An Investigation into Indian Apparel

and Textile Supply Chain Networks

Prabir Jana

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirement of Nottingham Trent University for
the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy

August 2010

Copyright Statement

This work is the intellectual property of the author, and may also be owned by the research
sponsor(s) and/or Nottingham Trent University. You may copy up to 5% of this work for
private study, or personal, non-commercial research. Any re-use of the information
contained within this document should be fully referenced, quoting the author, title,
university, degree level and pagination. Queries or requests for any other use, or if a more
substantial copy is required, should be directed in the first instance to the author.

Abstract

The activities of the Indian clothing industry supplying Western markets have been
investigated, with particular reference to identifying where improvements could be made to
supply chain management.

Focus group discussions, case studies and questionnaire

analysis established that long lead-times in pre-production areas were of great concern.
However Indian apparel manufacturers were found to be more cost conscious and rather
less conscious about the value of time in pre-production areas.

It was found that pre-production activities constituted 73% of total manufacturing lead time
and have high positive correlation (0.96) with total manufacturing lead time.

Pre-

production activities in India mainly consist of prototype making and pre-production

sample development; of which approval processes were found to have a high correlation
(0.63) with pre-production. A significant (more than 50%) time of all activities consist of
waiting time, which has positive influence on total lead time (0.86).

Improvements to sample approval processes such as streamlining iterations and bottlenecks

could eliminate some non-value added activities and reduce total manufacturing lead times
by as much as 12 per cent. The average loss of time due to intermittent work interruptions
in skill-based activities such as grading ranged from 15% to 24%; this could be saved by
prioritising workload distribution to resources.

Implementation of critical chain

methodology compressed the pre-production time by 40%, resulting overall improvement

of lead time by 29%.

A skewed distribution of workload on resources in the pre-production chain tended to result

in unbalanced planning and inefficiencies. A multi-project Gantt chart when implemented
through software could help rationalise the distribution of resources, levelling the workload
with better prioritising of activities, thus leading to better management of bottleneck
resources.

ii

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Dr. Alistair Knox, Director of Studies and Dr. Peter Philips,
Supervisor of Studies from Nottingham Trent University, Fashion & Textiles, Professor
Prabir Banerjee, Supervisor of Studies from Textile Technology Department, Indian
Institute of Technology, New Delhi and Professor A.S. Narag, Supervisor of Studies from
Faculty of Management Studies, New Delhi, India for their guidance and constant support
in carrying out this research.
I would also like to thank Mr. Derek Brown, Mr. Kevin Byrne and Ms. Lynn Oxborrow at
NTU and Mr. Paul Stevens at Fast React Systems for their continuous encouragement and
critical appreciation of the effort.

I would like to express special gratitude to Mr. Chris Corn of Scitor Corporation, USA for
providing demonstration license of PS 8 software for use in the research and e-mail user
support during the research.

I would like to thank all my colleagues at Garment Manufacturing Technology Department,

National Institute of Fashion Technology, India and staff at NTU, Fashion & Textiles (Art
and Design) for their encouragement, help and support. I would like to thank all industry
personnel and friends for their cooperation and help during the research. I would also like
to express my sincere gratitude to NIFT for providing me the opportunity to carry out the
research.
I would like to thank Mr. Tom Singh, owner of New Look for his encouragement and
support.
I would like to express special gratitude to Group Captain (Retd) Noel Moitra VM for
proof reading the document.

I would like to thank the following students who worked under my guidance to carry out
action research and/or data collection work related to my research:

Swati Gupta and Chandrasekhar Joshi, GMT student 1998-2000.

George Joseph, GMT Student 2000-2002.

iii

Contents
Title

Page

Copyright Statement

Abstract

ii

Acknowledgement

iii

Contents

iv

List of Tables

xv

List of Figures

xviii

List of Appendices

xx

List of Abbreviations

Xx

List of Published Works

xxi

1.0

Introduction

1.1

Understanding of Supply Chain

1.2

Global Apparel and Textile Supply Chain

1.3

Indian Apparel & Textile Industry

1.4

Aim of Investigation

1.5

Principle Objectives of the Research

Chapter One

iv

1.6

Rationale & Scope

1.7

Research Design

11

1.7.1

Literature Survey (Secondary Data)

11

1.7.2

Primary Data

12

1.8

Research Publications

13

1.9

Summary

14

Chapter Two

Page

2.0

Literature Review

15

2.1

Defining Supply Chain

15

2.1.1

Information Flow in Supply Chain

18

2.1.2

Material Flow in Supply Chain

21

2.1.3

Fashion/Clothing Market Demands

24

Supply Chain Structure and Trading Partners

25

2.2.1

Conceptual Classification

26

2.2.2

Structural Classification

28

2.2.3

Supply Chain Structure for Apparel Manufacturing

31

2.2.4

Nominal Trading Partners and Intermediaries in Supply Chain

33

2.2

2.2.5

Vertical Integration To Partnership Model

36

Product Development in Supply Chain

41

2.3.1

Product Development in Apparel Supply Chain

44

2.3.2

Product Development Process in Contract Apparel Manufacturing 46

2.3.3

Collaborative and Concurrent Product Development

52

Optimisation Techniques

57

2.4.1

Postponement

57

2.4.2

Critical Path Method

60

2.4.3

Lean Manufacturing

63

2.4.4

Inventory Management

64

2.4.5

Quick Response Manufacturing

68

Value Added Analysis in Supply Chain

69

2.3

2.4

2.5
2.5.1

Representation of Value Added And Non-Value Added Activities 72

2.6

Information Technology in Supply Chain Management

78

2.7

Global Apparel & Textile Supply Chain

81

2.7.1

Recent Researches in Apparel & Textile Supply Chain

83

2.7.2

Indian Apparel and Textile Supply Chain

87

Summary

92

2.8

vi

Chapter Three
3.0

Page
Research Design And Scope
Full understanding of the Indian apparel export manufacturing

3.1

industry and its supply chain network

Variability of processes within the network and develop best

3.2

practice methods
Delay-contributing activities in manufacturing cycles, analyse

3.3

the reasons behind such delay and suggest means of reducing it

Value-added and non-value-added activities in the

3.4

manufacturing cycle

3.5

Applicability of different optimisation techniques

3.5.1

3.5.2

3.5.3

Exploring feasibility of lead time compression through

collaborative and concurrent product development
Applicability of critical path and critical chain to reduce the
manufacturing cycle time
Measuring the potential of time saving for skill-based activities
by avoiding intermittent work interruption

97

97

99

101

102

103

104

105

105

3.6

Selection of Population/Sample

106

3.7

Investigative Tools

107

3.8

Ethical Procedures

107

3.9

Summary

109

vii

Chapter Four

Page

4.0

Pilot Studies

110

4.1

Characteristics of Indian Apparel Export Manufacturing

110

4.1.1

Methodology

110

4.1.2

Data Collection

112

4.1.3

Data Analysis

119

4.1.4

Conclusion

121

Understanding of Product Development Process

122

4.2.1

Methodology

122

4.2.2

Data Collection

123

4.2.3

Data Analysis

127

4.2.4

Conclusion

129

Rationalisation of the Number of Sample Approvals

129

4.3.1

Methodology

129

4.3.2

Data Collection

131

4.3.3

Discussion and Analysis

133

4.3.4

Conclusion

134

Summary

135

4.2

4.3

4.4

viii

Chapter Five

Page

5.0

Case Studies

136

5.1

Identification and Measurement of Pre-production Activities

136

5.1.1

Methodology

136

5.1.2

Data Collection

137

5.1.3

Data Analysis

146

5.1.4

Conclusion

148

Identify and Measure Pre-production Activities (Survey)

149

5.2.1

Methodology

149

5.2.2

Data Collection

155

5.2.3

Data Analysis

158

5.2.4

Conclusion

164

Value Added and Non-Value Added Activities

165

5.3.1

Methodology

166

5.3.2

Data Collection

169

5.3.3

Data Analysis

170

5.3.4

Conclusion

176

Summary

177

5.2

5.3

5.4

ix

Chapter Six

Page

6.0

Longitudinal Studies

179

6.1

Collaborative and Concurrent Product Development

180

6.1.1

Methodology

180

6.1.2

Data Collection

181

6.1.3

Case Studies

183

6.1.4

Data and Case Analysis

184

6.1.5

Conclusion and Reflections

185

Critical Chain Implementation

187

6.2.1

Methodology

187

6.2.2

Data Collection

188

6.2.3

Data Analysis

198

6.2.4

Conclusion and Reflections

203

Multi Project Gantt Chart Implementation

204

6.3.1

Methodology

205

6.3.2

Data Collection

206

6.3.3

Data Analysis

225

6.3.4

Conclusion

227

6.2

6.3

6.4
6.4.1

6.4.2

Intermittent Work Interruption

228

Pilot Study on Intermittent Work Interruption

229

6.4.1.1

229

Methodology

6.4.1.2 Data Collection

230

6.4.1.3

231

Data Analysis

6.4.1.4 Conclusion

233

Longitudinal Study on Intermittent Work Interruption

234

6.4.2.1

234

Methodology

6.4.2.2 Data Collection

235

6.4.2.3

244

Data Analysis

6.4.2.4 Conclusion

Chapter Seven

245

Page
Conclusion

247

7.1

Indian Apparel Supply Chain Issues

247

7.2

Improvement Potential in Lead Time

249

7.3

Bottleneck Management of Pre-production Resources

255

7.4

Reflections and Scope for Further Work

259

7.0

xi

References and Bibliography

References

261

Bibliography

285

Appendices

290

xii

List of Tables
No.

Title

Page

2.1

Merchandise Distribution Channels

25

2.2

Advantages and Disadvantages of Vertical Integration

37

2.3

Partnership as a Strategic option: Joint Ventures and Alliances

39

2.4

Classification of Inventory in the Textile and Apparel Supply-chain

65

2.5

Clothing Pipeline Inventories and Works in Progress

71

2.6

Difference between Traditional and Fast Fashion Business Model

85

4.1

Summary of selected company profiles being surveyed

112

4.2

Agenda Points for Discussion

131

5.1

Activity Data for Loyal Exports Order

140

5.2

Activity Data for Silvershine Apparels Order

142

5.3

Activity Data for Delta Fashion Order

144

5.4

Summary of Organisations for Pre-production Time Analysis

151

5.5

Initial Order Progress Tracking Format

152

5.6

Final Order Progress Tracking Format

154

5.7

Filled up Progress Tracking Format

156

5.8

Order Progress Analysis

157

5.9

Pre-production Activity Time

159

5.10 Analysis of Iteration Times

160

Excerpt of Initial Format for Value Added and Non Value Added
5.11

Activities

167

5.12 Calculation of Time in VSM Format

167

5.13 Modified VA/NNVA/NVA Data Collection Format

168

5.14 Value Added and Non-Value Added Activity Tracking

169

xiii

5.15 Order Wise Value Added and Non-Value Added Time in Manufacturing

170

5.16 Activity Wise Value Added and Non-Value Added Time

172

5.17 Activity Mapping with Cost Centres

174

6.1

Activity Data for Dolores Top Style

189

6.2

Tracking Format: Actual Days vs. Critical Path and Critical Chain

195

6.3

Tracking Format: Actual Days vs. Critical Path and Critical Chain

196

6.4

Critical Activities

197

6.5

Comparison between Critical Path and Critical Chain

198

To-Do List of Activities for Pattern Maker Chandar Kumar on

6.6

12/09/2002

202

To-Do List of Activities for Sample Master Surinder Singh on

6.7

12/09/2002

202

6.8

List of Resource Persons for Gantt Chart

207

6.9

List of Orders for Multi Project Gantt Chart

215

Pattern Making in Intermittent Work Interruption Environment (Actual

6.10

Scenario)

230

Pattern Making Without Any Intermittent Work Interruption

6.11

(Hypothetical Scenario)

231

6.12 Intermittent Work Interruption on Similar Styles

232

6.13 Intermittent Work Interruption in Pattern Making I (calculations)

238

6.14 Intermittent Work Interruption in Pattern Making II (calculations)

241

6.15 Intermittent Work Interruption in Sample Making (calculations)

243

6.16 Comparisons between Patterns Making and Sample Making

245

xiv

List of Figures
No.

Title

Page

1.1

Typical Supply Chain

1.2

Apparel & Textile Supply Chain

1.3

Typical Value Addition and Lead-Time for a Cotton Brief

2.1

Product Type

22

2.2

The Fashion Triangle

23

2.3

Short Lifecycle Product and Long Lifecycle Products

24

2.4

Generic Model of Supply Chain

26

2.5

Classification of Supply chain

29

2.6

V-A-T Supply Chain

30

2.7

Contract Manufacturing Supply Chain

32

2.8

Balancing of Product Development Activities

42

2.9

Supplier Involvement in Product Development

42

2.10 Sequential Models of the New Product Development Process

43

2.11 Product Development Process for a Typical Indian Apparel Manufacturer

49

2.12 Integrated Approach Towards Product Development

53

2.13 Multiple Convergent Model of Product Development

54

2.14 Conventional and Concurrent Approaches to Product Development

56

2.15 PERT/CPM Network

61

2.16 Critical Chain Gantt Chart

63

2.17 Value and Cost Addition

73

2.18 Value Added and Non-Value Added activities

75

2.19 VSM: Value Added and Non-Value Added Activity Representation

76

2.20 Sourcing and Manufacturing in Supply Chain

88
xv

2.21 Procurement Channel for Men's Shirts for West European Buyer

89

2.22 Indian Apparel Manufacturing

91

4.1

Potential of Improvement in a Supply Chain

113

4.2

Importance of Different Operational Issues in Planning

114

4.3

Sample Conversion Rate

115

4.4

Importance of Different Operational Issues in Product Development

115

4.5

Sample Approval Time

116

4.6

Cost of Product Development

117

4.7

Troublesome Pre-production Activities

117

4.8

Communication Problems in Sourcing Accessories

118

4.9

Seasonality in Business

119

4.10 Product Development Process Network for Importer

124

4.11 Product Development Process Network for Catalogue

125

4.12 Product Development Process Network for Brand

126

4.13 Production Process for Value Added Garments

128

5.1

Order Follow up Sheet Using MS- Excel

139

5.2

PERT Diagram for Loyal Exports Order

141

5.3

PERT Diagram for Silvershine Apparels Order

143

5.4

PERT Diagram for Delta Fashion Order

145

5.5

Dependency between manufacturing lead time and pre-production time

161

5.6

Dependency between pre-production time and approval time

162

5.7

Dependency between approval time and iteration time

162

5.8

Activity Wise Value Added and Non-Value Added Time

173

6.1

PERT/CPM Diagram for Dolores Top Style

192
xvi

6.2

Critical Chain Network for Dolores Top Style

194

6.3

Critical Chain, Critical Path and Actual Start

199

6.4

Critical Chain, Critical Path and Actual Finish

200

6.5

Gantt Chart of JDW-HE-060-LILAC

208

6.6

Dynamic Change of Gantt Chart

209

6.7

Weekly Resource Utilisation

210

6.8

Gantt Chart with Sub-tasks

211

6.9

Post Sub-task Distribution of Workload

213

6.10 Post Sub-task Distribution of Workload after Resource Levelling

214

6.11 JDW-HE-060-LILAC Gantt Chart with Sub-tasks and Resource Histograms

216

6.12 JDW-HE-060-WHITE Gantt Chart with Sub-tasks and Resource Histograms 217
6.13 El Corte 104-1-SUIT Gantt chart With Sub-tasks and Resource Histograms

218

6.14 Multi Project Gantt Chart

220

6.15 Multi Project Weekly Resource Utilisation

221

6.16 Resource Assignments Report

222

6.17 To-Do List

223

6.18 Resource Project Task Effort-Weekly

224

6.19 Intermittent Work Interruption in Pattern Making I

237

6.20 Intermittent Work Interruption in Pattern Making II

240

6.21 Intermittent Work Interruptions in Sampling

242

7.1

Pre-production, Approval and Iteration Process in Manufacturing Cycle

249

7.2

Sample Approval Process

251

7.3

Material Approval Process

253

xvii

List of Appendices

No.

Title

Page

No.

Title

Page

Human Nature of Working in a Project Environment

290

II

Indian Textile and Apparel Supply Chain

292

III-A

Supply Chain Awareness Survey: Questionnaire

293

III-B

Questionnaire Feedback Form

302

IV

Brief of Organisations Participated in Pre-production Time 306

Analysis

Value Stream Mapping Format

309

VI

Value Added and Non Value Added Activity Tracking Format

310

xviii

List of Abbreviations
AEPC
ALAP
AOA
AON
ASAP
CPD
CPM
IIFT
INR
IT
JIT
MRP
NCR
NIFT
NNVA
NPD
NVA
PD
PERT
PLM
PPC
QR
SCM
SEZ
SME
SSI
TNA
UVR
VMI
VSM

Apparel Export Promotion Council

As late As Possible
Activity on Arrow
Activity on Node
As Soon As Possible
Collaborative and concurrent product development
Critical path method
Indian Institute of Foreign Trade
Indian Rupees
Information Technology
Just In Time
Material Resource Planning
Northern Capital Region
National Institute of Fashion Technology
Necessary Non Value Added
New Product Development
Non Value Added
Product Development
Programme (Project) Evaluation and Review Technique
Product Lifecycle Management
Production Planning and Control
Quick Response
Supply Chain Management
Special Economic Zone
Small and Medium Enterprise
Small Scale Industry
Time aNd Action
Unit Value Realisation
Vendor Managed Inventory
Value Stream Mapping

xix

List of Published Works

Jana, P. and Bheda, R., 2001, Supply Chain Dynamics in Indian Apparel Export
Manufacturing: How Well Do We understand? Clothesline, pp 24-28
Jana, P. and Bheda, R., 2001, Supply Chain Dynamics in Indian Apparel Export
Manufacturing: How Well Do We understand? Apparel, pp 71-75
Jana, P., 2001, Supply Chain Dynamics in Indian Apparel Export Manufacturing:
Collaborative Product Development, Clothesline, pp 38-40
Jana, P. and Knox, A., 2003, Collaborative Product Development in India, www.juststyle.com, 20th August.
Jana, P. and Knox, A., 2001, Supply Chain Dynamics in Indian Apparel Export
Manufacturing: Collaborative Product Development, www.techexchange.com.
Gupta, S., Joshi, C., Jana, P. and Knox, A., 2002, Supply Chain Dynamics in Indian
Apparel Export Manufacturing: Critical Chain Approach, Clothesline, pp 56-59
Gupta, S., Joshi, C., Jana, P. and Knox, A., 2002, Supply Chain Dynamics in Indian
Apparel Export Manufacturing: Critical Chain Approach, www.techexchange.com.
Jana, P. and Knox, A., 2003, The Critical Chain Approach to Apparel production,
www.just-style.com, 19th March.
Jana, P., Knox, A. and Narag, A., 2004, Role of Intermediaries in Apparel Supply Chain,
International Conference HPTEX, KCT, Coimbatore, India, 7-9 July.
Jana, P. and Knox, A., 2004, Innovative Approach in Apparel Manufacturing: Critical
Chain, North India Section of Textile Institute (NISTI) conference, New Delhi, India,
December.
Jana, P., Knox, A. and Narag, A., 2008, Integrated TNA in Apparel Merchandising, 4th
International Conference on Apparel & Home Textiles, ICAHT 08, New Delhi, 26 - 27
September.
xx

Chapter One
1.

Introduction

A supply chain, in a generalised statement, can be said to be the interaction between, or a

system of, people, activity, technology, information, resources, infrastructure and
organisations involved in moving a product or service from supplier to customer. Studies
have shown that in the area of production and inventory management, Supply Chain
Management (SCM) has become the most talked about phrase during the last two decades.

A web search of the phrase Supply Chain Management delivered 12.3 million hits on
Google (Google 2008) and 6.1 million hits on Cuil (Cuil 2008). The acronym SCM has the
most widespread reach among manufacturing and retail industries (Gattorna 1998a), and
has been one of the most popular research topics among business and technology schools in
the world. The growing popularity of SCM among researchers is clear from the following
figures from Emerald (Emerald 2008): Of articles published between 1995-2000, 615 had
the phrase supply chain management in the title. The number grew to 1584 between
2000-2005 and there were as many as 1649 articles between 2005-2008. The Information
Technology (IT) integration of the topic and widespread support from both the print and
electronic media is exemplified from the following statistics: A web search (Google 2008)
on software solutions for supply chain management resulted in 1660 hits, whereas 4030
hits were counted on seminar/conference on supply chain management. SCM is no longer
confined to operation and functional areas of a firm; today it is a strategic issue demanding
attention from top level management in all sectors of industry.

The apparel and textile industry is such a sector: it can be regarded as a series of
interrelated activities which originates with the cultivation and/or manufacture of fibre and
culminates in the delivery of a garment to an end user, viz, the consumer. The industry
caters to one of the basic human needs clothing being present in almost every country
in the world and plays a very crucial role in supporting and sustaining human life. With the
terms apparel and textile being very much linked with fashion (Jones 2006a), the
industry has a vested interest in developing new products at the expense of existing items;
i.e. planned obsolescence (Easey 1995).
1

India, with a centuries-old rich heritage in textiles is a strong force to reckon with in the
global apparel and textile trade (WTO 2007). Applying one of the most dynamic
management concepts, i.e. SCM, to the fashion industry in an emerging economy such as
India, is indeed a challenging task. This research involves the latest thinking on
management of the apparel supply chain with specific application to case studies from
India.

1.1.

Understanding the Supply Chain

A supply chain is the global network used to deliver products and services from raw
materials (i.e. upstream) to consumers (i.e. downstream) through an engineered flow of
information, physical distribution, and cash (Alber and Walker 1998). Christopher (2006a)
defined a supply chain as a network of organizations that are involved, through upstream
and downstream linkages, in the different processes and activities that produce value in the
form of products and services delivered to the ultimate customers. A typical supply chain
may involve a variety of stages like customers, retailers, wholesalers/distributors,
manufacturers and component/raw material suppliers. Figure 1.1 represents the various
stages of a simple supply chain.

Figure 1.1

Typical Supply Chain

Supplier

Manufacturer

Wholesaler/
Distributor

Retailer

Customer

Supplier

Manufacturer

Wholesaler/
Distributor

Retailer

Customer

Source: Chopra and Meindl 2005a

The primary objective of SCM is the integration and control of the normal flow of
materials across multiple members of the system, involving multiple ties among suppliers
and customers (Monczka et al. 1998). The material flows down stream with value added in
each process and cash flows upstream, while information flows in either direction. The aim
is to improve efficiency, reduce or eliminate waste and save direct resources. In effect, it is
to ensure right product at right place at right time. Each link (echelon) has input-processoutput; the flow can be push or pull between each couple of activities in the chain.

The material decoupling point is the position in the material pipeline where the product
flow changes from push to pull and the information decoupling point is the point in the
information pipeline where forecast driven and market driven information flows meet each
other (Mason-Jones and Towill 1999a). According to them the position of the material
decoupling point has a significant impact on inventory levels in the supply chain and
responsiveness to demand and postponement of material conversion moves the decoupling
point downstream (Mason-Jones and Towill 1999b)., thereby enabling smooth upstream
planning.

The total time taken by the material from upstream to downstream is called supply leadtime. SCM could be seen as a management philosophy, implementation of management
philosophy, or a set of management processes (Mentzer et al. 2001). In SCM, the
philosophy of supply chains extends the concept of partnerships into a multi-platform effort
to manage the total flow of goods from the supplier to the ultimate customers (Ellram,
1990; Jones and Riley, 1985). The non-value added activities in the supply chain could be
more than 90 percent of the supply lead-time (Christopher 2006b) and need to be
minimised. Inventory reduction and improved logistics (Christopher 1998), Collaborative
Product Development (Womack and Jones 1996) and partnership sourcing (Macbeth and
Ferguson 1994) are some of the methods to reduce lead-time and improve supply chain
efficiency.

1.2

Global Apparel and Textile Supply Chain

A typical apparel and textile supply chain would have trading partners from fibre producer
upstream to retail consumer downstream. Some of the nominal trading partners would
3

include trims and accessories suppliers, textile and apparel testing agencies, and freight
forwarders. Figure 1.2 represents a typical apparel and textile supply chain.

Figure 1.2

Apparel and Textile supply Chain

Nominal Trading Partners

Freight
Forwarders

Trims
Cash Flow

Trading Partners

Fibre

Yarn

Fabric

Apparel

Retail

Consumer

Textile Testing
Material flow

Information Flow

Global apparel and textile industry is characterised by product variety, fashion content and
seasonality. Though there are less than 20 significant textile fibre types, the variety in the
final product (the garment) is infinite. As material flows downstream from fibre to retail,
the fashion content in the product increases; thus stock keeping unit (SKU) diversity also
increases phenomenally (Massey 2000). The fashion content of apparel makes it a
perishable commodity over time, resulting in markdowns and discounts (Oxborrow and
Massey 2000) and so the objective of every player in the chain is to move the goods from
design to consumer in the fastest possible time. In a car industry, new product development
used to take 4-5 years (Womack et al. 1990), whereas in the apparel industry, new product
introduction every 4-6 weeks has become common in the so called fast fashion
(Oxborrow and Massey 2000, Mintel 2007). The following example of cotton brief (figure
1.3) gives an idea about value addition and lead time in a traditional apparel and textile
supply chain (Knox and Newton1998).

Figure 1.3

Typical Value Addition and Lead-Time for a Cotton Brief (in Apparel

and Textile Supply Chain)

Being highly labour-intensive, the apparel manufacturing activity has migrated to lower
labour cost countries over time, resulting in global supply chains. Now, with fibre grown or
manufactured in one country, fabric could well be in another and apparel in a third country.
To manage this global supply, intermediate agents like the buyer, contractor, importer,
wholesaler and distributor might be added to the basic network (fig 1.2). With the
traditional two seasons per year (Autumn/Winter and Spring/Summer) or with commodity
clothing, such extended supply chains were not a major problem.

During the 1990s, there had been a paradigm shift from cost-based to time and value based
competition in global sourcing of merchandise (AAMA 1995), resulting in an everincreasing and irreversible global trend towards speed and replenishment sourcing of
merchandise (Oxborrow and Massey 2000), (Abernathy et al. 1999a). Increasing
importance was given to design innovation capabilities of the manufacturer (Kerr 1999)
and shifting of product development functions from retailer to manufacturer for an effective
supply chain (Watson 2002).

The time taken from an order being placed on an apparel manufacturer till the complete
order being shipped to retailer is called manufacturing lead time or manufacturing cycle
time. The average lead time is approximately 167 days (JBA 1998); lead time may vary
from 117 to 172 calendar days depending on the level of adoption of technology
(Abernathy et al. 1999b). Given that the labour cost of a garment is generally much less
than one hour (The Binran, 1990), it is apparent that typically 95 percent of all lead time in
manufacturing is non-value added activities (CMTC, 2003).

1.3

Indian Apparel and Textile Industry

The Indian textile and apparel industry, with a turnover of $ 15.4 billion in 2005-06
(Annual Report 2001-2008) is one of the largest segments of Indias economy, accounting
for 15 percent of total industrial production and slightly more than 17 percent of total
export earnings. It is also the largest employer in the manufacturing sector with a
workforce of some 35-38 million people (Chandra 2006, Annual Report 2007-2008). India
is the third-largest producer of cotton in the world with annual production of some three
million tonnes, fifth largest producers of manmade fibres and filament yarns with an annual
output of 1.7 million tonnes and second-leading producer of silk, with annual output of
nearly 15 million kilograms. Indias textile sector has the second highest installed spindles
capacity and the highest number of looms installed in the world. Due to the Small Scale
Industry (SSI) investment ceiling imposed by the government, Indias apparel sector was
highly fragmented, comprising about 30,000 units and employing some three million
people during 1997 (AEPC 1998). However, due to the recent relaxation of investment
limit and consolidation, the industry now consists of around 100 plus large players with a
turnover of more than 15.13 million and around 2000 smaller players, who specialise in
either niche products or small quantities (ApparelOnline 2006). Factories with turnover of
more than 6 million are regularly monitored for compliance and account for more than 75
percent of Indias exports. Till Sept. 2005 there were 58 WRAP certifications, 111 SA
8000 and more than 125 AVE audited factories (Trend Fusion 2006). Government initiative
includes a Technology Upgradation Fund scheme a with loan of INR 92,700 million, 100
percent FDI allowance in manufacturing, setting up 42 new Special Economic Zones
(SEZs), etc., (Trend Fusion 2005).

Apparel exports from India started mainly with low-value low-quality products with the
objective of using an inexpensive workforce (Koshy and Jana 2000). While the majority of
developing (apparel exporting) countries are engaged in contract manufacturing, India is
mainly engaged in fully factored manufacturing (Koshy 1997a). As a global sourcing
destination, Indias core competencies are innovative and value added merchandise with
flexibility in production volume. Improvement of product development and design
capability (Dhingra 2004) by utilising the inspirational fabric base (Chandra 2005) for
Indian apparel manufacturers was highlighted repeatedly for gaining competitive advantage
6

in exports. Problems plaguing Indian export are mainly inconsistent quality and delivery
and higher lead time (Koshy and Jana 2000).

With the low-value low-quality concept, not much importance was given to strengthen
production facilities. Industry structure can be characterised by largely proprietorship or
partnership firms without any joint ventures, technical collaborations, strategic alliances or
subsidiary operations (Koshy 1997b). The crucial value chain is missing due to the absence
of a world-class domestic market (Prahlad 1993) and (Porter and Ghemwat 1994). Even
though technology had improved world-wide for apparel manufacturing, Indian clothing
industry mainly used outdated machines due to prohibitive duty on imported machines and
investment restrictions due to garment manufacturing being reserved for the small scale
sector (Jana 1999).

Typical strengths of the Indian apparel industry are strong raw material base, fully factored
manufacturing, ability to execute small and large order quantity, value added merchandise,
design and product development capability. An English speaking population and political
and economical stability and ethical manufacturing practice add to the confidence of
overseas retailers. The weaknesses are inconsistent quality (Bheda et al. 2003), poor
delivery (Chandra 2006, Koshy and Jana 2000), long lead time (Pandey 2002, Dhingra
2004, Chandra 2006, Karandikar 2005), low productivity (Bheda et al. 2003, Dhingra
2004), and poor support infrastructure (Dhingra 2004). India has clear geographical
specialisations, like NCR (Northern Capital Regions) for fashion; Chennai for shirts;
Bangalore for structured garments/trousers; Tirupur for knitwear; Ludhiana for sweaters
and Panipat, Karur and Cannanore for home furnishing (Trend Fusion 2005).

A traditional fully factored manufacturing base, Indias (unit value realisation) UVR
increased from 13.73 per kg. to 15.11 per kg. during 2005 in Europe while average
import UVR for Europe reduced by 2 percent (Trend Fusion 2007). The design and
development capability is increasing and getting global recognition as design outsourcing
hub. Munch Design Studio, Grace Group and Bricolage are pioneers in this segment (Trend
Fusion 2007). Flexibility (Jana 2000), ability to execute small order quantity, and an
English speaking population (Trend Fusion 2006) give additional advantage over

neighbours. With such a diverse yet challenging market, there are ample opportunities for
improvement.

The structure of the Indian garment industry is complex as much as it is diverse, it is highly
fragmented and a large part of it is unorganised (Krishnan 2001). In tune with the global
paradigm shift towards speed and replenishment sourcing of merchandise (Oxborrow and
Massey 2000), (Abernathy et al. 1999a), India is facing pressure from EU and US retailers
to execute orders in faster lead times (ApparelOnline 2000), (Dhingra 2004), (Trend Fusion
2005). Indian export remains cotton-based, value addition remains low, as the processing
sector is a weak link (Subbu 2003). Also in tune with increasing importance being given to
design innovation capabilities of the manufacturer (Kerr 1999) and the shifting of product
development functions from retailer to manufacturer (Watson 2002),

Indian apparel

manufacturers specially in NCR are required to develop and exhibit their own product
development capability as order winning criteria (ApparelOnline 2003, 2008). This
combination of factors creates the base of this investigation.

1.4

Aim of Investigation

The aim of this investigation is to identify the critical issues concerning production lead
time for contract apparel manufacturing supply chain, analyse the reasons behind delay in
lead time, evaluate different improvement options, and suggest easy to use rationale-driven
practical solutions.

1.5

Principal Objectives of the Research

In overall furtherance of achieving the stated aim, this paper has been subdivided into
several sections. The objectives assigned devolve from the overall aim, as mandated by the
splitting up of the subject into segments. These are as listed infra:

1. To develop a full understanding of the Indian apparel export manufacturing industry

and its supply chain network.
2. To analyse the variability of processes within the network and develop best practice
methods.
8

3. To evaluate and measure delay-contributing activities in manufacturing cycles, analyse

the reasons behind such delay and suggest means of reducing it.
4. To identify and evaluate value-added and non-value-added activities in the
manufacturing cycle.
5. To evaluate the applicability of different optimisation techniques to reduce lead time in
the manufacturing supply chain.

1.6

Rationale and Scope

While some applied research had taken place in Europe (Apparel & Textile Challenge
1997, JBA 1998) and USA (JBA 1998) in demand-supply performance measures in the
chain, such as Demand Activated Manufacturing Architecture (Chapman et al. 2000), the
core manufacturing and related areas remained largely unexplored. Research in the Indian
apparel and textile supply chain is still at a nascent stage. With the Indian apparel and
textile industry constituting about 15 percent of industrial production, four percent of the
GDP and 17 percent of the countrys export earnings, this research has tremendous
importance in the emerging Indian economy.

Previous research in Europe and US tended to be either from a retailers perspective,

wherein manufacturing functions were generally executed somewhere in developing
countries (Asia, Eastern Europe, Africa or the Caribbean Islands), (Kapuge and Smith
2007), or from a large manufacturers perspective, wherein the manufacturer actually acted
as an importer for offshore manufactured goods (Bragger 2004), (Abernathy et al. 1999a),
(Forza and Vinelli 2000), (Popp 2000). In both cases, details of manufacturing activities
were missing. While product development activity is explored and analysed in retail and
design perspectives (e.g. Collaborative Planning Forecasting & Replenishment Initiative),
the prototyping and approval aspect was completely missed. A lot of emphasis was placed
on correct prediction of demand by analysing and sharing point of sale data. Lead time
reduction was limited up to product development in the upstream functions and visited
from non-technical approaches like trust and partnership, the core activities in a fully
factored or cut-make-trim manufacturing environment were largely missing.

The current research is focussed on the activities of the Indian apparel manufacturer
exporter engaged in cut-make-trim or fully factored manufacturing. Though the specifics
pertain to the Indian apparel manufacturer exporter, it is expected that the generic principle
would be applicable for any apparel manufacturer exporter in South Asian countries where
circumstances in the field of apparel are similar.

The scope of research is the manufacturing domain, primarily because very little work has
been done globally on the manufacturing area of apparel supply chain and virtually no
work is being done on the pre-production area of the Indian apparel manufacturing
industry. In the outsourced manufacturing scenario in apparel, the total supply chain is
decoupled and may be divided into three sections: first, design and concept development;
second, sourcing and manufacturing and third, shipping, warehousing and retailing.
Geographically, the first and third sections are still being done in the importing country
(typically developed countries) and the second section, i.e., sourcing and manufacturing is
done in the exporting country (typically underdeveloped or developing countries). Extant
literature tends to emphasise the first and third sections, whereas negligible insight is
available to sourcing and manufacturing by contract manufacturers. From the contract
manufacturers perspective, they have direct control over activities after a confirmed/
prospective order is received till the merchandise is shipped out of the factory. To impart
value to the output of this research insofar as contract manufacturers are concerned, it is
essential to study the second section (sourcing and manufacturing) in depth and explore
opportunities to reduce manufacturing lead time.

After the abolition of WTO's Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) with effect from
01 January 2005, categorisation of the Indian apparel industry into domestic and export
became insignificant. Now there are many cases of the same organisation producing for the
domestic as well as export market. Indian retailers like Big Bazaar, Westside, Lifestyle,
and brands like Blackberrys are already sourcing merchandise from countries like
Bangladesh and China. Such phenomena will compel Indian organisations to increase their
supply chain efficiency by reducing lead time to compete with global brands. Research in
apparel and textile supply chain focussing on reduction of lead time and improving overall
operational efficiency by reduction of non-value added time and finally, benchmarking

10

against global competition holds out the promise of tremendous benefits for domestic as
well as export apparel manufacturing organisations in India.

1.7

Research Design

1.7.1 Literature Survey (Secondary Data)

The evolution of supply chain as a concept has been studied by contemporary researchers
like Forrester, Burbidge, Towill and others, while background research on concepts and
different supply chain models that are prevalent in apparel and textile and other industries
has been addressed by leading researchers like Macbeth, Christopher, Porter, Harland,
Schonberger, Gattorna, Womack, Jones and others (see bibliography). Global apparel trade
was studied from Gereffi, Dickerson, Jones and agency websites like ITC, Geneva,
UNIDO, WTO, Indian and US Govt. websites and magazines like Textile Outlook
International, etc.

The Indian apparel industry, its development and characteristics was studied from Khanna,
Koshy, Raman, several organisations or institutions like Apparel Export Promotion council
(AEPC), Indian Institute of Foreign Trade (IIFT), and National Institute of Fashion
Technology (NIFT), reports and leading trade magazines like ApparelOnline.

Current research in apparel and supply chain management areas was studied from journals
like Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, International Journal of Operation and
Production Management, Supply Chain Management: An International Journal,
International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, International Journal of
Logistics Management, International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics
Management, International Journal of Logistics Management. Reports from Apparel and
Textile Challenge, Industry Forum (UK), Sandia National Laboratories (US), Kurt Salmon
Associates, [TC]2, Council of Logistics Management, etc. Conference papers from Textile
Institute (UK), dissertations at Nottingham Trent University (NTU), (Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT), and National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT) as well as
internship reports at the last named Institute.

11

Current market development on the ibid subjects is available from e-journals like Just-Style
(www.just-style.com), Supply Chain Council (www.supply-chain.org), APICS.org
(www.apics.org), Techexchange (www.techexchange.com), and Journal of Textile and
Apparel, Technology and Management (www.tx.ncsu.edu/jtatm/). Market research
organisations like Karabas Management System, David Rigby Associates, Mintel, World
Trade Organisation were studied to understand the retail scenario and current
developmental trends. Catalogues, brochures and white papers from software solutions
providers like SAP, i2 Technologies, Justwin, Manugistics, JD Edwards, Lawson, Geac etc.
were read. Research databases like Emerald, Ebsco, Google Scholar and Google e-book
were used extensively to refer to books and peer reviewed articles.

Besides background knowledge from literature, there was innate awareness stemming from
involvement with the Indian clothing industry as a Professor of Garment Manufacturing
Technology department at National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), India.
Background knowledge also allowed for additional research sources to be applied during
this research through the means of internship and industry-linked assignment. Current
knowledge was also gathered through the alumni circle in India and South East Asian
countries.

1.7.2 Primary Data

Initial cross sectional researches were conducted through questionnaires, case studies and
focus group reviews. This helped to clarify research issues, cross check different views and
acted as a prelude to focussed longitudinal research. Longitudinal study was carried out to
identify and measure value added and non-value added time in pre-production activities,
and to study the applicability of different optimisation techniques to reduce lead time from
the manufacturing cycle. As the researcher had easy and fruitful access to Indian apparel
manufacturers, focus groups were used frequently to understand the key issues from senior
executives; case studies were used under full management support to test-pilot new
concepts and also share results with other manufacturers for critical review. As the
researcher was an instructor in NIFT, students were assigned to monitor and follow up
some cases at an organisations site, thereby enabling better breadth and depth and the
facility to carry out experiments on multiple samples during the research.
12

1.8

Research Publications

Some of the work included in this thesis has already been published during the extended
period of the research.

In 2001, an article titled Supply Chain Dynamics in Indian Apparel Export

Manufacturing: How Much Do We Understand? based on case studies was published
in two different trade journals in India, namely Clothesline and Apparel.

During 2001-02, an article titled Supply Chain Dynamics in Indian Apparel Export
Manufacturing: Collaborative Product Development based on a case study was
published in three different journals; Clothesline, a print journal in India, Just Style
(www.Just-Style.com), an international e-journal from the U.K. and Techexchange
(www.techexchange.com), an international e-journal from the U.S.

During 2002-03, an article titled Vendor Managed Inventory in Apparel

Manufacturing based on a case study was published in two different journals;
Clothesline, a print journal in India and Just Style (www.Just-Style.com), an
international e-journal from the U.K.

A case study on critical chain implementation was the first time ever in the global
apparel industry that such a theory saw application. One article titled The Critical
Chain Approach to Apparel Production was published in two international e-journals,
Just Style (www.Just-Style.com) and Techexchange (www.techexchange.com)

and

Clothesline. Complimentary reviews and appreciation were received from industries in

Turkey, Hong Kong, New York, among others.

Role of Intermediaries in Apparel Supply Chain, at International Conference HPTEX

2004 on 7-9 July 2004 at KCT, Coimbatore, India.

Papers were presented in an international conference on Innovative Approach in

Apparel Manufacturing: Critical Chain at North India Section of Textile Institute
(NISTI) conference, New Delhi, India, in December 2004.

The outcome of longitudinal research on supply chain measurement metrics was well
accepted by industry and is currently being used by several organisations for testing its
utility. A two part article titled Measuring Efficiency of a Supply Chain was published
13

in Techexchange (www.techexchange.com), and one article in a print journal from

India, StitchWorld (www.stitchworld.net), during 2007.

One paper was also selected for presentation in the 1st Indian Supply Chain Summit in
New Delhi, organised by India Supply Chain Council (http://www.supplychains.in/) on
March 01, 2007.

Another Paper, titled Integrated TNA in Apparel Merchandising was presented in the
4th International Conference on Apparel & Home Textiles, ICAHT 08, held in New
Delhi between 26 - 27 September 2008.

1.9

Summary

As a global sourcing destination, Indias core competencies are innovative and value-added
merchandise with flexibility in production volume. Apart from being a contract
manufacturer, India is trying to establish itself as full-service manufacturer. problems
plaguing Indian export were mainly quality and delivery time related, out of tune with the
global paradigm shift towards speed and replenishment sourcing of merchandise, leading to
pressure from overseas retailers to execute orders in faster lead times, if it wanted to remain
a global player in this field. While previous research primarily aimed from retailers
perspective, a research is need of the day for assessing supply chain requirements from a
contract manufacturers point of view to meet the increasing demand of quicker delivery
from retailers. Research should address small and medium enterprises (SME) towards
identifying a generic solution, implementable across organisations with minimal
investment.

14

Chapter Two:
2.0

Literature Review

Literature from secondary sources are studied and analysed in this chapter in the context of
research objectives. Material and information flow, different trading partners and different
product development processes in apparel as well as other industries were studied.
Different techniques available for identification of delays in a supply chain and different
optimisation techniques available for lead time reduction were also studied and analysed in
detail to select the appropriate research design and methodology.

2.1

Defining Supply Chain

Defining Supply Chain Management is a rather daunting task due to its dynamic nature and
continuous evolution over the years. There appears to be little consensus on the definition
of the term supply chain management (New, 1997; Lummus et al. 2001; Mentzer et al.
2001; Kauffman, 2002). There is also a high degree of variability in peoples minds about
what it meant (Kathawala and Abdou 2003). There are three almost similar terminologies:
first, supply chain; second, supply chain orientation and third, supply chain management
(SCM); the last one being most commonly used, extensively studied and referenced by
researchers. Mentzer et al. (2001) called this a phenomenon that exists in a business
environment. In other words, a supply chain may exist, but may not necessarily be
managed. For clearer understanding, a supply chain will be defined first, followed by
what supply chain orientation is and then what supply chain management is.

Supply Chain has been defined as an interconnected set of business processes and trading
partners that manages the flow of goods and information from the point of design to the
delivery of the product or service to the end customers (Kinaxis 1999). Another interesting
definition is A supply chain is a series of customer and supplier relationships that form an
interwoven set of binding links in a seamless and integrated fashion delivering a high-level
of customer satisfaction (Watts et al. 1999). A business need is multifaceted, where the

15

complex interactions of many participants in different organisational groupings all have an

impact on the eventual outcome.

Among numerous definitions put forward by authors from different perspectives, a

definition by Marbert and Venkataraman (Marbert and Venkataraman 1998) aptly fits the
apparel export manufacturing supply chain. It says Supply chain is the network of facilities
and activities that performs the functions of product development, procurement of materials
from vendors, the movement of material between facilities, manufacturing of products,
distribution of finished goods to end consumers, and after market support for containment.
Whether supply chain is defined as a process/activities (Marbert and Venkataraman 1998)
or a relationship (Watts et al. 1999), there are three aspects to every supply chain; first,
upstream those activities linking organisations to their suppliers; second internal - or
primary activities of the organisation; third downstream those activities link organisations
to their customers (Nick 2001). Also, supply chain is often correctly referred as supply
network, because it describes more accurately the nature of supply relationship, which is
non- linear flows, network like systems and a web of suppliers and customers (Jayaraman
1999, Rice and Hoppe 2001a, Christopher 2006a). A recent definition of supply network
says A network of connected and interdependent organisations mutually and cooperatively working together to control, manage and improve the flow of materials and
information from suppliers to end users (Aitken 1998 cited in Christopher 2006a).
Strangely, chain signifies linear and network implies non-linear flows, thus
projecting an antithetic meaning; the phrase supply chain network is

also used in

numerous documents (McCormack et al. 2002, Gattorna et al. 2003). However all three
terminologies convey the same meaning in the overall context and in this document supply
chain will be used as a word.

The coordination of a supply chain from an overall system perspective with each of the
tactical activities of distribution flows viewed within a broader strategic context is more
accurately called a Supply Chain Orientation and actual control of this orientation across
various companies in the supply chain is more appropriately called Supply Chain
Management (SCM) (Council of Logistics management 2001). According to Roger
Blackwell, a business professor at Ohio State University, Supply Chain Management is all
about having the right product in the right place, at the right price, at the right time, and in
16

the right condition (Stein and Sweat 1998). Mentzer et al. (2001) proposed a definition of
supply chain management that is broad, not confined to any specific discipline and
adequately reflecting the breadth of issues that are usually covered under this term:

Supply chain management is defined as the systemic, strategic coordination of the

traditional business functions and the tactics across these business functions within a
particular company and across businesses within the supply chain, for the purposes of
improving the long-term performance of the individual companies and the supply chain as
a whole (Mentzer et al. 2001).
SCM concepts are broadly classified into two groups: the soft people-focussed constructs
that deal with social relationships; and the hard system-dominated constructs that deal
with technological and infrastructural issues (Croom 2001; Power et al. 2001). The chain or
network of activities adds value to the product as it flows downstream and thus the term
Value Chain Management was coined. Value Chain Management is the process of
maximising the flow of products, services and information from raw materials to the final
point of consumption through a value-added chain of suppliers to meet or exceed the
customer's expectations (Logility 2000).

SCM literature appears to be concentrated in a handful of industry sectors; namely

consumer goods retailing, computer assembling and automobile manufacturing (Burgess et
al. 2006). Conceptual representations of SCM have a large bearing on the nature of the
definition and explain the expectations that organisations have of SCM. Confirming the
inconsistency among researchers Burgess (Burgess et al. 2006) reported that a majority (57
percent) of the literature available framed SCM as some kind of process, about a quarter
(24 percent) viewed SCM as a system, a smaller proportion (9 percent) saw SCM as a
simple activity and the rest saw it as other category. A process means where SCM was a
chain of related activities; a system means where SCM was a series of related processes,
loosely connected collection of concepts, networks and frameworks; an activity means
where SCM was described as an individual function in a process; and other category
explained SCM as a deeper level of analysis that dealt with sociological, psychological and
philosophical concepts.

However closer analysis revealed that almost all literature

discussed concepts concerning the flow of goods and information across organisations

17

(Burgess et al. 2006), which reinstated the importance of goods and information flow in
supply chain.

Literature supported the view that the integration of key business processes within and
across companies that add value for customers and other stakeholders could be called SCM
(Cooper et al. 1997; Bechtel and Jayaram 1997). Operations management literature also
identified processes linked to SCM such as logistics, New Product Development (NPD),
customisation and distribution of goods, including the balancing of demand needs and
capacity requirements in the transformation of raw materials into final products delivered to
customers (Lee 1993). Within the logistics discipline, Cooper and Ellram (1990) defined
SCM as an integrative philosophy to manage the total flow of a distribution channel from
supplier to the ultimate user. Both Harland (1996) and Christopher (1998) reached another
conclusion; instead of managing flows, SCM was seen as the management of a network.
Harland (1996) defined SCM as the management of a network of interconnected
businesses involved in the ultimate provision of product and service packages required by
end customers. Rather than looking at SCM as the management of a vertical pipeline of
inter-linked firms, Harland (1996) considered SCM as management of a complex network
of organisations involved in exchange processes. Some scholars (e.g. Christopher 1998;
Heikkil, 2002) also suggested that supply chain management should really be termed
demand chain management to reflect the fact that the chain is driven by the marketplace
to satisfy the needs of the end-users. Although different researchers talked about several
distinct yet interrelated flows in a supply chain like ownership flow, payment flows (Paik et
al. 2007), financial flow and physical flow (Bussler and Haller 2005), human flow and cash
flow (Nguyen et al. 2007), the two important flows that drives the supply chain from the
point of view of this research are material flow and information flow (section 1.1).

2.1.1 Information Flow in Supply Chain

Information is a key ingredient in making good supply chain decisions in all three levels of
decision making, i.e. strategic, planning and operations and each of the supply chain
drivers, i.e. inventory, transportation and facilities. Macbeth and Fergusson (1994)
classified the range of information flows into four major categories, technical, involvement,
18

business and people. The Technical category covered detailed specifications of what was to
be supplied in accurate media, while the involvement dimension accounted for
measurement and feedback processes on performance and degree of involvement in the
other partys decision-making processes. Business communication covered aspects of
relevance to the other party (in future) but was not immediately key to current activity; the
people aspects recognised the need to signal personnel structures and role changes. As
explained in Chapter One, information flows both ways in a supply chain. While the market
information flowed upstream from the marketplace, a second important flow of
information, called fulfilment information (Popp et al. 2001), flowed downstream.
Fulfilment information detailed the progress of suppliers in meeting orders. Logically, if
the order information decoupling point was to be positioned as far upstream as possible,
then the fulfilment information decoupling point needed to be positioned as far downstream
as possible. In other words, undistorted information about fulfilment needed to be available
in timely fashion throughout the supply chain (Popp et al. 2001). Mason-Jones and Towill
(1999c) demonstrated through simulation that moving the information decoupling point as
far upstream as possible, by ensuring access to undistorted market order information to all
members of a supply chain, had beneficial consequences for the supply chains as a whole.
However, they also went on to note that in many supply chains, only the player closest to
the end customer had the luxury of knowing the true demand because the information
decoupling point was traditionally at the marketplace or with the retailer. As a consequence
of the traditional attitude that information is power, companies deliberately distorted order
information to mask their intent not only to the competitors, but even to their suppliers
(Pagh and Cooper 1998).

