Topic

What is
Action
Research?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.

Explain what action research is;

2.

Describe the characteristics of action research;

3.

Use the guidelines to produce quality action research;

4.

Identify the applications of action research; and

5.

Practise action research in all contexts.

INTRODUCTION
In Topic 1, we will discuss the theories and practices of action research. We will look
into what is involved in action research, as well as the characteristics and advantages
of action research. In this topic, we will also review some guidelines to produce
quality action research and as well as the proper applications for action research.
Finally, we will go through the contexts of action research projects.

1.1

DEFINITION OF ACTION RESEARCH

Before we proceed, let us discuss the various definitions for action research as
shown in Table 1.1.

TOPIC 1

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

Table 1.1: Definitions of Action Research

Source

Definition

Koshy (2005)

Action research, also known as Participatory Action Research

(PAR), community-based study; co-operative enquiry; action
science and action learning, is an approach commonly used for
improving conditions and practices in a range of healthcare
environments.

Sagor (2000)

Defines action research as a disciplined process of inquiry

conducted by and for those taking the action.

The primary reason for engaging in action research is to assist the

actor in improving or refining his or her actions.

Mills (2011)

Defines action research as any systematic inquiry conducted by

teachers, administrators, counsellors, or others with a vested
interest in the teaching and learning process or environment for
the purpose of gathering information about how their particular
schools operate, how they teach, and how their students learn.

Schmuck (1997)

Action research is an attempt to study a real school situation with

a view to improve the quality of actions and results within it.

The purpose is also to improve ones own professional judgment

and to give insight into better, more effective means of achieving
desirable educational outcomes.

McMillan
(2004)

Describes action research as the ability to focus on solving a

specific classroom or school problem, improving practice, or
helping make a decision at a single local site.

Mertler (2009)

Action research is able to offer a process by which current practice

can be changed toward better practice.

According to Mills (2011), action research has begun to capture the attention of
teachers, administrators, researchers because of the ability to make research a
more manageable task. It also helps to provide results that are more
informative and have immediate and direct application.
Although this is the case, many are still in doubt about what action research
involves. Figure 1.1 provides an overview of educational research methods while
Table 1.2 shows how action research differs from traditional research.

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WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

Figure 1.1: Overview of educational research methods

Source: Mertler (2009)

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WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

Table 1.2: Comparison between Traditional Research and Action Research

Comparison
Factor

Traditional Research

Action Research

Who?

Conducted by university
professors, scholars and graduate
students on experimental and
control groups.

Conducted by teachers and

principals on children in their
care.

Where?

In environments where variables

can be controlled.

In schools and classrooms.

How?

Using quantitative methods to

show, to some predetermined
degree of statistical significance, a
cause-effect relationship between
variables.

Using qualitative methods to

describe what is happening and
to understand the effects of some
educational intervention.

Why?

To report and publish conclusions

that can be generalised to larger
populations.

To take action and effect positive

educational change in the
specific school environment that
was studied.

Source: Mills (2003)

For decades, there has been pressure on the methods of research to improve
schools. Traditional educational researchers have a tendency to impose abstract
research findings on schools and teachers with little or no attention paid to local
variation (i.e., not all schools are the same) and required adaptations (i.e., the
extent to which research findings generalise across entire populations) (Metz &
Page, 2002). Mertler (2009) believes that, because of this issue, there is a need to
increase the practice of teacher-initiated, classroom-based research; hence, action
research may best be suitable.
Unlike the traditional research method, action research is straightforward and is
more applicable for school educators. As explained by Mills (2011), the basic
process of conducting action research consists of these four steps:
(a)

Identifying an area of focus;

(b)

Collecting data;

(c)

Analysing and interpreting the data; and

(d)

Developing a plan of action.

Furthermore, action research allows teachers to study their own classrooms, for
example, their own instructional methods, their own students and their own

TOPIC 1

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

assessments in order to better understand them and to be able to improve their

quality or effectiveness.
Therefore, the use of action research supports practitioners in seeking out ways
to improve the quality of education in schools. Hence, these features of action
research may be worth considering (Koshy, 2005):
(a)

Action research is a method used for improving practice. It involves action,

evaluation, and critical reflection and based on the evidence gathered
changes in practice are then implemented.

