the Empathic Concern subscale. It thus appears that
a better emotion recognition rate in music relates particularly
to the ability to take the perspective of other people. As
regards problem behavior, we found a significant negative
correlation between Hyperactivity and recognition of
tenderness in music (r = -.30; p < .05). No correlations were
found for Conduct Problems. Taken together, the results
confirm our hypothesis that empathy relates to better, and
problem behavior to worse, recognition of emotion in music.
Furthermore, recognition rate appears to be more connected to
cognitive (perspective taking, concentration) rather than
emotional aspects of behavior. Also, these socio-emotional
competencies appear to be relevant only for some emotional
expressions (tenderness) in music.
C. Intensity of felt emotion as a response to music
Finally, we investigated the connections between socioemotional competence measures and the intensity of felt
emotions as a response to listening to music. The intensity
ratings were averaged across all music excerpts for each
participant, which again allowed us to investigate general
biases in the emotion ratings. The correlations are shown in
Table 3.
As regards empathy, no correlations were found, but
significant negative correlations were found for both Conduct
Problems and Hyperactivity. Conduct Problems correlated
negatively with experiencing fear as a response to music (r = .27; p < .05), and Hyperactivity correlated negatively with
experiencing sadness (r = -.32; p < .05), anger (r = -.27; p
< .05), and fear (r = -.41; p < .05) as a response to music.
Table 3: Correlations (Pearson) between the socio-emotional
competence measures and the intensity of felt emotion
Congruent
recognition
Perspective
Taking
Empathic
Concern
Conduct
Problems
Hyperactivity
Happiness
-.11
.06
-.15
-.23
Sadness
.06
.03
-.09
-.32*
Anger
-.01
-.02
.07
-.27*
Fear
.00
.17
-.27*
-.41*
Tenderness
.12
.07
-.13
-.15
** = p < .01; * = p < .05
The connection of problem behavior to lower ratings of felt
emotion is in line with our hypothesis. However, the opposite
hypothesis for empathy did not receive support from the data,
and may indicate that empathy is more relevant for the
perception and recognition of emotion in music than for
personally felt emotion.
IV. DISCUSSION
The results of this study show that adolescents socioemotional competence indeed relates to their perception of
emotion in music. The findings confirmed our hypothesis that
empathy relates to increased, and problem behavior to
decreased, perception of emotion in music. Empathy was also
related to higher, and problem behavior to lower, recognition
873
rates of emotion (tenderness) in music. As regards felt
emotion, the hypothesized connection was only found for
problem behavior, which correlated with lower ratings of felt
emotion in music. Overall, these findings on music-related
emotion perception are greatly in line with the findings from
general psychology regarding the connections of empathy and
prosocial behavior to the ability to recognize and identify
emotions in self and others (Gohm, 2003).
Additionally, we found differences in the connections as
regards the affective versus cognitive components of socioemotional competence. The more affect-related subcomponent of empathy (empathic concern) was related to
biases in emotion perception (higher perceived fear and hope)
in music, while the more cognition-related sub-component
(perspective taking) was correlated with better emotion
recognition (more congruent ratings of tenderness) in music.
A somewhat similar tendency was observed for problem
behavior: the more affect-related aspects of problem behavior
(conduct problems) were related to biases towards decreased
perception of emotion (lower perceived tenderness and hope)
in music, while the more cognition/concentration-related
aspect of problem-behavior (hyperactivity) was related to
lower recognition of emotion (more incongruent ratings of
tenderness) in music. These results indicate that it may be the
development of cognitive abilities in particular that
contributes to the ability of congruently recognizing emotions
in music. This is somewhat in line with previous results
connecting emotion recognition in music to the general ability
of using emotions to facilitate thought (Resnicow et.al., 2004).
Meanwhile, the development of - or the tendency for sympathetic responding towards others may be better
reflected in the intensity of emotions perceived in music. This
is actually greatly in line with previous results showing that
agreeableness (Ladinig & Schellenberg, 2011) and empathy
(Vuoskoski & Eerola, 2012) are connected to more intense
emotional responses to music.
Furthermore, it must be noted that significant correlations
were not observed for all emotions in music. Instead,
connections were particularly found for the perception and
recognition of tenderness, which indicates that tenderness
perception in particular is reflective of empathy and prosocial
behavior. This is in line with previous findings of Vuoskoski
and Eerola (2011b), who found that the intensity of emotional
responses to tender music excerpts correlated with
agreeableness and the empathy-subscale Fantasy, and
proposed that this would due to trait-congruence, as agreeable
people themselves are typically tender-minded, altruistic, and
trustful (e.g., John & Srtivastava, 1999). Trait-congruence
seems a plausible explanation also as to why empathy and
problem behavior particularly relate to the perception of
tenderness in music.
Finally, as hypothesized, problem behavior was also
negatively related to the intensity of felt emotion in music,
and this connection was found particularly for negative
emotions. Low ratings of felt negative emotion may reflect
unwillingness to experience or report these emotions, and the
finding is somewhat in line with a variety of research showing
that poor interpersonal functioning is related to the
suppression of emotions (e.g., Gross & John, 2003). Moreover,
although this connection was found for both subscales, it was
particularly clear for Hyperactivity, showing that low ratings
of felt emotion relate to deficits in concentration. Whether this
is a more general pattern, or somewhat specific to our
listening task in a laboratory, should be studied further. With
regard to empathy, we did not find the hypothesized
correlations between the intensity of felt emotion and trait
empathy, although previous studies have reported a
connection between the two (e.g., Vuoskoski & Eerola 2011b;
Vuoskoski & Eerola, 2012). It may well be that for
adolescents, empathy is more relevant for the recognition and
perception of emotion in music, i.e., understanding the
emotional expression of an outside object, but may not predict
the emotions evoked in the listener her/himself. Emotions felt
as a response to music are typically complexly intertwined
with a range of factors such as music preferences and
situational factors (e.g., Juslin & Laukka, 2004), which may
partly account for the fact that empathy was not significantly
associated with the intensity of felt emotion in the present
study.
Overall, our results demonstrate that the perception of
emotion in music is mediated by socio-emotional tendencies.
This is relevant not only for research on music perception, but
also on adolescent development and psychosocial wellbeing.
Music perception can be seen as an interesting approach to
understanding adolescents socio-emotional experience and
development, and the current findings may also prove to be
useful in terms of therapeutic interventions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was funded by the Academy of Finland (projects
118616, 125710, 136358).
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