Information Distortion: The Bullwhip Effect

As a rule of thumb, based on a number of supply chain studies, the demand amplification
experienced is about 2:1 across each business interface. Hence, in a typical traditional chain
involving retailer - distributor - original equipment manufacturer (OEM) - sub-assembler raw materials supplier, the latter could be bombarded with swings 16:1 bigger than the
marketplace. In consultancy practice this highly undesirable phenomenon was frequently
explained by reference to the Forrester flywheel effect or bullwhip effect in which every
player over-ordered against uncertainties in both the marketplace and the supply chain.
19

The term bullwhip effect was first coined by the logistics executives of Procter and
Gamble (Lee et al. 1997) when they experienced extensive demand amplifications for their
diaper product Pampers. It is so-called because small order variability at the customer
level amplifies the orders for upstream players. The first research to extensively study the
amplification of demand information in a supply chain was reported by Forrester (Forrester
1961) while an empirical study of industrial dynamic control problems was done by Van
Aken (Van Aken 1978 cited in Fransoo et al. 2000). While studying the causes of this
demand amplification, Forrester identified two types of delay, namely the delay of
transferring demand information and the delay of transferring physical products through the
supply chain (lead time). While Sterman (1989) argued that the bullwhip effect was caused
by irrational decision making of participants, Lee (1993) no longer blamed the irrational
behaviour of decision makers for the bullwhip effect. Instead, they thought that the
bullwhip effect was a consequence of rational behaviour given the supply chain structure
and its related processes (Lee et al. 1997). Lee had discussed four possible causes of the
bullwhip effect: demand forecast updating, order batching, price fluctuation, and rationing
and shortage gaming. Demand forecast updates suggested that demand amplification
occurred due to the safety stock and long lead time. As orders were forecast and transmitted
along the supply chain, safety stocks were built up, and thus the bullwhip effect occurred.
Towill and his co-authors studied the bullwhip effect by using a computer simulation
model (Towill, 1991; Evans et al. 1993; Mason-Jones and Towill, 1999c; Towill and
McCullen, 1999). As a benchmark, they used the Forrester's simulation model comprised of
a retailer, a distributor, a factory warehouse and a factory. The results of their studies
indicated that information and material delays might be major contributing factors to the
bullwhip effect. When the authors eliminated the time delays in the model, the demand
amplification was significantly reduced. This result led to the argument that both material
and information delays could be possible causes of the bullwhip effect. Along with this,
they argued that the removal of one or more intermediaries led to the significant reduction
of the bullwhip effect. This argument was also reinforced by Ackere et al. (1993) and
Hong-Minh et al. (2000). Although recent work (Disney and Towill, 2003a; Dejonckheere
et al. 2003) showed that the bullwhip effect is not avoidable under order-up-to
replenishment policy whatever forecasting method is used, articles of Disney and Towill
(2003b, c) discussed the impact of vendor-managed inventory (VMI) system on the

20

bullwhip effect. Their analysis showed that, by implementing the VMI supply chain, both
rationing and order batching effect might be completely eliminated.

The shrinking profits for apparel manufacturers at the expense of retailers stable margin
over the last decade could be explained by this theory linked with the theory projected by
Hayes and Wheelwright in 1984, who described how demand volatility damaged profit
upstream. Paik (Paik et al. 2007), observed that when all nine possible causes of the
bullwhip effect were present in the simulation models, the following six factors were
statistically significant: demand forecast updating, order batching, material delays,
information delays, purchasing delays and level of echelons. Among these six factors,
demand forecast updating, level of echelons, and price variations were the three most
significant.
2.1.2 Material Flow in a Supply Chain
Material flow downstream in the supply chain ultimately reached the customer; however,
material types were very important. There are several way material types are classified;
fashion, commodities, durable and capital goods (Westbrook and New 2004) or fashion,
seasonal re-order product, and the perpetually replenished item (Abernathy et al. 1999a).
The role of product uniqueness (the fashion content of the merchandise) had several critical
implications on three parameters; the extent of information and knowledge sharing, cost
transparency and sharing of resources between actors within the chain (Fisher 1997).

The nature of the material flow, and the complexity relating to it depended on the existing
type of supplier-customer interface. The different types of interfaces are single sourcing,
preferred supplier agreements, tiered supplier interfaces, outsourcing sub-assemblies and
contracting out services (Westbrook and New 2004).

21

Product Type

Capital Goods

Commodities

Durable

Low

High

High

Fashion

Low

Environmental uncertainty

Figure 2.1

Product complexity

Source: Puttick 1994 cited in Westbrook and New 2004

These sourcing policies worked to reduce the overall complexity of the system either
through simplification or by paying a premium to some external party for managing the
unwanted uncertainty.

Different types of merchandise required different supply chain approaches. Merchandise

could be classified into three categories (Oxborrow 2000, Abernathy et al. 1999c). The
fashion item was one which the customer was unlikely to find in his next visit. Second
was the seasonal re-order product, in which the consumer would be able to come back
and buy more, and the third category was the perpetually replenished item, which one
would expect to always find on the shelf. The fashion triangle (Abernathy et al. 1999c)
showed how the basic item constituted the base of the triangle with higher share and
fashion item constituting the tip of the triangle. Figure 2.2 also shows how the demand
uncertainty at SKU level increases with increasing fashion content. With each type of
merchandise one needed to continuously review the order frequency, forecasting approach,
material purchase and stock holding, finished goods stock levels, batch/lot size, lead times,
22

etc. to see where improvements could be made. For any reduction in lead times to be
effective, one needed to make staged commitments and share the risk, starting with
capacity and raw materials.

Figure 2.2

The Fashion Triangle

Source: (Abernathy et al. 1999c)

Short lifecycle products and long lifecycle products have different priorities or pain points
(Karabas and Granovsky 2003) in managing a supply chain. According to Karabas and
Granovsky (2003), retailers selling short lifecycle products like fashion and seasonal should
concentrate on areas like assortment, allocation, promotion planning and markdown
management, whereas retailers selling long life cycle products, e.g. commodity clothing,
classic styles should focus on replenishment, initial pricing, promotional planning and store
space management.

23

Figure 2.3

Short Lifecycle Product and Long Lifecycle Products

Source: Karabas and Granovsky 2003

Traditionally, commodity products really driven by brand/value, like underwear, socks, Tshirts, jeans, etc. used to be dominated by the large corporations, who operate superefficient supply chains, whereas the smaller companies dealt with fashion-oriented
merchandise, where perhaps super-efficient supply chains and cost weren't the driving
reasons for being in business (Bobbin 2000). However, in the recent past, Zara proved the
concept wrong. Zara is a $ 1.6 billion turnover fashion retailer with 500 stores across 58
countries, but manages very efficient and flexible supply chain through own production
units in Spain, and manages 20-30 days design to sales cycle time (Watson 2002).

2.1.3 Fashion / Clothing Market Demands

The interdependent relationship of merchandise type and market demand was, essentially,
the business driver of cost and time. From the moment when decisions were made about
sourcing and procurement of material through the manufacturing to the final distribution
and after-market support, logistics lead time management (Christopher 2006a) gained
utmost importance. Originating from the manufacturer, there were three channels of
distribution of goods to the customer (end user); first through distributor/wholesaler and
retailer, second only through the retailer and third, direct to customer (Gattorna 1998b).
Various formats of these three distribution channels are listed in table 2.1.

24

Table 2.1

Merchandise Distribution Channels

Type

Formats

Manufacturer
> Buying consortium, One step distribution, Two
Distributor/Wholesaler > Retailer step distribution
> Customer
Manufacturer
Customer

>

Retailer

> Mass merchants, clubs, convenience stores,

chains, corner stones, speciality retailers

Manufacturer > Customer

Mail order, Internet/web, phone orders, TV

shopping channel, direct marketing

A retailer able to provide a range of shopping experiences through a variety of channels

was poised to grab a larger share of the customer's wallet than a single-channel retailer.
(Lewis et al. 2001). In an effort to maximise returns, everyone was trying to break
stereotyped patterns. Abernathy (Abernathy et al. 1999d) identified two trends that created
problems for the traditional retail model; firstly, product proliferation and secondly,
dramatic expansion of total retail space, which revealed the costs inherent in the traditional
retail model.

Three types of costs were found to be high in the traditional retail distribution model;
forced markdown to clear out unsold goods, lost sales from stock outs, and the costs
associated with holding inventory. Lean retailing concept holds a promise for the future as
it minimises or replaces inventory with information (Abernathy et al. 1999a) as a
competitive strategy and relies on a smaller number of suppliers.

2.2

Supply Chain Structure and Trading Partners

Different trading partners in the supply chain, their types, roles and responsibilities,
relationship between them (conceptual structure) and flows (physical structure) determined
the efficiency of the supply chain. A generic model of supply chain described by Likert
(Figure 2.4) showed an integrating structure which had linking people assisting the free
flow of information both vertically and horizontally within the organisational system
(Likert 1997 cited in Massey 2000).
25

Figure 2.4

Generic Model of Supply Chain

Source: Likert 1997

The classification of SCM could be from a conceptual angle (Gereffi 1999), (Burgess et al.
2006, Fisher 1997, Yeung et al. 2007) or a structural angle (Rice and Hoppe 2001c, Hines
1994); the conceptual classification dealt with the constructs and structural classification
dealt with the linkage of different echelons in the network.

2.2.1 Conceptual Classification

A Supply chain can be classified either based on relationship (Yeung et al. 2007, Burgess
et al. 2006), product type (Fisher 1997), or market drive (Gereffi 1999 cited in Tyler et al.
2006). According to Yeung, the relationship between an organisation, its supplier and its
customer could be divided into three categories. Monopolistic was where a single company
owned nearly the entire market for a given type of product or service; in an oligarchy, a few
or a small exclusive group of companies ruled the market, and a free market was open to all
for free competition. Apparel manufacturers, who trust only a few buyers closely and deal
with limited retailers, but source raw material from many suppliers depending on variety
26

required, are classified by Yeung as oligarchy-loose-oligarchy-close (OLOC). Large

manufacturers with strong product specialisation, like lingerie manufacturers, who
generally trust a few large raw material suppliers closely but have no implicit connection
with any particular customer and can therefore supply to any customer are classified as the
oligarchy-close-oligarchy-loose (OCOL). Due to retailer domination in the apparel
industry, the OLOC type would be more common amongst apparel manufacturers.

Burgesss (Burgess et al. 2006) classification talks about a set of seven constructs:
leadership, intra- and inter-organisational relationships, logistics, process improvement
orientation, information system, and business results and outcomes. Leadership captured
the strategic nature of SCM and the need for the senior management team to be proactively
involved; intra- and inter-organisational relationships focussed on the nature and type of
social and economic associations between stakeholders both within and between
organisations; logistics described the issues associated with movement of materials within
and between entities in a supply chain; process improvement orientation facilitated
interactions within and between organisations, with a view to continually improving them;
information system covered aspects of communication both within and between
organisations and business results and outcomes captured performance related outcomes
that accrued to organisations from adopting strong SCM orientation.

Product based classification talks about innovative products (e.g. fashion merchandise) and
functional products (perpetually replenished merchandise). While a supply chain for
fashion product needed speed and flexibility, or agility, as their primary concern, chains for
functional products had to be lean and cost efficient, since volatility of specification and
demand was low.

Gereffis market drive theory talks about whether the chain is upstream controlled
(producer driven) or downstream controlled (buyer driven). During the 1960s, textile
supply chains were producer driven; large fibre producers (Du Pont, Courtaulds, etc.)
indirectly used to influence market directions (Rigby and Bryne 2000). However during the
80s and 90s, significant power shifted from manufacturers to retailers because of
consumer patronage (Drucker 1992). Clothing, shoes, office supplies, toys, etc. were
classified as buyer driven, whereas automobiles, aircraft, computers, heavy machinery, etc.
27

were producer driven. Gereffi (1999 cited in Tyler et al. 2006) noted that profits in buyerdriven chains are derived not from scale, volume and technological advances as in
producer-driven chains, but from unique combinations of high-value research, design,
sales, marketing and financial services that allow the retailers, branded marketers and
branded manufacturers to act as strategic brokers in linking overseas factories with
evolving product niches in the main consumer markets. In the apparel supply chain, the
relationship-based classification really did not apply as, unlike automobile and aircraft
manufacturing, the apparel industry sold to a free market. In the case of Indian
manufacturers, the supply was buying-house driven and because Indias strength lay in
valued added fashion merchandise (Koshy 1995, Chandra 2005), the supply chain needed
to support quicker lead times. To a certain extent, the Indian supply chain was flexible
(Jana 2000) due to concentration of small and medium entrepreneurs and use of outsourced
capacity in production.
2.2.2. Structural Classification
Under structural classification, the supply chain is classified based on flow pattern and
presence of echelons in the supply chain. There are tier systems (Hines 1994), network
systems (Rice and Hoppe 2001c), and systems based on the virtual shape of the network
(Macbeth and Fergusson 1994). The Japanese automotive network works with a tiered
system, where the assembler is the customer for the first tier supplier (and would normally
be concerned with only the first tier); the first tier supplier is the customer for the second
tier supplier and would control them and so on. A networks main components of actors,
resources and activities are linked and form a dependency on each other, the ultimate goal
being to deliver effective product or service. This seamless link is either described as
network sourcing (Hines 1994) or partnership sourcing (Macbeth and Fergusson 94).
Shapes of networks vary based on product type, flow of goods and information, etc. A
completely disconnected network is vertically integrated; partially overlapped and
completely overlapped are horizontally spread and generally fits apparel. However Zara is
a good exception as it has a completely disconnected network.

28

Figure 2.5

Classification of Supply chain

Completely

Partially

Disconnected Networks

Network

Highly

Limited

vertically

Overlapping

Completely
Overlapping Network

vs.

branded

Private label apparel

integrated

apparel products from

retailers

manufacturers-retailers

Levis

from contract or FOB

such as Zara in fashion

retailers.

apparel.

sold

through

that

manufacturers

source

in

Southeast Asia.

Source; Rice and Hoppe 2001c

Macbeth and Fergusson classified supply chain based on the virtual shape of the network
(Macbeth and Fergusson 1994). The four classifications are I-V-A-T, where the letters
suggests the virtual pattern of inter-organisational material flow. The I shape is the
unidirectional vertical enterprise. A V shaped network starts with limited raw material at
the input stage and a wide variety of finished products with product variety determined
early in the transformation process. Examples are textile fibre, metal fabrication, etc. An
A shaped network has numerous raw materials at the input stage with limited variety of
finished products, e.g. aerospace and food retail. A T shape tries to keep a simple flow
path until the latest possible moment before suddenly branching out into a wide variety of
finished products, e.g. in electronics and home appliances. The T shaped network is
favourable from the supply chain management point of view, since the decision on the final
product specification is delayed till the end, thereby supporting fast response to varying
demand of customers (Macbeth and Fergusson 1994). However due to multi-sourcing
practice when the apparel and textile supply chain is compared with automobile supply

29

chain, both can look alike, as A shaped, due to similarity with the tier manufacturing
concept.

Figure 2.6

V-A-T Supply Chain

Orders

Raw Material Input

A Plant
T Plant
Orders

Orders

Final Assembly

Sub-assembly

Raw
Materials

Source: Macbeth, D.K. and Ferguson, N. 1994, pp 65

Even single-sourcing offers great benefit in quality consistency (Macbeth and Fergusson
1994). However, the final retailer may have to deal with multi-sourcing if various products
are not available from one vendor. Multi-sourcing is also inherently more expensive in
administration costs than single-sourcing (Macbeth and Fergusson 1994). Sharing of
information without any diminution across a wide area of activity does not prevent one
continuing to use it, but sharing information between two competing entities can be
problematic (Macbeth and Fergusson 1994).

30

2.2.3 Supply Chain Structure for Apparel Manufacturing

The generic apparel and textile supply chain (Figure 1.1 in section 1.1) depicts a structure
of intra-company organisational units and extra-company agents and dealers, wholesale and
retail, through which a commodity, product or service is marketed. Specific apparel and
textile supply chain (Figure 1.2 in section 1.2) structure can be viewed as systems of
relationships between trading partners that are engaged in fibre, yarn, fabric and apparel
manufacturing with wholesale-retail services supported by nominal trading partners like
trim suppliers, testing houses, freight forwarders, etc. to deliver the merchandise to the
ultimate consumer. As the scope of the research is mainly contract apparel manufacturing,
the supply chain structure between three trading partners, namely fabric manufacturing,
apparel manufacturing and retail are studied in depth.
Figure 2.18 shows the supply chain typical for contract apparel manufacturing. There are
two sections; while the upper section show the flow of information, the lower section
shows the flow of goods. In the information flow channel, there are three nominal trading
partners; buying agent/liaison office, supplier/importer and central buying office. In the
material flow channel again there are three nominal trading partners; freight forwarders,
wholesalers/distributors and retailers Distribution Channel (DC). In the information
channel, there are three other nominal trading partners, who are third party (independent
body) inspection or quality / compliance enforcement agencies. While explaining the role
of testing houses in the apparel supply chain Popp (Popp et al. 2001) commented The
testing house, whilst valuing and protecting its independence and loyal to a culture of
scientific objectivity, occupies an ambiguous position in many clothing supply chains; it
can be a locus for the generation and transmission of data of considerable value and a site
for mediation of a conflict between quality control as a science and quality control as a
business function.

The different ways a contract manufacturing supply chain works (retailer can source
merchandise from manufacturer) depends on three factors: retail DC, product types,
sourcing types and non-cost factors (Walwyn 2002), like political situation,
language/cultural barriers, raw material supply, etc.

31

Figure 2.7

Contract Manufacturing Supply Chain

While Koshy tried to classify the supply chain based on product and market, here an effort
has been made to first generalise the different trading partners and then their respective
positions in the supply chain. Different combinations of the supply chain work by
triggering different trading partners on or off. In Figure 2.7, there are four different options
of information flow between retailer and manufacturer involving one or two nominal
trading partners in between; similarly, there are two options of material flow channel when
goods are shipped. So there are eight (four multiplied by two) different procurement
channel options. Similarly there are options of inspection and compliance too.

For

example, one retailer may procure via retailer-central buying office-liaison officemanufacturer route (for example, Gap Inc. for India), while the second retailer procures
through the retailer-liaison office-manufacturer route (for example, H&M for India).

32

From the country perspective, it is important to note that while an importer or central
buying office is located in the same country as the retailer, the liaison office/buying agent is
located in the manufacturers country. Similarly, in a material flow channel, freight
forwarders are located in the manufacturers country and wholesaler and DCs are located in
the retailers country.

Information flow in the supply chain shows garment and raw material inspections were
routed through the buying agent and/or liaison offices, but the compliance function may
totally bypass the in-between nominal trading partners and establish direct communication
with the manufacturer. Every manufacturer/retailer must identify the key players (the
nominal trading partners) in terms of demonstrated skills, developed tools and depth and
breadth of relationship with the next trading partner in the chain. Once roles and
investments are determined, the supply chain can maximise economic value for the each
market segment. (Gattorna 1998c).

2.2.4 Nominal Trading Partners and Intermediaries in Supply Chain

Intermediates or intermediaries or agents can be defined as firms whose principal role is to
handle information flows rather than material flows. Although Van Hoek (Van Hoek 1998)
suggested that supply chain management address interfaces at the functional, geographical
and organisational level, the crucial issues of interface and intermediaries are subjected to
general neglect in supply chain literature. Intermediaries are specialist carriers of
information costs. They improve communication between buyers and sellers by acting as a
hub. Intermediaries are able to economise on information costs because specialisation
allows them to reap economies of scale, scope and learning. Using information, they are
able to integrate markets over space and time, adding value by improving co-ordination.
The ability of intermediaries to economise on information costs is a two-stage process.
First, through specialisation, learning and cross subsidisation, their costs of collecting and
analysing information may be reduced. These can be particularly important where distance
and culture impose a barrier to communication. Second, by collating and synthesising
collected information, they can improve the quality and reduce the quantity of information
(thus reducing the number of points of contact). Migration of manufacturing enterprises
from developed countries (place of consumption) to newly industrialised economies has
33

increased the scope of the role played by intermediaries in the global supply chain. Casson
states, Market making intermediation is one of the most important sources of added value
in the entire economy (Casson 1997a).

In this context, merchant apparel exporters (Raman 1995), specially in NCR in India
cannot be termed as intermediaries; instead, they can be compared with the impannatore of
Italy (Casson 1997b), where entrepreneurial merchants co-coordinate the dispersed
subcontracting network by importing necessary raw materials for the manufacturers
(subcontractors) and finally exporting the finished goods. Conversely, intermediations are
also a potential barrier to greater transparency in the supply chain and might be seen
frequently as a non-value added activity.

The evidence of intermediaries in the textile and clothing industry exists way back in
nineteenth century; the cotton industry of Lancashire, England was dependent on a dense
web of merchants and brokers for its pre-eminence in the world market (Popp 2000).
Casson identified five main tasks undertaken by market making intermediaries, namely
search, specification, negotiation, completion and enforcement (Casson 1997b). While the
search function included identifying additional capacity, better price and new products for a
buyer, it also gathered market intelligence regarding expansion and collaboration sales
trends for the manufacturer. Specification included comprehension and interpretation of
data and messages to overcome language and cultural barriers. In a partnership
environment, completion encompassed helping buyer and supplier achieving milestones
and even financial help like opening Letters of Credit (LC) on behalf of a buyer. Large
intermediaries also offered value added services like multi-country costing to enable a
buyer to decide where to source. The function of intermediaries varied from dictator to
handholding approach depending on the scenario, with the primary objective of getting
the work done.

With fewer companies remaining vertically integrated, sourcing became an important

function and some companies outsourced their interactions with the supplier network.
Outsourcing suggested benefits such as elimination of holding cost, lower ordering cost, no
inventory management, better service level by vendors (Lawrence et al. 1999) for selective
commodity products (Tedesco 2000). Tedesco explained that it was unlikely to bring any
34

benefit for custom products due to cost reduction tending to be superficial as intermediaries
passed on the same as their fee for service and made it difficult to believe customer service
could be better through a intermediary (Tedesco 2000). From the above analysis, it was
clear that intermediaries added value as specialised knowledge and information providers
to achieve economies of scale or scope in the business. Wherever they acted merely as
middlemen, they only added cost with no countervailing value-addition, leading inexorably
to their demise (Bhat 2002, Gupta 2004).

Whether any intermediary added value or cost to the supply chain was decided by many
factors. For example, an importer who procured in bulk from an overseas manufacturer and
stocked close to a retailer bore forecasting risk. For fashion garments an importer could add
value (as that merchandise could be procured by a retailer in zero lead time) and for basic
garments it could add cost (as that merchandise could be procured by a retailer with a
longer lead time). Again, for small retailers the same importer could add value (as a
retailer may not afford direct procurement due to small scale of operation) but to a large
retailer, it was only addition of cost (as the large retailer could procure directly). It was also
observed that all nominal trading partners might not perform all five tasks, for example
fibre and cloth merchants had no role in enforcement but testing laboratory had an
important role in enforcement. Casson classified the role of intermediaries under five
different task heads: search, specification, negotiation, completion and enforcement
(Casson 1997b) for possible value addition and/ or cost addition in the whole supply chain.

Intermediation could reduce communication cost but increase distortion in communication.

It could add to the cost of collecting information but improve the quality (thus value) of
information. Intermediaries aided in completion of tasks, but behaved as overheads in
transactions. While an intermediary could add value, the question remains: was it value for
money? Scale of operations and market awareness was inversely proportional to
requirements of intermediaries. Intermediaries held more information than required by
trading partners, thus becoming the common person for more than one trading partner in
the supply chain, thus providing value for money by balancing capacity of tasks. For
example, an intermediary, with knowledge of the Indian market, was acting as a trading
partner of a retailer from the EU sourcing ladies wear from India. Gradually that
intermediary would have gained additional knowledge about Indian manufacturers making
35

other products (say, kids wear) depending on exposure. Thus the intermediary would
gradually hold more and more kids wear knowledge (which was not required by his
trading partner). Then he could become a trading partner of another retailer looking for
sourcing kids wear from an Indian manufacturer.

Buying houses, liaison offices/importers played a very controversial yet important role in
the procurement channel. Their role as intermediaries evolved over the years. The role of
intermediaries in the Indian scenario was summed up as:
30 years ago...the buying office function was primarily one of 'order follow up i.e.
completion; quality check, i.e. enforcement. Factory and vendor evaluation, i.e. search and
negotiation was slowly added and the search was widened to include product availabilities.
Presently the criteria of a good versus an average buying office/agent are where product
development design is also offered. Buying Offices are marketing offices of their locations
and this is true of whether you are a liaison office or an agent. In no way can we consider
the office as a mere intermediary.
(Kapur 2003)
Different intermediaries in the channels were not merely adding time. Their position in the
channel was determined depending on how every intermediary added value to the total
chain. If any player did not add value, he simply ceased to exist (Bhatt 2001).
It may be noted that all the above parameters influenced the product development processes
in a synchronised manner, depending on different procurement channels. For example WalMart could procure merchandise for its private label Faded Glory through its own liaison
office in different countries or an importer based in the U.S.
2.2.5 Vertical Integration to Partnership Model
2.2.5.1

Vertical Integration

Historically, companies managed linked supply chain operations by ownership, i.e.

vertical integration (Bain 1968, Bucklin 1966, Clark 1961 and Harrigan 1983). For
example, car maker Henry Ford had a sheep farm that grew wool for car seat-covers,
General Motors made car paint, newspaper magnates owned forests and paper mills
(Thackray 1986), Courtaulds had fibre manufacturing to retail functions in the U.K. (Knox
and Newton 1998). A major motivation for companies to vertically integrate was the desire

36

to control critical activities in the chain of supply (Kumpe and Bolwijn 1988). Additionally,
vertical integration offered complementary benefits of matching assets in the chain (Doz
1988, Mowery 1988 and Teece 1986). Vertically integrated networks were basically
product oriented networks. In the recent past, however, there has been a decline in
vertical integration as a means of managing the apparel supply chain. Rigby & Bryne
(Rigby and Bryne 2000) cited continuously increasing product variety as the main reason.
The supply chain was increasingly being used as an alternative form of market organisation
earlier known as vertical integration (Ellram 1991). Porter (Porter 1988) and Thackray
(1986) identified systematic vertical disintegration in manufacturing industries including
automotive, machine tools, consumer appliances, etc. Interestingly, Zara of Spain is a rare
example of vertically integrated apparel operations owning retail, logistics, and fabric
cutting and dyeing to product design operations (Christopher 1998, Rice and Hoppe
2001b).
Some of the other recent examples towards vertical integration are textile city in Mexico
(Middlebrook and Zepeda 2003), Xiqiao Light Textile City in China (Li and Fung 2006)
and Brandix Apparel City in India (Just-Style 2007). While it was denim concentration in
Mexico, the Chinese city had a comprehensive production chain from product R&D,
material production, weaving, dyeing & finishing, fashion design to sale and export of
finished apparel. The Brandix group produces exclusive casual trousers, inner and active
wear, textiles, knitted fabrics, sewing and embroidery thread, accessories and hangers and
also offers wet processing and finishing as well as fabric printing. There are several
advantages and disadvantages of vertical integration; while there is better control, faster
communication and lower cost, it also leads to limiting competition, less flexibility and
higher risk, etc. The advantages and disadvantages are listed in the table 2.2
Table 2.2

Advantages and Disadvantages of Vertical Integration

Advantages
Control
More difficult for non-integrated firms to
enter business
Weakens non-integrated competitors
Reduces uncertainty in costs, quality and
quantity of supply
Convergent expectations
Reduces probability of externalities, like

Disadvantages
Diseconomies
Balancing scale of economies
Volume requirements vary by process
Firm has insufficient volume to achieve scale
Inability of management to control large
organisations effectively
Increased inefficiency
Large size of firm
37

dependence on monopoly suppliers and

protects
proprietary/competitive
knowledge
Ease of conflict resolution; easier to
enforce/monitor internal compliance
Cost
Economics of scale through avoidance of
intermediaries in procurement, sales
promotion and distribution
Process integration by technical or
physical integration and improved asset
utilisation
Communication
Improved co-ordination of processes and
greater goal congruence

All communication costs borne internally

Reduced probability of opportunism

Risk
Asset concentration
Exit barriers
Perpetuate obsolete processes
Exaggerate synergies

Limiting competition
Inability of market integration to replicate
market incentives
Less awareness of market issues

Source: Adopted from Ellram L, 1990

2.2.5.2

Partnership

The rigidity of vertically integrated organisations due to non-economies of scale, asset

concentration and inflexibility to change encouraged business enterprises to look for an
alternative process oriented, consumer-focussed approach to cater to variability in
product. During the 70s, business enterprises started concentrating on those activities
which centred on their core competencies (Prahlad and Hamel 1990), and outsourced the
rest from other members in the supply chain, thus improving cost, quality, service and lead
times and also providing opportunities for small and large suppliers to fill the product gaps
so created. Lamming (Lamming 1993) and others called this supply chain model the
partnership model. Partnership was seen as an alternative form of relationship to the
extremes of markets and hierarchies, and which, in some circumstances would be a more
effective way of doing business (Boddy et al. 1998). In the automotive industry this led to
structuring of supply chains in tiers, the first tier acting as a systems integrator buying from
the second and sometimes the third tier supplier. The basis of supplier selection changed
from primarily price-based to collaborative/ technology/ core competency-based.

The

concept of tier manufacturing is not very common in apparel and textiles, though in NCR
India, the second tier converters e.g. sewing contractors, embroidery contractors, wet
processing contractors, mentioned as apparel contractors by Raman (1995) often fitted in
the chain, providing flexibility to large manufacturers. In apparel and textile supply chains,
38

retailers partnered with the manufacturer and manufacturers partnered with trims and
accessories suppliers.

The essence of partnership is trust, which played a significant role in collaboration. Marks
and Spencers erstwhile partnership with UK manufacturers speaks about the unmatchable
trust and loyalty achieved in those years (up to late 20th century).
When the going was good, the M & S suppliers reaped the benefit and acquired for
themselves Rolls Royce cars, trophy wives and villas in Spain. When the going got tough
they were expected to cut their margins and make a contribution. .M & S would often
invest millions of pound in a suppliers factory or technology simply on the basis of a
conversation or handshake.
(Bevan 2007)
In the apparel industry, another form of partnership existed, through accreditation (also
known as approved or nominated). Fabric suppliers, accessories suppliers, fabricators
(sewing contractors) and even apparel manufacturers entered the supply chain often
through accreditation by a buyer. The Lycra Assured program was a new, close partnership
between DuPont and leading fabric mills. The concept would progressively broaden to
include yarn suppliers and garment makers and the buyers would also be able to connect
with approved suppliers of quality yarns and fabrics via a sophisticated global database
(Just-Style 2000).

Partnership as a strategic option could be exercised in different forms like acquisition,

merger, Joint Venture (JV), etc. When exercised either within same tiers or between
different tiers, partnership could result in numerous benefits as listed in table 2.3

Exploit
economies
of
l
Fill product line
gaps

Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y

new

Increase capacity
utilization

Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y

Penetrate
markets

Leapfrog product
technology

Share
risks

Developmental
costs sharing

Acquisition
Merger
Core Business JV
Sales JV

upstream

Partnership as a Strategic Option: Joint Ventures and Alliances

Develop
new
product markets

Table: 2.3

Y
Y
Y
39

Production JV
Y
Y
Development JV
Y
Y
Product Swap
Y
Y
Production
Y
Y
Y
Y
License
Technology
Y
Y
Alliance
Development
Y
Y
Y
License
Source: Technology Strategies, MCB, July/August 1993

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

The meaning of partnership was best summarised by Carlisle and Parker who talked about
a few important parameters; trust, willingness to become vulnerable, sensitivity to each
others need, and high level of clear and candid communication (John Carlisle and Bob
Parker cited in Macbeth and Fergusson 1994). Three key factors redefined the way in
which the industry thought about relationships between trading partners. Hines (2004b)
combined six broad types of relationship into three categories: adversarial, partnership and
integrated. Adversarial maintained arms length where emphasis was on price. Partnership
could be co-operative, co-ordinated or collaborative in nature, based on relationship.
Integration could be joint venture or vertically integrated where emphasis lay on sharing
risk and rewards, owned and controlled by a single organisation.

Large assemblers in case of automobile industry and high street retailers in the case of the
apparel industry assumed leadership and integrated the supply chain (Stevens 1989) to
some kind of virtual corporations (Johansson et al. 1993). By handling core supply chain
functions themselves, some large apparel manufacturers were still able to respond quickly.
Companies like the Esquel group, with 47000 employees from China, became one-stop
sources for big apparel brands like Nike; these were part of an integrated supply chain
(Ayers 2006). On the other hand there are asset-light companies, with little or no fixed
overhead cost that recommend reliance on big trading partners, large retailers who naturally
assumed leadership position in apparel supply chain (Jurgen et al. 2000).

40

2.3

Product Development in Supply Chain

In Lees definition of SCM (1993), product development or new product development were
important activities in any supply chain. Womack and Jones defined product development
as the set of all specific actions to bring a specific product or service (or increasingly, a
combination of the two) through the three critical management tasks; problem solving,
information management and physical transformation (Womack and Jones 1996). The
importance of product development as a potential area of improvement in the supply chain
arose from two reasons; first, the requirement of the omnipresent retailers thirst (Jones
2006b) and second, the obvious step after lowering of component costs and per unit
manufacturing costs, the easily identifiable and achievable savings (Pearson and Knudsen
2003). The terms product development (PD) and new product development (NPD) are
found to be used interchangeably conveying the same meaning (Lim et al. 2006). A
generic NPD process can be analysed in three steps: planning, design, and production. In
the automotive industry, the planning phase is often referred to as the functional
specification phase, whereas the design and production steps are often referred to as the
detailed engineering phase (Clark and Fujimoto, 1991; Lamming, 1993; Womack et al.
1990).

Two parallel processes involved in the NPD are idea generation, product design, and detail
engineering on the one hand, with simultaneous market research and marketing analysis.
The balance of technological and marketing activities in NPD across industries is explained
by Trot (1998). In fast moving consumer goods and in apparel, marketing activities
increased, whereas, with steel or papers, technological activities increased.

41

Figure 2.8

Balancing of Product Development Activities

Source: Adapted from Trot 1998

To increase efficiency of PD, different researchers studied different routes, like concurrent
method of development (Nobeoka 1998 cited in Massey 2000), collaborative route (Justwin
2002) and supplier involved. Supplier involvement in the PD process could help reduce its
cycle time (Karlsson et al. 1998) as well as its cost (Droge et al. 1996; Jacobs and Herbig,
1998). The degree of supplier involvement in NPD depended on the complexity of the
technology outsourced, which would determine the degree of interdependence shared
between the manufacturer and the supplier, as shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9

Supplier Involvement in Product Development

Source: Mikkola and Larsen 2006

42

The aim of any new PD is to reduce cost and time over-runs, limiting iterations, limiting
redundant (non-value added) activities, and maximise conversion (to production). Different
models are recommended by different researchers, Urban and Hauser, (1980), Gruenwald
(1992) and Himmelfarb (1992) provided examples of sequential models of the NPD
process, Cooper and Kleinschmidt (1986) fine tuned sequential model with 10 to 13
activities in an ordered list. Rochford and Rudelius (1992) obtained similar results using a
12 activity model.

Figure 2.10

Sequential Models of the New Product Development Process

Source: Urban and Hauser, (1980), Gruenwald (1992) and Himmelfarb (1992)

The sheer importance of PD in a supply chain could be summarised as:

With changing business environments supply chain design as opposed to supply chain coordination will become core competitive advantage, resulting partnership between equals,
collaborative planning and collaborative product design
- Anderson and Lee 2000
43

2.3.1 Product Development in the Apparel Supply Chain

Product development in the apparel industry is still retailer driven and executed in
developed countries closer to consumption (Li 2007). Earlier, apparel product development
was seasonal, ranging from two seasons to six seasons (AAMA 1995). However, with fast
fashion, products were developed virtually continuously around the year (Mintel 2007).
Examples of simple, generic models of the PD process used in the apparel industry can be
found in the academic literature (Gaskill, 1992; Regan et al. 1998), trade literature (Fashion
Apparel Manufacturing, 1982; Garfield, 1985; Marketing Committee, 1989; Sadd, 1996)
and reference books (Burns and Bryant, 1997). Tyler (2008b) mentioned a five-stage
manufacturing cycle starting with product concept and culminating with bulk production.
Out of these five, the first four stages i.e. product concept, design sample, customer
approved sample and bulk trial can be termed as pre-production processes in a contract
manufacturing perspective.

The most comprehensive description of apparel product development process was found in
Plumlees six stage no-interval coherently phased product development (NICPPD) model
(Plumlee and Little 1998).

Phase one is line planning and research. The research and parameter establishment guides
the development process. Marketing, merchandising and design all contribute to this
research phase. The information gathered in Phase 1 formulates the creative direction of the
line.
Phase two is design/concept development phase. In this phase, the general line concept
identified by the line plan is translated to specific colour stories and concepts for the
multiple product groupings which will compose the line. Following the colour and concept
meeting to review initial plans, some firms take their concept selections to the consumer for
review. The mall intercept interview is a common strategy for conducting these concept
tests. Approved concepts are then translated into design specifications and sketches.
Phase three translates the line from sketches and specifications to actual samples of the
product line; material is evaluated and ordered to construct the prototype of each design to
be included in the line. Patterns are developed and fit standards finalised. Constructed
prototypes are evaluated for fit using a fit model and in some cases provided to a consumer
44

panel for wear testing. The prototypes are then reviewed by merchandising, marketing and
product development agents, culminating in final adoption of the line.
Phase four sees the line marketed to retail channels through markets and calls by sales
representatives. This process requires duplicating the prototype garments to provide
samples for the sales representatives and detailed costing to refine preliminary cost
estimates. Based on the response of buyers and retail accounts, the line may be modified.
Phase five is the pre-production phase and involves translating the prototypes and first
patterns in sample sizes into the complete size range (through grading) required for sale to
the consumer. Additionally, quality, production and process standards must be finalised in
preparation for manufacture. Sourcing and scheduling production according to sales
forecasts generated by sales to retail is also completed.
Phase six is line optimisation. In this phase, improvements are made to the line as orders
continue and sales forecasts are modified. Modifications may be made to the line to
enhance sales or to balance a line which is having erratic sales. Phase 6 may be cycled
through indefinitely as production continues, although the ideal is to have as little change
as possible at that stage of development.

While the NICPPD model allowed the researcher to visualise the impact of changing
business environment, processes, suppliers and customer requirements and identify
opportunities and establish priorities for research, it allowed the practitioner to benchmark
and modify apparel development processes, build the organisational structure required to
effectively execute the apparel development process; develop effective strategies for the
rapid product development required for line optimisation and market responsiveness and
strategically plan organisational and procedural changes to facilitate apparel development.

Birnbaum (2003) suggested a 101-step manufacturing cycle, starting with Designer attends
fabric show to Order ready for shipment, out of which the first 19 steps designed an inhouse PD activity; then the factory collected information (receives tech-pack). PD and preproduction activity continued till the 86th step, where the order was ready to cut. A study
by JBA (1998) among European and US organisations revealed that out of 167 days of
average supply lead time, product development consumed 104 days leaving approximately
25 percent of the lead time for manufacturing.

45

Apparel products do not exist in isolation, but are usually part of a portfolio of products
that, when manufactured, may share elements of the manufacturing process with other
products (Krishnan and Ulrich, 2001). Studies (Redfern and Davey 2003) showed that it
was possible for supply chain firms to improve success rate of a new PD through objective
measurement of customer perception. Kanos model of customer perception measurement
mapped customer satisfaction with three key product features: performance, described as
expected features, delighter features and linear features.

2.3.2

Product Development Process in Contract Apparel Manufacturing

The apparel industry in India produces both small volume fashion (value added) garments
and large batch, commodity garments. The most popular business model applied in the
apparel industry is to keep design and colour selection at company headquarters or home
country and to outsource labour intensive production offshore (Li 2007). Once the colour,
silhouette

and

fabric

selection

process

is

completed

at

headquarters,

the

development/costing request comes to the apparel manufacturers in India. In the Indian

export environment, the PD process is a tripartite activity involving buyer, manufacturer
and supplier. Further, developing often means sourcing. There is a great deal of
difference in terms of expertise required for development and sourcing. The main
developments done are developing fabrics (texture, design & colour), developing the
pattern (silhouette), developing and/or sourcing accessories, developing the wash effect if
required and developing embroidery / value addition / hand work.

While PD and product sourcing are both followed in the Indian garment industry, people
tended to follow two different models of operations. Manufacturers involved in PD either
sourced/developed from/with numerous raw material/accessories vendors or only one
consolidator, who in turn are/were networked with numerous vendors to source (or
develop) and offer the total package to the manufacturer. For sourcing imported trims,
working with an accessory consolidator was a common practice.

PD processes followed by different sourcing companies for different procurement channels

were basically the same, as logically there would be design inspiration, development of
46

ranges, sampling, and approval of sample in every channel (Li & Fung 2009, Triburg 2009,
CMT Sourcing 2009). Merchandise brands that laid more emphasis on silhouette/cut and
worked around basic colour palette might settle for alternate fabric sample during fit
approval (as fit is more important than look) while those merchandise brands that laid
emphasis on yarn dyed, prints and colours would ask for fit approval in the actual fabric
only. Catalogue buyers generally worked around colours and such visual effects in the
garments that could be communicated through catalogues (William E Connors &
Associates 2009). They generally avoided texture details and special feel effects (wash
effects) as customers would not be able to feel it during actual buying. Catalogue buyers
would ask for a photo shoot sample which should be correct in all respects. As what was
depicted in the catalogue was to be supplied to the customer, photo sample visual accuracy
was very important (Li & Fung 2009, CMT Sourcing 2009). Once a photograph was
inserted into the catalogue, merchandise details were not changed. In case of catalogue
buying, the logic was similar to stock to sell. The initial buying quantity was low and
repeat buying was common, to obviously minimise the risk factor.

Fabric development involves specific fibre composition, special yarn effect, special weaves
or knit effect, special surface print, special wash effect or any other means. In the fabric
development there is fabric construction as well as fabric colour approval (lab-dips, strike
off, desk loom etc.). All approvals require the actual sample to be couriered, while
comments (either approved or rejected) are often received by fax/e-mail. Electronic colour
management was not used by any manufacturers or buyers. However it was noticed that
colour approval process was gradually changing from subjective comments to objective
evaluation by mentioning delta value range for approval or rejection (ApparelOnline
2005).

In silhouette development, there are generally three stages of sample approval; prototype,
fit and finally size set. Developing the first pattern following a size chart and silhouette
could be a problematic and/or slow process. It was observed (Sareen 2006) that many did
not follow the concept of pattern development by altering the basic block but developed
new patterns every time. However in recent years, use of CAD and transferring pattern files
via e-mail has made the process comparatively faster. The prototype and fit sample
development is the most arduous task and multiple iterations are common. The reasons for
47

iterations are lack of market knowledge, faulty interpretation of instructions and lack of
technical understanding of fitting session at the buyers end (Sareen 2006, Mac 2006). No
electronic fitting (using fit simulation software) was found to be practised, thus inordinate
delays in the sampling process was common (Sareen 2008). Electronic virtual fitting can
reduce product development time to 10-15 days or by 50 percent (Sareen 2008).

Common accessories used are button, thread, zipper, etc. Developing new types of
accessories are rare. In the majority of cases, sourcing the right type of accessories (at most
dyed to match colour embossing, etc.) from a set of vendor bases was common practice.
Sometimes the finished merchandise required value addition, achieved by special dry or
wet processing techniques at the fabric or garment stage, or performing hand or machine
embroidery and/or attaching embellishments at fabric/cut panel/finished garment stage.
Labels and packaging materials were being either sourced from nominated vendors, or
sourced and then approved by the buyer.

Once pattern, sampling fabric and accessories were sourced, costing and size set were
prepared simultaneously. After approval of size set and agreement on costing, a sealer
sample (and any other buyer specific additional sampling request) was made and the
manufacturer initiated necessary steps for bulk sourcing of approved raw materials.

Figure 2.11 shows a diagrammatic representation of a PD process for a typical Indian

apparel manufacturer.

48

Figure 2.11

Product Development Process for a Typical Indian Apparel Manufacturer

49

It is interesting to see that buying office decisions are either approved or rejected or
even approved with comments, which means subject to certain amendments. These are
often used for saving precious time during development. However, these also lead to
confusion due to differential interpretation of comments by manufacturers and buyers.
Often, the buying office dominates proceedings and manufacturers are always at the
receiving end as the end decision will decide confirmation of order.

Generally, the development pack, i.e. colour, silhouette and fabric (structure, texture etc.) is
sent to different manufacturers (maybe in different countries) to get an idea of actual
achievable parameters and achievable price of a style. Sometimes target price is also sent
along to match. After prototype and fit approval, the manufacturer is selected based on
quality, delivery capability and price quoted. Then a confirmed order is sent to the selected
manufacturer with specifications and other details of the style. During this post-order
merchandising stage, the manufacturer is expected to submit samples in actual production
fabric and trims for seal sample approval, which is referred to for all standards during
production. Three production sample were generally sent by manufacturer which is sealed
and one sent to warehouse, one kept at head office and one sent back to supplier (Hobbs
2002)

From Figure 2.11, the process flow is clear with dependency relationship. There are three
clear parallel process flows; fabric development, accessories development and pattern
development. All three process flow converges to one point at size set making, which
requires all three inputs. The organisations in India can be classified into three categories
(ApparelOnline 2007). There are large organisations, which cater to both basic
merchandise and fashion-basic merchandise. Then there are medium sized that are either
only fashion or only basic. Then there are small ones whose USP is fashion merchandise.
Although product development processes remain more or less similar, it is the execution
which changes. When compared with Plumlees six stage product development process
(section 2.3.1), for basic product, a manufacturer in India would probably get involved in
only two steps, i.e. prototype and pre-production sample development (Naik 2000, Chawla
2000, Banerjee 2003). Other activities like line planning and research, concept
development, marketing to retail channel and line optimisation are generally done by retail
organisation/brands themselves. In case of fashion products, a small manufacturer will be
50

involved in four stages except marketing to retail channel and line optimisation. In case of a
medium sized company making fashion products, having offices and design studio abroad
may involve all six stages.

According to Kurt Salmon Associates (KSA), a prominent global management consulting

firm, almost 95 percent of product development cycle times is made up of non-value added
processes and more than 70 percent of the activities that are non-value added can be
eliminated (Parnell 1999). Also, 67% of companies polled by KSA (Parnell 1999) said that
improvement of product development was their number one priority. In a recent analysis of
pre-production delays of an Indian knitwear manufacturer exporter (Mahajan et al. 2003), it
was found that on an average, 20 days are spent on developing lab dips for three shades,
which is almost three to four times higher than originally planned. The two main reasons
for delay are internal rejection followed by non-prioritised tasks. Other reasons for delay
are frequent changes by the buyer, external and internal communication lapses. It is also
noticed that sample making time reduces gradually along the downstream supply chain.
While the proto sample approval on an average took 9.5 days, the preproduction sample
approval took only 7 days. Mahajan (2003) also observed that main reasons for prototype
sample delay was again misplaced priorities followed by machine availability; all these
suggest absence of prioritising activity, leading to haphazard work and poor resource
utilisation creating avoidable delays.

There appears to be huge scope of improvement in reducing the lead time during the
product development and pre-production process. Collaborative product development, i.e.
simultaneous development of raw material and accessories was practiced by some large
buying organisations, but is not a regular practice among small and medium manufacturers.
Manufacturing organisations migrated to new industrial economies primarily due to
cheaper labour wages (Dickerson 1995, Jones 2006a), and not because of their product
development skills (Jana 2003). Though CAD was used in pattern making, electronic fitting
(e-fit simulator, Browzwear) was not common among small and medium manufacturers
during the research tenure.

It was reiterated that getting fit sample approved right first time was not a positive strength
of a contract manufacturer. Possibly a retailer can strategically outsource the product
51

development function of a season to a specialist organisation, which involves complete

pattern development, fit sample making and marker making. Once the order is placed with
a manufacturer, he will have to buy the pattern-pack from the specialist organisation and
start production (bulk cutting) straightway. This will drastically reduce the pre-production
activity cycle for manufacturer. While both approaches use core competency logic, the
rear approach also uses scale and scope to optimise the cost.

Product development from India has changed over time. Earlier, designers and buyers from
developed countries used to come with specific requirements and Indian manufacturers
only used to duplicate them; the order used to begin with fit sample. However, nowadays
buyers are looking for the manufacturers capability in terms of raw material options, style
silhouette options, uniqueness and innovation (Malik 2009). Due to this, the merchandisers
are now product-specific and not client or market-specific (Malik 2009). The Indian
designer now travels to Europe, attends forecasts and is expected to develop his own
collection fusion of Indian fabric and embellishment strength with European design
sensibilities. Although Indian product development teams are strong in fabric development,
sourcing, pricing, innovation and crisis management, they are very poor in colour
matching, knowledge of fit and pattern details and correct interpretation of approval
comments from the buyer resulting in inevitable iteration and stretched lead time (Malik
2009). With product development envisioned to be the real growth for the Indian apparel
industry (ApparelOnline 2007a), the key issues for India as a supplier is immediate
improvement in the areas of raw material and sample approvals. If Chinese USP is quality
and volume, then Indias strength is PD (Apparel Online 2007b).

2.3.3 Collaborative and Concurrent Product Development

Due to increased focus on NPD, the concept of concurrent engineering, simultaneous
engineering and design for manufacturability became popular (Mcdermott and Handfield
2000) and were often used interchangeably. Collaborate means to work together, especially
in a joint intellectual effort, while concurrent means operating or acting in parallel with
another and meeting or tending to meet at the same point. Both are likely to apply with true
partnership in new product development (Alistair 2009).

52

Many authors (Himmelfarb, 1992; Nijssen et al. 1995; Zahra and Ellor, 1993) view
sequential processes as obsolete and see industrial product development shifting toward a
parallel or concurrent product development process model. Erhorn and Stark (1994) and
Barclay et al. (1995) emphasised and modelled an integrated approach, where product
development occurs simultaneously in multiple departments and product improvements are
accomplished without hindering the process.

Figure 2.12

Integrated Approach towards Product Development

Source: Erhorn and Stark (1994)

Hart and Baker (1994) attempted to limit the functional divisions suggested by parallel
processes with a multiple convergent processing model. In their model, however, multiple
convergences occur during the development phases that follow concept generation,
development and screening, which is in contrast to Bruce and Biemanss (1995) multiple
convergent model diagramming the early stages of development. The use of information
technology and virtual prototyping on the World Wide Web can also improve the speed of
decision-making and facilitate collaboration among customers, suppliers, and the firm's
personnel (Giachetti 1999; Park and Baik 1999; Dahan and Srinivasan 2000). Pearson and

53

Knudsen (2003), (Gilmore and Pine (2000), Karlsson et al. (1998) all suggested involving
the customer and supplier, thus leveraging their expertise and improving effectiveness.

Figure 2.13

Multiple Convergent Model of Product Development

Source: Bruce and Biemans (1995)

The style of over the wall product development does not typically afford communication
between functional areas, instead, it results in a process that is essentially sequentialwith
the product and information passing from one functional area to the next on its path to the
customer (Cooper, 1990; Gerwin, 1993). There is little or no feedback or discussion
between areas with respect to potential improvements in the product (e.g., a design
improvement) or in the process (a change in material that might make the product easier or
less expensive to produce). In this model, the manufacturers role in the process of
developing new products is often viewed as strategically neutral (Abernathy & Utterback,
1988), and the interaction between the design department and manufacturing in such
environments could be defined at best as sequential, if not nonexistent. Similarly,
purchasing managers often have little influence over the evaluation and selection of key
input suppliers within this process. The only benefit of sequential approach, however, is the
lack of ambiguity within functional tasks; when one functional area passes the project on,

54

the receiving group can be relatively assured that the responsibilities and tasks of the
previous (sequential) function are more or less complete.
Collaborative Product Development (CPD) involves collaboratively developing, building
and managing products throughout the entire lifecycle, no matter what tools are used, and
no matter where they are located geographically or within the supply chain (Collaborative
Product Commerce 1999). In the apparel manufacturing context, it is about sharing colour,
texture (Kapur 2003), costing (Knox 2009) and other details while developing a range.
During the product development process, the brand, retailer, apparel manufacturer, fabric
manufacturer, accessories manufacturer, sewing thread (Coats 1999) and colour service
providers, garment finishing chemical suppliers share information so that the necessary
development can take place much before the order actually placed with apparel
manufacturer.