(b)

Action research is participative and collaborative; it is undertaken by

individuals with a common purpose.

(c)

It is situation-based and context specific.

(d)

It develops reflection based on interpretations made by the participants.

(e)

Knowledge is created through action and at the point of application.

(f)

Action research can involve problem solving, if the solution to the problem
leads to the improvement of practice.

(g)

In action research, findings will emerge as action develops, but these are
not conclusive or absolute.

ACTIVITY 1.1
Think about your views of research. Develop a list of advantages and
limitations for both traditional research and action research.

1.2

WHAT IS INVOLVED IN ACTION

RESEARCH?

A number of models have been proposed for the action research process by
numerous authors and researchers, as discussed in the following subtopics.
Although these models may appear to differ, they possess numerous common
elements.
Beginning with a central problem, these action research models involve some
observation or monitoring of current practice, followed by the collection and
synthesis of information and data. Finally, some sort of action is taken, which
then serves as the basis for the next stage of action research (Mills, 2011). Some of

TOPIC 1

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

these models are quite simple in design, while others may appear complex. The
complexity ranges from simpler to more complex as can be seen next.

1.2.1

Stringers Action Research Interacting Spiral

In Stringer's action research interacting spiral, he describes action research as

having a simple, yet powerful framework consisting of a look, think and act
routine (Stringer, 2007). At each stage, participants look (observe), think (reflect),
and act on it. Each action taken will lead the participants to the next stage (see
Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: Stringers action research interacting spiral

Source: Mertler (2009)

1.2.2

Lewins Action Research Spiral

Lewins action research spiral was created by Kurt Lewin (Smith, 2007), who is
also credited with coining the term action research. Lewin describes his model
as an action research spiral, which includes fact finding, planning, taking action,
evaluating and amending the plan, before moving into a second action step (see
Figure 1.3).

TOPIC 1

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

Figure 1.3: Lewins action research spiral

Source: Mertler (2009)

1.2.3

Calhouns Action Research Cycle

Calhouns (1994) action research cycle model, may not look like a spiral, but
still represents a process that is built around a cyclical notion. According to
Calhoun (1994), the solid lines indicate the primary direction of the action
research cycle through the phases, in numerical order. The dotted lines indicate
backward and forward movement within the cycle as refinement or clarification
of information is warranted (see Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: Calhouns action research cycle

Source: Mertler (2009)

1.2.4

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WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

Bachmans Action Research Spiral

Bachmans (2001) action research spiral continues this notion of the cyclical
nature of action research (see Figure 1.5). His downward spiral suggests that
participants gather information, plan actions, observe and evaluate those actions,
and then reflect and plan for a new cycle of the spiral, based on the insights that
were gained in the previous cycle.

Figure 1.5: Bachmans action research spiral

Source: Mertler (2009)

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1.2.5

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

Riels Action Research Model

Riels (2007) progressive model of problem solving through action research takes
the participant through four steps in each cycle: planning, taking action,
collecting evidence and reflecting (see Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6: Riels action research model

Source: Mertler (2009)

SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Looking at all the models, observe the similarities and differences.
2. Which model would best suit your interest?

1.2.6

Piggot-Irvines Action Research Model

Piggot-Irvines (2006) action research model continues to depict this spiralling

nature of the action research process. In her upward spiral, she shows these
similar steps - planning, acting and reflecting through three subsequent action
research cycles (see Figure 1.7). Starting with current situation analysis, the
process moves on to improvements implemented, then followed by review
changes before reporting and recommending the findings.

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TOPIC 1

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

Figure 1.7: Piggot-Irvines action research model

Source: Mertler (2009)

1.2.7

Hendrickss Action Research Model

Hendrickss (2006) action research model is shown in Figure 1.8. Her model
focuses on acting, evaluating and reflecting. She applies this in a school-based
context.