For instance, Gap Inc. shares its seasonal forecast colours with Coats worldwide so that the
correct embroidery thread can be developed. All Gap vendors are then directed to source
their embroidery thread needs from local Coats suppliers (Coats 1999). Levis shares its
specifications with accessory manufacturer and supplier Universal Fasteners to develop
zipper and rivets, stud buttons collaboratively (AAMA 1995). Freshtex, the speciality
garment finisher shares forecasts and develops washes with leading jeans brands during the
concept stage (Freshtex 2005). Liz Claiborne and M&S collaborate with fabric
manufacturers to develop designs based on forecasts. New product development in apparel
industry requires cross functional, intra departmental teams that communicate vertically
and horizontally across the supply chain (Tyler 2008a)

The major benefits of CPD for apparel companies includes accelerating time-to-market,
which provides improved customer satisfaction, greater profit potential, and gains in
market share; improved management of frequent specification changes; yields higher
quality products and reduces costly design flaws; automatic tracking and notification of key
milestones and improved scheduling between multiple layers of suppliers; effective data
sharing anytime, anyplace keeps everyone on the same page, eliminating costly errors and
delays.

55

Parallel approaches to NPD result in improvement in several performances like time to

market (Cooper 1990), (Zirger and Hartley 1996), (Kumar and Midha 2001), (Valle and
Vazquez-Bustelo

2009),

(Tyler

2008b)

manufacturability

(Venkatesan,1992;

Whitney,1988), cost (Taguchi & Nonaka,1986), (Tyler 2008b) and product superiority in
the case of incremental innovations and in terms of development (Valle and VazquezBustelo 2009). Closer relationship between buying and supplier in NPD taking advantage
of market opportunity was documented (Merrills, 1989; Raia, 1991; Whitney,1988).
Involvement of purchase and supplier early in the development process decreases time-tomarket from concept to production (Clark,1989; Smith and Reinertsen,1991) and is
smoother and less expensive (Gupta and Souder, 1998). There are two types of
development; incremental and radical. Concurrent engineering practices are appropriate for
incremental development using well defined technologies in meeting time to market, lesser
cost and market penetration objectives. However a serial approach to product development
is appropriate for NPD for developing radically different products using new unproven
technologies (Mcdermott and Handfield 2000). A concurrent product development model
suggested by Tyler (Figure 2.14) explains a five stage process where technologists have a
vital role to play.

Figure 2.14 Conventional and Concurrent Approaches to Product Development

While in optimisation of manufacture and resource analysis technologists are supposed to

interact with production people, in simplification and material optimisation they are
supposed to interact with the design team. Tyler (2008a) expressed his concern over

56

practicing a concurrent product development process in contract manufacturing scenario as

people are not used to work in multidisciplinary teams, especially if they involve different
companies (in different geographical locations) in the supply chain.

2.4

Optimisation Techniques

Supply Chain Optimisation, Supply chain integration (Shah 2009), supply chain
restructuring (Shah 2009), network optimisation (Chopra and Meindl 2005b) are some of
the interchangeably used techniques to ensure a balanced and improved supply chain
performance. This includes optimal placement of inventory (Chopra and Meindl 2005b),
minimising operating costs (including manufacturing costs, transportation costs, and
distribution costs), delaying point of differentiation (Shah 2009, Chopra and Meindl
2005b), shifting the bulk of cost addition to as late as possible and improved customer
service (Shah 2009). The technique often involves the application of analytical models,
product redesign, process redesign, network design restructure and value offering to
customer (Shah 2009). The optimisation result includes flexible, short-cycle schedules
(quick response) supported with the minimum inventories (inventory management), just in
time delivery, consolidated complex traffic routing without increased costs (Poirier and
Reiter 1996). Optimisation also uses sophisticated information technology to operate in a
concerted fashion on a comprehensive business strategy, rather than local optimisation at
the expense of other members of the supply chain (Poirier and Reiter 1996).

2.4.1 Postponement
Postponement refers to a concept whereby activities in the supply chain are delayed until a
demand is realised (Bucklin, 1965; Van Hoek, 2001). Van Hoek (2001) defines
postponement as the delaying of supply chain activities until customer orders are received
with the intention of customising products as opposed to performing these activities in
anticipation of future orders. Researchers suggest that postponement has the potential to
improve

responsiveness

while

reducing

inventory,

transportation,

storage,

and

obsolescence costs (Yang et al. 2004). Postponement has a long history of practical
business application dating back to the 1920s (Council of Logistics Management 2001).

57

The concept of differentiation is important for the textile and apparel industry as it offers a
variety of end products to customers. In case of garment manufacturing, the fabric dyeing
and sewing represent two main points of differentiation. In dyeing, an irreversible change
takes place about colour and in sewing, irreversible change takes place about style. In the
apparel industry Benetton used postponement to improve its responsiveness to customer
demands. By postponing the dyeing of its garments, Benetton1 was better positioned to
respond to demands for popular coloured clothing and reduce excess inventory of lesspopular colours (Dapiran, 1992). Postponing the shipment of appliances to Sears2 until a
customer order is received allowed Whirlpool to realise a significant reduction in inventory
and transportation costs (Waller et al. 2000). Hewlett Packard postponed final assembly of
its DeskJet printers until the very late stages of the supply chain. This postponement of
final assembly, combined with the shift of assembly locations closer to customers, resulted
in a more cost-efficient production process while reducing transportation and logistics costs
(Feitzinger and Lee, 1997). For example, many organisations are now utilising
postponement principle to delay differentiation in the manufacturing process, hoping to
reduce inventory obsolescence and other logistics costs (Rabinovich and Evers, 2003).
Waller et al. (2000) expanded the concept of postponement to include upstream
postponement, production postponement and downstream postponement. Brown et al.
(2000) describes product postponement in which some of the functionalities of products are
specified in the field, even after delivery to the customer.

Established in 1965, the Benetton Group is present in 120 countries worldwide. Its core business is fashion
apparel: a group with a strong Italian character whose style, quality and passion are clearly seen in its
brands, the casual United Colors of Benetton, the glamour oriented Sisley, the leisurewear brand Playlife.
The Group produces over 150 million garments every year. Its network of around 6,000 contemporary stores
around the world, offers high quality customer services and generates a total turnover of over 2 billion euro.
Benetton is now controlled by Edizione Srl (a holding company wholly owned by the Benetton Family) with a
67% stake. It listed on the stock exchange in Milan in 1986. (http://www.benetton.com)

Sears Holdings Corporation, with approximately 3,900 full-line and specialty retail stores in the United
States and Canada, is USAs largest provider of home services and leading home appliance retailer as well
as a leader in tools, lawn and garden, home electronics and automotive repair and maintenance. It also has a
broad apparel offering, including such well-known labels as Lands' End, Jaclyn Smith and Joe Boxer, as well
as the Apostrophe and Covington brands. Sears Holdings Corporation operates through its subsidiaries,
including Sears, Roebuck and Co. and Kmart Corporation. (http://www.searsholdings.com/)

58

Aviv and Federgruen (2001) expand the concept of design for postponement where
products and processes are designed/redesigned to facilitate postponement. Yang et al.
(2004) further extended and refined the concept of postponement to include product
development postponement, purchasing postponement, production postponement, and
logistics postponement. Production postponement and logistics postponement are similar to
previously discussed concepts of postponement. Purchasing postponement relates to
Bucklins (1965) concept of shifting risk by delaying the purchase of raw materials up to
the point of production. Using cases involving four different companies, Van Hoek et al.
(1999) found that both strategic and operating characteristics influence the feasibility of
postponement in restructuring European supply chains. Growth in postponement is partially
reflective of the increased demand for customised products. In order to enhance product
offerings, many organisations are altering their supply chains to accommodate mass
customisation processes (Su et al. 2005). The newly created supply chain structures often
involve time postponement or delaying product differentiation points until customer orders
have actually been received. As mentioned above, postponement often results from
organisations adopting a mass customisation strategy in order to enhance their ability to
meet customer demands. However, postponement and mass customisation are distinctly
different and the terms should not be used interchangeably. Some researchers believe that
postponement is mainly a pragmatic means to move towards mass customisation
(Feitzinger and Lee, 1997; Kotha, 1995; Lampel and Mintzberg, 1996). Digital supply
chain offers numerous opportunity of postponement in apparel product development.
Electronic fit simulators where virtual models are used to test fit samples actually postpone
physical pattern cutting and sample making (Fralix 2003), digital colour approvals through
colour management systems (eWarnas Online Colour eXchange basis of Leveraging
Colour Management within PLM 2006) are a postponement of colouring of material.
Yeung (Yeung Y, et al. 2007) concluded that when a supply chain has a balanced structure,
it should use speculation or production postponement. When the supply chain has an
unbalanced structure, it should use purchasing postponement or product development
postponement.

59

2.4.2 Critical Path Method

The complexity of supply network increases due to interdependency.thus becomes

impossible to simultaneously take account of all these interactions either manually or using
simple analytical tools like spreadsheets..in such cases sophisticated network modelling
tools like linear and mixed integer programming are required for optimising the supply
chain. (Gattorna 2008d).

Research in operations deals with linear programming, transportation and scheduling

problems, network analysis, etc. which are very close to operation philosophies of supply
chain. Even then role of operational research in the supply chain is found to be limited.
Supply chain scheduling plays an important role in supply chains (Little et al. 1995); in his
paper Nurmilaakso (2004) addressed distributed simulation and presented a conceptual
model to formalise a mathematical model of supply chain scheduling that is based on a
resource-constrained project scheduling problem (RCPSP). Alvarez-Valdes and Tamrit
(1989) have reviewed and listed four kinds of priority rules applied to RCPSP. They have
found that the Minimum Slack (MINSLK) rule, which is based on CPM, is the most
efficient rule considering due dates. An activity consists of activity periods, which have
unit duration. Its lower time bound, i.e. the earliest scheduled period in or after which the
activity should be started, and its upper time bound, i.e. due date is the latest scheduled
period in or before which the activity should be finished. These time bounds can be
deduced by applying the critical path method (CPM) (Nurmilaakso 2004).

The Program (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique, commonly abbreviated as
PERT, is a model for project management designed to analyze and represent the tasks
involved in completing a given project, especially the time needed to complete each task,
and identifying the minimum time needed to complete the total project. This model was
invented by Booz Allen Hamilton, Inc. under contract to the United States Department of
Defense's US Navy Special Projects Office in 1958 as part of the Polaris mobile
submarine-launched ballistic missile project. Figure 2.15 shows a simple PERT network
with 6 activities; A, B, ..to F.

60

Figure 2.15

PERT/CPM Network

Source: www.wikipedia.org

Activity duration for A and B are 3 and 4 months respectively. C is successor activity to B,
similarly A is predecessor to both D and E. The critical path is B-C or A-D-F , where both
path takes longest time of 7 months.

Proven operation research tools like PERT and CPM were used for scheduling
merchandising and production activities and lead-time measurement in the traditional
supply chain, popularly known as Time N Action calendar in the apparel industry (Jana
2003). It was found that apparel associates use a time-and-action calendar, also called a
work flow, to organise everyone involved to establish and adhere to deadlines (Regan
2007). Many apparel managers use project management tools, such as Gantt Chart, to
monitor time and manage employees who work on PD and production (Regan 2007). In a
contract manufacturing scenario, work was tracked through the order fulfilment process
(OFP) by monitoring specific order points decided by the critical path reporting agreement
(Rollins et al.2003). Critical path was reportedly used for conformance to pre-production
milestones by U.K. and U.S. buyers on manufacturers in Hong Kong (Bruce and Daly
2006, Popp 2000), Turkey (Popp 2000). The technique is also referred to as merchandising
calendar time scale (Pan and Holland 2006), or time and action (TNA) calendar in India
(Dutta 2004).

61

Not surprisingly, many software solutions catering to apparel pre-production planning were
also found using the critical path management logic. Task-tracking system (Critical Path
Management) in Momentis (Momentis 2008), allows companies to define key tasks, task
dependencies and milestones related to the pre-production and development of finished
goods. Customer specific critical path formats in Fast React Systems (Fast React 2007)
allows follow up on the events and monitoring of garment cutting activities (Styleman
2008). Purchase orders are mapped to assigned dates and critical path (Cantel 2008) to
track and activate alarms. Although the word critical path was found commonplace in
organisations, it was rarely used from the viewpoint of operation research logic. The
critical path was interpreted by practitioners from apparel industry from its literary
viewpoint rather from operation research viewpoint. The criticality/importance of the path
(or process) was judged either based on quality vulnerability or cost vulnerability or error
prone, etc.

Goldratt in his book Critical Chain (Goldratt 1997) exemplified and summarised human
nature of working in a project environment (Refer Appendix I). While the critical path
method was found to be more appropriate for machine driven activities (Goldratt 1997), the
critical chain was found appropriate for people oriented functions by incorporating both the
human side and algorithmic methodology side in a unified principle (Goldratt 1997).
Garment pre-production (also known as merchandising) activities are characterised by
mainly people oriented functions, where interdependent activities are synchronised between
succeeding and preceding activities to make the process network. Furthermore, some of the
critical chain characteristics have commonalties with garment pre-production activities like
backward scheduling, multitasking and resource dependencies. Thus critical chain
methodology was found to hold promising application in rationalising apparel
manufacturing cycle time.

62

Figure 2.16

Critical Chain Gantt Chart

Source: Sciforma Corporation (www.sciforma.com)

Figure 2.16 shows Gantt chart using critical chain principle. The critical path for the
example is design--develop1develop2test and critical path duration is 30 days.
Document is parallel activity with duration of 10 days. The figure shows feeding buffer of
5 days and project buffer of 15 days are inserted in the project.

2.4.3 Lean Manufacturing

Lean Manufacturing is a systematic approach to identifying and eliminating waste or nonvalue added activities in a process through continuous improvement with the goal of
creating maximum value. It is a manufacturing strategy trying to maintain minimum
inventory. Lean manufacturing strives to reduce waste in human effort, inventory and time
to market (Seth and Gupta, 2005). The first approach of Lean is to assist in the
identification and steady elimination of waste (muda). As waste is eliminated, quality
improves while production time and cost are reduced. Modular systems require a managed
flow of materials that resembles just-in-time (JIT) systems, reduces inventory (Bonacich et
al. 1994) and increases flexibility (Katla et al. 1998). Examples of other lean tools are
Value Stream Mapping, 5S, Kanban, and poka-yoke (error-proofing). Kanban means
visual signal in Japanese, control of inventory by means of kanban reverses the material

63

flow from push to pull system, thus enabling maintainenance of minimum possible
inventory. In Toyota approach to lean manufacturing, the focus is upon improving the
flow or smoothness of work (thereby steadily eliminating mura; unevenness) through
the system and not upon 'waste reduction' per se. Since lean thinking analyses business
processes systematically by identifying and removing wastes, it helps also to distinguish
between value added and non-value added processes (Harrison and van Hoek, 2005).

2.4.4 Inventory Management

Inventory is like a security blanket, according to Joan S. Adams, MD and CEO of Pierian
Consulting, New York. Companies build up inventories because they dont know about
future needs and do not want to lose an order for lack of items. Inventory control also
depends on make-to-stock versus make-to-order control. In a make-to-stock system, every
stage blindly produces inventory up to a certain target level ahead of time, i.e. before any
demands have arrived at the system, so that when a demand arrives, there is a good chance
that it may be pulled from inventory. In a make-to-order system, no inventory is produced
ahead of time. Instead, production is initiated whenever an order arrives at the system.
Mentzer (2001) suggested four major approaches to inventory management; economic
order quantity (EOQ), material requirement planning (MRP), distribution requirement
planning (DRP) and just-in-time (JIT). The right approach will depend on nature of demand
(dependent or independent), type of system (push or pull) and level of solution (single
facility or system wide). For a single facility solution in a pull system while EOQ is an
appropriate approach involving independent demand items, JIT is most applicable for
dependent demand. Therefore, while JIT would be suitable controlling inventory in apparel
manufacturing, EOQ would fit for retail inventory management. Other requirements for
practicing JIT in manufacturing environment are scale of operation (Millstein 1999) and
geographical proximity (Sharma and Jana 2005). For a system wide solution in a push
environment while MRP is best applied involving dependent demand items, DRP is a
preferred approach for independent demand. According to G. Liberopoulos and Y. Dallery
(G. Liberopoulos and Y. Dallery 2003), material resource planning (MRP) is a
deterministic make-to-order system that copes with uncertainty, usually by initiating lead
times than by introducing an inventory target level in the form of safety stock. Managing
Inventory in the textile and clothing supply chain requires managing inventories at an
64

aggregate level and there are different types of inventory to be maintained for different
reasons. For example, a cycle stock inventory may be required for economies of scale while
anticipation inventory may be required to deal with seasonality in demand. An inventory
classification for the apparel industry is listed in the following table (table 2.4).

Table 2.4

Classification of Inventory in the Textile and Apparel Supply-chain

Type
of Explanation
Inventory
Cycle
Stock Due to batches of production,
Inventory
created on account of:
1. economies of scale
2.
manufacturing
process
requirements , and
3. process flow management
Work-in-process
Inventory

Example
Fibre
production
is
a
continuous
manufacturing
process where batches are
introduced in order to achieve
economies of scale and/or
production efficiencies.

Due to an assembly line or multi- Assembly of cut components in

level (echelon) distribution system sewing of apparels

Decoupling Stock To snap continuity in the process Stock of grey fabric for dyeing
Inventory
and to achieve production process
economies
Safety
Inventory

Stock To extend customer service based

on consumers demand
pattern and product characteristics
(to avoid stock outs)
Anticipation
Due to seasonality of demand or
inventory
supply

Stocking of SKUs in retail

store

Stocking of basic merchandise

(winter cardigans) in retail
store

Source: Adapted from Chandra Charu and Kumar Sameer 2001

The apparel industry is mostly a made to order scenario, based on forecasting retail sales
and consequent consolidated orders placed with manufacturers (maybe in a different
country). But there is an uncertainty (lack of or no information) at the retailers end about
selling patterns, which is why inventory is maintained at retail level. At the manufacturers
end, often raw material is stocked in anticipation (lack of correct information) of buyers
order, these are anticipation inventory.

Inventory management issues also relate to local-information versus global-information

control and centralised versus decentralised control (Chandra Charu and Kumar Sameer
65

2001, Chenet al. 2000 and Simchi-Levi et al. 2000). Local information implies that each
stage sees demand only in the form of orders that arrive from the stages it directly supplies
and has visibility of only its own inventory status, costs, and so on. Global information
implies that each stage has visibility of the demand and inventory status of all the
downstream stages in the system (Silveret al. 1998). One of the major advantages of global
information over local information is that using global information can help significantly
reduce the so-called bullwhip effect (Lee et al. 1997 and Chenet al. 2000), which can
result in important inventory cost savings.

Management of inventories at various textile sectors is proposed as part of an overall

production planning and control (PPC) philosophy which integrates inventory policies with
appropriate procurement policies and scheduling heuristics (Chandra, 1996a; Lee and
Billington, 1993). Due to very high material and labour content of activities at the apparel
maker, a materials requirement planning (MRP) model is more appropriate for production
planning. This model uses a bill of material for the product, its forecast and/or actual
requirements, inventory on-hand, and inventory on-order as inputs and generates orders for
the planning horizon.

Zara, for example, does not order as much in advance of season as conventional retailer
(six months pre-season stock is 15-25% against industry average of 45-60%). It operates
more flexibly with high proportion of in-season adjustment (40-50% in season stock
against industry average of 0-20%), very close to make to order model of inventory (Hines
and Bruce 2007).

The other two forms of inventory control are consignment and vendor managed inventory
(VMI). The APICS Dictionary (Williams 1999) defines consignment as The process of a
supplier placing goods at a customer location without receiving payment until after the
goods are used or sold. VMI goes one step further; under VMI, instead of the customer
monitoring its sales and inventory for the purpose of triggering replenishment orders, the
supplier assumes responsibility for these activities (Fox 1996). Vendor Managed Inventory
(VMI) is defined as a mean of optimising Supply Chain performance in which the
manufacturer is responsible for maintaining the suppliers inventory levels. The
manufacturer has access to the suppliers inventory data and is responsible for generating
66

purchase orders (Taras 2001). VMI is a streamlined approach to inventory and orderfulfilment. With it, the supplier, not the retailer, is responsible for managing and
replenishing inventory. An integral part of VMI is EDI, electronic transfer of data over a
network (Emigh 1999). In a Vendor Managed Inventory (VMI) model, the manufacturer
receives electronic data (usually EDI or via the internet) that tells him the
distributors/retailers sales and stock levels. The manufacturer can view every item that the
distributor carries as well as true point of sale data. The manufacturer is responsible for
creating and maintaining the inventory plan. Under VMI, the manufacturer generates the
order, not the distributor. Altering inventory management technique to postponement and
VMI enabled, inventory went down from 12 weeks to two weeks between IBM and its
distributors and eliminated a lot of errors, redundancies, and duplications (Latamore 1999).
This was an example of postponement and vendor managed inventory in supply chain.
While Zara uses geographically close inventory systems to rapidly transfer sales knowledge
to production facilities, JC Penney uses knowledge sharing vendor managed inventory
(VMI) system with geographically distant apparel manufacturer, TAL apparel in Taiwan
(Rothberg and Erickson 2004).

VMI concept is similar to the concept of purchasing postponement (Aviv and Federgruen
2001, and Bucklins 1965), where risk is minimised by delaying the purchase of raw
materials up to the point of production. VMI does not change the ownership of inventory.
It remains status quo. Payment is not made until the item is actually sold. Success in
inventory management is measured in improved service levels and in turns, the number of
times that the entire inventory is replenished annually. The higher the number of turns, the
less the time stock gathers dust.

The effect of type of merchandise on VMI is also important. While commodity products
hold better yield, fashion products are expected not to gain much out of the initiative. The
concern is clear from the following statement from the exclusive manufacturer of Ralph
Lauren and LittleMe children's wear (Frastaci 2001).

"We don't do any vendor managed inventory. All retailers that we deal with are major
department stores and specialty shops, dealing with a lot of fashion product that's not reorderable, so its a one-shot deal."
- Doug Schwab, Vice President, Technology, S. Schwab Co.
67

2.4.5 Quick Response Manufacturing

Quick response is a concept that has become synonymous with the textile and apparel
supply chain. Quick response was a concept first developed by KSA in the US, who in a
1986 study of the US apparel industry, found that on an average it took 66 weeks for an
apparel product to get from manufacturing into store, despite a total production time of
only 11 weeks. The major delay in the supply chain was due to inventory delays (Hines,
2004a), although fabric is also recognised as being a key factor in causing delays. A major
strategy during the 1980s and 1990s (particularly in the US) has been to develop quick
response (QR) programs to promote responsiveness by reducing lead times, cutting
inventories and reducing risk. In 1994, according to Jones (1995), 60 percent of large US
apparel and textile manufacturers had QR programmes with their retail customers, and in
1995 the figure had risen to 72 percent. This figure compares well with that found by
Fiorito et al. (1995) who said that 73 percent of the responding retailers claimed to be
implementing some phase of QR.
The most significant difference between quick response and more traditional apparel
supply chains is the move towards collaboration and vertical integration in order to
improve efficiency in the supply chain. Quick response supply chains are considered to be
information driven (Hines, 2004a), but rely on a measure of trust in sharing information.
Response within a quick response supply chain is based on the sharing of information i.e. it
is demand driven based on sales information, rather that being forecast driven (Birtwistle et
al. 2003, quoted in Barnes et al, 2006). Within the fashion industry, quick response is
centred around the notion of minimal pre-season ordering, taking advantage of improved
speed and flexibility in the supply chain by placing more frequent, in-season, small orders
(Bruce et al. 2004). Production may be pre-booked, but final product specification is not
confirmed until nearer delivery time (Birtwistle et al. 2003). This has also meant that the
proportion of open-to-buy budget has increased significantly, all of which leaves a
measure of the unknown in the equation.

A number of researchers have addressed the notion of agile supply chains (Bruce et al.
2004), which like quick response, describe shorter, more flexible, demand driven supply
chains. Quick Response also means having the talent to reduce lead times and having a
68

flexible workforce (Jones 2003). Though used interchangeably, both being information
driven (Hines, 2004a), responsive and agile supply chains often differ in characteristics.
Responsive supply chains are characterised by high demand and low-supply uncertainty.
Agile supply chains are high on both supply and demand uncertainty (Lee, 2002). A variety
of technologies and management practices related with QR has been identified from
industry sources (Coopers and Lybrands Technologies 1991; Ernst and Whinney 1988;
Hunter 1990; KSA 1992). QR technology includes automated sewing operations, bar
coding, CAD, point of sale (POS) data, short cycle sewing and unit production system
(UPS), among others. QR management practices calls for electronic reorder, sharing
product info with trading partners, product planning with customer short cycle cut
planning, reduced inventory size, small lot orders, scanning fabric rolls, computerized
inventory system and shade sorting.

The fast fashion business model is based on either vertical integration (like Zara), or on a
shift from Far Eastern suppliers to those closer to the domestic market (like New Look) in
order to take advantage of quick response times. However, there are also other perspectives
of fast fashion such as Guercinis (2001) quick fashion, whereby retailers integrate with
suppliers to develop a range renewal service that is not associated with the traditional
advanced seasonal plans.

2.5

Value Added Analysis in Supply Chain

A supply chain can also be regarded as an added value chain. Operating processes that
transform some amount and mix of input resources, add appropriate value and deliver the
output result to the customer in apparel supply chain are physical transformation to a
physical tangible product (cutting/sewing, etc.), desired relocation of goods, services and/or
customers through transportation (fabric supply from fabric manufacturer to garment
manufacturer), distribution (re-sizing, re-packaging and even collecting disparate items
together into a coherent list), and information provision (organises and delivers data in a
easy to read report suitable for use by customers) (Macbeth and Fergusson 1994).

There may also be activities which add no value, e.g. goods in storage, but which may exist
for traditional reasons. In summary, there are three types of activities; first, category value-

69

added; second, category necessary but non-value added and third, category non-value
added activities (Monden 1993 cited in Hines and Rich 1997). Classification by Womack
and Jones (1996) renamed the second and third category as Type One muda and Type Two
muda respectively. Muda is the Japanese word for waste.
Value added activities involve the conversion or processing of raw materials or semifinished products through the use of manual labour. Examples include activities such as
sub-assembly of parts, forging raw materials, and painting bodywork (Monden, 1993 cited
in Hines and Rich 1997). Thus, value added activities are the machinery working times
required to produce a product. Necessary but non-value added activities (NNVA) may be
wasteful but are necessary under the current operating procedures. Examples include
walking long distances to pick up parts, unpacking deliveries, and transferring a tool from
one hand to another. In order to eliminate these types of operations, it would be necessary
to make major changes to the operating system such as creating a new layout or arranging
for suppliers to deliver unpacked goods. Such changes may not be possible immediately
(Monden, 1993 cited in Hines and Rich 1997) and often not possible to eliminate
completely. Non-value added activities or Type two muda stands for sheer waste and
involves unnecessary actions, which can be eliminated completely. Examples include
waiting time, stacking intermediate products, double handling, etc. (Monden, 1993 cited in
Hines and Rich 1997).

Value stream analysis of the apparel industry is not new. An example of process mapping
exercises in textile and apparel supply chain in US was conducted by KSA during 1986.
For a ladies night suit it was observed that total 66 weeks were required from fibre stage to
consumer. However out of the 66 weeks only 11 weeks were spent on actual production i.e.
spinning-weaving-wet processing-cutting-sewing-packaging-distribution; the rest of the
time was inventory delay (Bruce et al. 2004).

70

Table 2.5

Clothing Pipeline Inventories and Works in Progress

Fibre

Fabric

Apparel

Inventory WIP
(in weeks)
Raw material
1.6
WIP
0.9
Finished fibre @ fibre
4.6
Fibre @ textile
1.0
Total
0.9
7.2
WIP greige
3.9
Greige goods @ greige
1.2
Greige goods@ finish
1.4
Finishing
1.2
Finished fabric @ textile
7.4
Fabric @ apparel
6.8
Total
16.8
5.1
WIP
5.0
Finished apparel @ apparel
12.0
Ship to retail
2.7
Apparel @ retail Distribution 6.3
centre
Apparel @ store
10.0
Total
31.0
5.0
TOTAL
55.0
11.0
Source: Lawson, King and Hunter, 1999

The break up of working time (termed WIP in table 2.5) and inventory time is shown in
table 2.5. Apparently, the analysis combines the necessary non-value added activities with
the value added category, thus the value added component comes out to be 17%
approximately.
Since inventory was identified as the prime reason behind an excessively long supply
chain, efforts were made to develop manufacturing systems with less inventory as a buffer.
With simultaneous market change from mass market to individualistic (Piore and Sabel,
1984), the quick response concept came into being; modular/team work and Toyota Sewing
System were introduced. In traditional progressive bundle unit system inventory (work in
process) was being maintained between every sewing operation in first in first out (FIFO)
logic. Throughput time for assembling a garment used to be calculated as process time plus
waiting time in between operations. The multiple days of inventory in factory sewing floors
is reduced to zero in the Toyota Sewing System (TSS), resulting in the components being
moved between operations in a hands-off approach, leading to a quicker throughput time

71

for sewing. Modular manufacturing surely increased value addition percentage in sewing
but pre-production and product development activities still consumes a major chunk of non
value added time and will be studied later in this research.

2.5.1 Representation of Value Added and Non-value Activities

One approach to diagrammatically represent value addition in a supply chain is given by

Christopher (Christopher 2007a) in Figure 2.17. Activities where value is added over a
period of time are represented by diagonal lines, for example production, in-transit, etc.
Where inventory between activities and the waiting time is a cost adding time, it is
represented by a horizontal line.

A different representation of value added and non-value added activities was advocated by
Scott and Westbrook (Scott and Westbrook 1991 cited by Christopher 2007b), as seen in
Figure 2.18. In this diagram, horizontal lines represent the average process time while
vertical lines (drawn to the same scale) represent the waiting time in the queues for each
process. The representation shows two useful measures: the sum of the horizontal lines is
the process lead time and indicates responsiveness to a demand increase within same stock
constraints. Pipeline volume is determined by adding vertical and horizontal lines together
and indicates the time taken to respond to decreases in demand, given the same rate of
manufacturing throughput.

72

Figure 2.17

Value and Cost Addition

Customer
Delivery

Finished
stock

Value
Raw Material
Stock

Regional
Stock
In-transit

Production

Time
Source: Christopher 2006

73

Fabric Supplier

Finished
fabric

(5)

(20)

Underwear Manufacturer

Finished goods
Warehouse

Cut work
buffer

Sewing (18)

Component
Cutting (5)

Raw
material
store

(10)

Volume 175 days

Dyeing and
finishing (7)

Grey
Stock

Knitting (10)

Yarn Store

(5)

(15)

Source: Scott and Westbrook 1991 cited by Christopher 2006

Spinning

(10)

Length 60 days

Spinning (15)

Yarn finished
goods store

(20)

Value Added and Non-value Added Activities

Commodity
market

Figure 2.18

(2)

(15)

End User

Retailer

Distribution
Centre

Store

(10)

75

Figure 2.19

VSM: Value Added and Non-value Added Activity Representation

76

Value stream mapping is another tool gaining tremendous popularity for measuring and
expressing value added and non-value added activities in a supply chain. Value Stream
Mapping (VSM) is a Lean technique used to analyse the flow of materials and
information currently required to bring a product or service to a consumer. At Toyota,
where the technique originated, it is known as Material and Information Flow
Mapping (Rother and Shook 1998). Hines and Rich (1997) defined seven Value
Stream Mapping tools: Process Activity Mapping, Supply Chain Responsiveness
Matrix, Product Variety Funnel, Quality Filter Mapping, Forrester Effect Mapping,
Decision Point Analysis and Overall Structure Maps. It is the process activity mapping
that records the value added and non-value added activities in a supply chain.

Value stream mapping of manufacturing enterprises in developing countries are just

catching up as an important benchmarking tool for supply chain efficiency. Literature
available on value stream mapping for several non-apparel and apparel organisations
reveals that value added activity ranges from a mere 1 percent to 11 percent. Value
stream mapping of a modular rubber screen panel manufacturing organisation (Carr
2005) reveals only 6 percent activities are value added and 94 percent activities are nonvalue added. In another first tier, an automobile steel component supplier (Tylor and
Brunt 2001) shows the value added proportion of time to manufacture one sub frame
was 4922 seconds and the time spent by steel in the plant i.e. from entry as steel to
departure as a finished component is 13.07 days. This means value was being added for
only 1.38 percent of the time that the steel was on site. Value added time for a knitwear
manufacturer in Bangalore, India being measured for activities from bulk fabric arrival
to shipment are a little above 4 percent (Agarwal and Sahani 2007). Value added
activities of a steel pipe manufacturer is found to be 11 percent and non-value added
activities 89 percent (Belova, Inesa Martinkute and Zhu, Yansong 2008). In an
equalizer beam manufacturing process in India, the value added time was found to be
roughly 3.5 percent (Grewal and Singh 2006).

However, there are several cases where commercial literature classifies all activities
into just two categories: value added and non-value added, wherein necessary non-value
added activities were clubbed with the value added category. This explains how 33
percent of the resources allocated to supply chain processes were identified as nonvalue adding (GEAC 1998). On a similar note, a case study on Indian apparel
manufacturer (Singh and Arora 1998) reveals that the percentage of non-value added

77

time is inordinately high in every department, with fabric manufacturing accounting for
89 percent, cutting 65 percent, sewing 82 percent and finishing 76 percent. Fabric
manufacturing takes nearly 80 percent of the total non-value added time in the supply
chain.

2.6.

Information Technology in Supply Chain Management

"With information technology, the value of inventory is quickly being replaced by the
value of information,"
- Kevin Rollins, former President and CEO, Dell Computers
The role of information technology (IT) in managing supply chain is unpredictably
straightforward (Stein et al. 1998). At almost every step, technology had simplified
repetitive tasks and provided greater capacity to gather and analyse critical information
(Gattorna 1998e).

Information Technology also serves as the eyes and ears (and

sometimes a portion of the brain) of management in a supply chain, capturing and

analysing the information necessary (Chopra and Meindl 2005c). The effect of IT
adoption in a supply chain may be classified into three areas; operational, strategic and
financial. Among the operational benefits relevant for the research were better
efficiency and pre-emptive capability (Sethi and King, 1994), faster delivery period
(Hwang and Weil 1998) and evidence of enhanced communication capabilities
(Andersen and Segars 2001).

Application of IT in Apparel Manufacturing Process (StitchWorld 2006) listed

suggested use of IT solutions in design and forecasting, raw material development,
colour management and pattern making for efficiency, accuracy and speed in product
development.

Use of web based forecasting services, illustration and storyboard software enables a
designer to create and share a collection digitally, faster than in the manual mode. The
design team can use fabric simulation software enable to create print/weave/knit fabric
digitally, make digital pattern using CAD, try numerous fabric rendering options
digitally, try the fit of the garment on digital dress forms, and numerous what-if
options thereby saving precious time and money in the PD cycle (Sareen 2006). Lately
videoconferencing is also used by companies to showcase new product collection to
buying and design team in UK backed up by actual fabric swatch couriered earlier
(Whitehead 2001).
78

Pattern making and marker making service is available in cloud-based computing mode
(Assyst 2008, Stitchworld 2005, Lectra 2008) to enable small organisations to apply the
IT advantage without huge capital investment. Tukaweb offered pattern making,
grading, marker making and even fit sample make services to North American and
European retailers through its business process outsourcing (BPO) model (Tukaweb
2002). Any design house in developed economies wanting to outsource its product
development activities can upload the style specification to the Tukaweb site. The
specification is downloaded at a BPO centre in India, China or Vietnam; a pattern is
made, virtually fit tested in 3D model, altered and uploaded back to the web. Apart from
taking advantage of cheap labour wages in new industrialised economies, this model
also uses the geographical time difference to its advantage. For example a measurement
specification submitted at end of the day by a design office at New York can be ready
next morning.
Digitally printing fabric directly from a computer is said to have reduced the sample
making time in actual fabric from 14 days to 4 hours (Gerber 2003). 3D motion
simulator for fit development and fit verification, with colour tension mapping, X-Ray
vision and many other features accurately simulate real fit sessions, with results that are
identical to actual fit sessions but without physical samples. Many retailers have
eliminated physical samples while approving digital samples to save time (Sareen
2008). Now, even the sample fit can be checked on an i-phone and fit comments sent
while travelling. Live video streaming and innovative still photography application over
the net (www.shapelyshadow.com) enables a manufacturer-buyer discussion to sort out
sample fitting remotely. These IT applications enabled PD activity to be more efficient,
accurate, first time right, cheaper, with crucial time saving being the prime
achievement.
Colour approval requires a physical swatch to travel back and forth between buyer and
manufacturer across continents, wasting valuable time. A computerised colour
management system can use a calibrated monitor to approve colour digitally without a
physical sample being couriered. Marks and Spencer reported that a computerised
colour management system enabled them and their suppliers to communicate colour
codes back and forth, reducing physical swatches by 20-25% (DNR 2000).

79

In pre-production, IT solutions are available for cut planning, labour costing, thread
costing, product data management and critical path management (Application of IT in
Apparel Manufacturing Process 2006). Cut planning software replaces the existing
method by a rational/scientific method using an optimal combination of marker and
layer (Jana 1999). Labour costing software enables planning of sewing time (and
calculating labour cost) scientifically, using pre-determined motion time systems.
Product data management and critical path management applications aim to organise
the interdependent maze of pre-production and production activities for every
style/order by maintaining a digital style file, automatic reminders, alerts and a to-do
list. However these IT solutions for pre-production activities are not commonly used by
small and medium organisations (Bheda & Shanbhag 2000). Although use of critical
path approach was reported in numerous publications (section 2.4.2), use of software in
critical path implementation was not found in the literature. At Oxford Industries, the
cost of labour for each garment was lowered by $0.15$0.20 apiece after
implementation of demand planning and production planning solutions from
Manugistics (Hirschkind 2001). Liz Link, Liz Claibornes custom developed ordertracking system, tied the systems together via client-server technology, linking
factories, freight consolidators and customers.

In organisation level applications, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and SCM

software give control over operations, can communicate with all partners in the supply
chain on time, and, most importantly, can analyse organisational data to help in the
decision making process. Using XML (an infinitely extensible mark-up language), one
can operate within ones own systems and use a common mark-up language to share
information with their partners (White 2000). The use of software-based solutions for
supply chain performance improvement was reported by several users like L.L. Bean
and Healthtex. L.L. Bean implemented DAMA-developed software, called TEXNET,
designed to enable the secure exchange of information over the Internet. It facilitated
reduction of stockouts and markdowns for the retailer and reduction of wasted
inventories and reduced lead time (from 70 - 98 days to 28-35 days) for the garment
manufacturer and the textile mill (Vosti and Wimple 1997). Healthtex improved their
on-time shipping to a consistent 85 to 90 percent and reduced raw materials, work-inprocess inventory and finished goods inventories up to 10 percent after RHYTHM
(www.i2.com) was implemented (Hardin 1999).

80

Previous studies regarding performance effect of IT have frequently provided

inconsistent results. While some studies reported positive IT-performance relationship
(Byrd and Davidson, 2003), others provide mixed evidence (Weill, 1992; Yosri, 1992;
Hitt and Brynjolfsson, 1996). In a 1997 KPMG survey of companies with the
experience of introducing new MIS systems, it was found that while companies were
happily installing systems, they were not realising any benefits from them (GEAC
1999).

2.7

Global Apparel and Textile Supply Chain

The global fashion and apparel industry is highly segmented; each segment presents
different challenges and requires a unique supply chain solution (Rushton and Walker
2007). At the lower end, retailers like Wal-Mart, Tesco and Carrefour buy huge
quantities of garments and sell predominantly own brands at low prices. The mid- range
features quality brands and retailers like Levi Strauss, Gap and Marks & Spencer. Hugo
Boss, Ralph Lauren, and Burberry come in the premium range. Retailers have become
increasingly powerful in recent years with Wal-Mart (US), Carrefour (France), Ahold
(Netherlands), Tesco (UK), Metro (Germany), Kroger (US) leading the way. The
combined turnover (including grocery) of these six retailers was US$ 600 billion
(Forbes 2006, quoted in Mintel 2007), more than the global apparel and textile trade.
Globally there is a continual trend to polarise between premium and value retailers
(Mintel 2008). Post 2005, quota free environment had created a level playing field in
global sourcing. However, the growing instances of free trade agreements started
influencing the global apparel supply chain as it favoured business between some
countries while acting as a non-tariff barrier for others.

While the industry is globalised and migratory in nature, it has a curious penchant for
simultaneous consolidation and vertical integration. While product differentiation is the
key, standardised work procedure is the constant drive. As the industry boasts of
responsiveness as a key descriptor of success, it wants to be simultaneously lean. The
apparel and textile industry can be best described as under:

More choice in existing product range, more choice through new products, more
customisation, faster satisfaction of need, freedom to change late in the order cycle,
increasing level of customer service (Macbeth and Fergusson 1994).

81

Global trade in textile and apparel in year 2006 was US$ 530 billion, out of which
clothing was US$ 311 billion (WTO 2007). Global apparel exports are largely
dominated by developing countries from Asia (52.3 percent), Europe (34.4 percent) and
North America (4.2 percent). China leads the country-wise exports at US$ 95.3 billion
followed by the EU at $ 83.4 billion. The EU leads imports at $ 141.2 billion followed
by the U.S. at $ 83 billion and Japan at $ 23.9 billion.
Some of the specific characteristics of the apparel supply chain are:

The apparel and textile industry is migratory in nature. While the design and
concept development takes place in a developed country, i.e. near the point of
consumption, the sourcing and manufacturing facility has continued to migrate
to developing countries in search of cheap labour (Gereffi, 1999, 2001; Dicken,
1998). This multi-country operation required efficient movement of goods and
information. Efficiency of a supply chain will depend on how much time it is
required to design, manufacture and supply the goods to store and at what cost.

The industry has vested interest in planned obsolescence which necessitates

frequent product development (Jones 2006a). The majority of European, North
American and Japanese retailers manufacture a significant percentage of
clothing offshore. Most still launch four to six collections per year (Rushton and
Walker 2007). However, new product introduction of 12 times a year or more is
becoming a common phenomenon for fast fashion retailers (Mintel 2007).
Another important characteristic of the industry is product variety, fashion
content and seasonality. As material flows downstream from fibre to retail, the
fashion content in the product increases, thus SKU diversity also increases
phenomenally (Massey 2000). A typical fashion retailer may have 10,000 SKU
at any given point of time. This adds complexity to operational parameters,
specially in adopting any legacy MRP or ERP system implementation leading to
non-standard product development, sourcing and manufacturing practices across
the industry.

The retailer and manufacturer generally belong to different countries. Both are
generally exposed to different cultural, socio-political and often technological
scenarios. On the one hand, there are large financially powerful retailers (of
$100 million or more average turnover) and on the other, there are small
fragmented manufacturers (of $10 million or less turnover); this results in an
adversarial relationship between manufacturers and retailers, which inhibits best

82

practices and transparency, resulting in the generation of supply chain

inefficiencies. (EMAP 1998/99. p 154 cited in Jones 2006).

The apparel supply chain is driven globally by large self-centric retailers, whose
sourcing criteria differ from company to company. Different buyers seek
different products, have different clients, different approaches to business,
different core competencies and different levels of willingness to give up control
and allowing manufacturers to take responsibility of more functions in the value
chain (Lezama et al. 2005). There is very little sharing of knowledge across
organisations. Every organisation feels proud to be different from others.

Large self-centric retailers want to be uniquely different from each other in sourcing
criteria, but high SKU and frequent new product introduction pose operational
complexities. Thus one of the greatest challenges faced by the industry is how to
achieve excellence in product development.

The textile and apparel value chain is organised around five main parts: raw material
supply (including natural and synthetic fibres); textile manufacturing; production
networks made up of garment factories (including their domestic and overseas
subcontractors); export channels established by trade intermediaries; and marketing
networks at the retail level (Gereffi and Memedovic 2003). As explained in rationale
(chapter 1.6), the production networks will be investigated, thus emphasised in this
research.

2.7.1 Recent Researches in Apparel and Textile Supply Chain

The word recent in supply chain research is difficult to define due to the pace at which
research is taking place and theories are re-written. Different research initiatives in the
U.S. during the 1990s culminated in development of several standards like VICS
(Voluntary Inter-industry Commerce Standards) and metrics, which are repeatable and
lead companies to measurable benefits. One such tool developed by the DAMA
(Demand Activated Manufacturing Architecture) project is the Supply Chain
Simulation for mid- and high-level planners (Lovejoy and Curran 1999). Supply Chain
Simulation is a computer-based tool for supply and demand analysis that uses supply
chain information exchanged among strategic business partners in a customer-supplier
relationship. Traditional Industry Supply-Chain Simulation (TISS) and Collaborative

83

Industry Supply Chain Simulation (CISS) models were developed. These models
include additional logic to model both lead-time and inventory cost. The CISS and TISS
models are used to demonstrate the broader impact of building a supply chain based on
DAMA Architecture (Lovejoy and Curran 1999). Research in Europe focussed on
structural changes and technology intervention for lead-time compression in fabric
supply (Forza and Vinelli 2000), the role of intermediaries (Popp 2000) and different
sourcing methods.

Different types of products require different sourcing approaches, though their

percentages vary in different countries, but a common trend noticeable across the U.S.
(Abernathy et al. 1999a) and Europe (Oxborrow 2000) is that fashion-basic product
percentage is reducing at the expense of both Fashion and basic products. An Eurovet
study (Walwyn 2002) mentioned four different methods of sourcing for Europe while
Oxborrow classified the same into eight (Oxborrow 2000).

Reversing the trends to outsourcing and offshore sourcing has become significant to the
survival of companies in developing economies from this sector. Design-led supply
chain risk management (McLaren et al. 2002) thus presents a case for recognising
design as more than a creative function but as a platform to manage risk in supply
chains.

Since the Harvard Centre for Textile and Apparel Research (HCTAR) study on lean
retailing (Abernathy et al. 1999a), the debate over lean and agile continues.
Contemporary researchers maintain that a commodity product supply chain should be
lean while fashion product supply chain can be agile (Fisher 1997, Abernathy et al.
1999a). A review of supply chain practices in the last two decades (Lam and Postle
2006) reiterated that companies used responsive supply chain strategy for innovative
products and efficiency supply chain strategy for functional products. These two supply
chain strategies are focused on the downstream supply chain aiming at shortening the
time to research the market and also to reduce stock levels in the retailing industry.
However, recent researches suggest both are not mutually exclusive; instead, the best of
both should be extracted through the leagile concept (Towill and Christopher 2007).
Leagile is where upstream supply is relatively stable but downstream demand
conditions are variable, e.g. in fashion clothing.

84

Lean logistics techniques such as cross docking (synchronisation of delivery from

supplier and picking for store delivery to avoid warehouse storage) has been assisted by
technology as well. Manufacturers ship merchandise to DC in pre-packs required by
each store. The floor-ready merchandise is assorted by laser guided conveyor belts that
read the UPC labels. The re-assorted goods are loaded into trucks at the other end of DC
to the store (Pradhan 2007). The recent concept of fourth party logistics service provider
(Christopher 2006d) enabled by RFID technology will add efficiency and may set new
benchmarks in the logistics service.
Since the ZARA phenomenon hit the fashion industry, researchers are trying to explore
the fast fashion or high clock speed industry. Exploratory research with four Dutch
multinational firms operating in industries with different clockspeeds revealed that,
with increasing clockspeed, the use of inventory as a means of providing slack against
uncertainty decreases, whereas the use of lateral relations increases. Remarkably, the
role of outsourcing is substantial in both low- and high-clockspeed settings, but limited
in the intermediate group. Opposed to this, the role of vertical information systems is
limited in low- and high-clockspeed industries, but substantial in medium clockspeed
firms (Meijboom et al. 2007). Hines and Bruce (2007) summarise the fast fashion
business model in comparison to traditional sourcing.

Table 2.6

Difference between Traditional and Fast Fashion Business Model

Characteristics
Supply strategy

Traditional apparel retailing

business model
Efficiency driven large
volumes planned at lowest
total cost.

Manufacturing
operations

Outsourced to a number of
different supplying contractors
based on best prices (often
globally). Do not own their
supply chain but need to try
and
control
it
through
standardised systems, policies
and
procedures.
Larger
organisations are bound to
exert pressure.

Lead Times

Long lead times: 12-16 weeks

fabric, 6-10 weeks apparel
production,
2-3
weeks

Fast
fashion
retailing
business model
Responsive
to
customer
demand. Small-and medium
sized volumes in response to
customer identified by store
data
Backward vertical integration
enables organisations like Zara
to manage closely the different
supply chain operations from
design to store. Own much of
their supply chain. What they
do not own is closely
controlled and relatively local
in Spain, Portugal and
Morocco with short lead
times.
Short lead times: 8-10 days on
some lines, most within 15
days including store shipment.
85

shipping times
Forecast well in advance of the Forecast much closer to season
selling season.
and heavily influenced by real
time demand data transmitted
from stores.
Replenishment
Inventory
levels
trigger No replenishment when its
automatic
replenishment gone its gone; move onto the
orders from suppliers at pre- next hot fashion.
agreed contract prices
Fabrics
(textile Various fabrics produced to Mainly
standard
greige
chain)
specification by Textile Mills, fabrics, piece-dyed to seasonal
12-16 weeks lead times, colours in demand.
production has to be booked
well in advance.
Source: (Hines and Bruce 2007)
Demand based on

Turning away from operational systems, a research interestingly reveals that for fashion
supply chain organisation and management between the U.K. and China, attention
should be focussed on improvement of three common aspects that could inhibit
performance: deficiencies in design specification, language barriers, and cultural/human
barriers (Chen et al. 2007). Retailers ignoring ethical issues risk a backlash against the
true cost of clothing. Value-oriented companies do not want to make an issue of this,
but ethical issues are an important point of difference for which people are prepared to
pay a premium (Mintel 2008). Continuing the trend among manufacturing companies to
reduce supplier base (Macbeth and Fergusson 1994), retailers are reducing supply base
as it is easier to develop trust/relationship on a long term basis for investment in
systems and technologies to improve overall efficiency.

This is a clear departure from the previous understanding of SCM and its associated
theories (agile supply chains, JIT, QR etc) which have been largely supply driven
concepts. Although some may argue that QR is a market driven concept, the key
difference in fast fashion is that it is a concept derived as a direct consequence of
changing expectations and demand from consumers, compared with QR which was
developed as a result of supply needs in the face of low-cost competition. Fast fashion is
so much in demand that retailers are doing every bit to keep ahead of competition. To
compete in fast fashion, the Limited cut the length of supply chain by dropping the
distribution network and developed a relationship with Li & Fung, a supplier
conglomerate from HK (Li 2007) to adopt a build-to-order and replenish-to-sale
business model. Fast fashion actually is placing pressure on supply chains to increase
the number of suppliers (rather than rationalising the number of suppliers) used by
86

retailers. Consumer demand is for a larger variety of styles that are changing more
frequently (Barnes and Greenwood 2006).
Product development and quality control are being eliminated from the supply chain
process in an effort to be more responsive to consumer demand. . . . there isnt time
for product development in a six week cycle, or whatever it is for fast fashion. . . The
retailers and manufacturers both have to say this is fast fashion, what do we have to
compromise on or sacrifice to get the right product but get it to store fast? We
sometimes have huge quality issues with garments that have maybe skipped a test or fit
session to get into the shops quicker as the lead times we have been given are very
tight.
(Barnes and Greenwood 2006)

It could be concluded that consumer demand is such that they are willing to sacrifice
some elements of quality and design content and corporate social responsibility issues
(when factories are running late to deliver fast fashion on time) in favour of having a
particular style or look faster to consumer. (Barnes and Greenwood 2006).