TOPIC 1

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

11

Figure 1.8: Hendricks action research process

Source: Mertler (2009)

1.2.8

Which Model to Follow?

According to Mertler (2009), it does not matter which model you follow because
generally, they shared the same elements. Mertler and Charles (2011) present a
general process of action research as follows:
(a)

The planning stage;

(b)

The acting stage;

(c)

The developing stage; and

(d)

The reflecting stage.

Within this framework and as seen earlier in the various models presented;
action research is a cyclical process and does not act in a linear fashion (Johnson,
2008). Many teacher-researchers involved in action research often find
themselves repeating some of the steps several times or perhaps doing them in a
different order (Mertler, 2009). These steps are cycles involving planning, acting,
observing, developing a new plan and reflecting.

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WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

SELF-CHECK 1.2
Do you think there is any best action research model to follow? Why?

1.3

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTION RESEARCH

Action research is a simple straightforward process but is sometimes

misunderstood by education practitioners (Mertler & Charles, 2011). The list
below describes action research, compiled from several resources (Johnson, 2008;
Mertler & Charles, 2011; Mills, 2011; Schmuck, 1997):
(a)

Action research is a process that improves education, in general, by

incorporating change.

(b)

Action research is a process involving educators working together to

improve their own practices.

(c)

Action research is persuasive and authoritative, since it is done by teachers

for teachers.

(d)

Action research is collaborative; that is, it is composed of educators talking

and working with other educators in empowering relationships.

(e)

Action research is participative, since educators are integral members, not

disinterested outsiders of the research process.

(f)

Action research is practical and relevant to classroom teachers, since it

allows them direct access to research findings.

(g)

Action research is developing critical reflection about ones teaching.

(h)

Action research is a planned, systematic approach to understanding the

learning process.

(i)

Action research is a process that requires us to test our ideas about

education.

(j)

Action research is open-minded.

(k)

Action research is a critical analysis of educational places of work.

(l)

Action research is a cyclical process of planning, acting, developing and

reflecting.

(m) Action research is a justification of ones teaching practices.

TOPIC 1

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

13

Of equal importance is that educators understand what action research is not

(Johnson, 2008; Mertler & Charles, 2011; Mills, 2011; Schmuck, 1997):
(a)

Action research is not the usual thing that teachers do when thinking about
teaching; it is more systematic and more collaborative.

(b)

Action research is not simply problem solving; it involves the specification

of a problem, the development of something new (in most cases), and
critical reflection on its effectiveness.

(c)

Action research is not done to or by other people; it is research done by

particular educators, on their own work, with students and colleagues.

(d)

Action research is not the simple implementation of predetermined

answers to educational questions; it explores, discovers, and works to find
creative solutions to educational problems.

(e)

Action research is not conclusive; the results of action research are neither
right nor wrong but rather tentative solutions that are based on
observations and other data collection and that require monitoring and
evaluation in order to identify strengths and limitations.

(f)

Action research is not a fad; good teaching has always involved the
systematic examination of the instructional process and its effects on
student learning.

ACTIVITY 1.2
Do the following to make action research a part of your daily teaching
practice.
1.
Actually try the process to convince yourself that the investments
of time and energy are worth the outcomes.
2.
Recognise that action research is a process that can be undertaken
without negatively affecting your personal and professional life.
3.
Seek support from your professional colleagues.

1.4

ADVANTAGES OF ACTION RESEARCH

Koshy (2005) concludes that action research is a powerful and useful model for
practitioner research because:
(a)

Research can be set within a specific context or situation;

(b)

Researchers can be participants they dont have to be distant and

detached from the situation;

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TOPIC 1

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

(c)

Action research involves continuous evaluation and modifications can be

made as the project progresses;

(d)

There are opportunities for theory to emerge from the research rather than
always following a previously formulated theory;

(e)

The study can lead to open-ended outcomes; and

(f)

Through action research, the researcher can bring a story to life.

It is difficult to list the disadvantages of this method when you look at it for
professional development purposes or to improve situations. It is, however,
described as a soft option to some; therefore, action researchers would need to
define the parameters of the study from beginning.

ACTIVITY 1.3
In your personal opinion, do you think action research is valid? Discuss.

1.5

IS ACTION RESEARCH REAL RESEARCH?

Many are of the opinion that action research has less quality because it is
conducted by teachers, and not academicians or researchers (Mertler, 2009). This
is of course, not true. A so-called quality research project needs to meet the
standards of sound practice, which lies in the concepts of validity and reliability.
Although, action research relies on a different set of criteria, because of its
participatory nature (Stringer, 2007), its quality is assessed based on the
usefulness of its research findings for its intended audience.
Table 1.3 explains three main concerns regarding this matter.

TOPIC 1

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

15

Table 1.3: Three Main Concerns in Action Research as Real Research

Concern

Description

Rigour in general refers to the quality, validity, accuracy, and

credibility of action research and its findings. It is normally
associated with the terms validity and reliability in
quantitative studies, which refers to the accuracy of
instruments, data, and research findings, and with accuracy,
credibility and dependability in qualitative studies (Melrose,
2001).

Rigour in action research is normally based on procedures of

checking to ensure that the results are not biased or that they
reflect only the particular perspective of the researcher,
therefore looked into the entire research process and not
specifically aspects of data collection, data analysis and
findings (Melrose, 2001; Stringer, 2007).

Moreover, the use of various research methods applied in

traditional research assists in keeping the work to strict
standards (Koshy, 2005). Hence, the issue of lack rigour and
validity is not applicable.

Concern 2:

Action research
findings are not
generalisable

Koshy (2005) argues that an action researcher does not intend

to generalise their data or findings, but to generate knowledge
based on action within ones own situation.

It is said further that, any findings from the research are

generalisable within that situation and within that context of
work, which is normally declared in advance.

This particular scenario is believed to be similar to other kinds

of research. Further research work based on findings can be
carried out by those interested in similar conditions, either
locally or internationally.

The idea that action research is a deficit model lies in the

thoughts related to the problem-solving nature. According to
Koshy (2005), developing strategies for solving a problem
within a situation is not a negative action.

Instead, it is about making progress, developing ideas and

making improvements. Moreover, the approach is similar to
doing traditional research, but, the process is more
straightforward as it follows strict standards.

Concern 1:
Action research
lacks rigour and
validity

Concern 3:
It is a deficit model

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TOPIC 1

1.6

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

GUIDELINES TO PRODUCING HIGH

QUALITY ACTION RESEARCH

In order to produce high quality research, several guidelines should be followed,

as shown in Figure 1.9 (Melrose, 2001; Mills, 2011; & Stringer, 2007; taken from
Mertler, 2009):

Figure 1.9: Some guidelines in producing high quality action research

Now, let us discuss the guidelines one by one.

(a)

Repetition of the cycle

It is critical to repeat the process in a number of cycles because with each
subsequent cycle, more is learned, and greater credibility is added to the
findings. The earlier cycles are used to inform how to conduct the later
cycles (Melrose, 2001).

(b)

Prolonged engagement and persistent observation

In order to gather enough information to help participants fully understand
the outcomes of an action research process, they must be provided
extended opportunities to explore and express their experience (Stringer,
2007) as it relates to the problem being investigated. However, simply
spending more time in the setting is not enough. For example, observations
and interviews must be deliberately and carefully conducted (Mills, 2011;
Stringer, 2007). These should not be indiscriminate research activities.

TOPIC 1

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

17

(c)

Experience with the process

In many cases rigour and credibility will depend on the experience of the
action researcher(s). If a teacher has (or other school personnel have)
conducted previous studies, or even previous cycles within the same study,
this individual can perform confidently and will have greater credibility
with respective audiences (Melrose, 2001). However, if the teacherresearcher is a novice, the entire process may benefit from the use of an
experienced facilitator.