2.7.2 Indian Apparel and Textile Supply Chain

Raman (1995) documented the supply chain for woven fabric apparel in India, which
shows how the different players from cotton firms to shipping agencies are linked in
the apparel supply chain. A basic apparel and textile supply chain structure for India by
Chandra (2006) from fibre to retail distribution channel given in Appendix III will
explain how the textile and apparel are interlinked. However, the structure lacks depth
in apparel and downstream portion. As the scope of the research is contract
manufacturing supply chain in India, primary focus will be on the apparel manufacturer
and its supplier and customer network. The scope of research is marked by the shaded
areas in the following figure. (Figure 2.20).

87

Figure 2.20

Sourcing and Manufacturing in Supply Chain

Freight
Forwarders

Trims
Cash Flow

Trading Partners

Fibre

Yarn

Material flow

Fabric

Apparel

Textile Testing

Retail

Consumer

Information Flow

From the above figure it is clear that fibre and yarn in the upstream section and retail
and consumer in the downstream section are out of the scope of this research. Primarily,
there

are

apparel

manufacturer,

fabric

supplier/manufacturer, trim

supplier/

manufacturer, which are called echelons in the supply chain.

The term distribution channel is commonly used to indicate how the merchandise is
distributed to the end consumer by a retailer (chapter 2.1.3) after procurement from a
manufacturer. The channel through which merchandise is procured by a retailer from a
manufacturer can be called procurement channel. Figure 2.21 shows an example of
multiple procurement and distribution channels for exporting mens shirt for a Western
European buyer.

88

Figure 2.21 Procurement and Distribution Channel for Men's Shirts for West
European Buyer
Manufacturer Exporter

Importer and Agents

ImporterWholesalers and
Buying Syndicates

Small Independent
Retailers

Domestic
Manufacturers

Commission Agents

Large Independent
Retailers

Multiple Retailers
(Department Stores)

Consumers

Source: Effective marketing to UK, US and Japan; Dr. D.O. Koshy

Figure 2.21 shows only multiple options of sourcing and distribution. However, if the
link is expanded further and micro-details looked at, then there are intermediaries like
agents/distributor/wholesaler and secondary players like testing services and
subcontractors, who play an important role in the flow of information and material. A
comprehensive picture of contract apparel manufacturing supply chain with information
and material flow is given in figure 2.22.

Figure 2.22 shows that between an apparel manufacturer and retailer, there are
intermediaries for procurement of buying agencies, liaison office, importer, central
buying office, etc. Information flows between apparel manufacturer and retailer via
these

intermediaries.

The

material

flow

takes

place

through

either

wholesaler/distributor or directly through the retailers distribution centres (DC). If the

information or material flow passes through an intermediary, where the intermediary
has a role to play, it is shown with an oval in the flow path. The figure shows multiple
options of information and material flow between any two echelons.

89

Figure 2.22

Indian Apparel Manufacturing

91

For procurement of fabric, there are intermediaries between the apparel manufacturer and
also the fabric manufacturer; however, there are cases where an apparel manufacturer
directly procures fabric from the manufacturer. Trims and accessories are either procured
directly, or through agents or trim consolidator in case of imported items. The information
often flows via fabric suppliers/agents; however, the material was delivered (material flow)
directly from the fabric manufacturer to the apparel manufacturer. Similarly, information
flows through a buying agent or central buying office, but shipment flows directly to
retailers warehouse.

Large manufacturers may have in-house embroidery and or garment processing units, but
in the case of small and medium exporters, these activities are often outsourced. The unique
strength of Indian merchandise is value addition through hand work, which is again
outsourced. There are third party service providers like freight forwarders, material and
garment quality inspection agencies and compliance agencies.

While strength of Indian manufacturers is product development (2.3.2) it was seen that preproduction activities are delayed beyond schedule, thus putting pressure on cut-sew-finish
activities (Angrish 2002, Bhat 2001). Even in case of delivery date extension (increased
lead time) the actual production time (cut-sew-finish activities) generally remains
unchanged (Angrish 2002, Naik 2000). While delivery date extension is not possible the
actual production time (cut-sew-finish activities) is often reduced to accommodate
stretched pre-production time resulting compromised process and product quality (Naik
2000, Banerjee 2000, Hinduja 2003, Bhat 2001).

2.8

Summary

Section 2.1 discusses how information and material flow influences supply chain
collaboration. Mason-Jones and Towill (1999c) concluded that moving the information
decoupling point as far upstream as possible, by ensuring access to undistorted market
order information to all members of a supply chain, has beneficial consequences for supply
chains as a whole.

92

Section 2.2 discusses the evolution from vertical integration to partnership, their
comparative advantages and disadvantages in the context of supply chain collaboration
among trading partners and lead time compression. Advantages of better control and faster
communication from vertical integration can be explored for vertically integrated
organisations, whereas literature does not report any tangible link towards lead time
compression. Literature reports a rising trend of geographically dispersed vertically
integrated operations that tend to benefit from global core competencies while
simultaneously enjoying the benefit of vertical integration.

Section 2.3 discusses product development in global and Indian apparel industry context.
PD in apparel means more of more of market research and marketing analysis and less of
idea generation, product design, and detail engineering (Trot 1998). The Indian industry
requires improving its product development efficiency, especially the pre-production
approval processes, literature on concurrence and/or collaboration has established its
proven record to improve product development efficiency through reduced cost and faster
time to market, among various other benefits. This paved the way for exploring
collaborative and/or concurrent product development in the Indian apparel manufacturing
scenario.

In the retail industry, postponement of product development process offers the possibility
of customers to collaborate in the product development process. However, as the scope of
this research is focussed towards garment manufacturers, the postponement strategy in
product development could not be explored.

Section 2.4 discusses several supply chain optimisations techniques and analyses the
possibility of exploring them as a time compression tool. Postponement strategy was found
to be useful for shifting the point of differentiation as late as possible and thus altering the
value addition curve in such a way that the bulk of the cost is added as late as possible.
Although postponement of the PD process can lead to a mass customization scenario,
where customers are collaboratively developing the product, there is no scope for lead time
reduction.

93

The critical path method was reportedly used for conformance to pre-production milestones
by U.K. and U.S. buyers on manufacturers in Hong Kong, Turkey and India. While critical
path was a commonly used application it was rarely used from the standpoint of operation
research logic. It is probable that oversimplification of the critical path method by using
start-lag time and pushing all activities into the critical path has taken scientific logic away
from it. Even though the critical chain was found to be more aligned towards application in
human controlled projects, (like garment manufacturing supply chain), and effectively used
for time compression in project management, no literary reference was found about its
application in garment industry. This makes a strong case for exploring critical path and
critical chain in apparel manufacturing.

Lean philosophy focusses on waste minimisation and is centered around creating more
value with less work. While its value stream mapping tool may be a useful technique to
identify and measure value added and non-value added activities in the manufacturing
cycle, other techniques like Five S, Kanban (pull systems), and poka-yoke (error-proofing)
do not offer substantial scope in lead time reduction of the manufacturing supply chain.

Several inventory management techniques in the apparel industry were discussed. Vendor
managed inventory and consignment was a common practice between retailer and
manufacturer, While both JIT and consignment try to minimise inventory level, in the
former approach both possession and ownership of physical inventory remains with the
supplier (and delivered to manufacturer just when needed), whereas in the latter approach,
possession of physical inventory is with the manufacturer but ownership remains with the
supplier (and billed just when consumed). To practice JIT, manufacturers scale of
operation was important to leverage relations with the supplier and geographical proximity
was found important, whereas for consignment, it is of less significance. While JIT is more
accepted practice in manufacturing environment, literature on consignment between the
apparel manufacturer and their suppliers is rare. Although inventory management
techniques are found to be effective in making the supply chain lean, they have no role in
lead time compression.

Within the fashion industry, quick response is centered around the notion of minimal preseason ordering, taking advantage of improved speed and flexibility in the supply chain by
94

placing more frequent, in-season, small orders. While QR was primarily initiated to supply
small volume, high fashion orders with minimum inventory, this was also an effort to retain
the manufacturing industry in developed countries. Unlike many neighboring countries, the
Indian apparel manufacturing industry offers higher PD potential (ApparelOnline 2007a)
and is increasingly asked for by customers for responsive and smaller batch production
(ApparelOnline 2007b, Jones 1999). Indian manufacturers require to develop quick PD
capability, achieve higher sample conversion rate, reduce iteration in approval and produce
with lower throughput time. While the make through system of production in NCR (Bheda
& Shanbhag 2000) can make the garment in least throughput time, PD and pre-production
activities are slow and require reduction of lead time. Thus identification of delaycontributing activities in manufacturing cycle, measuring durations of those activities,
locating reasons behind delay and suggesting means of reducing it justifies the third
objective (section 1.5).

The lead time reduction technique discussed can be further classified into four different
categories based on the engineering procedure being adopted: elimination, compression,
integration and concurrence (Towill 1996). The elimination, integration and concurrence
technique often requires agreement from other supply chain echelons to implement. As the
scope of the research (section 1.5) was to develop a generic solution which can be applied
across industry, it was decided to choose the compression technique for longitudinal
research. Critical path and critical chain were also found to be a compression technique to
lead time reduction (Towill 1996), thereby making it an ideal option to choose for
longitudinal study.

Section 2.5 discusses different value analysis techniques and appropriateness of using the
same for measuring value added and non value added tasks in manufacturing cycle. Value
stream mapping was selected for longitudinal study.

Section 2.6 discusses the role of information technology in collaborative product

development and in supply chain optimisation. It was discussed how web based marker
making applications and CAD process outsourcing are helping organisations across the
globe to collaborate in the PD process. It was also discussed how CAD process outsourcing
in different geographic time zones can reduce cycle time. It was shown how quicker and
95

more accurate data capture and electronic data interchange (Towill 1996) help supply chain
optimisation by time compression through re-engineering interfaces between successive
processes or through removing time within a process.

Section 2.7 discusses the challenges of Indian supply chain in the background of global
parameters. On the one hand, large self-centric dominant retailers (assumed leadership
position) wanted to be uniquely different from each other in sourcing criteria, while on the
other, increasing SKU and frequent new product introduction pose operational complexity.
Indian small and medium companies with decentralised manufacturing set up and
traditionally weak in sample development faces the greatest challenges is achieving
excellence in product development and order execution.

96

Chapter Three
3.0

Research Design and Scope

In this chapter, various research methods have been presented to demonstrate skills in
selecting appropriate methodologies to achieve the outcomes stipulated in the objectives.
Discussion on each objective (section 1.5) is taken up individually and structured in three
steps:

Information required to achieve the objectives.

Sources extant for collecting that information.

Review of investigative tools and techniques required to select the right options for
acquiring information from those sources.

The research tools and techniques are critically evaluated in terms of philosophy,
approaches, strategies, time horizons and data collection methods (Saunders et al. 2007a)
and the rationale for selection decisions is given separately for each objective. Selection of
sample population and investigative tolls is discussed commonly for all objectives.

Research design depends on the topic and scope of the research, the population and the
researcher himself (Saunders et al. 2007a). The broader topic in this case is the apparel
manufacturing supply chain, the scope is the production lead time for contract apparel
manufacturing supply chain, the population comprises apparel manufacturing organisations
in NCR, India and the researcher himself is an academic scholar operating in this
environment.

3.1
To achieve the first objective (To develop a full understanding of the Indian apparel
export manufacturing industry and its supply chain network), it is necessary to collect
information about perception/understanding of SCM among small and medium export
manufacturing enterprises, their business infrastructure and the current manufacturing
practices in terms of sourcing, product development, planning, and execution. The sources
for this information are likely to be the senior operation/production manager, the
merchandising manager, the purchase manager and the quality assurance manager. While
97

some information has to be extracted from several documents of the organisation (the
attributes), the rest are personal viewpoints and thus opinion-based.

Since the survey was neither to prove any scientific principles nor establish any theory with
data, the inductive approach was thought most suitable as it would give an insight of the
human aspects and also a closer understanding of the research context through collection of
qualitative data. Even though a survey strategy is usually associated with a deductive
approach (Saunders et al. 2007a), this survey was used to cover a reasonably large and
representative section of the industry.

Investigative tools and techniques available to collect information are secondary data and
observation, semi structured and in-depth interviews, or questionnaires. As the type of
information to be collected tends toward characteristics of the organisation, processes and

opinions of senior executives, it is unlikely to be available as a secondary data source.

Since the objective was to unearth more organisational characteristics and executive
opinions rather than the behaviour of the organisations or persons, the observation method
of data collection, more appropriate for longitudinal surveys, was not selected. The choices
left for data collection are either semi- structured and in-depth interviews or use of
questionnaires.

From the literature survey, it was found that the sample population of SMEs are mostly in
NCR (section 2.7), with a hierarchical organisation structure (section 2.7), and from the
point of view of the research question, it was clear that the nature of research was
descriptive. Semi-structured and in-depth interviews are more appropriate for explanatory
and exploratory research respectively (Saunders et al. 2007b), therefore the questionnaire
method was selected as most appropriate for the survey. As long questionnaires are best
practised as structured interviews (Oppenheim 2000), it was planned to administer the
questionnaire as a structured interview, where the questionnaire was carried by hand to the
sample organisation by the research assistant and explained to the person concerned to
ensure that the right person had responded. In most cases, the questionnaire was filled up in
the presence of the interviewer; however, a few were allowed to be filled up by
organisation in the absence of interviewer and sent back to him later. The structured
interview, in its true sense, was not followed as it would have required personal visits by
98

the researcher to all sample organisations. Multiple visits to single organisation were
envisaged, as the sources information were multiple and it was unlikely that all persons
would be ready with all information during a single visit. From the three types of data
variables in any questionnaire, namely opinion, behaviour and attribute (Dillman 2000), the
questionnaire was designed to collect mainly opinion and attribute-related information.

The sample population should be typical small and medium size companies, i.e., with
turnovers between GBP one to ten million (section 2.7); having their own manufacturing
facility as well as outsourced capacity (section 2.7); and carrying out business with both
EU and US customers. The sample of representative companies was selected for data
collation by purposive or judgmental sampling method. Having established that SMEs were
mostly in the NCR (section 2.7), working with mainly European and US customers either
directly, and/or through buying offices / importers (section 2.7), it was decided to conduct
the survey on SMEs of the NCR.

3.2
To achieve the second objective (To analyse the variability of processes within the
network and develop best practice methods), it was felt necessary to study all possible
variations of the product development process that exist in the Indian contract
manufacturing scenario (section 2.3.2). It was clear from the literature that the variability in
PD processes in apparel manufacturing depended on the country being exported to (section
2.2.4), retail distribution channels (section 2.2.4), merchandise type (section 2.3.1) and raw
material used (section 2.3.2). The information required is the step by step process flow
diagram of product development that does not exists in any kind of written records, but as
knowledge and experience with executives at manufacturing and buying organisations. The
data can be collected through cross sectional survey of the executives or longitudinal
observation. Since longitudinal observation would take much longer, the cross sectional
survey was thought about.

As data collection would involve clarifying the how and why of the process, the
interviewee should be an experienced senior level executive and the sample population
should encompass all possible variables. A Focus group is a specific purpose group
interview with a higher level of interviewer-led structure and intervention (Saunders et al.
99

2007c). The investigation in this case was about the product development process through
interviewing a number of experts. The strategy to be adopted was survey, as the
investigation in this case was about particular contemporary phenomena (the product
development processes), to be investigated using multiple sources of evidence, i.e. the
experts (Robson 2002a). In order to get representatives from different geographical
locations and for a variety of merchandise, focus group discussions involving a cross
section of experts were thought of.

The focus of data collection was to understand what was happening in each critical case so
that logical generalisations were possible (Saunders et al. 2007f). This would fulfil all
sampling requirements while keeping the sample size to the minimum. Since the select
group has to be important to make a point (Saunders et al. 2007f), the critical case
judgemental (purposive) sampling was chosen.

3.2.1
To rationalise the number of sample approvals, it was necessary to define the sample
approval steps (what?), the need to identify different sample approval processes that
currently takes place (how and when?) and the relevance/necessity of each process (why?).
Such information would be available with industry executives with reasonable experience
who worked with multiple-product type of organisations (preferably), dealt with customers
from different geographical locations and different retail distribution channels. The sample
population in this case comprised executives from various organisations fulfilling the
criteria above. A Focus group discussion was thought to be most appropriate method;
however, it was administered in a slightly improvised manner. Although the parameters of
selection of the organisation remained more or less similar to the earlier objective, a few
new samples (both organisation and executive) were selected for two purposes:
1. To get a non-biased, non-institutionalised outsiders point of view (not linked with
the earlier objective of rationalising the PD process).
2. To extract opinions of executives who were more hands on to get an operational
rather than strategic point of view.

100

It was then realised that it was not possible to organise a Focus group survey related to
geographical locations of the samples selected. Moreover, the samples might have required
consulting with other people in the organisation while finding an answer for the rationale
behind the different sample approval processes. Accordingly, the Focus group survey was
conducted among a cross section of industry through an open-ended questionnaire followed
by a meeting tte--tte wherever possible, to understand the relevance of sample approvals
in the PD process. Open-ended questions (Dillman 2000) allow respondents to give
answers in their own way (Fink, 1995). Easterby-Smith et al. (2002) also pointed out that
the use of open questions helped in avoiding bias. This mixed mode improvised research
methodology was selected to realise the best possible outcome. Here data is first collected
and a theory is developed as a result of data analysis and interpretation. The research
philosophy used is Interpretive and approach followed Inductive.

3.3
To achieve the third objective (To evaluate and measure delay-contributing activities in
manufacturing cycles, analyse the reasons behind such delay and suggest means of
reducing it), information was required about each and every activity in the manufacturing
cycle:
1. Clear identification was needed of pre-production and production activities in the
manufacturing cycle.
2. The duration of each activity was to be measured.
3. Activities causing inordinate delay were to be identified.

The possible sources of information are departmental record books (issue and receipt), style
registers, fax records, e-mail records, courier records, goods received notes in the
warehouse as well as executives working in design, sampling, merchandising, purchase,
planning, production and quality areas. As the researcher needed to observe, search records
and collect information by asking executives questions, it was felt that a case study would
be the most appropriate technique for data collection in the pilot stage. As data required
here was neither an organisations viewpoint nor documented as readily available
information (fact sheet) in the factory, the data collection methodology assumed
importance. It was decided to first carry out longitudinal pilot case studies with a few

101

organisations to understand how best data could be collected, followed by a cross sectional
survey through structured observation in a number of organisations.

Pilot case studies were conducted to define subject parameters (data to be collected), and
process parameters (mode of data collection). As maximum activities are expected to be
human-oriented tasks (rather than machine-oriented), analysing common human practices
(during the pilot case study) and devising a simple easy-to-use data collection format (for
the survey) are felt necessary.

Structured observation and interviews are conducted over a period of time to measure preproduction process time in a manufacturing cycle. After a pilot case study is over, the data
collection format is finalised. The structured observation is quantitative, yields highly
reliable results and can be delegated after suitable training (Saunders et al. 2007d). The task
of data collection for a survey through structured observation was delegated to executives
for outstation organisations. During the pilot study, data was collected by tracking how an
order was being progressed from the date the order was placed till the shipment was
trucked out of the factory.

During the pilot study, one order was selected from each organisation, PERT network
(section 2.4.2) was prepared for each order, actual start and end date for every task was
recorded to understand how PD, pre-production and production activities were executed in
an organisation. One particular order is considered as one sample and variations in activity
sequence and activity duration were due to merchandise type and/or retail distribution
channel (section 2.3.2). It was decided to collect information from multiple orders from
multiple factories to have representative data about the industry.

3.4
To achieve the fourth objective (To identify and evaluate value-added and non-valueadded activities in the manufacturing cycle) information is required about each and every
micro-activity of a manufacturing cycle. Firstly, there needs to be clear categorisation of
activities into value-added (VA), non-value-added (NVA) and necessary non-value- added
(NNVA) and secondly, the duration of each category is required to be measured accurately.
The data required here is neither the organisations viewpoint (which can be collected
102

through a questionnaire survey or interview) nor documented in organisations as readily

available information (fact sheets). Instead, only factual info is required. The study is about
capturing the duration of in-house activity by continuous observation and time study. For
out-of-workplace activity, duration is measured by tracking each and every conceivable
completion of micro-activity and recording time taken against it. For example duration of
pattern making to be measured by actual physical presencet while the pattern is being
made, observing the task and noting down the start and end time. Similarly for lab dip
making activity, the researcher has to note down the accurate date and time when
information was conveyed to the dyer and when dyed swatches reach the manufacturers
office.

Maximum activities to be tracked are expected to be human-oriented tasks (rather than

machine- oriented), either executed in-house or out-of-workplace, either skill-based or desk
jobs. As the activities of multiple orders need continuous observation (for in-house
activities) and tracking (for out-of-workplace activities), the most appropriate time horizon
for the case study should be longitudinal and data collection method should be structured
observation.

The sample organisation should have small to medium turnover, truly representing the
typical Indian exporter (section 1.3) working with multiple procurement channels; small
and medium buying office, importers abroad as well as direct export, working with a mix
of out-of-workplace fabrication and in-house own manufacturing. As continuous
observation would require willing and co-operative upper management, typical case
purposive sampling was thought as most appropriate.

A simple easy-to-use data collection format was devised accordingly. The format with
explanation to specific organisation executives will enable simultaneous data collection for
multiple orders.

3.5
To achieve the fifth objective (To evaluate the applicability of different optimisation
techniques to reduce lead time in the manufacturing supply chain), three optimisation
techniques were studied, namely collaborative product development, critical path/critical
103

chain application and avoiding intermittent work interruption. Three separate subobjectives have been set for this objective.

3.5.1
To explore feasibility of lead time compression through collaborative and concurrent
product development (CPD).
The aim of data collection was to understand what was happening in each case so that a
logical generalisation could be made (Saunders et al. 2007f). To achieve the objective,
information is required about whether multiple organisations carry out activities as a team
where information is shared in such a manner that decision making is by consensus,
involving all perspectives in parallel, right from the beginning of the product life-cycle.
Information is likely to be available with executives of the apparel manufacturer, suppliers
of accessories and fabrics, value-addition service providers and the buying office (and/or
buying agents). The study is to explore co-operation and team values between the apparel
manufacturer, supplier and customer. The information required is all that actually happens,
the how and the why, and unlikely to be available in documented format or through a
questionnaire survey. It could be obtained through a Focus group interview with selected
experts. Wherever a Focus group was not possible due to non-availability of experts for
joint discussion, expert knowledge elicitation was used by talking to experts on the subject
separately.

Exploratory studies in a cross sectional time horizon are a valuable means of finding out
what is happening, to seek new insights (Robson 2002b). Its great advantage is that it is
flexible, allowing a researcher to change the direction of research as a result of new data
(Saunders et al. 2007a). It was decided to follow up the Focus group interview with
exploratory case studies using historical data in a cross sectional time horizon to study how
and why actually collaborative and concurrent product development was practised, if at all,
among specific organisations. The case study will help the researcher to decide the
direction of research and whether to go for longitudinal study in the area or not.

104

3.5.2
To study the applicability of critical path and critical chain to reduce the manufacturing
cycle time.
In the first stage of the study, information is required to be collected for a case (an order)
about activity duration, successor and predecessor relationship during set up mode and
actual completion date of each and every activity during the tracking mode. This
information is likely to be available with sampling co-ordinators, merchandisers, pattern
masters and other people in charge of pre-production activities in the organisation. The
study would involve preparation of the PERT/CPM network by the researcher using the
data collected during the set up mode, and briefing the executives involved in the order
about the critical path and critical chain concepts and how to follow up in the tracking
mode while the order is in progress. Data and time is to be recorded as and when activities
are completed over a period of time, therefore the time horizon of the study is longitudinal
and data collection method is structured observation. The research philosophy is positivism
as the emphasis is on objective measurement (Saunders et al. 2007a) and the approach is
deductive. Control was exercised through scientific principles like PERT and CPM.

The second stage of the study was to establish how multi-style critical chain helps
bottleneck management of manpower resources. Information sources and data collection
regarding activity duration, successor and predecessor relationship remains the same as
earlier, however making of the Gantt chart was achieved using software. Different reports
generated from the software about resource utilisation pattern were used as guidelines
during the tracking mode. The software format (input screen) was used for structured
observation and collection of data of multiple orders running at the same time in the
organisation.

Both stages of the study were to provide an illustrative profile using a representative case.
3.5.3
To measure the potential of time saving for skill based activities by avoiding intermittent
work interruption.
In this case, information is required to be collected for skill based activity/activities
regarding start time, interruption time, if any, and end time. All information to be collected
105

in real time about how the executive starts working on an activity and why he/she jumps to
another activity leaving the earlier one unfinished, when he/she resumes the earlier activity
and finishes it. All circumstantial evidence is also to be collected regarding such a practice.
The possible sources of information are executives primarily engaged in skillbased
activities. As such information is unlikely to be readily available in a documented format, it
is to be collected in person as and when it occurs. The structured observation was found to
be the most appropriate method of data collection. As the data to be collected from the
same activity and/or executive over a period of time, a longitudinal study was found to be
appropriate. This study is again to provide an illustrative profile using a representative case.

3.6

Selection of Population/Sample

Sample selection is primarily of two types: probability or representative sampling and nonprobability sampling (Saunders et al. 2007e). In this research, no statistical inferences were
planned from the sample so non-probability sampling was used. Non-probability sampling
can be of different types; quota, purposive or judgemental, snowball, self-selection and
convenience sampling method (Saunders et al. 2007f). The total number of large
organisations in India is around 100 while that of small and medium organisations is
around 2000 (ApparelOnline 2006). It was decided to conduct the survey in and around
NCR due to maximum concentration of small and medium organisations (Bheda &
Shanbhag 2000). Furthermore, organisations deal mainly with fashion merchandise (Trend
Fusion 2005). To develop an understanding of the Indian apparel export manufacturing
industry and its supply chain network, an SCM awareness survey was conducted with a
focus to identify a useful rule of thumb and accordingly a set of 10-30 sample size was
aimed for analysis (The Economist 1997).

The rest of the research can be categorised as exploratory case study. Focus group or
longitudinal research and purposive or judgemental sampling technique was used as the
objective was to select samples that best understood the requirement of this research, cooperated in the study and answered queries. Saunders et al. (2007f) suggest that purposive
sampling may be used following the grounded theory approach. The grounded theory
approach used in pre-production time analysis actually leads to heterogeneous purposive
106

sampling for the selection of organisations for subsequent longitudinal study. For
longitudinal studies, typical case purposive sampling is used to provide an illustrative
profile using a representative case. For multi-project critical chain implementation and
value-added and non-value-added time analysis, sample organisations were selected based
on logical generalisation parameters (Patton 2002). For example, if something happens
with the sample, it will happen with everyone; if the sample is facing a problem, then
everyone will have problems and if a sample cannot understand a process, it is likely that
no one will be able to understand the process.

3.7

Investigative Tools

Data collection and recording was planned using simple spreadsheet (MS-Excel). The
qualitative data (opinion-based) data was simply grouped or averaged to arrive at a
conclusion and quantitative data was analysed using statistical tools (MS-Excel) to
establish a relationship. MS-Excel was also used for drawing single order PERT/CPM
network using autoshapes and connectors. A specialised project management software
(extended trial version) was used for drawing multi-order critical path/critical chain
network and generating different resource utilisation guidelines for managing resource
bottlenecks during the longitudinal study.

3.8

Ethical Procedures

It was inevitable that much of the data collected would involve commercially confidential
information from case study companies, or personal views of senior executives. In order to
ensure open and honest disclosure, care has been taken to keep the people and
organisations involved anonymous, where appropriate.

During the initial survey, the names of the five buying offices sampled to provide lists of
their suppliers were kept anonymous, and only relevant characteristics such as sourcing
country was revealed. This was required to establish the wider context of business for the
supplier organization. The names of supplier organizations that responded to the final
questionnaire were also coded at the request of respondents for reasons of anonymity.

107

However the financial and operational indicators of the companies were presented in a
tabular form to help understand the organisations characteristics.

To achieve the second objective of both understanding of product development processes

and rationalising sample approval processes, focus group selection was based on their
educational background, previous work experience, current job description, variety of retail
distribution channels as well as the different geographical locations they represented. While
the experts were not named, their organisation and designation were revealed to ensure that
selection criteria were justified. The individual experts had taken necessary approvals from
their organisations wherever required.

The third objective was to identify and measure durations of delay-contributing activities in
the manufacturing cycle, and this study was conducted in two parts. First, a case study was
done with three organisations, followed by the main survey of nine organisations. For each
case study, the organisations name was coded (with a fictitious name) at the request of
respective organisation. During the survey, the sample data was actually orders (not the
organisations), and order numbers were generally alpha-numeric coded. The organisations
insisted that as long as the customers name for those orders was not mentioned, the order
code numbers did not require anonymity. Eight organisations out of nine who participated
in the survey agreed to use their names; one organisation where data were collected by a
research assistant, was code-named for anonymity.

The two company case studies to evaluate and measure value added and non-value added
activities in the manufacturing cycle had no objection in allowing the use of their actual
organisation names.

The focus group that discussed various optimisation techniques for reducing product
development lead times consisted of experts from eight different organisations. The names
of the experts were not used in any case. Four organisations were given fictitious names,
while the others were happy to be named: Triburg Consultant, Coats India, Groz Beckert,
and Tukatech.

108

The longitudinal studies conducted to evaluate the applicability of critical path and critical
chain theory consisted of an anonymous pilot to Silvershine Apparels at their request, while
the main study organisation name was retained as Kirat.

3.9

Summary

The overall research philosophy, to a large extent, was interpretive and approach inductive.
Surveys were used as a strategy during the initial stage and case study in the later stages.
The first stage of research was to develop an understanding of the Indian apparel supply
chain through a survey, understanding of the product development process through a focus
group discussion and 'expert knowledge elicitation' to rationalise the number of sample
approvals. The second stage concentrated on cross sectional case study and survey to
identify and measure durations of delay-contributing activities in the manufacturing cycle
and value added and non-value added time in preproduction activities. Once the delay
contributing activities were identified, the third and final stage of research dealt with
different optimisation techniques to reduce lead time in the manufacturing supply chain.
Longitudinal case studies were conducted; first on collaborative product development,
followed by critical path and critical chain application and finally, to measure the potential
of time saving for skill-based activities by avoiding intermittent work interruption.

109

Chapter Four:
4.0

Pilot Studies

This Chapter will cover the pilot studies done through the survey and case study with three
objectives; first, to understand the characteristics of Indian apparel export manufacturing;
second, the variability of processes within the supply network and identify delaycontributing activities in the manufacturing cycle and to measure the duration of those
activities and third, to identify the reasons behind delays and suggest means to reduce them.
Each research objective is presented with its methodology, data collection and analysis in
respect of existing literature and contribution to knowledge.

4.1

Characteristics of Indian Apparel Export Manufacturing

There appears to be some confusion about what the supply chain across the industry is;
whether it is a process, a system or an activity (section 2.1.1). However, the deliverables of
Supply Chain Management unanimously talk about delivering the product at the right
time (section 2.1.1) and literature on apparel supply chain also dwells on product
development as an important component of supply chain management (section 2.7). As
supply chain research is at a nascent stage in the Indian apparel industry (section 2.7), it
was decided that the survey should collect information about perception/understanding of
SCM among small and medium SMEs, their business infrastructure and the current
manufacturing practices in terms of sourcing, product development, planning, and
execution. As SCM bears a different meaning and interpretation to different people (New,
1997; Lummus et al. 2001; Mentzer et al. 2001; Kauffman, 2002, Kathawala and Abdou
2003), it was also decided to include a questionnaire on the opinion about SCM awareness
in Indian industry.

4.1.1 Methodology

The methodology for data collection was survey through questionnaire (section 3.1), which
involves questionnaire design and sample selection. Ten organisations were selected as the
110

minimum (Fink 1995) opportunistically. A pilot questionnaire was done with a total of 39
questions to assess the design of the questionnaire. The pilot questionnaire was thus divided
into four sections, organisation classification; information about the manufacturing unit;
information about merchandise sourcing and information about organisational output.
These four sections posed six, seven, twenty and six questions respectively. After the pilot
data collected from ten sample companies was analysed, it was observed that separate
sections on merchandise sourcing and organisational output were not required and hence
both sections were combined into product development and pre-production planning.
Additional questions were included in all three sections to increase the total to 48 questions
and finalised for the study (appendix IV-A). During the pilot testing, it was also observed
that sometimes respondents scribbled illegibly, with the result that their selection of options
was not clear, making data interpretation incomplete and analysis difficult. Therefore, a
separate feedback form (appendix IV-B) was designed to enable clear and lucid data
collection.

Out of the 48 questions in the final questionnaire, there were 15 questions on opinion, only
three on behaviour and the remaining 30 questions were on attributes. The questions were
divided into three sections: The first section of organisation classification contained nine
questions; information about manufacturing unit another nine; and the last 30 on product
development and pre-production planning. Different parameters in the area of product
development, pre-production planning and manufacturing functions were recorded through
mainly a close-ended type of options. The option types of questions were meant for senior
operation executives to express organisational viewpoints, whereas the attribute type of
questions required referring to some records.

The target was to get data from at least ten different SMEs. There are approximately 1200
small and medium garment manufacturing enterprises in the NCR (ApparelOnline 2006).
Through personal contacts in buying offices (two European, two US and one Hong Kongbased) a list of SMEs that fulfilled the above criteria was prepared. From a list of 117
SMEs, 30 companies were selected at random for the survey. This approximated 10 percent
of the SMEs in the NCR (Subbu 2003). Out of the 30 companies selected and approached,
22 companies responded and 13 could be fully analysed. The rest were discarded due to
incomplete information. Data was collected by sending the questionnaire either by person,
111

by post, or by e-mail (only two cases). Companies were identified by codes to conceal
their identity. All companies were from the NCR, with annual turnover ranging from GBP
0.4 to 8.67 million, working with 15 customers on the average and having a mean unit
value realisation (UVR) of GBP 2.7.

4.1.2 Data Collection

Attribute-based data from all 13 fully analysed companies are presented in table 4.1 while
opinion-based data is summarised in charts.

Percentage value of sea

shipment

accessory
of
Total no.
vendors

Total no. of fabric vendors

Percentage of inhouse
production

Total no. of fabricators

accounts
of
Total no.
(customer)

Value
Average
Unit
Realisation

Turnover in millions of
pieces

Turnover in millions of
pounds

Summary of Selected Company Profiles Being Surveyed

Data for year

Company Code

Table 4.1

B1

2001

0.4

0.17

2.42

50

80

10

N/A

75

B3

2001

2.67

2.67

17

20

75

20

25

50

B4

2001

2.13

2.13

90

10

95

B5

2000

1.6

1.72

0.93

15

20

80

12

20

100

B6

2001

8.67

2.89

18

15

80

10

10

90

B7

2001

3.33

1.5

2.22

20

15

82

17

22

60

B8

2000

8.67

2.6

3.33

20

N/A

100

20

15

85

B9

2001

0.53

0.18

2.96

40

60

30

75

B10

2001

0.53

0.18

2.96

40

60

30

75

B11

2001

4.4

0.85

5.18

33

35

60

20

46

70

B14

2001

2.48

1.06

2.34

26

N/A

N/A

B16

2001

2.63

0.87

3.03

19

N/A

100

10

16

100

B17

2001

3.29

1.58

2.08

10

100

N/A

N/A

N/A

112

Data regarding opinions of respondents was tabulated and summarised so that response to
the questionnaire which essentially dwelt with the potential of improvement in the supply
chain, importance of operational issues in planning, sample conversion rate, sample
approval time, cost of product development, troublesome pre-production activities, and
communication problems in sourcing accessories could be tabulated and opinions
expressed in horizontal bar charts ranked as per importance and/or instances.

Potential of Improvement in a Supply Chain

The respondents were asked to rank potential of improvement of different activities in
Product Development. The concept to style approval zone came out to be of prime
importance in terms of possible usage of modern technology to reduce time. Bulk fabric
procurement and approval of production sample were the next areas of concern. Shipment
transit time, incidentally, was accorded last priority.

Figure 4.1 Potential of Improvement in a Supply Chain

Shipment leaving factory to buyers warehouse
Cutting to packing
Bulk fabric ordering to fabric received in house
Approval of initial sample to approval of production
sample
Product development (concept to style approval) time
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50
Rank of Potential

113

Importance of Different Operational Issues in Planning

While investigating which issues affected planning most, it was revealed that respondents
put style and fabric forecasts as the prime issues. In-house and contract capacity were
found to be less important as the majority of the respondents used contract manufacturers
which provided them flexible capacity.

Figure 4.2

Importances of Different Operational Issues in Planning

Ot her

Capacit y
Cont ract capacit y

Fabric forecast

St yle forcast
0

Ran k of Im portan ce

Sample Conversion Rate

Average sample conversion rate of survey respondents was reported to be 56 percent.

While enquiring about such a low rate of conversion, the majority of respondents rated
price point not accepted as the prime reason. Incidentally, late submission was ranked as
low as the 4th important issue, behind incorrect raw material and measurement and/or fit
problems.

114

Figure 4.3

Sample Conversion Rate

Quality / Workmanship

Price

Late Submission

Measurement / Fit

Raw Material
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

Rank of Importance

Importance of Different Operational Issues in Product Development

When asked what the most important operational issues regarding product development
process were, electronic communication with buyer and management of product
development critical path were cited as strong issues. However provision of rapid costing
with design changes was rated as the most important parameter.

Figure 4.4

Importance of Different Operational Issues in Product Development

Other s
P r oduction liais on
Management of cr itical path
Rapid Cos ting with des ign change
Communicate Des ign Electr onically with buyer
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

R a n k o f I mp o r t a n c e

115

Sample Approval Time

While investigating time requirement at different stages of sample approval leading to the
start of bulk production, respondents felt that the fit to production sample stage took the
maximum time followed by start of bulk production and initial to fit sample.
respondents felt that concept to initial sample took the least amount of time.

Figure 4.5

Sample Approval Time

Starting bulk production

Fit to Production Sample

Initial to Fit Sample

Concept to Initial Sample

8.4

8.6

8.8

9.2

9.4

9.6

9.8

10

10.2

10.4

10.6

Nu m be r of Days

Cost of Product Development

When reviewing different cost components of the product development process,

respondents felt raw material consumed the major cost while labour, communication and
transportation consumed the least.

116

Figure 4.6

Cost of Product Development

Other

Transportation

Communication

Labour

Raw Material Development

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Pe rce n tage of Produ ct De ve l opm e n t C ost

Troublesome Pre-production Activities

When asked about most troublesome activities in the pre-production process, respondents
put achieving washing standard as the most troublesome, followed by the approval of
embroidery and accessories. Care label approval came out as least problematic.

Figure 4.7

Troublesome Pre-production Activities

Care label approval

Accessories Approval

Testing

Washing

Embroidery
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

Rank of Importance

117

Communication Problems in Sourcing Accessories

India, regarded as a value added merchandise supplier, requires various accessories to be

added to the merchandise. The types of problems faced while sourcing those accessories
were then compared and ranked. Communication gaps between supplier-manufacturer,
delayed delivery, and lack of visual reference were cited as the main obstacle.

Figure 4.8

Communication Problems in Sourcing Accessories

Ot her
Lack o f Vis ual
C o mmunicat io n
Delayed
C o mmunicat io n
C o mmunicat io n g ap
at M anufact urer
C o mmunicat io n g ap
at Sup p lier
0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

R a nk o f Ins t a nc e s

Seasonality in Business

While enquired about which are the months the organizations work with up to 80% or
above capacity, around 80%-89% of respondents reported three months; Nov-Dec-Jan are
the busiest, while only 26% to 30% of respondents reported to be working with near full
capacity during June-July. This seasonality in business reflected Indias narrow range of
product offerings, polarized workload in business.

118

Figure 4.9

Seasonality in Business
Monthly Workload

% of Respondents

100
80
60
40
20
0
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Calendar Months

4.1.3 Data Analysis

While attribute-based data was collected for 2001 in the maximum number of cases, the
turnover in millions of GBP varied from 0.4 to 8.67, a fact showing the highly defragmented nature of the industry (section 2.7). Even average unit value realisation is a
consistent 2.7 GBP. Some companies work with a high number (maximum of 33) of
customers to probably minimise the risk of putting all eggs in the same basket. This
resulted in variations in the working process, specially in pre-production processes (section
2.7), as different customers are likely to follow different processes (section 2.7), Even
though all of them produce the majority of the output in-house, it was seen that they
worked with fabricators (for flexible capacity), a reflection of the seasonal nature of the
business (section 2.7). Seasonality in business also another important factor to have flexible
capacity thereby compensating the loss during lean season.

Product development (concept to style) time was identified as the prime area to be
improved, followed by bulk fabric procurement and initial to production sample approval.
As bulk fabric procurement is not directly controlled by the apparel manufacturer, the other
two areas were identified as target areas for improvement. High emphasis on style and
fabric forecast and low emphasis on production capacity indicates the emphasis on value
added stylised garments rather than basic styles, where capacity is generally important. The
119

low ranking of capacity parameters is also indicative of the presence of highly flexible
(subcontractor-based) manufacturing infrastructure, which is also one of the characteristics
of NCR-based manufacturers (section 2.7).

Although communication and transportation are important parameters in the product

development process, the cost involved in those was ranked very low by the respondents,
whereas raw material development was considered as the highest cost contributor in
product development. Apart from raw material and labour, other cost parameters are
difficult to measure and this fact is reflected in widespread variation in percentage; people
simply had no idea! This could also be construed as non-availability of information or lack
of awareness of techniques to measure such costs. Here was a classic case of pitting the
traditional cost paradigm against value of time paradigm. People are simply unaware of
how much money is being spent on communication and transportation. In all probability,
the overwhelming cost of raw material overshadowed the cost of communication and
transportation.
The average cost of raw material in a product is assumed to be around 65 percent followed
by labour at 17 percent and communication and transportation approximately at 9 percent
each. However, the most interesting observed is the variation of perception amongst
respondents; raw material percentage varies from 45 to 80 percent, while labour varies
from a minimum of 5 percent to a maximum of 30 percent. As the cost of transportation
and communication are not separately maintained, the respondents have apparently inserted
arbitrary figures varying from a minimum of 3 percent to a maximum of 20 percent.

The reason behind low sample conversion rate also reflects the cost-centric mentality of
the respondents. The respondents felt the two prime reasons behind poor conversion are
high price and incorrect raw material with incorrect measurement/fit and late submission
coming in third and fourth respectively.

The total time from concept to start of production is pegged at approximately 40 days, and
divided into 4 different stages: concept to initial, initial to fit, fit to size-set and size-set to
production. It is interesting to note that the later stages consume more time on an average
than initial stages. Although average time for each stage ranges between 9 to 11 days, the
variability among data is found to be very high; from a minimum of two days to a
120

maximum of 40 days. Again, this wide variation of data reflects non availability of
information, use of non-standard terminology and/or non-standard sampling procedures and
quite probably, iteration.

4.1.4 Conclusion

It is interesting to note that while the respondents express their concern about the
importance of time, they are equally concerned about controlling costs. Quite often, the
intangible cost of submitting wrong measurement and fit and delayed approval are masked
by the tangible cost of raw material and labour. The survey emphasised the communication
problem during sourcing of material, the inordinately lengthy product development period
and equally specially, the long sample approval procedure, all of which require immediate
redress.

Product development, sample approval during fit and size set and management of the
critical path are the most time consuming activities and need improvement. Subsequent
operational measures taken are all focussed around cost reduction; control and time or
customer service do not get enough importance. For example, cost of communication and
late submission of samples are given negligible importance in cost of product development
and sample approval respectively. Least importance is accorded to shipment time. This
also suggests that Indian apparel manufacturers are mainly involved from the postmerchandising stage onwards, where price is more important than time (section 2.7).

The unanimous view expressed by industry was an investigation of internal activities which
they could influence and control. The focus of any research should be on identifying
parameters that are controllable and techniques which are universally applicable.
Performance measures that rely on government policies or external infrastructure facilities,
over which the apparel manufacturer has no control, need not be core areas of any
investigation. Hence it was decided to investigate the product development and preproduction processes in greater depth. Non-availability of factual data was one of the
primary reasons for incomplete feedback from factories; this is suggestive of the lack of
documentation in industry.

121

4.2

Understanding of Product Development Process

As the outcome of the preceding survey suggests wider exploration of product development
and pre-production processes, and literature (section 2.3.2) also mentions the parameters of
variations in the process, it was decided to carry out a series of interviews and in-depth
Focus Group discussions. The common areas of development are fabrics (texture, design
and colour), patterns (silhouette and fit), and accessories and finishing or wash effects. Raw
material was sourced either directly or indirectly through sourcing agents.

4.2.1 Methodology

The parameters of possible variations in product development and pre-production processes

are retail distribution channel (2.1.3), geographical location of buyer (2.3.1), intermediaries
in the chain (2.2.4), type of merchandise (2.1.2) and type of fabric (2.1.2).

While the approach and philosophy to be adopted was inductive and interpretive
respectively, it was realised that experts from manufacturing organisations had very limited
exposure to the product development process of different retail distribution channels as all
manufacturing organisations (particularly small and medium enterprises) were unlikely to
make different types of merchandise using different types of fabric and supply to different
retail distribution channels, to different geographical locations, through different
intermediaries. Whereas buying agents are generally found to cater to buyers of different
retail distribution channels. Often small buying agents have a bias towards a particular
geographical location due to the expertise they develop (section 2.2.4), whereas large
buying agents are found to represent all variables described above. Therefore, it was
decided to interview senior executives from buying agencies that represents
buyers/brands/retailers of multiple distribution channels. A substantial volume of Indias
exports is to the EU and the U.S. (section 1.3), dictating the selection of the members of the
focus group. Keeping the above factors in mind a five member focus Group representing
four different organisations was identified through critical case purposive sampling.
The selection of experts was based on their educational background, previous work
experience and current job description. The companies where the experts are currently
working were selected based on the variety of retail distribution channel as well as the
122

customers of the different geographical locations they represent. The first expert is senior
merchandising manager at Gap Inc3. India liaison office, a US based retailer. The second
expert is the country manager of H&M4 India liaison office, a Swedish retailer. Gap and
H&M are considered competitors in similar product categories representing the U.S. and
the E.U. The third expert was a merchandiser with Triburg Consultants5, a buying house
representing major U.S. customers as well as a few customers from the E.U. The fourth
expert is a senior merchandiser from Li & Fung6 India office, the Hong Kong based buying
house. The fifth expert was selected for his previous work experience with Shahi Export
House as merchandise manager, handling several customers sourcing mainly through
importers. Shahi Export House is a manufacturing organisation7 having production
facilities in both north and south India, working with major U.S. and E.U. retailers, brands
and importers. All experts involved with the Focus Group discussion were professionally
educated and had 8-18 years of work experience. The type of interview was relatively
unstructured and free-flowing (Zikmund, 2000) while the purpose was thus specific,
focussed, and linked to the exploration, relevance and sequence of process steps for product
development. The Focus Group discussion was documented as a series of parallel and
sequential activities that happen as a precedence diagram. Every activity was discussed
regarding its necessity.

4.2.2 Data Collection

During the lengthy deliberations with the Focus Group, the objective was to find similarity
of processes while identifying the key differentiating steps. The difference lay in working
through an importer and store or for a mail order. It transpired that though there were many
similarities and common processes, the overall activity diagram could be classified into one
of three basic types of supplier/manufacturer network. The product development process
network through an importer has the maximum number of activities (refer figure 4.10). The
product development process network for a Mail Order Catalogue and Brand is given in
figures 4.11 and 4.12.
3

www.gapinc.com
www.hm.com
5
www.triburg.com
6
www.lifung.com
7
www.shahi.co.in
4

123

Figure 4.10

Product Development Process Network for Importer

Material
inspiration in
colour,
silhouette &
texture

Design team
draws
inspiration from
shows/fairs

Develop or
source
accessories

Designer and
technical
team develop
sketch

Sketch sent to
exporter for
sample
development

Exporter
develops
pattern

Developed
acc sent to
importer for
approval

acc approved
by importer

Develop or
source base
raw
material

Developed
swatches
from exporter
arrive at
importer

Raw material
swatches
approved by
importer

Develop
finishes

Finished
effect sent to
importer for
approval

Finished
effect
approved by
importer

Importer
approves fit
samples for
final
collection

First set of
salesman
sample
requested
from exporter

(acc)

Exporter
develops
sample in
alternate fabric
for fit approval

Exporter
makes first
salesman
sample

Design team
presents
salesman
sample to
internal sales
team

Multiple
salesman
samples
sent by
exporter

Multiple (2-32
nos) salesman
samples
requested from
exporter

First
salesman
sample
approved
by design
team

First
salesman
sample
arrives at
importer

Screening of
sample by
sales team

Target
selling
price fixed
by sales
team

Sales team sells

the collection to
Parties

Order
booked by
sales team

Importer
places order
with exporter
based on presold quantity

124

4.11

Product Development Process Network for Catalogue

Fabric trends,
inspiration in
colour,
silhouette &
texture

Designer and
technical
team develop
sketch

Develop or
source
accessories

Developed
acc sent to
cataloguer for
approval

acc approved
by catalogue

Design team
draws
inspiration
from
shows/fairs

Sketch sent to
exporter for
sample
development

Develop or
source base
raw
material

Developed
swatches
from exporter
arrive at
catalogue

Raw material
swatches
approved by
catalogue

Exporter
develops
pattern

Develop
finishes

Finished
effect sent to
catalogue for
approval

Finished
effect
approved by
catalogue

Exporter
develops
sample in
alternate
fabric for
fit approval

Catalogue
approves fit
samples for
final
collection

Photo
sample
requested
from
exporter

Exporter
makes photo
sample in
correct fabric,
accessories &
finish

Multiple (232 nos)

salesman
samples
requested
from exporter

Photo
sample
approved
by design
team

Photo sample
arrives at
catalogue

Merchandise
space allotted
and target
revenue fixed

Multiple
salesman
samples
sent by
exporter

Photo shoot

Target
selling
price fixed
by
catalogue
sales team

Quantity and
delivery
schedule
fixed by sales
team

Catalogue
places pilot
order with
exporter

125

4.12

Product Development Process Network for Brand

Material
inspiration in
colour,
silhouette &
texture

Design team
draws
inspiration from
shows/fairs

Develop or
source
accessories

Developed
acc sent to
design team
for approval

acc approved
by design
team

Designer and
technical
team develop
sketch

Sketch sent to
exporter for
sample
development

Develop or
source base
raw
material

Developed
swatches
from exporter
arrive at
design team

Raw material
swatches
approved by
design team

Develop
finishes

Finished
effect sent to
design team
for approval

Finished
effect
approved by
design team

Exporter
develops
pattern

Exporter
develops
presentation
sample for
approval

Design team
presents
salesman
sample to
internal sales
team

Multiple
salesman
samples
sent by
exporter

Multiple (2-32
nos) salesman
samples
requested from
exporter

sample
approved
by design
team

Presentation

Screening of
sample by
sales team

Target
selling
price fixed
by sales
team

Sales team sells

the collection to
Parties

Order
booked by
sales team

Presentation
sample sent
to design
team

Brand places
order with
exporter
based on presold quantity

126

4.2.3 Data Analysis

Similar to Rochford and Rudelius (1992), it was found that product development
process sequence for commodity garments are more or less a standardised combination
of sequential and parallel processes. There were 18 sequential steps in the longest path
for a store as well as importer, whereas mail order had 14 sequential steps. The fabric,
accessories and fit sample development/approval process happen in parallel while the
rest of the process is sequential. Rather than the sequential process models of Urban and
Hauser, (1980), Gruenwald (1992) and Himmelfarb (1992), or the multiple convergent
model of Bruce and Biemans (1995) where R&D and customer involvement is a part
thereof, the product development process in Indian garment industry involves design,
industrial engineering, marketing and production quite similar to the integrated process
models of Erhorn and Stark (1994).

It was observed in all three product development process flow chart that developed or
sourced fabric, accessories, pattern and finish effect were sent to buyers design team
for approval was followed by the activity where approval/disapproval/approval with
modification received from buyer. The actual process of approval/disapproval/approval
with modification at buyers end was not mapped in the process flow chart. If we
compare product development process flow charts with Plumlees (NICPPD) model
model it was quite clear that while stage four activities are missing in above flow charts.
This is quite interesting due to the fact that as the activities that are not being performed
at manufacturers end will not require any manpower resource however there will be
substantial time delay between the submission and approval received.

For the value added garments activity, steps in pre-production and production process
sequences are quite different than standard cuttingsewingfinishing. Block cut parts
are sent for embroidery/washing and/or printing and after embroidery/printing/washing,
the final cutting is done; Half-sewn garments are sent for embroidery and/or printing
and garments parts are assembled thereafter. Figure 4.4 shows one example of how
production processes are different from the standard cuttingsewingfinishing
operation. Often there is lot of hand work done in between the cuttingsewing
finishing processes requiring additional approval. There are additional steps for sample
approval related to value added work like embroidery/printing/washing appearance/
colour/texture and/or trimming placement. Depending on the style detail, both the

127

number of quality approval steps and their sequence was found to vary, and it was
found that often certain approval steps followed were redundant and important approval
steps missing. From Focus Group discussions it also emerged that different types of
terminology, numbers of samples and sequence of steps were being followed by
different buyers for the sample approval process. Hence it was decided to study the
relevance of sample approval steps in the product development process.

Figure 4.13

Production Process for Value Added Garments

adda embroidery is a kind of hand embroidery where fabric is fixed in a wooden frame of
approximately 44 inches X 88 inches under tension and multiple workers can embroider
simultaneously using a kind of hand needle.

Any initiative and approach towards collaborative development with raw material
vendors is absent in a majority of cases, which emphasises the need for an exploratory
128

case study in the area of collaborative product development. The concept of salesman
sample is dispensed with by a handful of fashion retailers like H&M and C&A. The
crucial time saved is worth taking a risk while bringing a product quicker to the market,
especially for fashion items in relatively smaller quantity Country Manager, H&M
India. (Chawla 2000)

4.2.4

Conclusion

The Focus Group concluded that due to continuous change and unpredictable trends in
fashion garments, the product development process sequence may be the nonexhaustive type and continuously evolving. Thus it would be impractical to rationalise
or standardise the product development process. Instead, rationalisation of the number
of sample approvals may be a feasible step towards rationalisation of the process, thus
shortening the product development and pre-production lead time.

4.3

Rationalisation of the Number of Sample Approvals

As concluded in para. 4.2.4 supra, rationalisation of sample approval process is possibly

the answer to streamlining product development and pre-production processes. The
objective of this study is to find out the rationale behind every sample approval process
and examine the possibility of standardising it.

4.3.1

Methodology

The mode of investigation chosen was again a Focus Group survey (section 3.2.1)
where an open ended questionnaire was sent to select experts. The choice of Focus
Group members was based on judgemental critical case sampling as sample size should
have cumulative experiences of product development and sample approval method
encompassing different product types, different raw material types, different
geographical locations, different retail distribution channels. Sample size (number was
not important as long as all variables are covered) was decided as five. Members from
earlier groups (section 4.2.1) were not considered in order to get a non-institutionalized
and unbiased view. The Focus Group members included a senior merchandising

129

manager from Gap Inc8, India office, referred to hereafter as [A], a merchandise
manager from Li & Fung9 India office [B]; the country manager, H&M10, Bangladesh
office [C]; a senior merchandiser from TMS Indonesia11, a buying office from
Indonesia [D]; a senior merchandiser from Ambatur Clothing Company12, Chennai,
India, a manufacturer of woven garments [E],

and a merchandiser from Texport

Syndicate13, Tirupur, India, a manufacturer of knitwear [F]. The Focus Group

represented buyer/buying agent/importer/manufacturer exporter catering to different
retail formats as well as different product ranges in woven and knitwear.
While the Focus Group meeting with the first three took place in the first round, a
second Focus Group meeting was organised with the other three, based on their local
availability. The agenda points deliberated upon with the Focus Groups were the
requirement of different sample types and prevalent practices of sample approval in
their respective organisations for different customers. Following the Focus Group
discussion, each representative was given a tabular format to fill up (as a re-cap)
assuming four standard sample approval processes, namely, prototype, fit, size set and
pre-production take place for all orders. As the experts of this Focus Group were
geographically separated from each other, answers (to the questionnaire) of one expert
were shared with another expert to create a mock discussion scenario. The tabular
format (Table 4.2) was administered through e-mail and each respondent was given
time to interact internally in the organisation and fill in the form. While some members
filled up the table soon after the discussion, some members took the form to their office
and sent back the filled form after cross checking facts from their official records. The
total study was completed in about 2 months.

www.gapinc.com
www.lifung.com
10
www.hm.com
11
www.tmsfashions.com
12
www.ambattur.com
13
www.texportsyndicate.com
9

130

Table 4.2

Agenda Points for Discussion

Parameters

Proto
sample

Fit
Size set Pre
Sample
production

Any
other?

Number of samples asked for:

Medium size/jumping size, etc.
Including counters.
Fabric to be used
Alternate but same construction
/sampling meterage/bulk fabric, etc.
Whether actual accessories/ labels/
tags/embroidery were used in the
sample.
What is actually being checked in the
sample?
Whether the checked sample is
returned to the manufacturer with
comments? If yes, why? If no, why?
Whether comments are sent by fax/email/courier?
Whether the approval process can
take place electronically? i.e. without
sample being physically couriered.
Can the process be eliminated
altogether?

4.3.2

Data Collection

Data was collected in tabular format from each Focus Group member; however, it is
presented here as a sample-wise summary.

Prototype Sample
Four out of six respondents [A] to [D] replied making 1 sample for buyer, [E] and [F]
reported 2 and 3 samples respectively, and all six reported one counter for the factory.
Five out of six reported using alternate fabric with similar construction whereas [E]
reported actual bulk fabric for the same. Regarding accessories/labels/tags/embroidery
used in the sample, four respondents reported using alternates; two reported use of
actual (except labels & tags). Regarding what was actually being checked in the sample,
respondents reported fit and look, commercial saleability, design and styling,
construction, measurements and in some cases fabric quality as important parameters.
Only two respondents reported that the actual sample is physically returned with
comments while the other four said that the sample is retained with buyers for records
and only comments were sent. The mode of intimating the sample feedback is e-mail
131

with scanned picture for all respondents, while only one respondent reported using fax
for pictures and sketches by courier. All respondents felt that the fit approval can
neither be done electronically (i.e. without sample being physically couriered) nor the
process can be eliminated; only [A] felt the proto approval could be clubbed with fit
approval.

Fit Sample
Four out of six respondents replied making 1 sample for buyer, [C] and [E] reported 2
and 4 samples respectively, and all six reported one counter for factory. [A] & [B]
reported that fit approval was often combined with size set using jumping size. Five out
of six reported using same construction fabric (colour could be different). [E] reported
that the actual bulk fabric was used. Regarding accessories/labels/tags/embroidery used
in the sample, two respondents reported using similar or actual while four reported no
use of accessories. When asked what was actually being checked in the sample,
respondents reported construction, measurements, fit, shape and technical specifications
(seams, stitches). Only two respondents stated that the actual sample is physically
returned with comments while the other four said that the sample is retained with buyers
for records and only comments were sent. The mode of intimating the sample feedback
is e-mail with scanned picture for all respondents, while only one respondent reported
using fax for pictures and sketches by courier. Regarding electronic fit approval, three
respondents felt that fit approval could be done without sample being physically
couriered by using either graded patterns or by tasking the staff, if they were technically
competent to undertake the job.

Size Set Sample

While two respondents said one garment each in all sizes, two others asked for one
garment in alternate (or jumping) sizes. One required pieces in medium size in addition
to all sizes, and the sixth did not require size set at all. While two respondents specified
using bulk fabric, the other four accepted alternate colours in actual fabric specification.
All respondents (except the one who merged size set with fit sample) wanted actual
accessories to be used, with special emphasis on embroidery, wherever required. In
response to what was being checked, they cited various parameters like placement of
accessories, grading of patterns, fitting, measurements, fabric shrinkage, lab test
parameters, etc. While half the respondents did not return the physical sample (only
comments), the other half returned the sample with seal to be followed in production.

132

The mode of communication was the same as for size set, however one respondent
reported mandatory handwritten feedback. Regarding the relevance of the process, half
the respondent felt that the process could be eliminated, while the other half disagreed.

Pre-production sample:
The pre-production sample replies showed that there was no uniformity amongst
respondents: some asked for one piece in every colour, some in every size, some in any
two sizes, some in the same size at fit sample while one respondent called this a sealer
sample. Fabric, accessories and packing material to be used were the actual items. The
parameters checked were aesthetics, packing material and proximity to the bought
sample apart from details of accessories, specification and grading which was already
checked earlier. While everyone felt that this process could not be eliminated, two
respondents linked it with Fit sample performance; they felt that if the fit sample was
approved at the first attempt without any comment, the production sample could then be
skipped.

4.3.3

Discussion and Analysis

A discussion ensued on four aspects: basic processes and terminology, material and
make up, quality control and communication, and value and best practice. Relevance of
each step was discussed in the context of business. A serious complication realised
during this discussion was the diversity in terminology used by the group members. For
example, the typology of samples are multiple and confusing. While prototype sample,
fit sample, size set sample, pre-production sample are standard and commonly used
terms, others such as Presentation Sample, Pre-Proto Sample, Garment Process Test
Sample, AD (Advertise) sample, top of production sample, bulk production sample,
salesman sample, seal sample (gold, blue, red and green seal, etc.); terms like revised
sealer sample, wash sample, embroidery position approval sample, etc., are also used
frequently. It was found that the prototype sample is generally called for in a medium
size with a counter piece (counter sample is an exact duplicate of the sample made and
retained before sending any sample for approval, so that if a comment came by e-mail,
it would be possible to interpret it easily, looking at the physical sample). For mail order
business, instead of a prototype, a photo shoot sample is asked for. A salesman
sample may be required for packing approval.

133

No electronic modes of approval took place. Instead, physical samples are couriered
back and forth every time. Only in a few cases were graded patterns acceptable for size
set approval. Approval/disapproval comments were often received by mail with
accompanying pictures. Alternate fabrics and raw materials were being used even for
size set leading to confusion for the counters kept. Some felt that fit sample and size set
could often be combined for both the retail as well as catalogue businesses, while others
felt that size set and pre-production could be combined. If fit sample/ size set had
comments, then only some retailers called for a pre-production sample, otherwise this
was skipped. While pre-production sample is defined as representing bulk production
in all aspects, in some cases alternate accessories were allowed right up to the preproduction sample, defeating the purpose. Even though comments on sample were
being received by mail, the remedial alteration (as per comment) could start only on the
arrival of the sample by courier.

Everyone expressed apprehension about utility of electronic fitment as replacement of

live model fitting. While two felt electronic fitment may reduce the number of attempts
(iteration), the other four felt that it was far too early for technology to replace live
model fitting (the discussion took place in 2002).

It is important to note that the fabric used for both proto and fit remain the same and
also that the same parameters are being checked repeatedly. A striking similarity was
observed here, in that those who retained the proto sample and sent only comments are
the one who retained the fit sample. No substantial difference between proto and fit
were found in terms of purpose. The group agreed that so many stages of sampling was
probably designed to take care of mistakes at any stage, however when all was well
with one stage, then all subsequent stages might not be necessary.

4.3.4

Conclusion

In summary of the discussion, it could be stated that irrespective of terminology, a

minimum of three stages of sample approval appeared to be necessary. The first stage is
to check the look, silhouette, overall proportion of measurement and construction
details. In the second stage, the sample is checked for fit, measurement and balance
(compatibility between fabric type, drape and measurements). In the third stage, the
sample is checked for size grades, workmanship, all raw materials and accessories and

134

proximity to the first sample. The fact that the concept of salesman sample is dispensed
with by a handful of fashion retailers like H&M, C&A (section 4.2.3) reinforces the
perception of lack of a standardised best practice.

4.4 Summary

This chapter addresses two objectives: firstly, to develop an understanding of the Indian
apparel supply chain and secondly, to develop an understanding of the product
development process. It was established that due to continuous change and
unpredictable trends in fashion garments, the product development process sequence
may be non-exhaustive type and continuously evolving. Thus it would be impractical to
rationalise or standardise the same. Instead, rationalisation of the number of sample
approvals and restricting it to three may be a feasible step towards shortening the
product development and pre-production lead time.

135

Chapter Five: Case Studies

5.0

Case Studies

This chapter principally deals with two objectives:

To evaluate and measure the delay-contributing activities in manufacturing

cycles, analyse the reasons behind the delay and suggest means of reducing it.

To identify and evaluate value-added and non-value-added activities in the

manufacturing cycle.

The methodology used is primarily case studies and survey.

5.1

Identification and Measurement of Pre-production Activities (Case Study)

In order to identify and measure durations of delay-contributing activities in the

manufacturing cycle, case studies of three organisations were followed by a survey
through structured observation in a number of organisations. As the outcome of the case
studies was used to finalise the methodology of subsequent survey, both are covered
sequentially.

5.1.1 Methodology for Case Study

The qualitative requirements laid down for selection of organisations for the pilot study
were that each organisation should have PD functions, pre-production activities
executed by merchandisers, a reasonable number of orders in hand (seasonal business
for number of organisations in NCR, section 2.7.2), and progressive mindset of the
management to share data. The sample organisations would thus be amenable to
purposive sampling, providing an illustration of what is typical of the industry.

Loyal Exports, Case-1, based in NCR with an approximate turnover of US$ six million,
primarily exports to the Japanese market. Loyal Exports specialises in woven tops made
out of yarn dyed fabrics. Delta Fashion, Case-2, an approximately US$ seven million
turnover organisation has its own in-house manufacturing and buying division. Due to
the buying arm, the organisation does a lot of PD. Silvershine Apparels, Case-3, is an

136

approximately US$ five million turnover with exclusive in-house manufacturing

facility.
One order from each organisation was mapped with activity dependency and expected
time taken for each activity. Once an order was selected for mapping, description of all
activities was listed with previous and next activity for each.

As clear demarcation of pre-production and production activities were needed (section

3.3), it was decided and any activity that changes form of raw material irreversibly will
be considered as start of production. It was also necessary to ensure that such activities
are being documented in any form, which can act as a possible source of information
(section 3.3).

It was decided to use the standard formulae for measuring the duration of each activity
(section 3.3). For every activity three different duration times (optimistic time = o, most
likely time = m and pessimistic time = p) were calculated with assistance from
executives from the organisation. Then, expected time duration for each activity was
arrived at using the formula (o + 4m + p) / 6. PERT networks were drawn manually on
MS-word and critical paths calculated for all three orders. The case studies were
conducted concurrently over a period of one and a half months.

5.1.2

Data Collection

Activity data for each order listed all activities with activity no., activity duration and
predecessor and successor activities. Activity data for Loyal Exports order is listed in
table 5.1 and the PERT diagram shown in figure 5.2. A total of 64 activities were split
into two major stages: 30 in PD (activity nos. 1-30), 25 in pre-production and
manufacturing process (nos. 34 to 58). Three activities (nos. 31-33) fall in between, i.e.
sample dispatch,comments thereon and exhibition in buyers country, and six activities
(nos. 59 64) appear in the post-shipment phase. Total number of activities in the
critical path is 36 (shown in red colour), which provides the delivery lead-time of 189
days (from sample making to merchandise at store). It was decided to analyse activities
only up to shipment and ignore the six postshipment activities. Activity data for the
Silvershine order is shown in table 5.2 and figure 5.3 is its PERT diagram. There are 14
activities in the critical path, delivery lead time being 59 days. In case of Delta Fashions
(table 5.3 and figure 5.4), the activities are classified into internal, upstream and

137

downstream activities. Out of a total of 42 activities, 19 are internal, 9 are upstream and
15 are downstream activities. The critical path has 22 activities with a lead time of 90
days.

Apart from order and organization-specific data collection, there were some interesting
insights seen during the study of three organisations. It was found that the majority of
the organisations used MS-Excel to schedule activities against target date, which they
call TNA or critical path. Quite often, the buyer specifies target dates of key activities
and based on those target dates, the manufacturing organisations create their own TNA
calendar adding buffer days (to ensure that buyer target dates are not missed). It was
found that Delta Fashion and Silvershine Apparels each maintained two separate TNAs;
one with a few important activities suggested by the buyer, another one with a greater
number of in between activities (mainly in-house) and brought forward target dates
created by the manufacturer. For example, TNA calendar suggested by a buyer may
have target dates for only five main activities, i.e. approvals for fit sample, size set, lab
dip, bulk fabric, and production sample. A manufacturing organisation-created TNA
calendar may have target dates for a total of 1520 activities like pattern and grading
approval, dispatch dates for all approvals, loading for bulk dyeing, receipt of fabric and
accessories, etc.

Figure 5.1 shows a typical order follow-up sheet using MS-Excel for Delta Fashion.
Five activities, namely labdip, technical sample (fit sample), photo sample, lab test
report and production sample approvals are being monitored for all orders. For all five
activities, there are two columns, one for submission date of sample (sent) and the other
for approval date (approved). Apart from activities, other details of the orders are also
mentioned in the same excel sheet. For every activity, two columns were to be filled up;
actual date of activity starting and actual date of activity completion. Even then, some
data was found missing in the format.

138

Figure 5.1

Order Follow-up Sheet Using MS- Excel

139

Code No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32

Time in days
5.2
0.04
1.08
10
2
5.3
2.1
3
1.2
5.2
10
5.2
0.04
0.75
6.3
0.7
5.2
0.04
1.08
10
2
5.3
2.1
3
1.2
5.2
0
5.2
0
2.5
5.2
5.2

Activity Data for Loyal Exports Order

Description of Activities
Fabric specification from buyer + proforma order
Fabric specification conversion for fabric vendor
Fabric specification courier to fabric supplier
Yarn sourcing by fabric vendor
Yarn dyeing
Yarn warping & weaving
Dyeing
Printing
Sample fabric transported to manufacturer
Sample fabric despatched to buyer
Buyers response to sample fabric
Trim specification sent from buyer
Trim specification conversion for trim supplier
Trim specification sent to accessories vendor
Trims developed by vendor
Trims despatched by vendor to manufacturer
Trims sent by buyer to manufacturer
Conversion of buyer order for fabric vendor
Courier order to fabric vendor
Yarn sourcing
Yarn dyeing
Warping
Weaving
Dyeing/ Printing
Fabric for exhibition samples sent to buyer
Paper pattern received from buyer
Quantity idea given by the buyer
Sewing & packaging spec. received from buyer
Price negotiations
Exhibition sample made
Exhibition samples and seal sample sent
Comment received on seal sample

Table 5.1
Code No
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64

Description of Activities
Exhibition in buyers country
Purchase order with revised paper pattern received
Instruction to trim vendor to start bulk production
Trim production by vendor
Trim shipped to manufacturer
Instruction to fabric vendor to start bulk production
Bulk yarn sourcing
Bulk yarn dyeing
Warping
Machine setup
Weaving
Washing
Calendaring and packaging
Dyeing printing
Fabric shipped to processor
Fabric over dyeing
Production fabric sent to manufacturer
Sample made with production fabric
Sample sent to buyer
Buyers comments received
Cutting of fabric
Garment stitching
Garments finishing
Customs
Delivery to port
Delivery to buyer by sea
Customs clearance in importing country
Transport to warehouse
Rewashing process
Final Checking
Counting distribution and price tag attach
Delivery to each store

140

Time in days
10
5.2
0.5
7
0.5
1.08
15
10.5
5.3
3.6
11.3
5
5.3
3
1.2
1.2
1.2
2.7
5.2
10.5
1.7
9.3
2
20
0.5
34.3
2
1
2
2
3
3

12

13

14

27

15

26

29

28

17

10

11

16

18

19
20

30

25

24

23

22

21

PERT Diagram for Loyal Exports Order

Product Development Process

Figure 5.2

31

32

33

56

35

43

36
37

44

57

55

54

53

46

45

58

49

48

59

50
51
52

47

Pre-production and Manufacturing Process

34

38

39

40

41

42

141

60

61

62

63

64

6
7

9
10

11

12
13

14

15
16

17

18
19

20

21
22

11

10

12

15

16

17

14,19,20,21

Production

Trims approved

Production pattern make

Bulk fabric ready

L/C open

Trims approval sought

Size set approval receipt

Bulk fabric approval

Approval of fit and photo sample

Quota procurement

Size set making

Measurement spec received

Approval of desk loom

Receive desk loom

Fabric order placement

Photo sample submit

Fit sample submit

Order receipt

Display to buyer
Make samples as per buyer
specification (proto sample)

Range

Activity
Sampling

Silvershine Apparels

23

22

22

22

26

21

20

19

18

16

12

15

10

14

14, 17

6,7

5,8,11,13

Next
Activity
2

Activity Data for Silvershine Apparels Order

Previous
Activity

Table 5.2

11

Duration
in days
7

25, 18

18

24

23

Previous
Activity
22

27

26

24
25

23

Ship out

Get LC, quota etc.

Packing

Final inspection

Activity
Mid inspection,

Silvershine Apparels

27

28

25

Next
Activity
24

142

Duration
in days
1

Proto sample

Display
to buyer

Range

Sampling

Figure: 5.3

Size set
making

L/C open

Quota
procurement

Receive desk
loom

Fit sample
submit

Photo
sample
submit

Measurement
spec. received

Fabric
order
placement

Order receipt

Get L/C,
Quota etc.

Size set
approval
receipt

Approval of
desk loom

Trims
approval
sought

Approval of
fit and photo
sample

PERT Diagram for Silvershine Apparels Order

Production
pattern make

Bulk fabric
approval

Trims
approved

Bulk fabric
ready

Ship out

Packing

Final
inspection

Mid
inspection

Production

143

3
4

6
7

9
10

11

12
13

14

15
16

17

18
19

20

21

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Previous
Activity

Table 5.3

Customs clearance

Finishing

Production starts

Lab test approved

Bulk fabric sent to lab test

Bulk fabric Received

Bulk fabric ordered

Buyer approval received

Lab dip to buyer

Lab dip to buying agency

Lab dip to merchant

Lab dip received from mill

Sent to mill

Send to fabric purchase

Fabric swatch received from buyer

Specs/trims detail received

Order confirmed

Quantity specified by buyer

Exhibition by buyer

Sent to buyer

Activity
Meeting sample made (Start)

22

21

20

19

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

7, 23,26,28

Next
Activity
2, 30

Activity Data for Delta Fashion Order

11

Duration
in Days

41

40

36,39

38

37

15

35

34

33

32,25,27, 29

31

30

28

26

25

24

Previous
Activity
21

42

41

40

39

38

37

36

35

34

33

32

31

30

29

28

27

26

24
25

23

22

Buyer approval received

Sent to buyer

Pre-production sample made

Bulk fabric approved

Sent to buyer for approval

Initial yardage received.

Size set approved

Size set to buyer

Size set made

Sent to sampling dept.

Size set spec received

Fit approval received

Fit sample made

Graded & prodn. Pattern made

Patterns received from buyer

Trims arrived in bulk

Bulk order for trims

Approval received

Sent to buyer

Manufacturing sample made

Activity
Delivery to port (End activity)

19

42

41

40

39

38

40

36

35

34

33

32

31

33

29

33

27

33

25

24

Next
Activity

10

Duration
in Days

144

Lab dip to
merchant

Lab dip received

from mill

Sent to mill

Lab dip
to buyer

Patterns received
from buyer

Fabric swatch
received from buyer

Send to fabric
purchase

Bulk order
for trims

Specs/trims
detail received

Meeting sample
made (Start)

Manufacturing
sample made

Lab dip to
buying agency

Sent to
buyer

Buyer approval
received

Bulk fabric
ordered

Delivery to port

Customs
clearance

Finishing

Production starts

Bulk fabric
approved

Sent to
sampling dept.

Lab test
approved

Sent to buyer
for approval

Size set spec

received

Bulk fabric
sent to lab test

Initial yardage
received.

Fit approval
received

Bulk fabric
Received

Approval
received

Graded and prodn.

Pattern made

Trims arrived
in bulk

Sent to
buyer

Fit sample
made

PERT Diagram for Delta Fashion Order

Order
confirmed

Quantity specified
by buyer

Exhibition by
buyer

Figure: 5.4

Garment test
approved

Buyer approval
received

Sent to buyer

Pre-production
sample made

Size set
approved

Size set to
buyer

Size set
made

145

5.1.3 Data Analysis

64 activities were recorded for Loyal, 42 for Delta and only 27 for Silvershine. The
reason behind this could be multi-fold; the orders selected were fashion or basic
merchandise, value addition in the merchandise and/or the distribution channel being
used (to retail the merchandise). While Loyal Textiles received the pattern from the
buyer, Delta developed their own pattern. While Loyal textile was working on yarn
dyed fabric, Deltas order was solid colour and Silvershine worked on knits. Delta was
involved in design development, Loyal was not. It was also found that while micro
activities (of fabric development) were mapped in the Loyal order, only macro activities
were mapped in the Delta and Silvershine orders. This depended on the companies
internal practice and convenience. For the Loyal order, the critical path time was 189
days spanning 36 activities; in the case of Delta Fashion, critical path time was 90 days
with 22 activities and for Silvershine, only 14 activities were in the critical path of 59
days. In the case of Loyal Exports, it was found that the activities first diverged into
many concurrent activities and then converged as the in-house PD activities got over.
The activities again diverged into many concurrent activities as the pre-production
began and again converged at cutting activity.

The variability between organisations in maintaining details of activities could be

attributed to the lack of record and hypothetical estimation. It was also observed that
none of the three companies had ever drawn a PERT network for any of their orders.
Executives rarely gave too much attention to the interdependency of activities, although
it was found that all three organisations kept a tab on four to five milestone activities in
every order. These milestone activities were generally suggested by the respective
buyers. Although in two cases (Loyal and Delta), executives were aware about the term
critical path method, no one actually knew the correct definition and method of
calculation.

It was interesting to note that in all three cases, sample approval activities were not
found in the critical path. Generally, bulk fabric development and sourcing activities
were found in the critical path. However, amongst the variability of process steps
between the three organisations, there were striking similarities in their PERT diagrams.
In all three cases, it was found that activities first diverged to parallel activities and
finally converged before production started. Fabric spreading and/or cutting could be

146

considered as the beginning of production process, differentiating the earlier process

as pre-production. The number of activities in the production stage were barely four or
five, depending on what level of detail the activities were recorded up to. In some
companies cutting, sewing and finishing activities were separately recorded while in
others, it was recorded as one activity followed by an inspection. Unlike the Loyal
Exports order, where a clear distinction was observed between PD and in-house preproduction process, in the other two cases the PD and in-house pre-production activities
were mixed. From sampling request till fabric cutting activity could thus be termed as
the pre-production stage and cutting to shipment (out of factory) could be termed the
production stage.

In the case of the Loyal order, only 14 days (4 activities) was production process out
of 189 days of manufacturing lead time. For Silvershine order production process was
for 15 days (5 activities) out of 59 days and for Delta, 13 days (4 activities) out of 90
days of the manufacturing cycle. It was clear that time duration and number of activities
in the pre-production stages were far more than in the production stages. Another
important phenomenon observed during the case study was iteration in certain activities.
While estimating duration of those activities, executives used to add extra time
(buffering for possible iteration), resulting in longer target lead time. It was found that
activities of upstream suppliers requiring approval by downstream customers generally
went for iteration. Though iterations were prevalent in sample and accessories
approvals, there was no record available which those activities were, the reason behind
iterations and number of times iteration took place. Feedback by executives during the
case studies suggested activities where approvals were needed were the primary reasons
for delay, however no documented records were available to prove or disprove the facts.
Iteration posed another possible phenomenon of dynamic shifting of the critical path. It
was found (from the case studies) that fabric development-sourcing-approval process
generally fell in the critical path and the other two concurrent process were sample
(fit/size set) development approval and accessories development-sourcing-approval. As
all approval process are prone to iteration, depending on duration and number of times
of iteration, any of the three concurrent processes could become the critical path.
However the sample (fit/size set) development-approval route had very little (between
8-10 percent of the critical path time) slack time (section 2.4.2), which meant any delay
in sample development-approval would convert the sample (fit/size set) developmentapproval path as critical path. To measure durations of delay contributing activities it

147

was important to record the activity durations separately for each iteration (if any)
during the subsequent survey.
Interestingly, the MS-Excel sheet (figure 5.1) was not used by Delta Fashion for any
calculation of duration nor for any automatic visual alarm. The sheet was used merely
as for record keeping and not for any analysis or decision making. Data maintained in
Silvershine Apparel was also in MS-Excel, but not as detailed as Delta. Once the
activity data and PERT networks prepared were shown to executives, they felt that the
process was quite time consuming and apparently had no practical value during the
actual progress of the order as the duration as well as precedence relationship between
activities kept changing, making the whole exercise futile.

Even though the organisations executives were aware of the term critical path
method, it was surprising that none knew the correct meaning (definition as per
operation research) of critical path. The interpretation of term critical by the
executives varied; while some felt critical meant possibility of non-conformance is
higher as per previous experience, others felt critical meant most time taking; some
even linked critical with cost involved with that activity. Everybody selected critical
activities hypothetically, based on intuition or previous experience or a buyers
milestones and no one actually made a PERT network of activities and then arrived at
the CPM.
5.1.4

Conclusion

The fact that the number of activities in pre-production was higher than in production
and time consumed in pre-production activities contributed more to the total
manufacturing lead time suggested further exploration for identifying scope for lead
time improvement. The above network analysis once again reflected the variability in
processes. It was felt necessary to capture data with uniform level of detail for multiple
orders across different organisations; thus, a structured method of data collection was
felt necessary. As it was unlikely that any organisation would be able to draw PERT
network diagram and map critical path themselves, a simpler method of capturing preproduction processes was required. However, it was clear from the case study that that
PD and pre-production processes in the manufacturing cycle resembled project
management. Multiple executives from different organisations worked in synchronicity
to deliver the product in the pre-defined time. PERT/CPM was thought to be the
148

appropriate project management tool for addressing the lead time (technically critical
path time) reduction. However as the activities in apparel manufacturing cycle were
primarily human-oriented functions (unlike machine-oriented tasks in other industries),
the critical chain could be a more appropriate (section 2.4.2) optimisation technique to
conduct a longitudinal study as the critical chain addressed both the human side and the
algorithmic methodology side of project management in a unified discipline.

5.2

Identify and Measure Pre-production Activities (Survey)

As concluded in the earlier case study, there was a necessity to measure all activities
from order receipt to shipment ex- factory, their durations and any instances of
iterations. For the survey, data would be needed over a whole year to avoid any
distortion due to several peaks and troughs of activity. Furthermore, data from several
companies would make findings more generic, rather than inclined towards any
individual organisations practice. The steps involved were first development of a
standardised format for order progress tracking which could be used across
organisations, irrespective of the differences in merchandise type, distribution channel
and methodology of record keeping followed by different organisations.

5.2.1

Methodology for Survey

As explained as necessity in section 3.3 and observed during pilot case study (section
5.1.4) it was established that a structured data collection format is necessary for
conducting the survey. Also as anticipated in section 3.3 and concluded in pilot case
study (section 5.1.4) it was also established that simpler yet flexible data collection
format to capture the variability of data which can be easily filled up.

As explained in section 3.3 that one particular order is considered as one sample and
information from multiple orders from multiple factories to be collected as
representative data about the industry, selection of orders and selection of organisations
should necessarily be heterogeneous. However as the data is considered confidential
amongst industry, sample selection method was purposive (judgemental), and order
selection method was random to ensure heterogeneity. The sample selection method
would ensure that key themes were being observed (Saunders et al. 2007, page 193).
Criteria of sample selection were coverage of north and south geographical location,

149

mix of woven and knit product range, coverage of European and American buyers,
procurement channels used and systems in place to ensure heterogeneity. Seven
manufacturing organisations namely Kirat, USI, VO Enterprises, GI, ACC, Auric and
Misami and two buying organisations namely Essel Inc. and H&M, India were selected.
The selection of organisations was based on willingness to share info by the
management and access to information. A brief of the organisations from where data
was collected is given in appendix VIII and a summary of the organisations is given
below:

150

No

$100
million
$
5
million

$
80
million

$
8
million

$
8
million
$100
million
$
8
million

Gokaldas
Images
Essel Inc

H&M, India

VO
Enterprises

Misami

No

MIS

No

Bangalore

No

NCR

Chennai

Chennai

NCR

NCR

Bangalore

NCR

No

No

NCR

Location

No

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Separate
style-wise
file
maintained
No

and

EU

US

EU & US

EU & US

EU

EU
Asia

EU & US

EU

EU

Source of
business

Agents

and

and

Buying

channel

and

Buying

Importer and Buying

Agents
Importer, Buying Agents,
Direct, Liaison Office
Importer and Buying
Agents

Importer
Agents

Liaison Office

Importer, Buying Agents,

Direct, Liaison Office
Buying Agent

Buying
Direct

Importer
Agents

Procurement
used

Ladies
fashion;
woven

hi-

Mens basic

Ladies
and
Kids
hifashion;
woven
and
knits
Ladies
and
Kids
hifashion;
woven
and
knits
Ladies
and
kids
hifashion, knits
Mens basic

Ladies
and
Kids
hifashion;
woven
Ladies
and
kids
hifashion, knits
Ladies basic

Product
range

Through
student
E-mail

E-mail

Personally

E-mail

Through
student
E-mail

Personally

Personally

Data
collection
process

100

72

11

14

14

17

No.
of
units of
data
collected
20

14

11

11

No.
of
units of
data
accepted
17

151

Product ranges indicated were company mentioned; this did not necessarily mean that data was collected for similar styles/similar fabrics.

Except H&M India Liaison office, all other organisations were owner driven.

Auric

ACC

No

$
2.5
million

Unistyle
Impex

No

$
4
million

Kirat

MIS/ERP
in place

Turnover
$ million

Summary of Organizations for Pre-production Time Analysis

Name
of
Organisation

Table 5.4

A standardised data collection format was developed (table 5.5) and then pilot tested
with 10 orders. Every activity was classified into two types, either the activity duration
was less than or equal to one working day or more than one working day. For example,
fit sample dispatched to buyer or fit comment received from buyer were activities
indicated by one date. As fit sample making or fit sample approval process by buyer
might take more than one day, two dates needed to be mentioned, the start and finish
dates. For every activity there were two columns; the first captioned On/From and the
second captioned To. For activity less than or equal to one working day, one date was
entered in the first column. For activities spanning for more than one working day, start
date was entered in the first column and finish date in the second column, thus capturing
the duration of any activity.

The duration of iteration (if any) could be calculated first by deducting the To column
date from the On/From column date and then adding the Days column in case there
was more than one iteration. The total lead time, pre-production time and production
time was to be calculated by deducting the preceding activity date from the terminal
activity date (and not by adding the activity durations), as this would automatically
calculate the longest path and cancel out the problem of concurrence.

Table 5.5

Initial Order Progress Tracking Format

Fabric description:
Order quantity/original delivery date:
On/From
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

To

Days

Date buyer meeting (sampling+specifications received)

Date FIT samples were sent to the buyer
Date comment (approval/rejection) received from the buyer
Duration of FIT Iteration 1
Duration of FIT Iteration 2
Order Confirmation (Col+Qty+Delv+Price)
Date size set were sent to buyer
Date comment on size set from buyer
Duration of size set Iteration 1
Duration of size set Iteration 2
Duration lab dip/strike off making by processor
Date lab dip were sent to the buyer
Date comment (approval/rejection) on lab dip from buyer
Duration of lab dip Iteration 1
Duration of lab dip Iteration 2
Date grey fabric was ordered
Wash Care instruction received
Date W/C label were received in the store

152

19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45

Date grey fabric sent to processors (bulk dyeing/printing)

Date first lot finished fabric receive in store
Duration: colour approval for fabric (first lot) sent to/from buyer
Duration of fabric colour approval Iteration 1
Duration of fabric colour approval Iteration 2
Duration of lab test for processed fabric (first approved lot)
Duration of lab test Iteration 1
Duration of fabric colour approval Iteration 1
Bulk embroidery thread sent to buyer for approval
Bulk embroidery thread approval received
Duration of embroidery thread approval Iteration1
Duration of embroidery thread approval Iteration2
bulk fabric inspection + PP meeting
Initial inspection
Duration Price ticket + carton sticker approval
Duration Button approval
Duration of cutting (first piece to last piece)
Duration lot sent to sewing contractor (first to last piece)
Duration lot recvd. from sewing contractor (first to last piece)
Date production piece sent to buyer
Duration washing
Duration checking
Duration finishing+packing
Mid inspection
Final Inspection
Duration final inspection iteration 1
Date goods out of factory

To begin with, the initial order progress tracking format (table 5.5) had 45 activities to
be tracked. During pilot testing it was observed that micro details of certain activities
were generally not available (neither documented nor in memory), but did not really
affect the objective of the study. Accordingly, to ensure data availability, authenticity
and consistency, necessary modifications were done and the format was finalised for
data collection (Table 5.6). However it was still necessary to maintain some flexibility
in data collection, depending on some particular variation in order requirements, if
style-specific. The final format had 20 activities to be tracked; a possibility of two
iterations each were provided for six activities that were prone to iteration. Out of six
activities for possible iteration, two were sample making-related and the other four were
accessories-related. In case the number of iterations exceeded two, one more row was to
be inserted in the respective activity.

153

Table 5.6

Final Order Progress Tracking Format

Country of buyer
Type of Buyer: Store/catalogue/importer/other*
Garment description:
Fabric details - Knits/wovens/solid dyed/yarn dyed/print*
Fabric description:
Order quantity/original delivery date:
Date
1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8

9
10
11

12
13

14
15

16
17
18
19
20

Activity Description
Date buyer meeting (sampling request+specifications received)

On/From

To

Days

Date FIT samples were sent to the buyer

Date comment (approval/rejection) received from the buyer
Duration of FIT 1st iteration (steps 2 - 3)
Duration of FIT 2nd iteration(steps 2 - 3)
Date Order Confirmation (Col+Qty+Delv+Price)
Date size set were sent to buyer
Date comment on size set from buyer
Duration of size set: 1st iteration (steps 5 6)
Duration of size set 2nd iteration (steps 5 6)
Date lab dip were sent to the buyer
Date comment (approval/rejection) on lab dip from buyer
Duration of lab dip 1st iteration(steps 7 - 8)
Duration of lab dip 2nd iteration(steps 7 - 8)
Date first lot finished fabric received in store
Date bulk fabric (from first lot) sent to buyer for colour approval
Date bulk fabric colour (approval/rejection) received from buyer
Duration of fabric colour approval 1st iteration (steps 10 - 11)
Duration of fabric colour approval 2nd iteration (steps 10 - 11)
Date processed fabric (first approved lot) sent for lab test
Date lab test comment (approval/rejection) received
Duration of lab test 1st iteration (steps 12 - 13)
Duration of lab test 2nd iteration (steps 12 - 13)
Date Bulk embroidery thread sent to buyer for approval
Date Bulk embroidery thread approval/rejection received
Duration embroidery thread approval 1st iteration (steps 14 - 15)
Duration embroidery thread approval 2nd iteration (steps 14 - 15)
Duration cutting
Duration Sewing
Duration washing (if applicable)
Date production piece sent to buyer
Date goods out of factory (in exporting country)
Note:
Activities starting with date please fill only first column
Activities starting with duration please fill two columns, i.e. start and finish date
Activities marked with light green colour is mandatory
Activities marked with light yellow is applicable for iterations i.e. in case of rejection
Only actual date to be filled up
For orders with multiple fabric colours: fill up for any one colour as approval may happen at
different dates
Please do not fill up for repeat orders (where lot of above activities are not required)

154

Data for total of 100 orders was planned to be captured with 12 orders each from nine
organisations over a period of one year through different sources and through various
means. Data from Kirat and USI was collected in person; from VO Enterprises, Misami,
Essel Inc. and H&M, data was recorded and forwarded by the merchandise manager;
data from GI was recorded by student associates as part of their directed research. Each
data sheet was checked, query sent, if any, and only then was the final data sheet
accepted. The collected data was then screened for completeness and obvious
inaccuracy.

5.2.2

Data Collection

To ensure that all data was factual rather than the impression of merchandising
manager, it was emphasised that all data was actually copied from written records
(style/order file, data or communication file like fax, e-mail, etc.). As the emphasis was
on actual data, even if one or two activity data (out of 20) for any style was missing
from the records, that order was dropped for further calculation so that only complete
data sets were used.

One filled up order progress tracking format from USI is presented in table 5.7 as an
example. Basic order details and activity dates are recorded in the format. Missing data
for some activities like size set, PP (pre-production) sample indicated that those
activities were not present for that particular order. It was also seen that fit sample and
lab dip were sent for one iteration each. Out of 100 units of data collected, styles/orders
having incomplete and absurd data were removed and data for only 72 orders was
accepted for final analysis. Further, in eight out of 72 orders, it was observed that the
total approval time was more than total pre-production time; this was because more than
one approval process took place simultaneously and the same time / duration was
added. Data for those eight orders was also discarded and the remaining 64 orders
analysed and the results summarised in table 5.8

155

Table 5.7

Filled up Progress Tracking Format

Country of buyer
Type of Buyer:
Garment description:
Fabric details - Knits/wovens/solid dyed/yarn dyed/print*
Fabric description:
Order quantity/original delivery date:
Style
Date buyer meeting (sampling request+specifications received)
Date FIT samples were sent to the buyer
Date comment (approval/rejection) received from the buyer
Duration of FIT 1st iteration
Duration of FIT 2nd iteration
Date Order Confirmation (Qty+Delv+Price)
Spec+swatch+col reference received to start sampling
Date size set were sent to buyer
Date comment on size set from buyer
Duration of size set: 1st iteration (steps 5 - 6)
Duration of size set 2nd iteration (steps 5 - 6)
Date lab dip were sent to the buyer
Date comment (approval/rejection) on lab dip from buyer
Duration of lab dip 1st iteration(steps 7 - 8)
Duration of lab dip 2nd iteration(steps 7 - 8)
Date first lot finished fabric received in store
Date bulk fabric (from first lot) sent to buyer for colour approval
Date bulk fabric colour (approval/rejection) received from buyer
Duration of fabric colour approval 1st iteration (steps 10 - 11)
Duration of fabric colour approval 2nd iteration (steps 10 - 11)
Date processed fabric (first approved lot) sent for lab test
Date lab test comment (approval/rejection) received
Duration of lab test 1st iteration
Duration of lab test 2nd iteration
Duration of lace approval
Duration of label approval
Date Bulk embroidery thread sent to buyer for approval
Date Bulk embroidery thread approval/rejection received
Duration embroidery thread approval 1st iteration
Duration embroidery thread approval 2nd iteration
Send PP sample to buyer/photoshoot
Go ahead for production
Duration cutting
Duration Embelishments/embroidery
Duration Sewing
Duration washing (if applicable)/finishing
Date production piece sent to buyer (pp sample)
Date goods out of factory (in exporting country)

AMC
ladies
top
with
embroidery
Knit
Single Jersey
960 pcs
us-102
On/From
To
02/13/04
03/11/04
03/27/04
04/10/04
04/15/04

Duration
27.00
16.00
5.00
0.00

02/13/04
02/19/04

03/08/04
03/09/04
03/15/04

03/15/04

03/26/04
03/27/04
03/28/04

0.00
0.00
0.00
18.00
1.00
0.00
0.00

1.00
0.00
0.00

03/29/04
04/03/04

04/10/04
04/10/04
04/19/04
04/19/04

04/15/04
04/15/04

04/14/04
04/14/04
04/19/04
04/20/04
04/17/04
05/03/04

04/22/04
04/28/04
05/02/04
05/02/04

5.00
0.00
0.00
5.00
5.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

156

MP 615
H&M07
girls party shirt
short+shirt
sparkly t shirt
9109-CR
31300020
JDW-160
ELC-1136
ut-006
up-002
9109-CR
mg-11
9125-CR
Vichy-group
carnbey-6
9125-CR
29018
tt-614
I-04-2
I-04-1
K-04-123
K-04-123 Robe
SSD 127
SSD 127
MP 613
us-102
BN 101
Printed voil
RM04
S4r-356 dash
Dress
NJB 359
NJB 359
Emb Skirts
Dress
pd 24
pd 24
HNM-6
T-shirt
Skirts
Dress Set
474G

262
136
109
180
84
170
99
198
82
86
86
170
68
170
201
78
170
220
79
138
152
154
154
183
183
173
80
149
137
199
78
163
154
154
129
153
176
176
104
233
175
180
118

31
35
45
110
19
34
18
118
26
14
14
34
21
34
38
6
34
52
17
37
51
104
104
32
32
34
19
12
37
60
15
22
24
24
50
20
10
10
32
91
92
102
25

230
101
64
70
65
136
81
80
56
72
72
136
47
136
163
72
136
167
62
101
101
50
50
151
151
138
61
137
100
139
63
141
130
130
79
133
166
166
72
142
83
78
93

88
74
59
39
77
80
82
40
68
84
84
80
69
80
81
92
80
76
78
73
66
32
32
83
83
80
76
92
73
70
81
87
84
84
61
87
94
94
69
61
47
43
79

194
83
53
39
42
94
53
58
30
42
49
86
30
130
53
47
112
87
41
24
24
16
16
51
51
119
38
55
29
129
40
20
43
43
27
15
61
61
27
25
16
28
40

84
82
83
56
65
69
65
73
54
58
68
63
64
96
33
65
82
52
66
24
24
32
32
34
34
86
62
40
29
93
63
14
33
33
34
11
37
37
38
18
19
36
43

% iteration time out of

pre-production time

Total iteration time

% approval time out of

pre-production time

Total approval time

% pre-production time
out of total lead time

pre-production
Total
time

Total production time

(cut to ship)

Total
lead
time
(sampling request to
goods ship out)

Order Progress Analysis

Order code

Table 5.8

96
41
22
23
19
37
21
20
13
16
16
29
10
26
29
11
19
22
8
13
13
5
5
15
15
13
5
11
7
9
4
8
7
7
4
6
5
5
2
3
0
0
0

42
41
34
33
29
27
26
25
23
22
22
21
21
19
18
15
14
13
13
13
13
10
10
10
10
9
8
8
7
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
3
3
3
2
0
0
0

contd
157

Total iteration time

% approval time out

of pre-production time

Total approval time

Total pre-production
time
%
pre-production
time out of total lead
time

Total production time

(cut to ship)

Order code
Total
lead
time
(sampling request to
goods ship out)
400 H
CTR 6020
SW 149B
Lt 14
BNW 119
MH 046
CTR 6103
ELC-1137
474G
400 H
CTR 6020
BNW 119
MH 046
CTR 6103
SC00PJ
HNM-3
HNM-1
HNM-1A
HNM-4
HNM-4A
HNM-5

127
128
135
155
167
177
199
85
118
127
128
167
177
199
63
90
93
93
102
102
121

34
36
21
15
13
30
29
22
25
34
36
13
30
29
23
36
36
36
35
35
70

93
92
114
140
154
147
170
63
93
93
92
154
147
170
40
54
57
57
67
67
51

73
72
84
90
92
83
85
74
79
73
72
92
83
85
63
60
61
61
66
66
42

50
36
28
28
40
75
70
6
40
50
36
40
75
70
11
35
6
26
51
41
33

54
39
25
20
26
51
41
10
43
54
39
26
51
41
28
65
11
46
76
61
65

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Average
SD
Max
Min

142.1
44.7
262.0
63.0

37.1
26.3
118.0
6.0

104.9
42.5
230.0
40.0

73.5
15.1
94.3
32.5

49.5
33.2
194.0
6.0

47.7
21.8
95.6
9.5

16.0
16.0
96.0
2.0

15.2
10.7
41.7
2.1

5.2.3 Data Analysis

The data was analysed using spreadsheet. The following conditions were assumed for
ease of calculation.

For calculating duration of any activity (from the start and finish date), calendar
days were considered (not working days).

Order lead time (OLT) was calculated as duration between date of goods out from
the factory and date of order confirmation.

Total production time (TPT) was calculated as duration between date of goods
out from the factory and date cutting started.

158

Total pre-production time (TPPT) was calculated by deducting total production

time (TPT) from the order lead time (OLT).

Total approval time was calculated by adding up all approval related times,
including sample, raw material and accessories approval.

All iteration activities were earmarked in the format and wherever any approval
related activities were repeated (due to rejection in first attempt) the time duration
was noted. Total iteration time was cumulative of all attempts, if any.

Importantly, manufacturing cycle time for woven and knit merchandise will differ
and cannot be compared with each other. In the above data, there is woven as well
as knitted merchandise but instead of analysing the absolute time, for certain tasks
percentage time out of total time was calculated and thus the effect of raw material
type was nullified in the analysis. There was another important factor i.e. value
addition like washing, embroidery, etc. These tasks and related approvals were not
mandatory for all orders; such tasks were carefully omitted from the final analysis
and only mandatory tasks irrespective of merchandise type (as defined in the
format) were considered in data analysis.

In 24 out of 64 orders the iteration time was zero, meaning that in those 24 orders, all
approvals were done right first time. Analysis was carried out separately for orders that
had iteration and those that did not have (table 5.9).

% iteration time out of

Total approval time

Total iteration time in

days
% iteration time out of
pre-production time

% approval time out of

pre-production time

Total approval time in

days

% pre-production time
out of total lead time

Total pre-production
time in days

Total production time

in days (cut to ship)

Total lead time in days

(sampling request to
goods ship out)

Pre-production Activity Time

Order Details

Table 5.9

Average for 64
orders
with
or
without iteration

142.13

37.14

104.94

73.50

49.5

47.70

16

15.19

29.43

Average for 24
orders
without
iteration
Average for 40
orders with iteration

134.42

35.71

98.71

72.02

38.79

40.33

N/
A

N/A

N/A

146.75

38

108.68

74.38

55.93

52.13

16

15.19

29.43

N/A = Not Applicable

159

Iteration time for six different activities for different order groups are listed in table
5.10. Activities related to approval could be divided into three categories, namely
sample approval, fabric development/procurement-related approval and accessories
procurement-related approval. While iteration for fit sample and size set approval was
found frequently, iteration for fabric and accessories was rare.

3
4
5
6

21
17
6
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

20
0
7
0
0
11
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

55
17
92
32
5
14
5
33
0
14
0
0
0

20
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

9
0
19
0
0
5
8
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Total

42
21
28
16
0
0
5
4
0
0
0
0
0

GI-11

Kirat

FIT Sample - 1st iteration

FIT Sample - 2nd iteration
Size set sample - 1st iteration
Size set sample - 2nd iteration
Size set sample - 3rd iteration
Lab dip approval - 1st iteration
Lab dip approval -2nd iteration
Bulk fabric approval - 1st iteration
Bulk fabric approval - 2nd iteration
Lab test - 1st iteration
Lab test - 2nd iteration
Embroidery thread approval - 1st iteration
Embroidery thread approval - 2nd iteration

leela-14

Shilpee-8

Duration of Activities

USI-11

Order Group

H&M-9

Analysis of Iteration Times

Bangladesh

Table 5.10

167
55
152
48
5
37
18
37
0
14
0
0
0

In the earlier case study, it was observed that fabric development-sourcing-approval

generally took the longest time (critical path). From this survey it was observed that
iteration in sample making-approval was frequent. Average iteration time was found to
be 16 days, approximately 12% of the total lead time (critical path time). This showed
that there was a high possibility of the critical path being changed from fabric
development path to sample development path for the average order during iteration.

To find out the interdependency between total manufacturing lead time, pre-production
time, approval time and iteration time, data was illustrated using scatterplot, outliers14
were removed, and coefficient of determination (indicated by R2 in the graph)15 was
calculated.

14

Data points that diverge from the overall pattern and have large residuals are called outliers.
It is interpreted as the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable that is predictable from the
independent variable.