(d)

Polyangulation of data
Rigour can be enhanced during the action research process when multiple
sources of data and other information are included (Mills, 2011; Stringer,
2007). This permits the action researcher to cross-check the accuracy of data
(Mills, 2011) and to clarify meanings or misconceptions held by participants
(Stringer, 2007). Accuracy of data and credibility of the study findings go
hand-in-hand.

(e)

Member checking
Participants should be provided with opportunities to review the raw data,
analyses and final reports resulting from the action research process (Mills,
2011; Stringer, 2007). The rigour of the research is enhanced by this activity
as it allows participants to verify that various aspects of the research
process adequately and accurately represent their beliefs, perspectives and
experiences. It also gives them the opportunity to further explain and/or
extend the information that they have already provided.

(f)

Participant debriefing
Similar to member checking, debriefing is another opportunity for
participants to provide insight. However, in this case, the focus is on their
emotions and feelings, instead of the factual information they have offered
(Mills, 2011; Stringer, 2007). They may address emotions that might have
clouded their interpretations of events or inhibited their memories.
Needless to say, rigour in action research is very important, albeit for
reasons that are different from those of more traditional forms of
educational research.

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1.7

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

APPLICATIONS OF ACTION RESEARCH

Action research can be applied in several ways, as shown in Figure 1.10 below:

Figure 1.10: Applications of action research

Let us look into the applications in greater detail now.

(a)

Identifying problems
As explained by Johnson (2008), if a goal of action research is to promote
improvement and change, obviously the specific target of that improvement or
change must first be identified. It is, therefore, common that in investigating
issues, question like why are things as they are? will be asked.

(b)

Developing and testing solutions

Action research can be used to find solutions to problems you have
identified and ultimately test their effectiveness (Mertler, 2009).

(c)

Pre-service teacher education

The transition from being a student to a beginning teacher is not a simple
process. Teaching is an extremely complex professional career. Action research
helps to accommodate the limited knowledge and experiences of beginner
teachers by helping them see things in the classroom that they would not
normally notice (Johnson, 2008). Doing a mini action research project provides
a beginner a unique pre-professional development opportunity. These mini
projects can focus on observations of students, observations of other classroom
teachers, or observations of their own practice.

(d)

In-service professional growth

Action research is an effective means for teachers to develop and grow
professionally. Johnson (2008) describes action research as the most

TOPIC 1

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

19

efficient and effective way to address the professional development of

teachers. Action research affords teachers opportunities to connect theory
with practice, to become more reflective in their practice, and to become
empowered risk takers. All of these opportunities enable the in-service
classroom teacher to grow professionally and ultimately to realise growth
in student learning.
Koshy (2005) describes the aims of teacher-researcher scheme as follows:
(a)

To encourage teachers to engage with research and evidence about pupils

achievements, for example, to use other peoples research to inform their
practice and/or to participate actively in research.

(b)

To increase the capacity for high-quality, teacher-focused classroom

research by supporting teacher involvement in the development of research
proposals for external funding.

(c)

To support teachers in designing, applying for and carrying out more

medium and large-scale classroom-based research about pedagogy where
teachers have an active role.

(d)

To enable experiments in disseminating research findings and making use

of them in classrooms.

(e)

To provide examples of good practice in making use of research.

1.8

CONTEXTS OF ACTION RESEARCH

PROJECTS

This topic ends with some examples of action research projects (Koshy, 2005),
which demonstrate the range of topics addressed by such research.

1.8.1

Enhancing Classroom Practice

These studies focus on classroom teaching:

(a)

How can I improve my questioning skills?

(b)

Who does most of the talking in my class the children or me?

(c)

How can I improve childrens participating in ICT?

(d)

Will the introduction of a learning diary in mathematics lessons enhance

childrens conceptual understanding?

(e)

How can I introduce class discussions on childrens special interests?

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1.8.2

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

Studying a Particular Theme

With the new Education Blue Print focusing on teachers, action research offers a
good opportunity for teachers to evaluate and improve their own teaching. Some
ideas are as follows:
(a)

What is personalised learning and how can I implement it in my classroom?