15

160

Average manufacturing lead time was found to be 136 calendar days. A strong positive
correlation (0.96) between manufacturing lead time and pre-production time suggested
that pre-production activity was the driver of total lead time, the following equation
(figure 5.5) represents the dependency between them. A relatively high coefficient of
determination (0.92) indicates nearly 92% of the variance in manufacturing lead time is
predictable from pre-production time.

Y= 0.98X + 30.70
Where Y = manufacturing lead time
And

X = pre-production time

Figure 5.5

Dependency between manufacturing lead time and pre-production

time

Similarly approval duration of sample and raw material positively influence the preproduction duration. The correlation between approval duration and pre-production
duration was found to be 0.63. The following equation (figure 5.6) represents the
mathematical relation between them. A moderate coefficient of determination (0.40)
indicates nearly 40% of the variance in pre-production time is predictable from approval
duration.

Y = 0.83X + 59.8
Where Y = pre-production time
And

X = approval time

161

Figure 5.6

Dependency between pre-production time and approval time

Similarly a relatively strong correlation (0.92) between total approval time and iteration
explains that iteration was the main reason behind lengthy approval time. The following
equation (figure 5.7) explains the relation between them. A relatively high coefficient of
determination (0.84) indicates nearly 84% of the variance in approval time is
predictable from iteration time.

Y = 1.66X + 21.72
Where Y = approval time
And

X = iteration time

Figure 5.7

Dependency between approval time and iteration time

162

Out of 40 orders studied (that were having some kind of iteration), in 5 orders there was
iteration during fit sample approval as well as during size set approval. Out of balance
35 orders In 24 cases iteration was during fit sample approval, while in only 11 cases
iteration was during size set approval. The fit sample making requires in depth
understanding of silhouette in context with the specification, while size set sample
making merely use the grade rule (often supplied by buyer). This indicates either
incapability of correct interpretation of the sketch and specification and/or due to
changes asked by buyer.

It was interesting to find that no significant correlation (0.37) exist between

manufacturing lead time and production time (fabric spreading till goods shipped out of
factory). This explained the fact that while pre-production positively and significantly
influence the manufacturing lead time, production time actually has no significant
influence on total manufacturing lead time.

It was also found that approximately 41 percent of pre-production activities were

externally dependent; this meant approximately 59 percent of pre-production time was
dependent on internal resources and could be compressed by half through critical chain
implementation. Iteration took up another 15 percent of pre-production time. As both
sets of tasks were mutually exclusive, elimination of both could accumulate benefit. For
example, elimination of iteration will reduce 15 percent of externally dependent time
and critical chain will result a further 29.5 percent reduction (half of 59 percent) of
internal activity. Therefore, overall reduction in pre-production time due to elimination
of iteration and implementation of critical chain was 44.5 (29.5 + 15) percent. It was
also found that in a 100 day lead time, pre-production consumed 73 days and
production time was 27 days. A 44.5 percent reduction of 73 percent means 33 percent
in overall lead time. So it could be conclusively stated that elimination of iteration and
implementation of critical chain had inherent potential to reduce manufacturing lead
time by 33 percent. Iteration in fit and size set sample approval was frequent, which
corroborated the theory that Indian product development team is strong in fabric
development, sourcing, pricing, etc.but they are very poor in knowledge of fit and
pattern details (Malik 2009)

163

5.2.4

Conclusion

It was clearly established that delay contributing activities in the manufacturing cycle
were pre-production activities, specifically sample making approval-related activities.
Apart from the scheduled activities that could be eliminated, compressed or made
concurrent, as much as 29 percent of approval time, or 15 percent of pre-production
time or 12 percent of total manufacturing lead time could be saved by ensuring right
first time (eliminating iteration). Poor record maintenance, commonplace in most
factories, was the main problem in data collection. Even though these were routine
activities for every order in every factory, record for the actual dates of completion or
duration of activities were not always available. It was observed that even in the best
managed factories, all relevant data (of selected 20 activities that were listed in the
above format) were not available at a single source. In some cases, it was quite often
observed that data of one or two activities of some style were simply not recorded.

One interesting but important observation was that all activities that involved movement
of material or paper outside the company were recorded religiously in some register or
another, whereas activities involving movement of material or information within the
factory/company premises were often not recorded anywhere. For example, date fit
comment received from buyer could easily be found in fax/e-mail records or courier
dispatch/receipt register. But the exact date/time when date fit comment was conveyed
to sampling in charge (to re-make fit sample) was not found anywhere as the same was
probably conveyed verbally. In some cases, comments were handed over immediately
but in a number of cases, the merchandiser took 1-2 days before handing over
comments. The fit comments held up for 1-2 days before being handed over to the next
person was tantamount to non-value added waiting time and generally added as such
to the next activity.

Towill (1996) explained how lead time reduction was possible through elimination
(removal of an activity), compression (removal of time within an activity), integration
(re-engineering interfaces between successive activities) or concurrence (activities
operated in parallel). As elimination, integration or concurrence could sometimes be
organisation or product-specific, it was evident that general benefit to industry as a
whole would accrue from compression techniques such as collaborative product

164

development (section 2.3.3), vendor managed inventory (2.5.1.1), critical path and/or
critical chain concept (2.4.2), which could be universally applied across organisations.

While comparing between the trend lines it was obvious that pre-production and
approval process has strong influence on total cycle time and pre-production time
respectively. Iteration, which is not a mandatory but an occasional sub-set of approval
process, and found to have strongest influence on approval time. This also establishes
that iteration delays, whenever happens have telling affect on approval time and
subsequently on total cycle time.

While more than 84% of the cases approval time is explained by iteration time and
more than 92% of the cases manufacturing lead time is explained by pre-production
time; a moderate 40% of the variance in pre-production time is predictable from total
approval duration. This is probably due to the fact that approval of sample is only part
of the total approval duration which is generally found to be delayed; the colour and
accessories approval form the rest of the approval process which is generally not
delayed.

5.3

Value Added and Non-Value Added Activities

While some literature reported 17 percent (Bruce et al. 2004) to 33 percent (GEAC
1999) value added time in the apparel supply chain, other studies on Indian apparel
manufacturing organisations (Agarwal and Sahani 2007, Nagar et al. 2008) reported
merely 1-4% value added time in thee manufacturing activities of a supply chain
(section 2.5.4.1). The substantial difference in percentage of value added time could be
attributed to the fact that while GEAC (1999) and Bruce et al. (2004) categorised
activities into only two categories: value added and non-value added. Presumably, the
necessary non-value added (NNVA) activities were clubbed with value added
activities in the former study, while Agarwal and Nagar had considered necessary nonvalue added (NNVA) as a separate category. Further, it was observed that in the earlier
studies, VA and NVA was measured using value stream mapping (section 2.5.4.1), the
format of which was probably designed for measuring in-house activities. It was clear
from literature (sections 2.3.1 and 2.3.2) and the case study (sections 4.3 and 4.4) that
PD and pre-production activities involved many out-of-workplace activities (involving
upstream and downstream players). The purpose of this longitudinal study was to

165

measure value added activities in pre-production activities in an apparel manufacturing

scenario by improvising on the classification given by Monden (1993) and Womack and
Jones (1996).

5.3.1

Methodology

Typical case purposive sample selection method was followed and data was collected
through structured format (section 3.4). Two manufacturing organisations, Kirat and
UniStyle Impex (USI) were selected for the longitudinal studies based on the
parameters explained in section 3.4. The sample organisations also had young
management team; thus open to ideas, which would help categorising VA, NVA and
NNVA activities.

For the purpose of this longitudinal study (better understanding, interpretation and
appreciation by the executives in the factory) the non-value added activities were rechristened as:

NNVA = Value Addition (by other than conversion e.g. transportation)

NVA = Non-value Addition (Inventory e.g. stock fabric in store)

The initial format used for data collection was improvised from the one used earlier in
tracking pre-production activities (table 6.10). The format for capturing order progress
data had a list of 20 activities. First, an effort was made to identify any activity and
classify it as one of the existing 20 activities. But, while classifying manufacturing
activities into value added and non-value added, it was realised that the old formats
were designed to capture dates or duration of certain activities and it was not possible to
segregate value added and non-value added activities using the same format. For
example, duration FIT samples (with counter) were made was a value added activity
due to conversion. Start date was 03 March and finish date 05 March. But it was not
possible to segregate the time duration when actual conversion took place and the time
duration the sample/half finished sample was waiting for the next process during that
time span.

166

Table 5.11

Excerpt of Initial Format for Value Added and Non-value Added

Activities
Activity Description

Conversi
on

Transport

Inventory/
Waiting

VA

NNVA

NVA

Date sampling & specifications received from

buyer
Duration patterns were developed
Duration fabric being sourced
Duration Proto samples (with counter) were made
Duration Proto sample being couriered to buyer
Duration buyer takes to comment (modification) on
the sample (fax or e-mail)
Duration Proto sample being couriered to
manufacturer
Duration patterns were modified
Duration fabric being sourced
Duration FIT samples (with counter) were made
Duration FIT sample being couriered to buyer
Next, a typical value stream mapping (VSM) data collection format (appendix IX) was
analysed for its suitability in collection of data for the longitudinal study.

Table: 5.12

Calculation of Time in VSM Format

Date

Time

Time taken

VA/NNVA/NVA

Activity 1

06 Feb 2007

1:00:39

0:11:46

NNVA

Activity 2

06 Feb 2007

1:12:25

0:00:28

NVA

Activity 3

06 Feb 2007

1:12:53

Processes

In VSM, data collection format clock time was recorded at the start of every activity.
Then actual time taken for an individual activity was calculated by deducting that start
time from the start time of the next activity (table 5.12). It was, however, found that
these VSM formats were suitable for collecting data where all activities took place
in- house. As the emphasis of the longitudinal study was on pre-production activities,
where a lot of activities were third party dependent, material and information had to
flow in and out of the organisation frequently.

Also, typical VSM formats (appendix X) were found suitable where only one particular
order/style was being tracked by one researcher. In the longitudinal study, data for
167

multiple orders was to be tracked simultaneously. An improvised data collection format

was then developed to suit the requirement. Table 5.13 below shows a portion of the
modified format.

Table 5.13

Modified VA/NNVA/NVA Data Collection Format

Value added time (in min)

Activities

Conversion
(VA)

Transportation
(NNVA)

In days

Non-value added Waiting

(in min)
time

Actual
time

Waiting (NVA)

In %

Activity 1
Activity 2
Activity 3

Three time durations for each and every activity were being noted in the new format;
namely conversion (Value Added Time), transportation time (Necessary Non Value
Added time) and Actual Time. Non Value Added (waiting) Time was calculated by
deducting the sum of VA and NNVA from total actual time. In first two columns Value
Added time (VA) and Necessary Non Value Added time (NNVA) were recorded in
minutes. The third column recorded the actual time elapsed in days. The waiting time
was expressed as percentage of total time. Waiting time was calculated as
(actual elapsed days x hours per shift x 60 minutes)  (total conversion time + total
transportation time).

The format was designed in MS-Excel and calculations were done by formulae. As
visible from the modified format, activities were mostly classified into conversion and
transport types. True segregation of waiting time from conversion and transportation
activities was possible only when activities were occurring, like the relay race
approach (explained in chapter 2.2.5), where everyone was pulling his/her work from
the preceding activity. However, in real life, this did not happen in pre-production and
production activities. Toyota Sewing System was an exception. After an activity was
over, things were simply put aside and the instruction sheets/ half finished merchandise
waited for the next activity to begin. This waiting time was unaccounted for and
recorded accordingly.

Then, different cost centres in the organisation were identified and classified and an
activity cost centre matrix was developed by mapping all activities against any one or
more cost centres. Cost centres are classified into three categories; in-house (activities
done by company executives inside the organisation, for example sampling), out-of168

workplace (activities executed by company executives outside the organisation, e.g.

embroidery) and third party (activities executed by outside executives outside the
organisation, e.g. fabric lab dip making).

5.3.2

Data Collection

For in-house activities, 8 hours per shift was taken for calculation whereas for activities
like couriering sample abroad and getting comments from buyer, 24 hours per shift was
taken for calculation. Bulk fabric procurement could depend on type of fabric and
sewing conversion time would depend on the manufacturing system being followed.
Here, time for micro activities was to be recorded for running (ongoing) orders. Data
could not be collected from orders executed in the past. As the organisations were
already selected based on heterogeneous parameters like working with multiple
procurement channels, working with small and medium buying offices, importers
abroad as well as direct export (section 5.3.1), all ongoing orders were selected for data
collection. Using the improvised format, data was collected and calculated for total 35
orders, 14 being studied at USI by a student researcher (Mr. George) under guidance of
the researcher and another 21 being studied at Kirat personally by the researcher
himself. Data for 35 orders were considered representative enough for providing an
illustrative profile (Saunders et al. 2007, page 193). An example of one such filled up
format (with detailed micro activities) for knitted garments being manufactured in make
through system is given in appendix X and a summary of same is given in table 5.14

Table 5.14

Value Added and Non-Value Added Activity Tracking

Style no
Buying agency
Destination

Activities

Fit Sample Making

Comments Of The Buyer
Size Set Sample Making
Comments Of The Buyer
Requisition For Lab Dips
From Supplier
Comments Of The Buyer
Bulk Fabric Manufacturing
Bulk Fabric Approval

s4r 1147
AIE
London
Actual Non-value
Value added time (in
added in Waiting
time
min)
min
Time in
in
%
days
Conversion
Transportation
waiting

216
15
1005
75

45
5760
0
2880

45
31
7
9

21339
38865
2356
10005

99
87
70
77

464
15
3969
16

960
2880
960
90

5
12
29
4

976
2865
8991
1814

41
50
65
94
169

Lab Test Approval

Sourcing Of Trims
Photo Shoot Sample Making
Cutting Of Fabric
Embellishments
Embroidery
Sewing
Finishing
Packing

None of the activities

considered in critical path

15
116
251
2166
170905
0
31500
34335
546

645
525
45
0
0
0
0
0
0

245609

14790

4
8
1
8
18
17
16
2

1260
3199
184
1674
4415
0
6900
813
414

66
83
38
44
3
85
11
43

216
39768
38
Actual
no
of
(total
total
days (not
% waiting
are
conversion transportation
waiting time
time
in
time)
time
critical
path)

Inventory or waiting time (NVA) between different value-added activities was basically
non-value added duration and it was very important that it was eliminated/minimised
where-ever possible.

5.3.3

Data Analysis

Order wise conversion time, transportation time and waiting times for all 35 orders are
produced in table 5.15 below.
Table 5.15

Order-wise Value Added and Non-value Added Time in Manufacturing

Style no

Conversion
Transportation
Time (min) Time (min)
VA
NNVA

313000200
mg-11
carnbey-6
S4r-356 dash
tt-614
Us-102
sparkly t shirt
Ut-006
Up-002
tt-347
girls party shirt
Ng-2252
474G
400 H-56
S4R-1147
ELC-1136
ELC-1137
I-04-2

21463
46477
16317
45255
20807
94372
28667
56194
20444
17633
13346
13050
9359
28637
45608
26880
30240
48480

6930
6930
6810
6810
5850
5850
6810
6810
6810
4890
5805
5805
2925
4455
14790
5760
6810
5760

Waiting
Time
(min)
NVA
34967
33953
26313
42495
22783
38978
17803
175076
38026
43237
41809
43065
31396
24508
43282
33600
30150
18720

Actual
Elapsed
Time
(min)
63360
87360
49440
94560
49440
139200
53280
238080
65280
65760
60960
61920
43680
57600
103680
66240
67200
72960

% NVA
Time

55.18
38.86
53.22
44.93
46.08
28.00
33.41
73.53
58.25
65.74
68.58
69.54
71.87
42.54
41.74
50.72
44.86
25.65

170

JDW-060
I-04-1
BN 101
BNW 40
SB 123
474G
400 H
CTR 6020
SW 149B
NJB 359
Lt 14
BNW 119
Pd 24
MH 046
SSD 127
CTR 6103
S4R-1147

53280
48480
26400
17280
42720
19200
24000
17280
13440
20640
13440
19200
29280
36000
24480
33600
45608

5805
5805
5760
9600
8080
8080
6810
6810
8080
8080
7200
6240
4800
7200
7200
7200
14790
6975.71

14835
19635
39360
10000
21520
29360
30150
37350
43280
45200
53760
54720
50400
41760
56160
54720
43282
39590.09

73920
73920
71520
36880
72320
56640
60960
61440
64800
73920
74400
80160
84480
84960
87840
95520
103680
77067.43

20.06
26.56
55.03
27.11
29.75
51.83
49.45
60.79
66.79
61.14
72.25
68.26
59.65
49.15
63.93
57.28
38.35

On an average, 50.57% of the actual elapsed time in garment manufacturing (from order
confirmation to goods trucked out of factory) was waiting or non-value added time. A
very high positive correlation (86.35) was found between waiting time and actual
elapsed time. Also, moderate positive correlation (63.41) found between conversion
time and actual elapsed time. However no correlation (12.52) was found between
transportation time and actual elapsed time.
Activity wise conversion, transportation and waiting time was analysed for total 21
orders (studied in Kirat) following the above format. Averages for the same is shown in
table 5.16. Out of 26 activities, only 14 selected activities were analysed for average
conversion, transportation and waiting time. Iterations, if any were left out. While the
conversion time depended on fabric type (woven or knits, yarn dyed, solid dyed or
printed etc.), style (work content), order quantity (number of units per style), the
transportation time depended on country of export, approval policy (i.e. whether
approval was done by the head office in the importing country or liaison office/agent in
the exporting country), mode of transport and communication.

171

Table 5.16

2
3
4
5

6
7

8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Activity-wise Value Added and Non-value Added Time

Activity Description
FIT samples made and
sent to the buyer
FIT
comment
(approval/rejection)
received from the buyer
Size set made and sent to
buyer
Comment on size set from
buyer
Lab dip prepared and sent
to the buyer
Comment
(approval/rejection) on lab
dip from buyer
Bulk fabric ordered to
received in store
Bulk fabric sent to buyer
and
received
colour
approval
Lab test on bulk fabric
Comment (appval/reject.)
on lab test from buyer
Cutting
Sewing
Finishing
Packing to goods out of
factory

Conversion
time (min)

Transportation
time (min)

Waiting
time
(min)

Actual
elapsed
time
(days)

322.40

45.00

21233.60

45.00

30.00

5760.00

38865.00

31.00

1004.50

45.00

2311.50

7.00

90.00

2880.00

9990.00

9.00

464.00

960.00

976.00

5.00

30.00

2880.00

2850.00

12.00

5169.00

960.00

7791.00

29.00

46.00
315.00

90.00
645.00

1784.00
960.00

4.00
4.00

30.00
2165.63
31500.00
34335.00

2880.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

2850.00
1674.38
6900.00
813.00

12.00
8.00
17.00
16.00

546.00

0.00

414.00

2.00

Activity-wise value added time (conversion and transportation) and non-value added
time (waiting) is plotted graphically in Figure 5.5. From the graph it was clear that in fit
sample and size set sample activities, a huge percentage of time was non-value added
time (waiting time) whereas in fabric sourcing, cutting, sewing and finishing activities,
maximum percentage of time was value added time (conversion time). It was also
obvious that wherever comment/decision was awaited, a sizable percentage of time was
spent on necessary non-value added time (transportation).

172

Figure 5.8

Activity-wise Value Added and Non-value Added Time

Value Added
Necessary Non Value Added

Value added & Non Value added Time

Non Value Added

Activity Description

0.00

10000.00 20000.00 30000.00 40000.00 50000.00

FIT samples made & sent to the buyer

FIT comment (approval/rejection)
Size set made & sent to buyer
Comment on size set from buyer
Lab dip prepared & sent to buyer
comment (approval/rejection) on lab
Bulk fabric ordered to received in store
bulk fabric sent to buyer and received
Lab test on bulk fabric
Comment (approval/rejection) on lab
Cutting
Sewing
Finishing
Packing to goods out of factory

Time in Minutes

Another very important insight from the study was interruption in work. Activity time
increased due to such interruptions. While some interruptions were simply non-value
added time, others led to Intermittent Work Interruption. When any activity was in
progress, there could be a sudden request/instruction from a competent authority to stop
that activity halfway and start another. Such phenomena were frequent in pattern
making, sample making, specification sheet making, inspection, and other skill-based
activities. Other types of interruptions during any activity were telephone calls and calls
from the boss. Peers seeking clarifications were difficult to segregate and were absorbed
within activity time.

5.3.3.1

Activity Mapping with Cost Centres

A total of eleven cost centres were identified as in-house and three out-of-workplace.
All third party activities were clubbed onto one category and indicated separately. Table
5.17 shows how each individual activity is linked with one or more cost centres. Store,
sampling and merchandising departments were found to be involved in the maximum
number of activities. Incidentally, just four departments, store/purchase, design,
sampling and merchandising together accounted for 60 percent of the total number of
activities.

173

Activity Mapping with Cost Centres

lab dip &

purchase

bulk fabric

5) Size set sample making

2) Fit sample making

1) Buyer meeting
requisition making
finalised design
making
tracing design into
butter paper
tracing design into
garment
pattern
making/cutting
cutting of fabric
Embellishment
embroidery
sewing
finishing
Inspection
&
packing
sending
the
sample to buying
house
3) Third party
activities
4)
Received
comments from
buyer
requisition making
tracing design into
butter paper
tracing design into
garment
pattern grading n
cutting
cutting of fabric
embellishment
embroidery
sewing
of
garments
finishing
Inspection
and
packing
Requisition for lab
dips from supplier
Making
swatch
card
sending to the
supplier
making of lab dip
Costing of the
fabric

Third party

Testing

QA

Industrial Engg.

Dispatch

Finish

Sewing

Cutting

Merchandising

Sampling

Design

Store/Purchase

Marketing

Activity

washing

(Out
House)

(In House)

Embroidery

Table 5.17

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

174

Sending bulk fabric for colour

approval
Ordering of Trims
Prepare to sew
Finishin
g
and
packing

Sewing

rate/lead
time
discussions with
fabric suppliers
making purchase
order
sending to the
supplier
Bulk
fabric
manufacturing
Receive
bulk
fabric
from
supplier
making shade card
sending to the
buyer/buying
agency
sending for lab
test to testing
centre
lab tests done
sending
reports
back to exporter
sending the report
to buyer/buying
agency
making requisition
for threads labels
beadings
sending
to
different suppliers
Consumption of
trims
Sourcing of trims
making
swatch
card
sending trim to
buying house for
approval
garment
break
down, work aid
requirement
machine
&
operator allocation
preparatory
for
spreading
spreading
marker
making
(manual)
cutting
stretching
the
fabric in the frame
making design on
the fabric
beading work
hand embroidery
(if applicable)
Sewing
of
garments
thread cutting
measurement
checking

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

175

Y
Y
Y

ironing
packing n tagging
Inspection
packing
into
cartons

Y
1

5.3.4

12

12

19

Conclusion

Before the time compression methodology was explored to reduce pre-production

process time, it was imperative to measure the potential for improvement, i.e. how
much time could be compressed. Even though VSM technique was a tried and tested
methodology (section 2.3), a slightly improvised format was used in this longitudinal
study for value stream analysis of pre-production activities. Value added and non-value
added analysis of activities in PD and pre-production quantified the potential of
improvement through elimination of waiting time. During the study it also found that
waiting time could further be classified into three different types:
First, when the goods were waiting to be processed for the next activity by the same
person and within the same department/cost centre, e.g. pattern master had made the
pattern and fabric was waiting to be cut by the pattern master himself. These non value
added times were nearly invisible and most difficult to measure. Second, when the
goods were waiting to be processed for the next activity within the same cost centre but
by a different person; for example, fabric cut components were waiting to be sewn by
sampling tailors. These were also difficult to measure as the goods were still within the
same cost centre. Third, when the goods were waiting to be processed for the next
activity at a different cost centre to be executed by different persons. For example, sewn
garments were waiting to be taken to the embroidery department for embroidery. These
were comparatively easy to measure as goods were being transported from one cost
centre to another. It was realised that first two types of waiting times were more
prevalent among pre-production activities but were not captured in the study. The
nearly 50 percent waiting time that was measured in the study was attributed to the third
type of waiting time and could be easily eliminated. The first and second type of
waiting time could only be minimised and or eliminated if the preceding and succeeding
activities were carried out in relay-race approach, where after completion of any
activity, it was handed over to the executive responsible for the next activity (and not

176

waiting to be picked up for the next activity). The relay-race technique is a part of an
optimisation technique called critical chain (section 2.4.2).

Another important factor behind the long cycle time in receiving sample approval
comment from buyer is the batch processing pattern. It was prevalent practice by
customers to organise live model fitting session weekly once or twice depending on the
volume of work. Thus in a five working day week (in buyers country) if live model
fitting session happens twice, there will be maximum three days of waiting time for the
samples depending on date of arrival of samples in relation with date of subsequent date
of live model fitting session.

The activity-cost centre matrix clearly proved the fact that pre-production processes
were centred around only a few departments like store/design/ sampling/merchandising,
thus emphasising the skewed workload towards a few departments in the beginning of a
manufacturing cycle.

5.4

Summary

It was established that pre-production activities contained a significant amount (73

percent) of the total manufacturing cycle and moreover a major contribution to
knowledge was that approval process (52 percent) and iteration process (15 percent)
took up a sizable portion of the pre-production time. It was decided to further identify
reasons behind the delay and suggest different optimisation techniques to reduce the
pre-production lead time. Contrary to perception during the first survey about SME
characteristics that sample conversion rate was low due to price and raw material
problems, the survey clearly established that wrong measurement/fit and delay in
submission were the main reasons behind low sample conversion rate. It was also found
that occurrence of iteration during fit sample and size set sample approval was very
high, which again corroborated the perception (initial survey) that fit to production
sample stage took the maximum time. Non-value added times were found inbuilt
within several activity times, thus it was decided to identify and measure value added
and non-value added time in pre-production activities.

The VA and NVA study established that nearly 50 percent of the time spent in a
manufacturing cycle was NVA (waiting time) and a substantial portion of the same

177

could be minimised by adopting a critical chain approach which was subject to further
longitudinal study. The activity cost centre matrix established that pre-production
processes were centred around only a few departments like store/design/sampling/
merchandising resulting in a possible resource constraint which required further study.

178

Chapter Six: Longitudinal Studies

6.0

Longitudinal Case Studies

This chapter primarily deals with applicability of different optimisation techniques to

reduce lead time in the manufacturing cycle. From the case studies conducted earlier, it
was clear that longitudinal studies were required to explore the potential of optimisation
techniques like collaborative product development (CPD), critical path/critical chain
and avoiding intermittent work interruptions to compress pre-production time.
Available literature talked about reduction of lead time (Li 2007) and bullwhip effect
(Paik, et al. 2007) through the elimination of echelons. Towill (1996) talked about four
different options of lead time reduction, namely elimination, integration, concurrence
and compression. However, elimination, integration or concurrence was pointedly
specific to an organisation and its supply chain. For example, whether an approval
process can be done away with (elimination), or prototype and fit sample can be
combined together (integration), or costing and size set approval can be done in parallel
(concurrence) depends on the buyer/style/distribution channel and many more specific
parameters (section 4.2.5), where a generic solution is impossible to implement. It was
also realised that pre-production processes resembled project management (2.4.2). In
order to explore time compression possibilities in pre-production processes, it was
decided to use both project management tools, namely critical path and critical chain, as
a case study while comparing suitability. It was also observed in the earlier study
(section 5.4) that product development and pre-production activities concentrated on
storage, design, sampling, merchandising and procurement departments, resulting in the
possible imposition of constraints on resources. Critical Chain is defined as the longest
chain of tasks that consider both task dependencies and resource dependencies. VA and
NVA studies conducted earlier concluded that a relay race approach in executing the
activities would possibly minimise the NVA component in activities (section 5.3.4).
Relay race is an approach being followed in the critical chain technique; hence the
critical chain was considered as the most appropriate tool for lead time optimisation.

Another human tendency was to stop working on one order midway and start another in
response to a shrill demand from another customer. This tendency is referred to as
multitasking in project management literature (section 2.4.2) and should be avoided to
reduce project completion time. The earlier focus group and case study (section 5.3.3)

179

indicated presence of intermittent work interruptions in many activities in product

development and pre-production process. It was thus decided to conduct a longitudinal
case study to identify, understand and quantify the lead time improvement potential by
minimising intermittent work interruptions.

6.1 Collaborative Product Development

Literature suggested that use of collaborative product development (CPD) saved
development time (section 2.3.3). It was also felt during the case study (section 4.2) that
the initiative and approach towards CPD was absent in Indian small and medium
apparel enterprises. It was therefore decided to explore why CPD was not being
practised regularly by many manufacturing organisations. The case study was done
through a focus group interview with the apparel buyer, apparel manufacturer, fabric
manufacturer and supplier, sewing thread manufacturer and supplier, sewing needle
manufacturers and suppliers, zipper manufacturers and suppliers. Personal interviews
were done with the apparel manufacturer, fabric supplier, sewing thread manufacturer
and supplier and the garment processor.
6.1.1

Methodology

Methodology was decided as focus group interview followed by exploratory case study
(section 3.5.1). The focus group sample selection was based purely on critical case
purposive sampling, as the idea was to select those few who are either practicing
collaborative and concurrent product development (CPD) concept or at least aware
about it. The focus group should, also, represent all trading partners, have a progressive
mindset and more importantly, the person representing the organisation should be
knowledgeable and willing to share data and have worked in the same sector for at least
five years. Keeping the above factors in mind, a nine-member focus group representing
nine different organisations was identified.
The expert panel comprised of a merchandiser with Triburg Consultants16, a large
buying house representing major U.S. and a few EU customers; the Director Asia,
Tukatech Inc.17, a CAD/CAM solution provider; the Manager, Marketing at Coats
16
17

www.triburg.com
www.tukatech.com
180

India18, a sewing thread manufacturer and supplier; the Manager, Marketing, Groz
Beckert Asia Limited19, a sewing needle supplier; the Manager PD, from Vaman Mills,
a yarn dyed circular knit fabric manufacturer; the owner of Able Processors, a garment
processing house in Mumbai, India; the R&D Manager from Tex, a zipper manufacturer
from NCR; the General Manager, Operations, at ABC Fashions, a vertically integrated
knitwear facility from NCR, with a turnover of approximately US$ sixteen million,
exporting primarily to the EU and U.S.A. and the Manager Operations from PQR
Fashions, an approximately US$ nine million turnover organisation from Mumbai with
its own in-house manufacturing facility and specialising in washed garments.
Pseudonyms were used for the last five organisations (fifth to ninth) to anonymise their
identity (section 3.8) as desired by the organisations.
As it was difficult to get all experts together in one place at one time, the focus group
was done in the first stage and 'expert knowledge elicitation' in the second stage. Thus,
in the first stage, discussions took place with three experts in conclave and in the second
stage, the researcher visited the experts personally to discuss, understand and record
their observations and views.
During focus group interview information was also sought about any case example
where the principle of collaboration and concurrency was followed and what was the
result. Two cases were found worthwhile for exploration. ABC Fashions, Case-1, was
based in NCR and has a vertically integrated knitwear facility. PQR Fashions, Case-2,
was based in Mumbai with its own in-house manufacturing facility and specialising in
washed garments.

In both cases, the studies involved orders placed by Triburg

Consultants. Triburg Consultants is a buying agent for premium US labels like Liz
Claiborne and PVH, among others. Both case studies were conducted using historical
data. The information was gathered by personally interviewing key executives from the
manufacturer as well as the buying organisation and from company records, i.e. a
secondary source of information.
6.1.2

Data Collection

Development or sourcing was carried out in two ways: either apparel manufacturers
sourced or developed raw materials (fabrics and accessories) from different vendors and
18
19

www.coatsindia.com
www.groz-beckert.com
181

the buyers office only approved the quality; or buyers collaborated directly with a set
of vendors to develop or source raw materials/accessories and approve quality. The
apparel manufacturers were then required to source materials from that set of buyer
approved vendors. Either way, an approved or preferred supplier could be given the
opportunity to develop a new product in parallel with the purchasing company.

The focus group unanimously agreed that buying organisations could take the lead in
initiating development of three key ingredients directly with suppliers; fabrics,
accessories and garment finishes. While large buyers commonly practiced such an
approach and had a set of nominated (or buyer approved) vendors, small buying
organisations and importers did not follow such a practice. Elaborating the distinction
between large and small buyers, the group defined large buyers as agencies placing a
large order quantity, primarily basic styles, whereas small buyers were involved with
primarily high fashion merchandise in low quantity. [There are two reasons why small
buyers do not follow the nominated vendor route. Firstly, either the quantity of raw
material is not large enough to attract raw material vendors to participate and secondly,
the raw material (especially fabric) is often sourced from the unorganised power-loom
sector that is simply unaware of, and not really progressive enough to understand the
concept].

Another important observation was that when a large order quantity was distributed to
multiple apparel manufacturers, the nominated vendor approach was widely followed,
whereas even if a large order quantity was placed with a single manufacturer, vendor
selection was often left to the manufacturer. The focus group also felt that apart from
large order quantity, raw material vendors often agreed to collaborative development if
the buyer was conceived as a respected name in the industry. The reason behind having
a nominated vendor was further investigated. Although collaborative, higher
efficiency, lesser number of approvals, reduced iteration were cited as common
reasons, concurrence and resultant reduction of time were mentioned by only two
member of the group.

Lastly, another factor that came out as a possible hindrance to practicing collaborative
and concurrent development was the socioeconomic aspect. Collaboration and
concurrence is common within an organisation or between organisations from one
country and/or countries with a similar socioeconomic environment (section 2.3.3).

182

However

practicing

collaborative

and

concurrent

development

between

organisations of one developed and another developing country (dissimilar

socioeconomic environment) requires co-ordination and levels of trust which, quite
probably, are absent.

Many buyers and manufacturers have started to develop partnerships at the global level.
For example, Gap Inc. shared its colour forecast for the current and forthcoming
seasons with Coats worldwide for development of embroidery thread. All Gap vendors
were directed to source all their embroidery thread need from local Coats suppliers.
While some focus group members felt that an awareness programme of these best
practices would help bringing in more and more organisations to practice collaborative
and concurrent product development, other group members felt unless a commercially
sustainable business model was created, an awareness programme simply would not
help. One Focus group expert discussed outsourcing pattern making and sample
approval activities to expert organisations to avoid iteration. Once the expert
organisation developed and got the pattern/sample approved directly by the buyer, the
apparel manufacturer simply sourced the pattern/sample from the expert organisation
and duplicated it. Some US buyers were now following a similar approach.

6.1.3

Case Studies

Triburg Consultants, headquartered in New Delhi, wanted to place a huge order of yarndyed T-shirts with ABC Fashions. The buying agent decided to place the order with two
different manufacturers; ABC Fashions in Delhi and another manufacturer in Ludhiana.
ABC Fashions contacted a textile mill, Vaman Mills, a yarn dyed circular knit fabric
manufacturer, to develop the knitted fabric made of dyed yarn, but this textile mill was
unwilling to meet specified quality and delivery parameters due to the low volume of
the order. ABC Fashions requested the buying agent to intervene; the buying agent
contacted the mill and offered sourcing the total fabric quantity (combined orders of
two manufacturers) from the mill if they were willing to collaborate in the fabric
development. Vaman Mills collaborated with Triburg Consultants from the stage of
yarn quality approval till the finished fabric approval. Once the dyed yarn lots were
approved, garment manufacturers were advised to source yarns only from the
nominated yarn supplier or source knitted fabric from the nominated fabric supplier.

183

The buying agent felt that both colour and quality consistency increased while fabric
development lead time reduced by approximately 40 percent.

Triburg also wanted to place an order of a special enzyme-washed programme with

PQR Fashion, Mumbai. Triburg contacted an enzyme supplier, Able Processors, to
develop the recipe with a promise to guarantee business provided the wash effect was
approved. While fit and size set approvals were going on with the apparel manufacturer,
the enzyme supplier concurrently developed and had the wash effect approved. Then
PQR Fashion directed all the manufacturers to source the enzyme from Able Processors
who would set the washing parameters for different manufacturers, resulting in
improved consistency in washed effects and reduced (43 percent) development time.

6.1.4

Data and Case Analysis

The CPD effort for basic versus fashion merchandise showed more weightage
(percentage cost of product) given to fabric in basic merchandise whereas the cost of
fashion merchandise depended more on value addition (either accessories or labour
content). The current practice of collaboration and concurrence seemed primarily due to
convenience and isolated commercial benefit rather than reduction of manufacturing
lead time or the supply chain cost as a whole. While large order quantities were
distributed to multiple apparel manufacturers, buyers resorted to nominated vendors to
avoid multiple approvals. The raw material vendors agreed on collaborative
development with a buyer if the deal was either commercially large enough to be
profitable and/or the buyer was a respected name to be associated with.

Ignorance about time saved through collaborative and concurrent product development
was a direct reflection of how important time was in the contract manufacturing
environment. It may be recalled that a similar view was also expressed during the first
survey about characteristics of the Indian apparel export manufacturing (section 4.1.3).
The missing coordination between trading partners could probably be attributed to their
dissimilar socio-cultural background and the same apprehension was felt by Tyler
(section 2.3.3).

Regarding commercially sustainable business models  it was clear that trading partners
were aware of and appreciated the merit of the approach but simultaneously wanted

184

assurance that the benefit generated out of the practice was distributed amongst the
trading partners. Currently, raw material vendors (as well as apparel manufacturers in
some cases) were apprehensive about whether the money saved in the process was
being pocketed by the buyer. It was clear from product development analysis (section
4.2.2) and pre-production network analysis (section 5.1.2) that there were generally
three concurrent routes; first, the sample approval route; second, the fabric development
and approval route and third, the accessories approval route. Tylers concurrent product
development model (figure 2.14, Section 2.3.3) mentioned convergence of ideas from
design, production and material management teams within or between organisations. It
was found that design, merchandising, production, industrial engineering and purchase
(equivalent to material management) executives regularly met and discussed
simplification, material optimisation and resource availability issues during every new
product development. The focus group also mentioned similar practices between
executives of buying and apparel manufacturing organisations, between executives of
buyers and raw material suppliers and between apparel manufacturers and raw material
suppliers. However no structured format or check list was followed during any meeting,
thereby risking omission of some important points either during discussion or in
implementation.

It was concluded from an earlier analysis (section 5.2.3) that sample development and
approval route (which, otherwise, is generally not the critical path) would, in all
likelihood, become the critical path (longest lead time) due to iterations in the actual
scenario. Outsourcing of all sample approval-related activities to an expert organisation
could bring twofold benefits; on the one hand, it could make some activities concurrent
(thus reducing developmental lead time) and on the other, reduce the sample approval
time by compression (eliminating/minimising iteration). However the other group
members felt that the concept was new, unproven and not many organisations were
ready for it yet.

6.1.5

Conclusion and Reflections

In both the focus group and case studies, the unanimous feeling was that reduction and
consistency of lead time was a must. The 40-43 percent reduction was achieved in the
fabric approval process and not in overall order lead time. As the cases were not

185

documented either at the buyers or manufacturers end, the quantities were determined
from the interview.

Pre-production activities varied from manufacturer to manufacturer as well between

orders for a single manufacturer. While some started at pre-production stage, others
started at the PD stage. (Some orders may even start from the pre-production stage but
involve development activities later). Due to this hybrid nature of PD, activity in the
Indian supply chain could not be ascertained accurately. In the operational sense,
collaborative product development ultimately led to a buyer approved vendors (also
called nominated vendors) scenario, which has several perceived advantages and
disadvantages for Indian manufacturers, vendors and buyers. From the case studies, it
was clear that collaborative product development is easy to implement by large
organised buyers (or buying agent) or large influential manufacturers, firstly due to
sheer volume of potential business and secondly, sheer clout, which small buyers and/or
manufacturers could not currently counter or exercise. This explains the crucial role of
the dominant supply chain leader (section 2.2).

It was observed that buyers and small buying agents sourcing low volume fashion
merchandise were apprehensive about sharing information during PD, whereas high
volume basic merchandise buyers did not find any problem. This fully correlated with
information sharing problems mentioned by Lamming (Lamming et al. 2000) and
Fishers supply chain classification (refer chapter 2.3). The two cases analysed clearly
show how volume (due to consolidation of orders) and power/name could initiate the
change. In the buyer approved vendors or nominated vendor concept there were
perceived or notional advantages from the buyers, manufacturers and vendors point
of view. Vendors enjoyed focussed development, higher development to business ratio,
association with big buyers and also the possibility of high volume orders due to
consolidation. From the manufacturers point of view, no searching for vendors, assured
merchandise quality, no hassle of repeated iteration and no requirement of special
expertise were the added benefits. The process made the development cycle faster as
buyers approved merchandise quality only once with the vendor and there was no need
for any further approval with the individual manufacturer; the buyer also enjoyed the
benefit of minimum variability between lots.

186

There were disadvantages too; vendors felt a loss in bargaining power and lack of
variety while manufacturers felt curbed in their freedom of choice of vendors and often
alleged a higher cost of procurement. There was an added responsibility of selection and
development for the buyer who was also often caught in payment and delivery-related
conflicts between manufacturers and vendors. Finally, there was the inevitable concern
of putting all eggs into one basket.

6.2

Critical Chain Implementation

As explained in section 2.4.2, the critical path is commonly used for monitoring preproduction activity. However, the critical chain has some subtle advantages over the
critical path technique, making it more suitable for human co-ordinated and controlled
activities like pre-production activities in apparel manufacturing. Unlike the critical
path, the critical chain also considers resource availability during optimisation.
Moreover, the critical chain is a compression technique and can be generically applied
to any process. The Critical Chain technique has, therefore, been selected for the
longitudinal case study.

6.2.1

Methodology

As this study was to provide an illustrative profile using a representative case (section
3.5.2), a typical case purposive sampling would be ideal. The case study would require
one company to be selected where the management was open to new ideas and ready to
experiment with at least one actual ongoing order. The organisation was to permit the
researcher to evaluate the current method of scheduling of activities, order tracking,
access to data, and would allow the scheduling of activities to be done as per Program
Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) / CPM network. The organisation was to
also allow the researcher to brief, train and guide executives as necessary to complete
the case study. Silvershine Apparels was chosen because the managers/employees were
committed to co-operate during the experimentation and also as the company had earlier
participated in the research for delay contributing activities. The executive team was
fully committed to the study. The duration of this case study would be around 142 days
(section 5.2.3) depending on the actual lead time of the order chosen for the study. A
student research team was stationed in the organisation for round-the-clock monitoring
and carrying out instructions from the researcher during the study.

187

One style, named Dolores Top, was selected for experimentation. Pre-production
activities starting from fabric quality approval (activity no. 1) till production start
(activity no.39) were selected for monitoring. The structured observation format was
designed as per data required for preparing PERT/CPM diagram. Before the order
actually started, estimates of the activity durations were called for from concerned
executives, the relationship between each activity was established (activity data table
made with preceding and succeeding activity), and activities scheduled (PERT network
diagram was made) both as per critical chain as well as critical path methodology. The
critical chain concept was briefed to all team members of the organisation and time
estimated for each task and pooled buffer positions. Once the order started everyone
was encouraged to work according to the tenets of Relay Race. Every one was briefed
to finish the activity as early as possible and hand it over to the next person for the next
task. As the order activities moved forward, respective executives were pre-informed
and prepared for tasks to arrive, thus ensuring manual prioritisation and speedy
execution of tasks. As and when any activity was completed, data was recorded in the
table.

6.2.2

Data Collection

Data collection was done in two modes, the Set Up Mode and the Tracking Mode. In
the Set Up Mode order selection, estimation of activity time, activity data table making,
PERT network making and actual data collection format were prepared. In the Tracking
Mode, as the order progressed, the actual start and end date were recorded in the format.

Set Up Mode:
The activity data for Dolores Top was recorded with activity no., activity duration,
previous activity and next activity and is presented in table 6.1. The activity duration for
critical path and critical chain was estimated separately for internal activities. However,
for external activities (not under direct control of the organisation), the duration was
estimated as equal (section 2.4.2). The activity duration was calculated from
information collected from three resources (concerned executive, merchandise manager
in the manufacturing organisation and merchandise manager at the buying
organisation). The activity code numbers in the table are not in serial order as some

188

additional activities were added in between preparing the PERT Chart and planning the
style. The actual number of activities were 49.

Table 6.1

Previous
Activity

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

0
0
0-2
0
0-3
0
0-4
0
0-5
0
0-6
0
0-7
0
0-8
0
7
0
8
0

21

22
23
24

0-27
0
0

2-11
25

26
27
28

3-12
4/1113
13-20
5/12-

Activity Data for Dolores Top Style

Code
No.

Activity Description

Order Confirmed (event)

0-1
0-2
2-11
0-3
3-12
0-4
4-13
0-5
5-14
0-6
6-15
0-7
7-16
0-8
8-17
0-9
16-23
0-10
17-24
0-27/
28
27-29/
30/31/
32/33
28-39
1-11
1113/15/
16/18
1214/17/
19

Fabric quality for approval

13-20
20-29
14-21

Size set sample for local approval - L/SL IG

Lab dip for approval - petal pink

Lab dip approval - petal pink
Lab dip for approval - margerita green
Lab dip approval - margerita green
Fit for approval - L/SL IG
Fit approval - L/SL IG
Fit for approval - L/SL TG
Fit approval - L/SL TG
Fit for approval - L/SL LG
Fit approval - L/SL LG
Fit for approval - S/SL TG
Fit approval - S/SL TG
Fit for approval - S/SL LG
Fit approval - S/SL LG
Embroidery colour approval - petal pink
Embroidery design approval - petal pink
Embroidery colour approval - margerita green
Embroidery design approval - margerita green

Main label, loop label, wash care in-house

Hanger hangtag in-house
Fabric quality approved

Initial processed
margerita green

dyed

fabric

Duration in Days
Critical
Critical
Path
Chain

0-1/2/3/
4/5/6/7/
8/9/10/
27/ 28
21
2
22
3
23
9
24
10
25
11
26
12
27
13
28
16
47
17
48

6
6
4
6
4
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
4
6
4

6
3
4
3
7
3
7
3
7
3
7
3
7
3
7
3
4
3
4

20
20
0

10
20
0

19, 20
37, 38,
39, 40,
41
50
23

Accessories ordered

Initial processed dyed fabric in-house

pink

Next
Activity

petal

in-house

Size set sample local approval - L/SL IG

Size set sample for local approval - L/SL TG

24, 26,
27, 34
15

25,
35

15

6
2
6

3
2
3

29
37
30

28,

189

14
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36

14-21
6/1115
15-22
7/1116
16-23
8/1217
17-24
11-18

37
38

39

40

41

42

43
44
45
46
47
48

12-19
18/20/
25/2729
19/21/
26/2730
18/22/
25/2731
18/23/
25/2732
19/24/
26/2733
29-34
30-35
31-36
32-37
33-38
9-25

49
10-26
34/35/
36/37/
38-39

21-30

Size set sample local approval - L/SL TG

38

15-22
22-31

Size set sample for local approval - L/SL LG

31
39

6
2

3
2

16-23
23-32

Size set sample for local approval - S/SL TG

32
40

6
2

3
2

17-24
24-33
18-29/
31/ 32
1930/33

Size set sample for local approval - S/SL LG

6
2

3
2

Bulk fabric in-house - petal pink

33
41
37,
40

10

10

Bulk fabric in-house - margerita green

38, 41

10

10

29-34

Pre-production sample for approval -L/SL IG

42

30-35

Pre-production sample for approval-L/SL TG

43

31-36

Pre-production sample for approval-L/SL LG

44

32-37

Pre-production sample for approval-S/S TG

45

33-38

46
50
Pre production sample approval - L/SL IG
50
Pre production sample approval - L/SL TG
50
Pre production sample approval - L/SL LG
50
Pre production sample approval - S/SL TG
50
Pre production sample approval - S/SL LG
Bulk embroidery in-house - Dolores Top petal 37,
40
pink

6
5
5
5
5
5

3
5
5
5
5
5

15

15

34-39
35-39
36-39
37-39
38-39

25-29/
31/32
2630/33

39

Size set sample local approval - L/SL LG

Size set sample local approval - S/SL TG

Size set sample local approval - S/SL LG

39,

Pre production sample for approval -S/SLLG

Bulk embroidery in-house

margerita green

39,

- Dolores Top

38, 41

Production Start (event)

A PERT diagram (figure 6.1) for critical path was prepared based on AOA (activity on
arrow) principle and started with an event named Order Confirmed and ended with an
event named Production Start. These events have a duration of zero (0). Then each
activity was drawn as an arrow that started after Order Confirmation (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10, 27, 28 in this example) and led to an event. Similarly, all successive activities
were drawn as arrows coming from preceding activities. The pre-production sample

190

approval was the last activity in the pre-production process (activity 34, 35, 36, 37, 38)
and production started next. The event Production Start is numbered as 39. Out of a
total of 49 activities, only 10 activities were found to be in the critical path and the
critical path time was 46 days. There were three parallel paths having the same time as
the critical path. As the activities are in AOA, they are referred to as 0-1, 1-2, etc. and
the duration of activity is written on the arrow. The earliest start and earliest finish days
of any particular activity was written inside the first parenthesis with a comma; for
example activity 0-2 could start earliest on day 0 and finish by Day 6; similarly,
activity 11-18 could start earliest on Day 10 and finish on Day 25. The critical path was
0-2-11-18-29-34-39 and indicated in the diagram by red arrows.

191

Figure 6.1

PERT/CPM Diagram for Dolores Top Style

The PERT diagram for critical chain was also prepared (Figure 6.2) based on the AOA
principle and followed the same dependency relationship. According to convention
(section 2.4.2), the duration of activities were reduced to half for calculating the critical
chain. However, during the study it was realised that only durations of internal activities
(where control was with the organisation) should be reduced to half while durations of

192

external activities (where control was not with the organisation) should remain the
same. For example, duration of activity 0-5 was reduced to 3 days from 6 days (table
6.1) as 0-5 was an internal activity but duration of 5-14 (table 6.1) remained as 7 days
as it was an external activity. Two types of buffers were calculated for the critical path;
the feeding buffer was inserted at different milestone activities where the feeding chain
intersected with the critical chain and the project buffer was inserted at the last activity
of the critical chain. Buffer duration at any milestone was calculated as 50 percent of
the length of the chain preceding that activity. The critical chain time was 32 days and
therefore project buffer was 16 days. Feeding buffers at all feeding points were
calculated similarly. While the critical chain is indicated in red arrows, the numbers
written in sky colour boxes before the nodes indicate the buffer time for the activity in
number of days. In the critical chain diagram, the latest start and latest finish days of
any particular activity are written inside first parenthesis with a comma; for example
activity 0-9 could start latest on Day 10 and finish by Day 13, meaning that this
activity had 10 days of lag time. The total number of activities in both the critical path
and critical chain network was 49. While in the critical path plan, production start could
take place after Day 46, the same could take place in the critical chain plan on Day 32.
This effectively means that in the critical chain plan, the first activity could start on Day
1 and the last activity finish by Day 32, i.e. 14 days earlier than required. Alternatively,
one could start the first activity on Day 14 and finish on Day 46. In a practical scenario,
planning generally is done end-to-start and in Silvershine Apparels, for the Dolores
Top order, enough lead time was available, so it was decided to anchor production start
on Day 46 (similar to the critical path schedule) and schedule all activities as late as
possible (ALAP) in the critical chain. Figure 6.2 shows the critical chain network with
all activities scheduled ALAP to start production on Day 46.

193

Figure 6.2

Critical Chain Network for Dolores Top Style

The calendar date for order confirmed was 04 March and considered as Day Zero.
Based on the critical path and critical chain networks earliest start/end and latest
start/end days were also calculated and tabulated in a tracking format. For every activity
there were four possible days; for example, activity 2-11 (Lab dip approval - petal pink)
could either start as early as on Day 6 and end on Day 10 or as late as Day 17 and finish

194

on Day 21. In both cases, as per plan, the order would meet the scheduled production
start on Day 46. In the order tracking format (table 6.2) the critical path and critical
chain columns indicate planned start-end date; the last two columns were left blank for
recording actual start-end date in tracking mode.