(b)

Can we teach problem-solving skills and does the teaching of problemsolving enhance childrens performance in other areas?

(c)

What is meant by creativity in the classroom? What is creativity and how

can I encourage children to be creative?

(d)

I attended a conference on Multiple Intelligences as a basis of talent

development. How do I put into practice what we were told?

1.8.3

Institutional Focus

These are topics based in the workplace such as:

(a)

How can we enhance the motivation of our students?

(b)

How can we increase participation at parents meetings?

(c)

How can we encourage more discussion during staff meetings?

(d)

What recommendations can be made to make the record-keeping system

more manageable and useful?

(e)

How can we develop a more caring ethos in the school?

(f)

What are some anti-bullying strategies? How effective are these strategies?

Action research is any systematic inquiry conducted by educators for the

purpose of gathering information about how their particular schools operate,
how they teach, and how their students learn.

Action research is a straightforward process but is sometimes misunderstood

by education practitioners.

Action research is done by teachers for teachers, working with students and
colleagues.

TOPIC 1

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

21

Action research is a process of problem solving to improve a method or

practice.

The basic process of action research consists of the following four stages
which are planning, acting, developing and reflecting.

Most action research studies are cyclical and iterative.

Action research can be used effectively to bridge the gap between theory and
practice, to improve educational practice, to empower teachers, to provide
professional growth opportunities for teachers, to identify educational
problems, to develop and test solutions, and to expand the knowledge base of
pre-service teachers.

Acting

Planning

Action research

Pre-service teacher

Cyclical process

Reflecting

Developing

Rigour

In-service teacher

Traditional research

Bachman, L. (2001). Review of the agricultural knowledge system in Fiji:

Opportunities and limitations of participatory methods and platforms to

promote innovation development. Unpublished dissertation, Humboldt
University to Berlin, Germany. Retrieved from
berlin.de/dissertationen/bachmann-lorenz-b-r-2000-1221/PDF/Bachmann.pdf

http://edoc.hu-

Calhoun, E. F. (1994). How to use action research in the self-renewing school.

Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
C. (2006). Improving schools through action research: A
comprehensive guide for educators. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Hendricks,

Johnson, A. P. (2008). A short guide to action research (3rd Ed.). Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.

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Koshy, V. (2005). Action research for improving practice: A practical guide.

London: Sage.
Koshy, E., Koshy, V., & Wateman, H. (2011). Action research in healthcare.
London: Sage Publication.
McMillan, J. H. (2004). Educational research: Fundamentals for the consumer (4th
Ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Melrose, M. J. (2001). Maximising the rigour of action research: Why would you
want to? How could you? Field Methods, 13(2), 160-180.
Mertler, C. A. (2009). Action research: Teachers as researchers in the classroom.
London: Sage Publication.
Mertler, C. A., & Charles, C. M. (2011). Introduction to educational research (7th
Ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Metz, M. H., & Page, R. N. (2002). The uses of practitioner research and status
issues in educational research: Reply to Gary Anderson. Educational
Researcher, 31(7), 26-27.
Mills, G. E. (2011). Action research: A guide to a teacher researcher. New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Piggot-Irvine, E. (2006). Sustaining excellence in experienced principals? Critique
of a professional learning community approach. International Electronic
Journal for Leadership in Learning, 10(16). Retrieved from http://iejll.
synergiesprairies.ca/iejll/index.php/ijll/article/download/616/278
Riel, M. (2007). Understanding action research. Center for Collaborative Action
Research. Retrieved from http://cadres.pepperdine.edu/ccar/define.html
Sagor, R. (2000). The action research guidebook: A four-step process for
educators and school teams. California: Sage.
Schmuck, R. A. (1997). Practical action research for change. Arlington Heights, IL:
SkyLight Professional Development.
Smith, M. K. (2007). Kurt Lewin: Groups, experiential learning, and action
research. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-lewin.htm
Stringer, E. T. (2007). Action research (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.