Table: 6.2
NO

0-1
0-2
2-11
0-3
3-12
0-4
4-13
0-5
5-14
0-6
6-15
0-7
7-16
0-8
8-17
0-9
9-25
0-10
10-26
0-27/28
27-29/
30/31/
32/33
28-39
1-11
11-13/
15/16/18
12-14/
17/19
13-20
20-29
14-21
21-30
15-22
22-31
16-23
23-32
17-24
24-33
18-29/
31/32
19-30/ 33
29-34
30-35
31-36
32-37

Tracking Format: Actual Days vs. Critical Path and Critical Chain

ACTIVITY

CRITICAL
PATH ASAP

CRITICAL
CHAIN ALAP

START

START

END

END

Order confirmed
Fabric quality approval
Lab dip for approval - petal pink
Lab dip approval - petal pink
Lab dip for approval - margerita green
Lab dip approval - margerita green
Fit for approval - L/SL IG
Fit approval L/SL IG
Fit for approval - L/SL TG
Fit approval L/SL TG
Fit for approval - L/SL LG
Fit approval L/SL LG
Fit for approval - S/SL TG
Fit approval S/SL TG
Fit for approval - S/SL LG
Fit approval S/SL LG
Embroidery colour approval - petal pink
Embroidery design approval - petal pink
Embroidery colour approval - margerita green
Embroidery design approval - margerita green

0
0
6
0
6
0
6
0
6
0
6
0
6
0
6
0
6
0
6

9
6
7
6
7
6
13
6
13
6
13
6
13
6
13
6
10
6
10

5
3
6
3
6
8
11
8
11
8
11
8
11
8
11
10
3
10
3

14
6
10
6
10
11
18
11
18
11
18
11
18
11
18
13
17
13
17

Accessory ordered

13

15

Main label, loop label, wash care in-house

Hanger hangtag in-house
Initial processed dyed fabric in-house - petal
pink
Initial processed dyed fabric in-house - margerita
green
Size set sample for local approval - L/SL - IG
Size set sample local approval - L/SL - IG
Size set sample for local approval - L/SL - TG
Size set sample local approval - L/SL - TG
Size set sample for local approval - L/SL - LG
Size set sample local approval - L/SL - LG
Size set sample for local approval - S/SL - TG
Size set sample local approval - S/SL - TG
Size set sample for local approval - S/SL - LG
Size set sample local approval - S/SL - LG

4
4

24
24

16
9

26
29

10

25

14

21

10

25

14

21

25
31
25
31
25
31
25
31
25
31

19
33
19
33
19
33
19
33
19
33

23
26
23
26
23
26
23
26
23
26

26
28
26
28
26
28
26
28
26
28

Bulk fabric in-house - petal pink

25

35

21

31

Bulk fabric in-house - margerita green

Pre-production sample for approval - L/SL - IG
Pre-production sample for approval - L/SL - TG
Pre-production sample for approval - L/SL - LG
Pre-production sample for approval - S/SL - TG

25
35
35
35
35

35
41
46
41
46

21
31
31
31
31

31
34
34
34
34

ACTUAL
START
DAY

ACTU
AL
END
DAY

DAY 0 - 4 MARCH

195

33-38
34-39
35-39
36-39
37-39
38-39

25-29/
31/32
26-30/ 33
39

Pre-production sample for approval - S/SL - LG

Pre-production sample approval - L/SL - IG
Pre-production sample approval - L/SL - TG
Pre-production sample approval - L/SL - LG
Pre-production sample approval - S/SL - TG
Pre-production sample approval - S/SL - LG

35
41
41
41
41
41

41
46
41
46
41
46

31
34
34
34
34
34

34
39
39
39
39
39

Bulk embroidery in-house - Dolores Top p pink

10

25

20

27

10

25

20

27

Bulk embroidery in-house - Dolores Top

margerita green
Production start

46

39

Tracking mode:
Once the order was started, actual start and end times were noted against every activity
in the format above. During the tracking mode, executives were instructed to treat the
specific order as a relay race approach; however, no special treatment was given to the
Dolores Top order in terms of activity completion.

Table: 6.3
NO

0-1
0-2
2-11
0-3
3-12
0-4
4-13
0-5
5-14
0-6
6-15
0-7
7-16
0-8
8-17
0-9
9-25
0-10
10-26
0-27/28
27-29/
30/31/
32/33
28-39
1-11
11-13/
15/16/ 18
1214/17/19
13-20
20-29

Tracking Format: Actual Days vs. Critical Path and Critical Chain

ACTIVITY

CRITICAL
PATH ASAP

CRITICAL
CHAIN ALAP

START

START

END

END

ACT
UAL
STAR
T
DAY

ACT
UAL
END
DAY

Order confirmed
Fabric quality approval
Lab dip for approval - petal pink
Lab dip approval - petal pink
Lab dip for approval margarita green
Lab dip approval - margerita green
Fit for approval - L/SL IG
Fit approval L/SL IG
Fit for approval - L/SL TG
Fit approval L/SL TG
Fit for approval - L/SL LG
Fit approval L/SL LG
Fit for approval - S/SL TG
Fit approval S/SL TG
Fit for approval - S/SL LG
Fit approval S/SL LG
Embroidery colour approval - petal pink
Embroidery design approval - petal pink
Embroidery colour approval - margerita green
Embroidery design approval - margerita green

0 DAY - 4 MARCH
0
9
5
6
3
0
6
7
6
6
3
0
6
7
6
0
6
8
6
13
11
0
6
8
6
13
11
0
6
8
6
13
11
0
6
8
6
13
11
0
6
8
6
13
11
0
6
10
6
10
3
0
6
10
6
10
3

14
6
10
6
10
11
18
11
18
11
18
11
18
11
18
13
17
13
17

N/A
0
4
1
4
1
7
1
7
1
7
1
7
1
7
5
12
5
12

N/A
4
10
4
11
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
12
30
12
30

Accessory ordered

13

15

N/A

N/A

Main label, loop label, wash care in-house

Hanger hangtag in-house

4
4

24
24

16
9

26
29

N/A
N/A

N/A
N/A

Initial processed dyed fabric in/h - petal pink

10

25

14

21

12

28

10

25

14

21

12

28

25
31

19
33

23
26

26
28

37
39

39
45

Initial processed dyed fabric in/h margerita

green
Size set sample for local approval - L/SL - IG
Size set sample local approval - L/SL - IG

196

14-21
21-30
15-22
22-31
16-23
23-32
17-24
24-33
18-29/
31/32
19-30/33
29-34
30-35
31-36
32-37
33-38
34-39
35-39
36-39
37-39
38-39

25-29/31
/ 32
26-30/33
39

Size set sample for local approval - L/SL - TG

Size set sample local approval - L/SL - TG
Size set sample for local approval - L/SL - LG
Size set sample local approval - L/SL - LG
Size set sample for local approval - S/SL - TG
Size set sample local approval - S/SL - TG
Size set sample for local approval - S/SL - LG
Size set sample local approval - S/SL - LG

25
31
25
31
25
31
25
31

19
33
19
33
19
33
19
33

23
26
23
26
23
26
23
26

26
28
26
28
26
28
26
28

37
39
37
39
37
39
37
39

39
45
39
45
39
45
39
45

Bulk fabric in-house - petal pink

25

35

21

31

28

45

Bulk fabric in-house margarita green

Pre-production sample for approval - L/SL - IG
Pre-production sample for approval - L/SL- TG
Pre-production sample for approval - L/SL- LG
Pre-production sample for approval - S/SL- TG
Pre-production sample for approval - S/S - LG
Pre-production sample approval - L/SL - IG
Pre-production sample approval - L/SL - TG
Pre-production sample approval - L/SL - LG
Pre-production sample approval - S/SL - TG
Pre-production sample approval - S/SL - LG

25
35
35
35
35
35
41
41
41
46
41

35
41
46
41
46
41
46
41
46
46
46

21
31
31
31
31
31
34
34
34
34
34

31
34
34
34
34
34
39
39
39
39
39

28
30
18
17
16
16
37
37
37
37
37

45
37
37
37
37
37
45
45
45
45
45

Bulk embroidery in-house - Dolores Top p pink

10

25

20

27

N/A

N/A

10

25

20

27

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Bulk embroidery in-house - Dolores Top

margerita green
Production start

46

39

There were three longest paths in the network; namely 0-2-11-18-29-34-39,

0-2-11-18-31-36-39, and 0-2-11-18-32-37-39. Any delay beyond buffer time in any of
these activities would mean delay in overall lead time. The start and end days for these
critical activities were tabulated separately for comparison (table 6.4).

Table: 6.4

Critical Activities

No

Activity

0-2
2-11
11-18
18-29
18-31
18-32
29-34

Lab dip for approval - petal pink

Lab dip approval - petal pink
initial processed dyed fabric in/h - petal pink
bulk fabric in/h - petal pink
bulk fabric in/h - petal pink
bulk fabric in/h - petal pink
Pre production sample for approval - L/SL IG
pre production sample for approval - L/SL
LG
pre production sample for approval - S/SL
TG
pre production sample approval - L/SL - IG
pre production sample approval - L/SL - LG
pre production sample approval - S/SL - TG

31-36
32-37
34-39
36-39
37-39

Critical
ASAP
Start
0
6
10
25
25
25
35

Path
End
6
10
25
35
35
35
41

Critical Chain
ALAP
Start
End
14
17
17
21
21
28
28
38
28
38
28
38
38
41

Actua
l Start
Day
0
4
10
22
22
22
34

Actua
l End
Day
4
10
22
34
34
34
37

35

41

38

41

17

37

35

46

38

41

16

37

41
41
46

46
46
46

41
34
34

46
39
39

37
37
37

45
45
45

Apart from collecting order-specific data, several other practices/ conventions were
observed during the case study. It was common practice in Silvershine to make
individual time and action (TNA) calendar for every order that was being processed.

197

These TNA calendar were the same as the critical path in purpose (section 2.4.2). At
any given point of time, any one executive typically followed up 8-10 orders; that
meant, 8-10 separate TNA calendars. On any given day, there were different activities
from different TNA calendars to be executed, and executives typically follow a to-do
list (based on memory) to accomplish the tasks one by one. As no prioritising of
activities was done, every one used to pick up activities from the to-do list at random,
resulting in frequent changeover and intermittent work interruption. However, while the
order was being tracked, it was observed that executives were trying to give priority to
the Dolores Top order to ensure the order was executed in the relay race approach. It
was felt necessary by the executives to automatically prioritise activities as per PERT
network sequence for smooth handover and less interruption.

6.2.3 Data Analysis

Out of six activities in the critical path/chain, only two were internally dependent, while
the other four were externally dependent. While comparing actual time taken against
planned in the critical path, it was found that in four out of six critical path activities,
work started earlier than planned and in only two activities, work started on time as
planned. However, in three out of four external activities, time was lost. While
comparing actuals with the critical chain schedule, it was found that in five activities
time was lost and one activity was on time. Even though the first activity was started 14
days early, the last activity finished only one day early, resulting in overall network loss
of 13 days. Another important indication to emerge was that activities depending on
external factors were likely to eat into the buffer time, while internally dependent
activities made up for the loss.

Table: 6.5

Comparison between Critical Path and Critical Chain

Critical Path vs. Actual

Activity

Type of
activity
Start day

End day

Status

0-2

Internal

On time

Early 2

Gained time

2-11

External

Early 2

On time

Lost time

11-18
18-29
29-34
34-39

External
External
Internal
External

On time
Early 3
Early 1
Early 4

Early 3
Early 1
Early 4
Early 1

Gained time
Lost time
Gained time
Lost time

Critical Chain vs. Actual

Start
day
Early
14
Early
13
Early
11
Early 6
Early 4
Early 4

End day

Status

Early 13

Lost time

Early 11

Lost time

Early 6
Early 4
Early 4
Early 1

Lost time
Lost time
On time
Lost time

198

Once the comparative days from table 6.5 were plotted in graphs (figures 6.3 and 6.4),
the results suggested that while activities were being planned by the critical chain
method (where target date was earlier than critical path method), there was a high
chance of completion as per the critical chain target. When the actual working pattern
(i.e. the actual start and end dates of all the activities) in Silvershine Apparels was
correlated with that of planned dates, the critical chain approach showed very strong
positive correlation between actual start of tasks (0.83) and finish of tasks (0.80).
Critical path scheduled dates also showed strong correlation with actual dates and thus
it could be concluded from the above study that both critical path and critical chain have
good correlation with human behaviour and these approaches may be used for lead time
reduction. Assuming that there could never be early delivery, the study also showed that
critical chain could actually reduce lead time by 12 percent.

Figure 6.3

Critical Chain, Critical Path and Actual Start

Actual Start of Activities

45
40
35
30of Days
Number
CP-Start

25

CC-Start
20

Actual Start

15
10
5
0
Lab dip for
approval petal pink

Lab dip
approval petal pink

Initial
Bulk fabric
Preprocessed in/h - petal production
dyed fabric
sample for
pink
in/h - petal
approval
pink

Preproduction
sample
approval

Activity Descriptions

199

Figure 6.4

Critical Chain, Critical Path and Actual Finish

Actual End of Activities

50
45
40
35
Number of Days
30

CP-End

25

CC-End
Actual End

20
15
10
5
0
Lab dip for
approval petal pink

Lab dip
approval petal pink

Initial
processed
dyed fabric
in/h - petal
pink

Bulk fabric
in/h - petal
pink

Preproduction
sample for
approval L/SL - IG

Preproduction
sample
approval L/SL - IG

Activity Descriptions

Intermittent work interruption was found common among pattern making, sampling,
quality checking and specification sheet preparation activities. If a dedicated set of
executives was made responsible for the Dolores Top order, then activities could have
been executed in a synchronised manner in a relay race approach. However, as all
executives were working on numerous other orders also (along with Dolores Top
order), it was not possible to implement relay race.

It was realised that the critical path method (CPM) network made on a spreadsheet was
static. When the order was in progress (in tracking mode), the duration of activities
changed, but these changes were not automatically reflected in the CPM network;
instead, one had to take note and change figures manually, which was very
cumbersome. A single change of duration of activity could result in the change of
earliest and latest start/end times of all the linking chains (in Dolores Top case study,
sometimes 8-9 activities), buffer time, maybe even the critical path. Incorporating these
changes manually was impossible in the factory scenario as it was tiresome, time
consuming and error prone. It was thus decided to use specialised CPM software for
longitudinal study.

200

Flaws in Logic of Current Practices

While analysing the reason behind why critical chain implementation in organisation
was not smooth and free flowing, it was realised that there was a logic flaw in current
practices. While making a network (PERT) of dependent activities, the time duration of
activities was assigned in days or hours but surprisingly never in man-days or manhours! As there were only 5-6 executives expected to carry out 50-60 activities of any
order, there would be a practical constraint of timely availability of executives.
Depending on availability of executives, lots of parallel operations would become
sequential if the same executive was supposed to carry out both, and this phenomena
was overlooked while making the TNA calendar, a constraint on the actual execution
(during tracking mode) resulting in a delay. On any given day, there would be different
activities from different TNA calendar to be executed, as no combined prioritisation of
activities was possible (either manually or in MS Excel), everyone set their own
priority, conflicts arose, priorities were shuffled repeatedly and frequently, executives
moved between tasks leaving them half-finished, ultimately resulting in more delay.
Generally better organised executives are known for their foolproof follow-up. To-do
lists of activities were either maintained in diaries, hand-phone schedulers or in aidememoires to ensure timely reminders and no gaffes in the follow up of activities. But no
one realised that these to-dos lists in isolation offered no synchronisation between the
working of two executives, which was of utmost importance.

To cross check how executives schedule and followed their daily activities, the pattern
maker and sample master of Silvershine Apparels were asked to prepare a to-do list for
one working day based on the current orders running at that time. While both executives
were following up the same group of orders, they were asked to prepare to-do lists
without consulting each other.

201

Table 6.6

To-Do List of Activities for Pattern Maker Chandar Kumar on

12/09/2002

Serial
1
2
3
4

Order No.
AT009
AT013
AT0021
BZ0013

BZ0015

Table 6.7

Activities
Activity type
Making patterns for fit sample
Critical
Grading patterns for size set sample
Non-critical
Making patterns for fit sample
Critical
Making production pattern from size set Non-critical
comment
Grading patterns for size set sample
Non-critical

To-Do List of Activities for Sample Master Surinder Singh on

12/09/2002
Serial
1
2
3

Order No.
BZ0013
BZ0015
LZ003

Activities
Making production sample
Making size set sample
Fit sample making

Activity type
Non-critical
Non-critical
Critical

While pattern maker Chandar Kumar knew that he had to complete the 5 activities on
12 September, he did not know in what sequence. Anyone would start with the activity
listed first (if printed) or remembered first (if memorised), so Chandar Kumar also
started with AT009. Similarly Surinder Singh would also like to follow his to-do list as
per serial number, but he would not be able to start production sample (first thing in the
morning) for BZ 0013 as production patterns were not yet prepared by his predecessor
(listed as the 4th activity in Chandar Kumars list; may start only in the afternoon).

Ideally, there has to be sychronisation of priorities so that pattern maker took up

production sample making of BZ0013 first in the morning and sample making of same
could be scheduled later on the day for sample maker Surinder Singh. Instead there was
interruption in both activities, as the pattern maker had to stop AT009 halfway and take
up BZ0013 on an urgent basis.

It was realised that these prioritising problems occurred as the to-do lists were prepared
picking up date specific activities from separate CPM network of AT and BZ orders in
isolation, and not according to any combined CPM network. If a combined CPM
network was made for AT and BZ, then prioritising of activities would have occurred
automatically. Interestingly the idea of combining multiple CPM network into one and

202

then executives following only one integrated network was never thought of by any
merchandising executives. Finally, apart from being complex, the CPM network
making for scheduling activities was very cumbersome and time consuming. Once
durations of activities and activity relationships were established, making of the
network diagram (using MS-Excel) for Dolores Top took 4 man hours (for critical path)
and 9 man hours (for critical chain) respectively. Making of the critical chain took
longer time because calculation of start and end time and corresponding buffer time was
very onerous and prone to error.

6.2.4

Conclusion and Reflections

The basic philosophy of critical chain was reduction of individual activity time to half
while adding buffer time of 50 percent of the critical path. From the earlier study
(section 5.2.4) it was evident that nearly 41 percent of the pre-production time was
externally dependent. Assuming that durations of externally dependent activities could
not be compressed, adoption of critical chain would theoretically reduce the preproduction lead time by 30 percent. This pilot case study using critical chain showed up
potential of lead time reduction by compressing internal activities. Actual result was
constrained by two factors; first, inability to make multi-style critical chain (for
common resources), leading to inability to synchronise and prioritise activities, leading
to inability to follow the relay race approach. Secondly, lack of synchronised priorities
among certain skill- based activities resulted in interruptions and loss of precious time,
which needs to be addressed in future studies.

The network diagrams for individual orders were manually prepared in MS-Excel. This
was time consuming and prone to error. Although the researcher and associates
themselves prepared the network, it was felt by the company executives that total time
required for making critical path or critical chain network would be prohibitive in
adopting MS-Excel network diagrams in an actual factory scenario. Moreover, it was
unlikely that the understanding and knowledge of critical path/chain would be available
with the organisations executives to prepare such a network. Also, during the course of
progress of orders, often changes were required in activity sequences and durations (one
common cause was iteration, section 5.2.3). Incorporating such changes in Excel had to
be done manually. Once the date of actual execution of any activity was entered, MSExcel datasheet could calculate the variation, however there was no link between the

203

data sheet and the PERT network. Thus it was felt necessary to use specialised software
for critical chain implementation, where automatic update of a network was possible
once durations of activities were entered in the data table.

Another shortcoming felt during the case study was linking of resource availability with
PERT network. As time availability of executives could not be linked with activities
using MS-Excel, it was difficult to calculate resource utilisation and schedule activities
to resources scientifically. In such circumstances, there appeared to be inefficient
stop/start tasks as priorities changed and people tried to multi-task. While shifting from
one activity to another (multitasking) was natural for management-level decisionrelated activities, the same in skill-based activities could cause efficiency loss due to
intermittent work interruption. It was also realised that if multiple PERT networks were
integrated for a group of executives, then combined priorities could be easily worked
out, which would minimise work interruption and resultant stretching of lead time.

Therefore it was felt mandatory to use specialised software for future longitudinal study
where a simple automatic network could be made based on activity duration and
relationship. Quick/accurate re-calculation and dynamic updates were then possible,
resource availability catered for and multiple order networks combined to develop an
integrated network based on resource constraints.

6.3

Multi Project Gantt Chart Implementation

The case study of critical chain application (section 6.2.4) had concluded that
specialised project management software would be required to demonstrate dynamic
changes of plan due to even a single change of a task duration, to conduct a longitudinal
feasibility study for integrating multiple critical path/critical chain (for multiple orders)
at the organisation level to observe its effect on activity prioritisation and work
interruption. The objective of this longitudinal study was to first identify a generic
critical path/critical chain software which had all required features to take care of
constraints faced in earlier studies using MS-Excel and, secondly, actual scheduling of
multiple orders (multiple critical path networks) in one integrated network and followup workload distribution of executives to analyse how computerised scheduling could
help prioritisation of activities and actually carry out day-to day task for executives.

204

6.3.1

Methodology

The methodology could be divided into three stages; selection of appropriate software,
implementation of the software in a single order to understand the feature and
capabilities, and use of the software to make a multi-order Gantt chart and evaluate how
the software capabilities offer additional advantages (over manual and/or MS-Excel) to
executives involved in executing the tasks.

In the first stage, neither was any sample size decided nor any sampling method
followed for searching and selection of the software. Through contacts in and guidance
of Project Management Associates (an association for promoting project management
throughout the world, http://www.pma-india.org/), a suitable software was identified,
which was found (from brochure and website information) to meet all the necessary
parametric requirements for the longitudinal study.

In the second stage, the necessary features of the software were understood by installing
the software in an organisation and planning a sample order using critical path
methodology and most importantly, understanding the softwares capability to
overcome earlier shortcomings. Basically, any software could offer an advantage in two
ways: helping the direct user in decision making while inputting the parameters and
indirectly through various outputs (reports) it could generate to enable/guide executives
to carry out the tasks in a better informed manner, which otherwise was not possible.
The objective of the second stage was to ensure satisfactory application of the software
features and select the appropriate reports that could be used for executives as a
guide/checklist/reminder. Sample selection method for selecting the organisation was
typical case purposive (section 3.5.2) and data collection was through structured format.
A manufacturing organisation, Kirat, was selected based on firstly the management cooperation received during the earlier two case studies on measuring durations of delaycontributing activities in manufacturing cycle (section 5.2) and to identify and measure
value added and non-value added time in preproduction activities (section 5.3) and
secondly, their willingness to allow planning and executing of selected actual orders
through implementation of specific software and a directive to its executives to follow
the instructions of the researcher during the longitudinal study.

205

The third and final stage involved preparation of a multi-project Gantt chart by
combining more than one order to see how different software features/reports
guided/facilitated executives to carry out their work during actual running of orders.
Selection of orders to combine was typical case purposive sampling from those orders
that were planning to be shipped during the timeframe, i.e. before Jan 2004. Progress of
the combined orders was monitored over a period of 6 months (July 2003 to December
2003) to complete the life cycle of the three selected styles. The order entry in the
software, planning and scheduling was done by the researcher, while all concerned
executives were given software generated workload related reports to check relevance
thereof and what advantages / benefit could accrue in carrying out their activities based
on these reports.

6.3.2

Data Collection

Stage One: Selection of the Investigative Tool

The following criteria were laid down for selection of project management software.
The requirements of software functions were first identified as under:

Ability to create PERT network/Gantt chart automatically

Ability to indicate critical path and critical chain in the network

Ability to switchover between critical path and critical chain mode during planning
as well as tracking of orders.

Ability to calculate resource availability once work content for each activity is
defined and a resource (executive) is allocated to an activity.

Ability to combine/integrate more than two Gantt charts with resource constraints
automatically reflected.

Ability to show the planned and completion status of activities.

Ability to provide different options of task relationships like start-start, finish-finish

During detailed evaluation, it was found that PS8 from Sciforma Corporation, US
satisfied all listed criteria and was selected for the study. A one-year evaluation version
of PS8 was made available gratis by the software vendor and user support was provided
through e-mail, another important reason for its selection for the longitudinal case
study.

206

Stage 2: PS8 Software Implementation in Single Order

Every order of a garment was treated as a project in PS8 software. One order, JDW-HE060-LILAC was selected for PS8 implementation. First, resources were defined in the
Resource List and then assigned to the tasks. A list of 10 resource persons/groups
(termed as executives hereafter) were identified (table 6.8) who could be assigned
activities and/or sub-activities related to the order. All resource persons are classified as
LABOUR, but time availability varied from eight to ten hours per day depending on the
job, i.e., whether it was a desk job or skill-based job.

Table 6.8
Resource #

List of Resource Persons for Gantt Chart

Type

Availability

1 merchandiser - Suman

Resource Name

LABOR

8h/d

2 merchandiser - Rupa

LABOR

8h/d

3 Sample master - Zakir

LABOR

10h/d

4 sampling team (Anbu + 2 tailors)

LABOR

10h/d

5 fabric executive - Vineet

LABOR

8h/d

6 production executive - Saugat

LABOR

8h/d

7 spreading & cutting resource

LABOR

10h/d

8 sewing resource

LABOR

10h/d

9 finishing & packing resource

LABOR

10h/d

10 Quality team (Rajesh + 2 QC)

LABOR

8h/d

Email Address

The Gantt chart and resource histogram for JDW-HE-060-LILAC order are shown in
figure 6.5. The order had 18 main tasks and a manufacturing lead time of 61 days
(which is effectively the critical path duration). All internal tasks were assigned one
resource executive and tasks linked to predecessor and successor activities by S-S (start
to start), F-S (finish to start) or F-F (finish to finish) relationship. For example fit
sample make was a 7 day task earlier divided into two tasks fit sample make pattern
mkg and fit sample make sewing, both working in parallel with starting lag of 1
day. Pattern master Zakir and sampling team were assigned the two tasks of 6 days
duration each.

207

Figure 6.5

Gantt Chart of JDW-HE-060-LILAC

Project Name: JDW-HE-060-Lilac

Task #

Task Name

Duration Schedule Start Schedule Finish

1order confirmation

1d

07/21/03

07/21/03

2fit sample make - pattern mkg

6d

07/22/03

07/29/03

3fit sample make - sewing

6d

07/23/03

07/30/03

4fit sample approval

5d

07/31/03

08/06/03

5size set make - pattern mkg

7d

08/07/03

08/15/03

6size set make - sewing

7d

08/08/03

08/18/03

7size set approval

5d

08/19/03

08/25/03

8fabric sourcing

10d

07/22/03

08/04/03

9fabric approval

5d

08/05/03

08/11/03

5d

07/22/03

07/28/03

11Bulk accessories sourcing

15d

07/29/03

08/18/03

12Bulk fabric sourcing

25d

08/12/03

09/15/03

1d

09/16/03

09/16/03

14cutting

10d

09/17/03

09/30/03

15sewing

10d

09/19/03

10/02/03

19quality check

10d

09/23/03

10/06/03

16finishing

10d

09/25/03

10/08/03

17packing

6d

10/03/03

10/10/03

18goods out of factory

1d

10/13/03

10/13/03

10accessories approval

13PP meeting and ready to cut

Current Task
All Tasks
Av ailable Units
Units in Days
C o mp lete

C o mp lete Miles ton e

Critical

R e ma ining

R e ma ining Mile s to ne

Parent

C o mp lete

Page [ 1 ,

R ema ining

R ema ining Miles to ne

C o mp lete Miles ton e

R ema ining

R ema ining Miles to ne

1 ,

] of [

sampling team (Anbu + 2 tailors)

sampling team (Anbu + 2 tailors)

Quality team (Rajesh + 2 QC)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

All Resource Histogram

Default

Qtr3, 2003
Qtr4, 2003
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
7 14 21 28 4 11 18 25 1 8 15 22 29 6 13 20 27 3 10 17 24 1 8 15 22

Free Floa t

Total Floa t (+)

Total Floa t (-)

D e la y

N o n-R es ou rc e

Bas eline 1

R e qu ired D a te

1 ]

The Gantt chart showed the scheduled start and finish dates and duration, critical tasks
in red colour bar and free floats in non-critical tasks. Free float is the amount of time a
non-critical task could be delayed or extended without affecting the start of a successor
task, indicated in the Gantt chart as blue cross-hatching at the right end of a task bar.
Positive Total Float is that amount of time a non-critical task could be delayed or
extended before the task became critical. The bottom of the picture showed weekly
utilisation of resources in the form of a histogram (the current task by a red cross in the
histogram only indicates the selected task by a cursor at any given point). The
requirement of dynamic change of plan (Gantt chart) due to a single change of task
duration was checked and found to be working satisfactorily. Figure 6.6 shows how
change of duration of fit sample and size set (in case of iteration) dynamically changed
the critical path, the duration of critical path from 61 to 73 days and the resource
workload pattern in the histogram.
208

Figure 6.6

Dynamic Change of Gantt Chart

Project Name: JDW-HE-060-Lilac

Task #

Task Name

Duration

1 order confirmation

Schedule Start

1d

07/21/03

2 fit sample make - pattern mkg

12d

07/22/03

3 fit sample make - sewing

12d

07/23/03

4 fit sample approv al

10d

08/08/03

5 size set make - pattern mkg

14d

08/22/03

6 size set make - sewing

14d

08/25/03

7 size set approv al

10d

09/12/03

8 fabric sourcing

10d

07/22/03

9 fabric approv al

5d

08/05/03

5d

07/22/03

11 Bulk accessories sourcing

15d

07/29/03

12 Bulk fabric sourcing

25d

08/12/03

1d

09/26/03

14 cutting

10d

09/29/03

15 sewing

10d

10/01/03

16 Quality check

10d

10/03/03

17 finishing

10d

10/07/03

18 packing

6d

10/21/03

19 goods out of factory

1d

10/29/03

10 accessories approv al

13 PP meeting and ready to cut

Jul
14

21

28

Qtr3, 2003
Aug
11
18

25

Sep
15

22

29

Oct
13
20

27

Qtr4, 2003
Nov
10
17

24

sampling team (Anbu + 2 tailors)

sampling team (Anbu + 2 tailors)

Quality team (Raj esh + 2 QC)

60

All Resource Histogram

50

Current Task
All Tasks
Available Units

40

Units in Days
30

20

10

Page [

] of [

After all the required predetermined features were found to be working satisfactorily,
the various report options were studied. The software could generate 60 different types
of reports. After analysing all the reports generated by PS8, five reports were selected
to be used as a guide to executives while working on the multi-project Gantt chart. The
reports are titled Resource Assignments, Resource Project Task Effort, Weekly
Resource Utilization, To Do List and Resource Levelling Analysis.

Weekly Resource Utilisation report (figure 6.7) listed executive-wise allocated,

percentage used and unallocated (available) hours for every week the order is planned
to run. Tasks like approval of fit sample, size set, etc. were done by external resources
like the buying office, thus no internal resources from Kirat were assigned for those
tasks. However, while observing other orders in progress in the same organisation, it
was realised that often more than one type of resource was involved in the execution of
a single task and needed to be split into further sub-tasks for better allocation of
resources.

209

Figure 6.7

Weekly Resource Utilisation

Project Name: JDW-HE-060-Lilac

R es ID

R esource N ame

38A5ILQ

merc handis er - Suman

J ul 21
Alloc ated
% U s ed

40h
100 %

Av a ilable
38A5ILY

merc handis er - R u pa

38A5ILZ

38A5ILT

Aug 11

Aug 18

40h
Aug 4

40h
Aug 11

4 0h
Aug 18

32h

40h

40h

8h

% U s ed

80%

100%

100%

2 0%

Samp le mas ter - Za k ir

40h
J ul 21

8h
J ul 28

3 2h
Aug 4

Aug 11

Alloc ated

32h

16h

16h

40h

% U s ed

64%

32%

32%

80%

Av a ilable

18h

34h

34h

s amp ling tea m (Anbu + 2 tailor s )

J ul 21

J ul 28

Aug 4

10h
Aug 11

Aug 18

5 0h
Aug 18

Alloc ated

24h

24h

8h

40h

8h

% U s ed

48%

48%

16%

80%

1 6%

fabric ex ec u tiv e - Vin eet

26h
J ul 21

Aug 25

Sep 1

Sep 8

26h
J ul 28

42h
Aug 4

10h
Aug 11

4 2h
Aug 18

4 0h
Aug 25

4 0h
Aug 25

5 0h
Aug 25

5 0h
Aug 25

4 0h
Sep 1

4 0h
Sep 1

5 0h
Sep 1

5 0h
Sep 1

4 0h
Sep 8

4 0h
Sep 8

5 0h
Sep 8

5 0h
Sep 8

5 0h
Sep 15

8h

32h

4 0h

4 0h

4 0h

4 0h

8h

% U s ed

80%

100%

20%

80%

1 00%

1 00%

1 00%

1 00%

2 0%

Av a ilable

8h

32h

8h

produ c tion e x ec utiv e - Sa ugat

J ul 21

s prea ding & c utting res ou rc e

Sep 22

Sep 29

Oc t 6

Oc t 13

J ul 28

Aug 4

Aug 11

3 2h
Aug 18

Aug 25

Sep 1

Sep 8

Sep 15

40h
Sep 22

40h
Sep 22

50h
Sep 22

50h
Sep 22

40h
Sep 22

40h
Sep 29

40h
Sep 29

50h
Sep 29

50h
Sep 29

40h
Sep 29

40h
Oc t 6

40h
Oc t 6

50h
Oc t 6

50h
Oc t 6

40h
Oc t 6

8h
Oc t 13

8h
Oc t 13

10h
Oc t 13

10h
Oc t 13

8h
Oc t 13

8h
2 0%
40h
J ul 21

40h
J ul 28

40h
Aug 4

40h
Aug 11

4 0h
Aug 18

4 0h
Aug 25

4 0h
Sep 1

4 0h
Sep 8

3 2h
Sep 15

40h
Sep 22

40h
Sep 29

40h
Oc t 6

8h
Oc t 13

Alloc ated

2 4h

40h

16h

8h

% U s ed

4 8%

80%

32%

80%

Av a ilable
s ew in g res o urc e

50h
J ul 21

50h
J ul 28

50h
Aug 4

50h
Aug 11

5 0h
Aug 18

5 0h
Aug 25

5 0h
Sep 1

5 0h
Sep 8

Alloc ated
% U s ed
Av a ilable
finis hing & pac k ing res o urc e

50h
J ul 21

50h
J ul 28

50h
Aug 4

50h
Aug 11

5 0h
Aug 18

5 0h
Aug 25

5 0h
Sep 1

5 0h
Sep 8

2 6h
Sep 15

10h
Sep 22

34h
Sep 29

8h

40h

32h

1 6%

80%

64%

4 2h

10h

Sep 15

Sep 22

18h
Sep 29

50h
Oc t 6

50h
Oc t 6

Alloc ated

16h

48h

64h

% U s ed

32%

96%

128%

Av a ilable
38A5ILX

5 0h
Sep 15

40h

% U s ed

38A5ILW

4 0h
Sep 15

32h

Av a ilable

38A5ILV

4 0h
Sep 15

Alloc ated

Alloc ated

38A5ILU

Sep 15

20%

J ul 28

Alloc ated

Av a ilable
38A5ILS

Aug 4

8h

32h
J ul 21

Av a ilable
38A5ILR

J ul 28

Quality team (R ajes h + 2 QC )

50h
J ul 21

50h
J ul 28

50h
Aug 4

50h
Aug 11

5 0h
Aug 18

5 0h
Aug 25

5 0h
Sep 1

5 0h
Sep 8

5 0h
Sep 15

Alloc ated
% U s ed
Av a ilable

40h

40h

40h

40h

4 0h

4 0h

4 0h

4 0h

4 0h

34h
Sep 22

2h
Sep 29

-14h
Oc t 6

32h

40h

8h

80%

100%

20%

8h

32h

2h
Oc t 13

10h
Oc t 13

10h
Oc t 13

8h

The objective of stage 2 was to accurately and realistically map the workload of internal
resources using software, so that clear priorities could be worked out. Accordingly all
pre-production tasks were further subdivided into sub-tasks keeping in mind how
different resource executives and/or external resources were involved. It was also
realised that sometimes one executive was involved in a task in a phased manner,
thereby it was important not to assign that resource at one go. For example fit sample
make was divided into 4 sequential sub-tasks; pattern making - material conformity cut & sew - fit check. Pattern Master Zakir was involved in the first and last sub tasks
i.e. pattern making and fit check, while merchandiser Suman and the sampling team
were assigned to material conformity & cut and sew respectively.

210

Task Name

0.4d

material conformity

cut and sew

quality c heck

reproduc ibility check

13

14

15

16

2d

2d

2d

6d

accesso ries make source

acc. receive & tes ting ok

27

28

fabric make and d ispatch

fabric receive & te sting ok

31

32

10d

10d

6d

1d

39 quality check

40 finishing

41 packing

42 goods out of factor y

C o mp le te

Paren t

R e ma in in g

Critical

Page [

C o mp le te

Defau lt

Units in Days

] of [

C o mp le te Mile s to n e

Jul
14

R e ma in in g

R e ma in in g

10

20

30

40

50

60

10/13/03

10/10/03

10/08/03

10/06/03

10/02/03

09/30/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/15/03

09/09/03

08/14/03

09/15/03

08/18/03

08/14/03

08/07/03

08/18/03

07/28/03

08/11/03

08/04/03

07/31/03

07/31/03

07/29/03

08/04/03

08/26/03

08/19/03

08/18/03

08/14/03

08/11/03

08/07/03

08/19/03

08/06/03

07/30/03

07/29/03

07/24/03

07/22/03

07/30/03

07/21/03

07/21/03

07/21/03

07/21/03

Schedule Finish

C o mp le te Mile s to n e

10/13/03

10/03/03

09/25/03

09/23/03

09/19/03

09/17/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/10/03

08/15/03

08/12/03

08/12/03

08/12/03

08/05/03

07/29/03

07/29/03

07/22/03

08/05/03

08/01/03

07/30/03

07/30/03

07/22/03

07/22/03

08/20/03

08/15/03

08/14/03

08/12/03

08/08/03

08/07/03

08/07/03

07/31/03

07/30/03

07/25/03

07/23/03

07/22/03

07/22/03

07/21/03

07/21/03

07/21/03

07/21/03

Schedule Start

R e ma in in g Mile s to n e

Available Units

All Tasks

Current T ask

All Resource Histogram

10d

0.4d

0.3d

38 sew ing

merchan diser - BOM check

36

10d

producti on - feasibility check

35

0.3d

1d

4d

18d

3d

25d

5d

8d

8d

15d

37 cutting

specification check

34

33 P P m eeting and r eady to cut

commun ication & follow up

30

29 B ulk fabr ic sour cing

commun ication & follow up

26

25 B ulk accessor ies sour cing

5d

finalising fabric option

22

24 accessor ies appr oval

compati bility check - reproduci

21

5d

compati bility check -patte rn

20

10d

5d

3d

3d

3d

23 fabr ic appr oval

sourcing sample fabri c op ti ons

19

18 fabr ic sour cing

17 size set appr oval

1d

pattern mkg

12

2d

9d

1d

5d

fit check

3d

11 size set m ake

cut and sew

10 fit sam ple appr oval

material conformity

2d

1d

pattern mkg

7d

merchan diser - BOM check

0.3d

0.3d

producti on - feasibility check

5 fit sam ple m ake

sample - feasibility check

1d

Duration
28

25

T o ta l F lo a t ( + )

Sep
15

22

T o ta l Flo a t ( - )

29

R e q u ir e d D a te

merchan diser - Su man

producti on executive - Saugat

Sample master - Z akir

fabric ex ecutive - Vineet

merchandiser - Rupa

merchandiser - Rupa

producti on executive - Saugat

Quality team (Raje sh + 2 QC)

sampling team (Anbu + 2 tailors)

merchan diser - Ru pa

sampling team (Anbu + 2 tail ors)

Sample master - Zakir

fabric ex ecutive - Vineet

F r e e F lo a t

sampling team (Anbu + 2 tailors)

merchan diser - Suman

merchandiser - Suman

R e ma in in g Mile s to n e

18

Sample master - Z akir

producti on executive - Saugat

R e ma in in g Mile s to n e

Qtr3, 200 3
Aug
11

Sample master - Z akir

fabric ex ecutive - Vineet

merchandiser - Suman

production executive - Saugat

Sample master - Zakir

21

Pro ject Name: JDW-HE-060-Lilac

Gantt Chart with Sub-tasks

1 or der confir m ation

Task #

Figure 6.8

13

Oct
20

Q uality team (R ajesh + 2 Q C )

27

10

Qtr4, 200 3
Nov
17

211

24

The above Gantt chart (figure 6.8) shows all the tasks (blue text) with subtasks (brown
text), name of resources allocated against each task, and duration of each subtask. The
total numbers of tasks increased from 19 to 42; however the total duration of
manufacturing cycle remained 61 days. The histogram at the bottom of figure 6.8
depicts the workload distribution in different weeks.

While analysing the weekly workload of executives with and without sub-tasks, it
became clear that sub-tasks helped in correct distribution of resources. For example, in
the absence of sub-tasks merchandiser Suman was found to have workload of 100
percent and 20 percent in weeks commencing July 21 and July 28 respectively. Post
sub-task distribution resulted in Suman getting workload in two weeks, commencing
Aug 4 and Sept 15 respectively (figure 6.9).

212

Figure 6.9

Post Sub-task Distribution of Workload

Project Name: JDW-HE-060-Lilac

Res ID

Resource N ame

38A5ILQ

merchandis er - Suman

J ul 21
Alloc ated

38A5ILY

8h

% U sed

128%

40%

20%

Available

-11.2h

24h

32h

merchandis er - Rupa

J ul 21

40h

8h

100%

20%
32h

Aug 4

Aug 11

Aug 18

40h
Aug 25

40h
Aug 25

40h
Sep 1

40h
Sep 1

40h
Sep 8

40h
Sep 8

36.8h
Sep 15

40h
Sep 15

10h

24h

2h

21%

48%

5%

s ampling team (Anbu + 2 tailor s)

39.6h
J ul 21

26h
J ul 28

50h
Aug 4

50h
Aug 11

Alloc ated

8h

16h

8h

24h

% U sed

16%

32%

16%

48%

fabric ex ec utive - Vineet

42h
J ul 21

34h
J ul 28

42h
Aug 4

26h
Aug 11

50h
Aug 18

50h
Aug 18

50h
Aug 25

50h
Aug 25

50h
Sep 1

50h
Sep 1

50h
Sep 8

50h
Sep 8

47.6h
Sep 15

50h
Sep 15

Alloc ated

32h

16h

24h

24h

8h

% U sed

80%

40%

60%

60%

20%

production executiv e - Saugat

8h
J ul 21

24h
J ul 28

40h
Aug 4

16h
Aug 11

40h
Aug 18

40h
Aug 25

40h
Sep 1

16h
Sep 8

32h
Sep 15

Alloc ated

2h

16h

8h

16h

2h

% U sed

6%

40%

20%

40%

6%

s preading & cutting resource

37.6h
J ul 21

24h
J ul 28

40h
Aug 4

Sep 22

Sep 29

Oc t 6

Oc t 13

32h
Aug 11

24h
Aug 18

40h
Aug 25

40h
Sep 1

40h
Sep 8

37.6h
Sep 15

40h
Sep 22

40h
Sep 22

50h
Sep 22

50h
Sep 22

40h
Sep 22

40h
Sep 22

40h
Sep 29

40h
Sep 29

50h
Sep 29

50h
Sep 29

40h
Sep 29

40h
Sep 29

40h
Oc t 6

40h
Oc t 6

50h
Oc t 6

50h
Oc t 6

40h
Oc t 6

40h
Oc t 6

8h
Oc t 13

8h
Oc t 13

10h
Oc t 13

10h
Oc t 13

8h
Oc t 13

8h
Oc t 13

Alloc ated

24h

40h

16h

8h

% U sed

48%

80%

32%

80%

s ewing res ourc e

50h
J ul 21

50h
J ul 28

50h
Aug 4

50h
Aug 11

50h
Aug 18

50h
Aug 25

50h
Sep 1

50h
Sep 8

26h
Sep 15

10h
Sep 22

34h
Sep 29

Alloc ated

8h

40h

32h

% U sed

16%

80%

64%

finis hing & pac king res ourc e

50h
J ul 21

50h
J ul 28

50h
Aug 4

50h
Aug 11

50h
Aug 18

50h
Aug 25

50h
Sep 1

50h
Sep 8

42h
Sep 15

10h
Sep 22

18h
Sep 29

50h
Oc t 6

50h
Oc t 6

Alloc ated

16h

48h

64h

% U sed

32%

96%

128%

Available
38A5ILX

8h
J ul 28

Sep 15

% U sed

Available
38A5ILW

40h

Sep 8

Alloc ated

Available
38A5ILV

Aug 18

40h

Available
38A5ILU

Aug 11

40h

100%

J ul 21

Sep 1

8%
40h

32h

Sample mas ter - Zakir

Aug 25

3h

80%

Available
38A5ILT

Aug 4

Aug 18

% U sed

Available
38A5ILS

J ul 28

Aug 11

Alloc ated

Available
38A5ILZ

Aug 4

16h

Available
38A5ILR

J ul 28

51h

Quality team (R ajesh + 2 QC )

50h
J ul 21

50h
J ul 28

50h
Aug 4

50h
Aug 11

50h
Aug 18

50h
Aug 25

50h
Sep 1

50h
Sep 8

50h
Sep 15

34h
Sep 22

2h
Sep 29

-14h
Oc t 6

Alloc ated

16h

8h

32h

40h

8h

% U sed

40%

20%

80%

100%

20%

24h

32h

Available

40h

40h

40h

40h

40h

40h

40h

8h

32h

2h
Oc t 13

10h
Oc t 13

10h
Oc t 13

8h

The PS8 software has a resource levelling feature which helped in even distribution of
workload against any sharp variations. As per figure 6.9, merchandiser Suman was
over-utilised 128 percent in the week commencing July 21 and the finishing and
packing resource was over utilised 128 percent in the week commencing Oct 6.
Merchandiser Rupa was utilised 100 percent in the weeks commencing Aug 4 and Aug
11, and the finishing and packing resource and quality team utilised 96 percent and 100
percent respectively in the week commencing Sept 29. Any workload close to or
exceeding 100 percent meant overtime of that particular resource or potential delay in
the manufacturing lead time, therefore the resource levelling feature had to be used to

213

distribute the work. Figure 6.10 shows the weekly workload pattern after levelling of
resources, where none of the executive workload exceeded 100 percent. However,
levelling of resources in this particular order resulted in the delivery date of the order
being extended by 4 days, to 17 October 2003.

Figure 6.10

Post Sub-task Distribution of Workload after Resource Levelling

Project Name: JDW-HE-060-Lilac

R es ID

R esource N ame

38A5ILQ

merchandis er - Suman

J ul 21
Alloc ated

38A5ILY

8h

% U sed

68%

100%

20%

Av ailable

12.8h

merchandis er - R upa

J ul 21

40h

32h

100%

80%

32h
J ul 28

8h
Aug 4

Sep 8

Sep 15

Aug 11

Aug 18

40h
Aug 25

40h
Aug 25

40h
Sep 1

40h
Sep 1

40h
Sep 8

40h
Sep 8

36.8h
Sep 15

40h
Sep 15

Alloc ated

10h

24h

2h

% U sed

21%

48%

5%

s ampling team (Anbu + 2 tailor s )

39.6h
J ul 21

26h
J ul 28

50h
Aug 4

50h
Aug 11

50h
Aug 18

Alloc ated

8h

16h

16h

16h

% U sed

16%

32%

32%

32%

fabric ex ec utive - Vineet

42h
J ul 21

34h
J ul 28

50h
Aug 4

34h
Aug 11

34h
Aug 18

50h
Aug 25

50h
Aug 25

50h
Sep 1

50h
Sep 1

50h
Sep 8

50h
Sep 8

47.6h
Sep 15

50h
Sep 15

Alloc ated

32h

16h

24h

24h

8h

% U sed

80%

40%

60%

60%

20%

produc tion ex ecutiv e - Saugat

8h
J ul 21

24h
J ul 28

40h
Aug 4

16h
Aug 11

40h
Aug 18

40h
Aug 25

40h
Sep 1

16h
Sep 8

32h
Sep 15

Alloc ated

2h

16h

24h

2h

% U sed

6%

40%

60%

6%

s preading & c utting res ourc e

37.6h
J ul 21

24h
J ul 28

40h
Aug 4

Sep 22

Sep 29

Oc t 6

Oc t 13

40h
Aug 11

16h
Aug 18

40h
Aug 25

40h
Sep 1

40h
Sep 8

37.6h
Sep 15

40h
Sep 22

40h
Sep 22

50h
Sep 22

50h
Sep 22

40h
Sep 22

40h
Sep 22

40h
Sep 29

40h
Sep 29

50h
Sep 29

50h
Sep 29

40h
Sep 29

40h
Sep 29

40h
Oc t 6

40h
Oc t 6

50h
Oc t 6

50h
Oc t 6

40h
Oc t 6

40h
Oc t 6

40h
Oc t 13

40h
Oc t 13

50h
Oc t 13

50h
Oc t 13

40h
Oc t 13

40h
Oc t 13

Alloc ated

24h

40h

16h

8h

% U sed

48%

80%

32%

16%

s ew ing res ourc e

50h
J ul 21

50h
J ul 28

50h
Aug 4

50h
Aug 11

50h
Aug 18

50h
Aug 25

50h
Sep 1

50h
Sep 8

26h
Sep 15

10h
Sep 22

34h
Sep 29

Alloc ated

8h

40h

32h

% U sed

16%

80%

64%

finis hing & pac k ing res ourc e

50h
J ul 21

50h
J ul 28

50h
Aug 4

50h
Aug 11

50h
Aug 18

50h
Aug 25

50h
Sep 1

50h
Sep 8

42h
Sep 15

10h
Sep 22

18h
Sep 29

50h
Oc t 6

50h
Oc t 6

42h
Oc t 13

50h
Oc t 13

Alloc ated

16h

40h

40h

32h

% U sed

32%

80%

80%

64%

Av ailable
38A5ILX

40h
J ul 21

Av ailable
38A5ILW

Aug 18

40h

Av ailable
38A5ILV

Aug 11

40h

100%

Sample mas ter - Zak ir

Sep 1

8%
40h

8h

Av ailable
38A5ILU

Aug 4

Aug 25

3h

20%

Av ailable
38A5ILT

J ul 28

Aug 18

% U sed

Av ailable
38A5ILS

32h

Aug 11

Alloc ated

Av ailable
38A5ILZ

Aug 4

40h

Av ailable
38A5ILR

J ul 28

27h

Quality team (R ajesh + 2 QC )

50h
J ul 21

50h
J ul 28

50h
Aug 4

50h
Aug 11

50h
Aug 18

50h
Aug 25

50h
Sep 1

50h
Sep 8

50h
Sep 15

34h
Sep 22

10h
Sep 29

10h
Oc t 6

Alloc ated

24h

32h

40h

8h

% U sed

60%

80%

100%

20%

Av ailable

40h

40h

40h

40h

16h

40h

40h

40h

40h

8h

32h

18h
Oc t 13

40h

Stage 3: Multi Project Gantt chart

Along with JDW-HE-060-LILAC, two more orders, JDW-HE-060-WHITE and El

Corte 104-1-SUIT were selected for preparing multi project Gantt chart. In Kirat, one
merchandiser was responsible for two to three buyers, whereas the other executives in
charge of fabric development and procurement, accessories sourcing, pattern maker,
sample making were in a common pool. The three orders above were selected based on
a list of 10 common resource persons (table 6.8). Three separate Gantt chart for JDW214

HE-060-LILAC, JDW-HE-060-WHITE and El Corte 104-1-SUIT were prepared with

subtasks and are shown in figures 6.11, 6.12 and 6.13 respectively. The brief
specifications of three multi-project orders loaded onto one Gantt chart are listed below.

Table 6.9

List of Orders for Multi-project Gantt Chart

Project Name
JDW-HE-060-LILAC
JDW-HE-160-WHITE
El Corte 104-1-SUIT

Duration in Start Date

days
61
07/21/03
46
08/14/03
71
09/15/03

Finish Date
10/13/03
10/16/03
12/22/03

Schedule
Method
Critical Path
Critical Path
Critical Path

Three orders were selected using purposive sampling so that different lengths of the
manufacturing cycle, staggered delivery and start dates were represented. Generally,
every executive looked after 15 to 20 orders at any given point of time, at varied levels
of progress. For the pilot study, only three projects were selected for integration so that
the complete lifecycle of all projects could be covered. All 10 executives were also
performing tasks for other orders. The longitudinal study tested the reliability and scope
of prioritised task allocation in a multi-order environment and execution of tasks on
time with minimum confusion, minimum intermittent work interruption and ease of
execution.

215

Task Nam e

m ater ial confor m ity

cut and sew

fit check

1d

patter n m kg

m ater ial confor m ity

cut and sew

quality check

r epr oducibility check

12

13

14

15

16

2d

2d

accessor ies m ake sour ce

acc. r eceive & testing ok

27

28

Page [

1d

42goods out of factor y

10/13/03

10/03/03

10/13/03

10/10/03

10/08/03

10/06/03

10/02/03

U nits in Days

A vailable U nits

A ll Tasks

] of [

10

20

30

40

50

6d

41packing

09/25/03

09/23/03

09/19/03

60

10d

40finishing

09/30/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/15/03

09/09/03

08/14/03

09/15/03

08/18/03

08/14/03

08/07/03

08/18/03

07/28/03

08/11/03

08/04/03

07/31/03

07/31/03

07/29/03

08/04/03

08/26/03

08/19/03

08/18/03

08/14/03

08/11/03

08/07/03

08/19/03

C ur r ent Task

10d

39quality check

09/17/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/10/03

08/15/03

08/12/03

08/12/03

08/12/03

08/05/03

07/29/03

07/29/03

07/22/03

08/05/03

08/01/03

07/30/03

07/30/03

07/22/03

07/22/03

08/20/03

08/15/03

08/14/03

08/12/03

08/08/03

08/07/03

08/07/03

08/06/03

07/30/03

07/29/03

07/24/03

07/22/03

07/30/03

07/21/03

07/21/03

07/21/03

07/21/03

S chedule Finish

A ll R esour ce Histogr am

10d

38sewing

0.4d

0.3d

10d

m er chandiser - B OM check

36

0.3d

37cutting

pr oduction - feasibility check

35

1d

specification check

33PP meeting and r eady to cut

34

4d

fabr ic r eceive & testing ok

32

18d

fabr ic m ake and dispatch

31

3d

com m unication & follow up

25d

5d

8d

8d

15d

30

29Bulk fabr ic sour cing

com m unication & follow up

26

25Bulk accessor ies sour cing

5d

finalising fabr ic option

22

5d

com patibility check - r epr oducibility

21

2d

6d

24accessor ies appr oval

com patibility check -patter n

23fabr ic appr oval

sour cing sam ple fabr ic options

20

10d

18fabr ic sour cing

19

5d

17size set appr oval

3d

3d

3d

2d

9d

11size set make

07/31/03

07/30/03

1d

5d

07/25/03

07/23/03

07/22/03

07/22/03

07/21/03

07/21/03

07/21/03

07/21/03

S chedule S tar t

3d

2d

1d

patter n m kg

0.4d

0.3d

m er chandiser - B OM check

7d

pr oduction - feasibility check

0.3d

1d

D ur ation

5fit sample make

sam ple - feasibility check

1or der confir mation

Jul
14
28

18

25

S ep
15

22

29

m er chandiser - S um an

pr oduction executive - S augat

S am ple m aster - Zakir

fabr ic executive - V ineet

m er chandiser - R upa

m er chandiser - R upa

pr oduction executive - S augat

Quality team (Rajesh + 2 QC)

sam pling team (A nbu + 2 tailor s)

m er chandiser - R upa

sam pling team (A nbu + 2 tailor s)

S am ple m aster - Zakir

fabr ic executive - V ineet

m er chandiser - S um an

pr oduction executive - S augat

S am ple m aster - Zakir

sam pling team (A nbu + 2 tailor s)

m er chandiser - S um an

S am ple m aster - Zakir

Qtr 3, 2003
A ug
11

fabr ic executive - V ineet

m er chandiser - S um an

pr oduction executive - S augat

S am ple m aster - Zakir

21

Project Name: JDW-HE-060-Lilac

JDW-HE-060-LILAC Gantt Chart With Sub-tasks and Resource Histograms

10fit sample appr oval

Task #

Figure 6.11

Oct
13
20

Quality team (Rajesh + 2 QC)

27

Qtr 4, 2003
N ov
17
10

24

216

m er chandiser - BOM check

cut and sew

fit check

3d

5d

acc. m ake / sour ce

acc. r eceive & testing ok

23

24

fabr ic m ake and dispatch

fabr ic r eceive & testing ok

27

28

8d

6d

1d

3 7 f inis hing

3 8 pa c k ing

3 9 goods out of f ac t ory

6d

Page [

6d

3 6 qua lit y c he c k

Units in Days

] of [

Available Units

All Tasks

Cur r ent Task

All Resour ce Histogr am

6d

3 5 W a s hing

0.4d

3 4 s e w ing

m er chandiser - BOM check

32

0.3d

0.3d

1d

4d

7d

6d

pr oduction - feasibility check

31

09/08/03

7d

1 0/1 6 /0 3

1 0/0 8 /0 3

1 0/0 2 /0 3

0 9/3 0 /0 3

0 9/2 6 /0 3

0 9/2 4 /0 3

0 9/2 2 /0 3

09/19/03

09/19/03

09/19/03

0 9/1 9 /0 3

09/11/03

09/02/03

08/27/03

0 8/2 7 /0 3

4d

1 5d

08/28/03

08/22/03

0 8/2 2 /0 3

0 8/1 5 /0 3

0 8/2 0 /0 3

08/19/03

08/15/03

0 8/1 5 /0 3

0 9/1 2 /0 3

09/10/03

09/08/03

09/03/03

09/02/03

0 9/0 2 /0 3

0 8/2 6 /0 3

08/22/03

08/19/03

08/15/03

0 8/1 5 /0 3

08/14/03

08/14/03

08/14/03

0 8/1 4 /0 3

S chedule S tar t

7d

7d

3 3 c ut t ing

specification check

30

2 9 PP me e t ing a n d re ady t o c ut

com m unication & follow up

26

2 5 B ulk f a bric s o urc ing

com m unication & follow up

22

1 5d

2 0 a c c e s s ories appr ov a l

2 1 B ulk a c ce ss o rie s s ourc ing

5d

1d

2d

2d

1 9 f a bric a pp rova l

finalising fabr ic option

1 6 f a bric s ou rc in g

sour cing sam ple fabr ic options

1 5 s iz e s e t ap prov a l

18

5d

r epr oducibility check

14

17

2d

quality check

13

3d

cut and sew

3d

patter n m kg

12

8d

5d

2d

3d

3d

7d

0.4d

11

1 0 s iz e s e t mak e

9 f it s a mple app rov a l

patter n m kg

5 f it s a mple ma ke

pr oduction - feasibility check

0.3d

1d

0.3d

sam ple - feasibility check

Dur ation

Task Nam e

10

20

30

40

50

60

1 0 /1 6 /0 3

1 0 /1 5 /0 3

1 0 /1 3 /0 3

1 0 /0 7 /0 3

1 0 /0 3 /0 3

1 0 /0 1 /0 3

0 9 /2 9 /0 3

09/19/03

09/19/03

09/19/03

0 9 /1 9 /0 3

09/16/03

09/10/03

09/04/03

0 9 /1 6 /0 3

09/11/03

09/05/03

09/01/03

0 9 /1 1 /0 3

0 8 /2 1 /0 3

0 8 /2 6 /0 3

08/19/03

08/18/03

0 8 /1 9 /0 3

0 9 /1 8 /0 3

09/11/03

09/09/03

09/05/03

09/04/03

0 9 /1 1 /0 3

0 9 /0 1 /0 3

08/25/03

08/21/03

08/19/03

0 8 /2 5 /0 3

08/14/03

08/14/03

08/14/03

0 8 /1 4 /0 3

S chedule Finish
4

18

25

m er chandiser - S um an

fabr ic executive - V ineet

S ep
15

22

29

m er chandiser - Rupa

m er chandiser - S um an

pr oduction executive - S augat

S am ple m aster - Zakir

fabr ic executive - V ineet

fabr ic executive - V ineet

m er chandiser - Rupa

pr oduction executive - S augat

Quality team (Rajesh + 2 QC)

sam pling team (Anbu + 2 tailor s)

S am ple m aster - Zakir

S am ple m aster - Zakir

sam pling team (Anbu + 2 tailor s)

S am ple m aster - Zakir

m er chandiser - S um an

pr oduction executive - S augat

S am ple m aster - Zakir

Qtr 3, 2003
Aug
11

Project Name: JDW-HE-060-White

6

Oct
13
20

Q ua lit y t e a m ( R a je s h + 2 Q C

JDW-HE-060-WHITE Gantt Chart with Sub-tasks and Resource Histograms

1 orde r c onf irma t ion

Task #

Figure 6.12

27

10

Qtr 4, 2003
Nov
17

24

217

Task Nam e

cut and sew

fit check

3d

cut and sew

quality check

r epr oducibility check

13

14

2d

accessor ies sour ce & dispatch

accessor ies r eceive and testing OK

25

26

fabr ic m ake & dispatch

fabr ic r eceive and testing OK

29

30

Page [

12/24/03

12/16/03

12/24/03

12/23/03

U nits in Days

A vailable U nits

A ll Tasks

] of [

10

20

30

40

50

1d

42goods out of factor y

12/19/03

12/17/03

12/09/03

60

6d

41packing

12/08/03

12/04/03

11/25/03

11/21/03

11/13/03

11/13/03

11/13/03

11/13/03

11/12/03

11/06/03

10/13/03

11/12/03

09/29/03

09/22/03

10/02/03

10/02/03

09/22/03

10/08/03

10/01/03

09/29/03

09/25/03

09/23/03

10/01/03

10/20/03

10/13/03

10/09/03

10/07/03

10/06/03

10/13/03

10/01/03

09/24/03

09/22/03

09/18/03

09/24/03

09/15/03

09/15/03

09/15/03

09/15/03

S chedule Finish

C ur r ent Task

10d

40finishing

12/04/03

12/02/03

11/21/03

11/18/03

11/14/03

11/13/03

11/13/03

11/13/03

11/13/03

11/07/03

10/14/03

10/09/03

10/09/03

09/23/03

09/22/03

09/23/03

09/22/03

09/16/03

10/02/03

09/30/03

09/26/03

09/24/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

10/14/03

10/10/03

10/08/03

10/03/03

10/02/03

10/02/03

09/25/03

09/23/03

09/18/03

09/16/03

09/16/03

09/15/03

09/15/03

09/15/03

09/15/03

S chedule S tar t

A ll R esour ce Histogr am

10d

6d

10d

39quality check

38Washing

37Embr oider y after sewing

6d

0.4d

0.3d

36sewing

m er chandiser - B OM check

34

6d

pr oduction feasibility check

33

0.3d

1d

4d

18d

3d

25d

5d

35cutting

specification check

32

31PP meeting and r eady to cut

com m unication & follow up

28

27Bulk fabr ic sour cing

8d

com m unication & follow up

24

0d

8d

23Bulk accessor ies sour cing

5d

finalising fabr ic option

20

2d

2d

6d

22accessor ies appr oval

com patibility check - r epr oducibility

5d

com patibility check - patter n

19

21fabr ic appr oval

sour cing sam pleing fabr ic options

18

16fabr ic sour cing

17

5d

12d

15size set appr oval

2d

2d

3d

8d

patter n m aking

12

5d

2d

11

9fit sample appr oval

3d

3d

7d

0.4d

0.3d

patter n m aking

m er chandiser - B OM check

pr oduction - feasibility check

0.3d

1d

D ur ation

5fit sample make

sam ple - feasibility check

1or der confir mation

Qtr 3, 2003
22

29

20

27

fabr ic executive - V ineet

m er chandiser - S um an

Qtr 4, 2003
N ov
17

10

24

m er chandiser - S um an

pr oduction executive - S augat

S am ple m aster - Zakir

fabr ic executive - V ineet

m er chandiser - R upa

m er chandiser - R upa

pr oduction executive - S augat

Quality team (Rajesh + 2 QC)

sam pling team (A nbu + 2 tailor s)

S am ple m aster - Zakir

S am ple m aster - Zakir

sam pling team (A nbu + 2 tailor s)

S am ple m aster - Zakir

Oct
13

pr oduction executive - S augat

S am ple m aster - Zakir

fabr ic executive - V ineet

m er chandiser - S um an

pr oduction executive - S augat

S am ple m aster - Zakir

S ep
15

Project Name: El Corte 104 -1-Suit

El Corte 104-1-SUIT Gantt Chart with Sub-tasks and Resource Histograms

10size set make

Task #

Figure 6.13

D ec
15
29

Quality team (Rajesh + 2 QC)

22

12

Jan
19

26

218

Development of the combined Gantt chart was achieved in the PS8 using a function
called multi-project synchronisation feature. Before synchronisation, the following
parameters were set.

In the multi-project set up all three orders are allowed stagger.

In the multi-project set up, order JDW-HE-160-WHITE was given top priority,
followed by order JDW-HE-060-LILAC. El Corte 104-1-SUIT was given lowest
priority.

In the multi-project set up Rupa-merchandiser and Zakir master-sampling are taken

as critical resources (constraints) that set the pace of the entire project.

All individual orders are set as fixed type.

Schedule method was set as critical path and schedule direction was set as
forward.

All executives were also given a list of guidelines to follow:

Delay non-critical-path tasks within the available float.

Give priority to critical tasks and extend non-critical-path task durations within the
available float, if necessary.

Follow relay race approach.

Weekly meeting with all executive members to jointly discuss the progress of the
three orders in combination.

In the multi-project Gantt chart, the project could be given any individual name. El
Corte 104-1-SUIT was used to name Gantt charts while JDW-HE-160-WHITE was
used for the reports generated.

219

Tas k Na m e

m e r c ha ndi s er - BO M

f i t c he ck

c onf or m i t y

qua l i t y c he ck

r epr oduci bi l i t y c hec k

15

16

6d

2d

2d

2d

5d

4d

1d

0. 3d

pr oduct i on -

m e r c ha ndi s er - BO M

f i t c he ck

2d

2d

c ut

qua l i t y c he ck

r epr oduci bi l i t y c hec k

12

13

14

3d

2d

16 f abr i c sour ci ng

s our c i ng sa m pl e f abr i c o

f i nal i s i ng f a br i c opt i on

17

18

5d

5d

a cc .

24

pr oduct i on -

m e r c ha ndi s er - BO M

c ut

f i t c he ck

qua l i t y c he ck

r epr oduci bi l i t y c hec k

13

14

2d

f i nal i s i ng f a br i c opt i on

8d

8d

0d

5d

23Bul k accessor i es sour ci ng

c om m uni ca t i on & f ol l ow

a cc es sor i es s our c e & di s p

a cc es sor i es r ec ei v e and t

24

25

26

f abr i c m ak e & di s pa t c h

f abr i c r e ce i v e and t es t i

29

30

0. 3d

6d

0d

0d

0d

6d

1d

0d

0d

10d

10d

41packi ng

40 f i ni shi ng

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

42goods out of f act or y

39qual i t y check

38W ashi ng

10d

6d

36sew i ng

37Em br oi der y af t er sew i ng

6d

35cut t i ng

0. 4d

0. 3d

pr oduct i on f e as i bi l i t y c h

m e r c ha ndi s er - BO M

che

s pe ci f i ca t i on c he c k

33

1d

4d

1 8d

3d

34

32

31PP m eet i ng and r eady t o c

c om m uni ca t i on & f ol l ow

28

25d

5d

22accessor i es appr oval

27Bul k f abr i c sour ci ng

5d

21 f abr i c appr oval

2d

2d

c om pat i bi l i t y che ck - r e

6d

c om pat i bi l i t y che ck - pa

s our c i ng sa m pl ei ng f a br i

19

20

18

12d

16 f abr i c sour ci ng

17

5d

2d

2d

3d

3d

8d

5d

15si z e set appr oval

a nd s ew

pat t e r n m a ki ng

c ut

11

12

10si z e set m ake

9 f i t sam pl e appr oval

2d

3d

3d

a nd s ew

7d

pat t e r n m a ki ng

0. 4d

0. 3d

0. 3d

5 f i t sam pl e m ake

che

f e as i bi l i t y

s am pl e - f ea si bi l i t y che

1d

1d

1 or der conf i r m at i on

6d

39goods out of f act or y

6d

8d

38packi ng

6d

35W ashi ng

36qual i t y check

6d

34sew i ng

37 f i ni shi ng

6d

33cut t i ng

0. 4d

0. 3d

0d

0d

che

0. 3d

4d

m e r c ha ndi s er - BO M

32

1d

pr oduct i on -

31

f e as i bi l i t y

s pe ci f i ca t i on c he c k

30

r ec ei ve & t e st i n

f abr i c

28

0d

29PP m eet i ng and r eady t o c

7d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

f abr i c m ak e and di s pa t c

27

15d

4d

7d

7d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

7d

c om m uni ca t i on & f ol l ow

26

25Bul k f abr i c sour ci ng

r e ce i v e & t e s t i ng ok

sour c e

a cc .

23

m ak e /

c om m uni ca t i on & f ol l ow

22

15d

20accessor i es appr oval

21Bul k accessor i es sour ci ng

19 f abr i c appr oval

1d

5d

15si z e set appr oval

3d

3d

pat t e r n m k g

11

a nd s ew

8d

5d

10si z e set m ake

9 f i t sam pl e appr oval

2d

3d

3d

a nd s ew

pat t e r n m k g

c ut

7d

0. 4d

0. 3d

0. 3d

5 f i t sam pl e m ake

che

f e as i bi l i t y

s am pl e - f ea si bi l i t y che

1d

0d

6d

1d

0d

0d

10d

40 f i ni shi ng

0d

1 or der conf i r m at i on

10d

39qual i t y check

0d

41packi ng

10d

38sew i ng

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

0d

42goods out of f act or y

10d

0. 4d

0. 3d

37cut t i ng

che

f e as i bi l i t y

m e r c ha ndi s er - BO M

36

f abr i c r e ce i v e & t es t i ng

s pe ci f i ca t i on c he c k

pr oduct i on -

34

33PP m eet i ng and r eady t o c

35

32

1 8d

f abr i c m ak e and di s pa t c

31

3d

25d

c om m uni ca t i on & f ol l ow

30

29Bul k f abr i c sour ci ng

8d

8d

a cc .

28

r e ce i v e & t e s t i ng ok

c om m uni ca t i on & f ol l ow

a cc es sor i es m a ke sour ce

26

27

15d

25Bul k accessor i es sour ci ng

5d

f i nal i s i ng f a br i c opt i on

24accessor i es appr oval

c om pat i bi l i t y che ck - r e

22

5d

s our c i ng sa m pl e f abr i c o

c om pat i bi l i t y che ck - pa t

21

23 f abr i c appr oval

19

10d

18 f abr i c sour ci ng

20

5d

3d

3d

3d

17si z e set appr oval

a nd s ew

2d

1d

c ut

14

c onf or m i t y

pat t e r n m k g

m a t e r i al

12

9d

11si z e set m ake

13

5d

10 f i t sam pl e appr oval

1d

3d

2d

7d

1d

c ut

a nd s ew

m a t e r i al

pa t t er n m kg

5 f i t sam pl e m ake

0. 4d

0. 3d

che

f e as i bi l i t y

pr oduct i on -

1d

0. 3d

12/ 24/ 03

12/ 16/ 03

12/ 08/ 03

12/ 04/ 03

12/ 02/ 03

11/ 21/ 03

11/ 18/ 03

11/ 14/ 03

1 1/ 13 / 0 3

1 1/ 13 / 0 3

1 1/ 13 / 0 3

11/ 13/ 03

1 1/ 07 / 0 3

1 0/ 14 / 0 3

1 0/ 09 / 0 3

10/ 09/ 03

0 9/ 23 / 0 3

0 9/ 22 / 0 3

0 9/ 23 / 0 3

09/ 22/ 03

09/ 16/ 03

10/ 02/ 03

0 9/ 30 / 0 3

0 9/ 26 / 0 3

0 9/ 24 / 0 3

0 9/ 16 / 0 3

09/ 16/ 03

10/ 14/ 03

1 0/ 10 / 0 3

1 0/ 08 / 0 3

1 0/ 03 / 0 3

1 0/ 02 / 0 3

10/ 02/ 03

09/ 25/ 03

0 9/ 23 / 0 3

0 9/ 18 / 0 3

0 9/ 16 / 0 3

09/ 16/ 03

0 9/ 15 / 0 3

0 9/ 15 / 0 3

0 9/ 15 / 0 3

09/ 15/ 03

10/ 16/ 03

10/ 08/ 03

10/ 02/ 03

09/ 30/ 03

09/ 26/ 03

09/ 24/ 03

09/ 22/ 03

0 9/ 19 / 0 3

0 9/ 19 / 0 3

0 9/ 19 / 0 3

09/ 19/ 03

0 9/ 11 / 0 3

0 9/ 02 / 0 3

0 8/ 27 / 0 3

08/ 27/ 03

0 9/ 08 / 0 3

0 8/ 28 / 0 3

0 8/ 22 / 0 3

08/ 22/ 03

08/ 15/ 03

08/ 20/ 03

0 8/ 19 / 0 3

0 8/ 15 / 0 3

08/ 15/ 03

09/ 12/ 03

0 9/ 10 / 0 3

0 9/ 08 / 0 3

0 9/ 03 / 0 3

0 9/ 02 / 0 3

09/ 02/ 03

08/ 26/ 03

0 8/ 22 / 0 3

0 8/ 19 / 0 3

0 8/ 15 / 0 3

08/ 15/ 03

0 8/ 14 / 0 3

0 8/ 14 / 0 3

0 8/ 14 / 0 3

08/ 14/ 03

10/ 13/ 03

10/ 03/ 03

09/ 25/ 03

09/ 23/ 03

09/ 19/ 03

09/ 17/ 03

0 9/ 16 / 0 3

0 9/ 16 / 0 3

0 9/ 16 / 0 3

09/ 16/ 03

0 9/ 10 / 0 3

0 8/ 15 / 0 3

0 8/ 12 / 0 3

08/ 12/ 03

0 8/ 12 / 0 3

0 8/ 05 / 0 3

0 7/ 29 / 0 3

07/ 29/ 03

07/ 22/ 03

08/ 05/ 03

0 8/ 01 / 0 3

0 7/ 30 / 0 3

0 7/ 30 / 0 3

0 7/ 22 / 0 3

07/ 22/ 03

08/ 20/ 03

0 8/ 15 / 0 3

0 8/ 14 / 0 3

0 8/ 12 / 0 3

0 8/ 08 / 0 3

0 8/ 07 / 0 3

08/ 07/ 03

07/ 31/ 03

0 7/ 30 / 0 3

0 7/ 25 / 0 3

0 7/ 23 / 0 3

0 7/ 22 / 0 3

07/ 22/ 03

0 7/ 21 / 0 3

0 7/ 21 / 0 3

0 7/ 21 / 0 3

07/ 21/ 03

12/ 24/ 03

12/ 23/ 03

12/ 19/ 03

12/ 17/ 03

12/ 09/ 03

12/ 04/ 03

11/ 25/ 03

11/ 21/ 03

1 1/ 13 / 0 3

1 1/ 13 / 0 3

1 1/ 13 / 0 3

11/ 13/ 03

1 1/ 12 / 0 3

1 1/ 06 / 0 3

1 0/ 13 / 0 3

11/ 12/ 03

0 9/ 29 / 0 3

0 9/ 22 / 0 3

1 0/ 02 / 0 3

10/ 02/ 03

09/ 22/ 03

10/ 08/ 03

1 0/ 01 / 0 3

0 9/ 29 / 0 3

0 9/ 25 / 0 3

0 9/ 23 / 0 3

10/ 01/ 03

10/ 20/ 03

1 0/ 13 / 0 3

1 0/ 09 / 0 3

1 0/ 07 / 0 3

1 0/ 06 / 0 3

10/ 13/ 03

10/ 01/ 03

0 9/ 24 / 0 3

0 9/ 22 / 0 3

0 9/ 18 / 0 3

09/ 24/ 03

0 9/ 15 / 0 3

0 9/ 15 / 0 3

0 9/ 15 / 0 3

09/ 15/ 03

10/ 16/ 03

10/ 15/ 03

10/ 13/ 03

10/ 07/ 03

10/ 03/ 03

10/ 01/ 03

09/ 29/ 03

0 9/ 19 / 0 3

0 9/ 19 / 0 3

0 9/ 19 / 0 3

09/ 19/ 03

0 9/ 16 / 0 3

0 9/ 10 / 0 3

0 9/ 04 / 0 3

09/ 16/ 03

0 9/ 11 / 0 3

0 9/ 05 / 0 3

0 9/ 01 / 0 3

09/ 11/ 03

08/ 21/ 03

08/ 26/ 03

0 8/ 19 / 0 3

0 8/ 18 / 0 3

08/ 19/ 03

09/ 18/ 03

0 9/ 11 / 0 3

0 9/ 09 / 0 3

0 9/ 05 / 0 3

0 9/ 04 / 0 3

09/ 11/ 03

09/ 01/ 03

0 8/ 25 / 0 3

0 8/ 21 / 0 3

0 8/ 19 / 0 3

08/ 25/ 03

0 8/ 14 / 0 3

0 8/ 14 / 0 3

0 8/ 14 / 0 3

08/ 14/ 03

10/ 13/ 03

10/ 10/ 03

10/ 08/ 03

10/ 06/ 03

10/ 02/ 03

09/ 30/ 03

0 9/ 16 / 0 3

0 9/ 16 / 0 3

0 9/ 16 / 0 3

09/ 16/ 03

0 9/ 15 / 0 3

0 9/ 09 / 0 3

0 8/ 14 / 0 3

09/ 15/ 03

0 8/ 18 / 0 3

0 8/ 14 / 0 3

0 8/ 07 / 0 3

08/ 18/ 03

07/ 28/ 03

08/ 11/ 03

0 8/ 04 / 0 3

0 7/ 31 / 0 3

0 7/ 31 / 0 3

0 7/ 29 / 0 3

08/ 04/ 03

08/ 26/ 03

0 8/ 19 / 0 3

0 8/ 18 / 0 3

0 8/ 14 / 0 3

0 8/ 11 / 0 3

0 8/ 07 / 0 3

08/ 19/ 03

08/ 06/ 03

0 7/ 30 / 0 3

0 7/ 29 / 0 3

0 7/ 24 / 0 3

0 7/ 22 / 0 3

07/ 30/ 03

0 7/ 21 / 0 3

0 7/ 21 / 0 3

0 7/ 21 / 0 3

07/ 21/ 03

J ul
14

28

m e r c ha ndi s er -

f abr i c ex ec ut i v e -

( Ra j e sh

25

m e r c ha ndi s er - Su

f abr i c ex ec ut i v e -

m e r c ha ndi s er - Su

( Ra j e sh

( Anbu + 2

29

O ct

m e r c ha ndi s er -

( Ra j e sh

( Anbu + 2

20

f abr i c ex ec ut i v e -

pr oduct i on ex ec ut i ve -

Q ual i t y t e am

s am pl i ng t ea m

Sam pl e m a st er -

Q ual i t y t eam ( Raj esh + 2

m e r c ha ndi s er - Su

m e r c ha ndi s er -

13

Q ual i t y t eam ( Raj esh + 2

pr oduct i on ex ec ut i ve - S

Sam pl e m a st er -

f abr i c ex ec ut i v e -

Sam pl e m a st er -

s am pl i ng t ea m

Sam pl e m a st er -

m e r c ha ndi s er - Su

pr oduct i on ex ec ut i ve -

Sam pl e m a st er -

m e r c ha ndi s er - Su

pr oduct i on ex ec ut i ve -

Sam pl e m a st er -

f abr i c ex ec ut i v e -

m e r c ha ndi s er - R

pr oduct i on ex ec ut i ve -

f abr i c ex ec ut i v e -

22

pr oduct i on ex ec ut i ve - S

Sam pl e m a st er -

f abr i c ex ec ut i v e -

15

( Anbu + 2

Sep

Q ual i t y t e am

s am pl i ng t ea m

Sam pl e m a st er -

m e r c ha ndi s er -

( Anbu + 2

Sam pl e m a st er -

s am pl i ng t ea m

Sam pl e m a st er -

m e r c ha ndi s er - Su

pr oduct i on ex ec ut i ve - S

pr oduct i on ex ec ut i ve -

Q ual i t y t e am

Sam pl e m a st er -

m e r c ha ndi s er -

m e r c ha ndi s er - Su

pr oduct i on ex ec ut i ve -

Sam pl e m a st er -

f abr i c ex ec ut i v e -

18

s am pl i ng t ea m ( Anbu + 2

m e r c ha ndi s er - R

( Anbu + 2

Q t r 3 , 20 03
Aug
11

s am pl i ng t ea m

( Anbu + 2

Sam pl e m a st er -

s am pl i ng t ea m

m e r c ha ndi s er - Su

Sam pl e m a st er -

m e r c ha ndi s er - Su

pr oduct i on ex ec ut i ve -

Sam pl e m a st er -

21

Project Name: El Corte 104 -1-Suit

Multi Project Gantt chart

Dur at i onSaf e Dur a t i on

Schedul e St ar t Schedul e Fi ni sh

s am pl e - f ea si bi l i t y che

1 or der conf i r m at i on

Tas k #

Figure 6.14

27

10

17

m e r c ha ndi s er - Su

pr oduct i on ex ec ut i ve - S

Sam pl e m a st er -

f abr i c ex ec ut i v e -

Q t r 4 , 20 03
Nov
24

Dec
15

Q ual i t y t eam ( Raj esh +

22

29

12

J an
19

26

220

R esour ce Nam e

merchandiser - S uman

merchandiser - R upa

S ample master - Zakir

sampling team (A nbu + 2 tailors)

fabric ex ecutive - V ineet

production executive - S augat

spreading & cutting resource

sew ing resource

finishing & packing resource

Quality team (R ajesh + 2 QC )

38A 5ILQ

38A 5ILY

38A 5ILR

38A 5ILZ

38A 5ILS

38A 5ILT

38A 5ILU

38A 5ILV

38A 5ILW

38A 5ILX

-11.2h

A vailable

32h

20%

40h

24h

40h

A ug 18

40%

40h

A ug 11

% Used

A ug 4

A vailable

Jul 28
8h

Jul 21
16h

A llocated

40h

A ug 25

50h

40h

S ep 1

50h

24h

40%

16h

S ep 8

50h

S ep 8

40h

S ep 15

50h

S ep 15

S ep 22

S ep 29

8h

80%

32h

S ep 22

-32h

180%

72h

S ep 29

-14h

64h

50h

S ep 1

128%

50h

A ug 25

-6h

16h

50h

A ug 18

56h
112%

34h

50h

A ug 11

-14h

32%

50h

A ug 4

50h

26h
S ep 29

% Used

Jul 28

50h

-30h
S ep 22

48%

24h

S ep 29

32h

20%

8h

S ep 29

40h

S ep 29

42h

16%

8h

S ep 29

34h

32%

16h

S ep 29

100%

40h

S ep 29

24h

40%

16h

S ep 29

A vailable

A llocated

Jul 21

50h

S ep 15
64h

50h

50h
S ep 8

128%

50h

50h
S ep 1
8h

50h

50h
A ug 25

42h

50h

50h
A ug 18

160%

80h

S ep 22

16%

50h

A ug 11

50h

S ep 15

32h

20%

8h

S ep 22

24h

40%

16h

S ep 22

42h

16%

8h

S ep 22

18h

64%

32h

S ep 22

% Used

A ug 4

50h

S ep 8

32.8h

18%

7h

S ep 15

-16h

140%

56h

S ep 15

34h

32%

16h

S ep 15

18.8h

62%

31h

S ep 15

-24h

160%

64h

S ep 22

32h

20%

8h

S ep 22

A vailable

A llocated

Jul 28

50h

S ep 1

24h

40%

16h

S ep 8

100%

40h

S ep 8

50h

S ep 8

50h

S ep 8

40h

S ep 15

-1.6h

104%

42h

S ep 15

26h

Jul 21

50h

A ug 25

40h

S ep 1

8h

80%

32h

S ep 1

26h

48%

24h

S ep 1

26h

48%

24h

S ep 1

8h

80%

32h

S ep 8

40h

S ep 8

A vailable

A ug 18

40h

A ug 25

16h

60%

24h

A ug 25

50h

A ug 25

42h

16%

8h

A ug 25

32h

20%

8h

S ep 1

40h

S ep 1

24h

A ug 11

24h

40%

16h

A ug 18

32h

20%

8h

A ug 18

26h

48%

24h

A ug 18

26h

48%

24h

A ug 18

100%

40h

A ug 25

40h

A ug 25

48%

A ug 4

29.6h

26%

10h

A ug 11

8h

80%

32h

A ug 11

26h

48%

24h

A ug 11

39.6h

21%

10h

A ug 11

24h

40%

16h

A ug 18

100%

40h

A ug 18

% Used

Jul 28

40h

A ug 4

40h

A ug 4

42h

16%

8h

A ug 4

50h

A ug 4

100%

40h

A ug 11

28.8h

28%

11h

A ug 11

A llocated

Jul 21

16h

24h

40%

2h

6%

37.6h

% Used

Jul 28

A vailable

A llocated

Jul 21

16h

8h

24h

40%

32h

80%

% Used

Jul 28

A vailable

A llocated

Jul 21

42h

34h

32%

16%

% Used

A vailable

Jul 28

16h

Jul 21

8h

A llocated

48%

21%

39.6h

% Used

A vailable

26h

24h

Jul 28

10h

Jul 21

8h

A llocated

100%

80%

40h

% Used

A vailable

A ug 4

32h

20%

8h

A ug 4

40h

Jul 28

24h

40%

16h

Jul 28

32h

Jul 21

% Used

A llocated

51h

128%

A llocated

Jul 21

Project Name: JDW-HE-060-White

Multi Project Weekly Resource Utilisation

R es ID

Figure 6.15

8h

8h

100%

40h

Oct 6

-78h

256%

128h

Oct 6

50h

Oct 6

50h

Oct 6

32h

20%

Oct 6

24h

40%

16h

Oct 6

34h

32%

16h

Oct 6

42h

16%

Oct 6

40h

Oct 6

40h

Oct 6

40h

Oct 13

18h

64%

32h

Oct 13

50h

Oct 13

42h

16%

8h

Oct 13

24h

40%

16h

Oct 13

32h

20%

8h

Oct 13

50h

Oct 13

50h

Oct 13

40h

Oct 13

40h

Oct 13

40h

Oct 20

50h

Oct 20

50h

Oct 20

50h

Oct 20

40h

Oct 20

40h

Oct 20

50h

Oct 20

50h

Oct 20

40h

Oct 20

40h

Oct 20

40h

Oct 27

50h

Oct 27

50h

Oct 27

50h

Oct 27

40h

Oct 27

40h

Oct 27

50h

Oct 27

50h

Oct 27

40h

Oct 27

40h

Oct 27

40h

N ov 3

50h

N ov 3

50h

N ov 3

50h

N ov 3

40h

N ov 3

32h

20%

8h

N ov 3

50h

N ov 3

50h

N ov 3

40h

N ov 3

40h

N ov 3

40h

N ov 10

50h

N ov 10

50h

N ov 10

42h

16%

8h

N ov 10

37.6h

6%

2h

N ov 10

16h

60%

24h

N ov 10

50h

N ov 10

47.6h

5%

2h

N ov 10

40h

N ov 10

36.8h

8%

3h

N ov 10

40h

N ov 17

50h

N ov 17

18h

64%

32h

N ov 17

10h

80%

40h

N ov 17

40h

N ov 17

40h

N ov 17

50h

N ov 17

50h

N ov 17

40h

N ov 17

40h

N ov 17

40h

N ov 24

50h

N ov 24

34h

32%

16h

N ov 24

50h

N ov 24

40h

N ov 24

40h

N ov 24

50h

N ov 24

50h

N ov 24

40h

N ov 24

40h

N ov 24

24h

40%

16h

D ec 1

50h

D ec 1

50h

D ec 1

50h

D ec 1

40h

D ec 1

40h

D ec 1

50h

D ec 1

50h

D ec 1

40h

D ec 1

40h

D ec 1

100%

40h

D ec 8

10h

80%

40h

D ec 8

50h

D ec 8

50h

D ec 8

40h

D ec 8

40h

D ec 8

50h

D ec 8

50h

D ec 8

40h

D ec 8

40h

D ec 8

16h

60%

24h

D ec 15

-22h

144%

72h

D ec 15

50h

D ec 15

50h

D ec 15

40h

D ec 15

40h

D ec 15

50h

D ec 15

50h

D ec 15

40h

D ec 15

40h

D ec 15

24h

D ec 22

14h

53%

16h

D ec 22

30h

D ec 22

30h

D ec 22

16h

33%

8h

D ec 22

24h

D ec 22

30h

D ec 22

30h

D ec 22

24h

D ec 22

24h

D ec 22

221

A weekly resource utilisation chart was found to be very useful for a manager and/or
planner. The total workload for every executive for every week was indicated for the
duration of the manufacturing cycle. Out of the total duty hours for each executive how
much time was allocated for tasks and how much was free is clearly indicated, thus helping
monitoring and rationalising changes of plan, if any. Workload exceeding 100 percent
indicated a shortage of resources and a solution was required, by either working overtime
or re-scheduling target dates.
The software generated Resource Assignments Reports (figure 6.16) informs all executives
of the tasks being allocated to them, the time allocated for each task, scheduled start and
finish date and the name of the project (order) the task belonged to.

Figure 6.16

Resource Assignments Report

Project Name: JDW-HE-060-White

Res # Res ID

Resource Name

1 38A5ILQ
Project ID

Email Address

Current Availability

merchandiser - Suman

Project Name

8h/d

Task #

Task Name

Base

Total

Actual

Remaining

Start

Finish

2IDVLC1

JDW-HE-060-Lilac

merchandiser - BOM check

0h

3.2h

0h

3.2h

07/21/03

07/21/03

2IDVLC1

JDW-HE-060-Lilac

material conformity

0h

16h

0h

16h

07/23/03

07/24/03

2IDVLC1

JDW-HE-060-Lilac

22

2IDVLC1

JDW-HE-060-Lilac

24 accessories approval

2IDVLC1

JDW-HE-060-Lilac

36

2IDVLC1

JDW-HE-060-White

2IDVLC1

JDW-HE-060-White

18

2IDVLC1

JDW-HE-060-White

20 accessories approval

2IDVLC1

JDW-HE-060-White

32

2IDVLC1

El Corte 104 -1-Suit

2IDVLC1

El Corte 104 -1-Suit

20

2IDVLC1

El Corte 104 -1-Suit

22 accessories approval

2IDVLC1

El Corte 104 -1-Suit

34

0h

Page [

] of [

finalising fabric option

0h

16h

0h

16h

08/01/03

08/04/03

0h

40h

0h

40h

07/22/03

07/28/03

merchandiser - BOM check

0h

3.2h

0h

3.2h

09/16/03

09/16/03

merchandiser - BOM check

0h

3.2h

0h

3.2h

08/14/03

08/14/03

finalising fabric option

0h

8h

0h

8h

08/19/03

08/19/03

0h

40h

0h

40h

08/15/03

08/21/03

merchandiser - BOM check

0h

3.2h

0h

3.2h

09/19/03

09/19/03

merchandiser - BOM check

0h

3.2h

0h

3.2h

09/15/03

09/15/03

0h

16h

0h

16h

09/30/03

10/01/03

0h

40h

0h

40h

09/16/03

09/22/03

3.2h

0h

3.2h

11/13/03

11/13/03

finalising fabric option

merchandiser - BOM check

10 ]

The software generated To Do List (also referred to as Upcoming task by resources in the
software) for every executive could be made for any customised date range. The To Do List
(figure 6.17) listed tasks for a given close ended time period or before/after any specific
222

date. The To Do List also listed incomplete tasks, their project names, scheduled start dates,
duration of task, and predecessor reference.
Figure 6.17

To Do List
Project Name: JDW-HE-060-White
To Do List

me
For Resource:

merchandiser - Suman

Project Name

E-mail:

Manager:

me

Task Name

Schedule Start

Duration

Safe Duration

On CC

Predecessor(s) #

JDW-HE-060-Lilac

merchandiser - BOM check

07/21/03

0.4d

0d

No

JDW-HE-060-Lilac

material conformity

07/23/03

2d

0d

No

JDW-HE-060-Lilac

finalising fabric option

08/01/03

2d

0d

No

21

JDW-HE-060-Lilac

accessories approval

07/22/03

5d

0d

No

JDW-HE-060-Lilac

merchandiser - BOM check

09/16/03

0.4d

0d

No

35

JDW-HE-060-White

merchandiser - BOM check

08/14/03

0.4d

0d

No

JDW-HE-060-White

finalising fabric option

08/19/03

1d

0d

No

17

JDW-HE-060-White

accessories approval

08/15/03

5d

0d

No

JDW-HE-060-White

merchandiser - BOM check

09/19/03

0.4d

0d

No

31

El Corte 104 -1-Suit

merchandiser - BOM check

09/15/03

0.4d

0d

No

El Corte 104 -1-Suit

finalising fabric option

09/30/03

2d

0d

No

19

El Corte 104 -1-Suit

accessories approval

09/16/03

5d

0d

No

El Corte 104 -1-Suit

merchandiser - BOM check

11/13/03

0.4d

0d

No

33

Duration

Safe Duration

On CC

Predecessor(s) #

12

me Uncompleted Task

me
me
me
For Resource:

merchandiser - Rupa

Project Name

E-mail:

Task Name

Schedule Start

Manager:

me
1

me Uncompleted Task
JDW-HE-060-Lilac

material conformity

08/08/03

2d

0d

No

JDW-HE-060-Lilac

communication & follow up

07/29/03

8d

0d

No

JDW-HE-060-Lilac

acc. receive & testing ok

08/12/03

5d

0d

No

JDW-HE-060-White

communication & follow up

08/22/03

7d

0d

No

JDW-HE-060-White

acc. receive & testing ok

09/08/03

4d

0d

No

El Corte 104 -1-Suit

communication & follow up

09/23/03

8d

0d

No

El Corte 104 -1-Suit

accessories receive and testing OK

09/23/03

5d

0d

No

Page [

] of [

27 FF 2d

23

The software generated a task-wise multi-project workload report (Resource project task
effort-weekly) (figure 6.18) for the resource executive on a weekly basis. The distribution
of workload by project and then by task helped executives to assess their own workload by
type of task.

223

Figure 6.18

Resource Project Task Effort-Weekly

Project Name: JDW-HE-060-White

R es #

R esour ce Nam e

merchandiser - S uman

2IDV LC1
1
4
5
7
18
22

JD W -H E -060-Lilac

order confirmation

Jul 21

Jul 28

A ug 4

51h

16h

8h

A ug 11

A ug 18

A ug 25

S ep 1

S ep 8

S ep 15

merchandiser - B OM check

fabric sourcing
finalising fabric option

8h

8h
8h

P P meeting and ready to cut

3h

36

merchandiser - B OM check

3h

18

32h

8h

33

16

JD W -H E -060-W hite

11h

40h

fabric sourcing

8h

3h

32

merchandiser - B OM check

3h

8h

32h

E l Cor te 104 -1-S uit

35h

order confirmation

3h

3h

merchandiser - B OM check

3h

fabric sourcing

16h

finalising fabric option

16h

22

accessories approval

31

P P meeting and ready to cut

3h

34

merchandiser - B OM check

3h

32h

R esour ce Totals:

Page [

N ov 17

8h

finalising fabric option

P P meeting and ready to cut

20

16h

N ov 10

3h

29

16

8h

N ov 3

3h

accessories approval

Oct 27

3h

merchandiser - B OM check

20

Oct 20

8h

order confirmation

2IDV LC1

Oct 13

16h

accessories approval

Oct 6

16h

material conformity

24

S ep 29

3h

fit sample make

2IDV LC1

S ep 22

3h

3h

51h

] of [

16h

8h

11h

40h

42h

8h

8h

16h

3h

, 10 ]

During project execution, another feature of PS8 was found to be particularly helpful for
apparel manufacturing operations. PS8's grouping feature extended the capabilities of the
subproject and merged options. Grouping in apparel business helped to maintain separate
order files for different orders of a group while still being able to define dependencies
between the orders. Often different colours were ordered for one style; while tasks like fit
sample approval and size set were common amongst them, lab dip, fabric source, cut, make
and finish were separate for every colour. Separate subprojects could be created for
different colours. The elements of the subproject present in the master project are its
duration, percentage complete and an optional selection of resource assignment
information. The subproject feature in PS8 satisfied this requirement. However this feature
could not be analysed as the three orders selected were not set up with subproject features.

224

6.3.3 Data Analysis

The analysis of workload distribution pattern across the manufacturing cycle revealed an
interesting fact. It was found that there was generally more workload at the beginning and
tail end of the manufacturing cycle, whereas in the middle section there was less workload.
JDW-HE-060-LILAC order had a 13 week cycle and during weeks 6 and 7 (starting 25
Aug and 1 Sept respectively) there was zero workload (histogram in figure 6.11). In JDWHE-060-WHITE order also, week 6 (15 Sept) of a total of 10 weeks manufacturing cycle
had least workload (histogram in figure 6.12). Similarly, in the El Corte 104-1-SUIT order,
weeks 7 and 8 (Oct 20 and Oct 27 respectively) in a 15 week cycle had zero workload
(histogram in figure 6.13). This lull of activities in the middle of the cycle could probably
be attributed to the period during the last leg of pre-production activities, when tasks were
completed by in-house executives and they were awaiting decision/execution from buyers
and/or suppliers, though it was widely believed that orders with staggered delivery date
would lead to evening out of workload across an organisation. Even in the multi-project
combined Gantt chart, weeks 14 and 15 were found to have zero workload out of total
cycle time of 23 weeks. The red colour pictorial representation of critical activities in Gantt
chart helped executives to understand and appreciate individual responsibilities. As the
names of resource persons could be written in the Gantt chart, it was very clear among
organisation executives to pictorially understand what their predecessors achieved and
why, the importance of their own task and what to leave for their successor.

All executives felt thoroughly guided using resource assignments reports as every sub-task
level was listed. The executives used same as a checklist during the six month period.

The executive used the To Do List report to the maximum for their daily schedule. All ten
executives expressed that this To Do List was very handy for two reasons: first,
predecessor reference often helped them to fetch the task from the concerned executive,
thus prompting a relay race like situation. Second, every task in the To Do List indicated
whether that task was part of critical path/critical chain or not, helping them to prioritise
their work. The to-do list generated by the software for every individual resource gave
them a clear priority of work to be done as per schedule. All executives felt that the multi225

project To Do List made it easier for them to understand reports about the ongoing tasks for
immediate follow up.

If any particular type of task was repeated for multiple orders, grouping by task type helped
an executive to learn from mistakes as well as implement new lessons easily. Some of the
executives felt that task wise multi project workload report helped them see their workload
in future weeks, thus enabling them to plan better (specially for taking short breaks without
disturbing the schedule).

The resource levelling option of the software enabled an executive to decide to either work
overtime or reschedule the time line in advance. 8 out of 10 resource executives felt in
favour of levelling of resources, even if it resulted in delay of an activity. The executives
felt that working with 100 percent or more workload mean invariably working late hours
(for desk job) or overtime (for skill-based tasks). In other words, it implied higher stress
levels and/or inconsistent quality level. The executives felt levelled resources offered a destressed work environment resulting in high quality output. However, two sets of resources,
the sampling team and finishing and packing executives felt otherwise. They felt peaks and
troughs in workload were welcome as this helped them to work flexi-time and
simultaneously earn extra money working overtime. Incidentally, both these resources were
skill-based and entitled to overtime.

Every executive felt that the software enabled multi-project schedule nearly eliminated
intermittent work interruption and planned their schedule better. However, during the
actual execution of the three projects every executives actual work load schedule could not
be compared against that of the software generated schedule as they were also attending to
tasks from orders other than the three in the multi-project Gantt chart, rendering
segregation of the workload impossible.

Every executive felt the software enabled multi-project schedule nearly eliminated
intermittent work interruption so that they could plan their schedule better. However,
during the actual execution of the three projects every executives actual work load
schedule could not be compared against that of software generated schedule as they were
226

also attending tasks from orders other than the three orders in the multi-project Gantt chart.
It was therefore impossible to segregate the workload.

The three orders, JDW-HE-060-LILAC, JDW-HE-060-WHITE and El Corte 104-1-SUIT

analysed in the multi-project Gantt chart had 61, 46 and 71 days or 13, 10 and 15 weeks
lead time respectively. Assuming that 10 resource executives were available throughout,
then total resource availability for JDW-HE-060-LILAC order was 130 man-weeks.
However, some work was executed in only 41 man-weeks, i.e. 31 percent. Further work
executed in a man-week varied from 5 percent to 128 percent utilisation with an average of
50.48 percent. This effectively meant that utilisation of workload for JDW-HE-060-LILAC
order was 15.5 percent. By the same measure, utilisation of workload for JDW-HE-060WHITE and El Corte 104-1-SUIT was 16 and 11.5 percent respectively. These measures
could be used to denote effective executive utilisation. When the three projects were
executed in the multi-project scenario, the effective executive utilisation increased to 23
percent.

6.3.4 Conclusion
The software generated multi-project weekly workload schedule for executives coupled
with the relay race approach helped every executive to anticipate workload in advance and
share resources between different orders better. It was realised that multi-order resource
workload was more realistic than individual workload for separate orders. The multiproject Gantt chart implementation clearly addressed several human resource bottleneck
issues in pre-production processes.

Seeking last minute extension of delivery date by apparel manufacturers was a common
problem. The multi-order workload plan enables pre-emption of the overload permitting a
decision to either work overtime or re-schedule activity dates. The resource levelling
option helped in making a decision scientifically.

As already stated, workload at the start and end sections of any order cycle was
considerably higher than mid-section. This called for careful selection of orders with
predetermined lead time and calculated staggering of delivery dates in one team of
227

executives for scientific and optimum use of available resources. Assuming that the
10-executive resource was an ideal mix of expertise to execute an order, then 13 orders
could be handled by one team at 100 percent utilisation rate. Therefore, orders for a team of
executives should be chosen with a uniformly staggered delivery date with the correct mix
of lead time. Although ideal 100 percent utilisation of all resources might not be possible
practically, software helped in analysing what the correct mix of orders for a group of
resources should be, rationally and scientifically grouping multiple orders for optimum
utilisation of resources without delaying the delivery date. It was also observed in Kirat that
a typical team of ten executives generally handled 20-30 orders at a time. Thus, in an actual
scenario, it was more than likely that smooth execution of some tasks on some days would
be interrupted either due to non-availability of time from executives or misplaced priorities.

The executives reported the generic benefits of using software while executing talks using
the multi-order Gantt chart:

To Do List was a kind of mental assurance as it was a fool proof mechanism of order
follow up.

Holidays were incorporated in the calendar, so there were no last minute surprises.

Being always up to date with order status and pre-empt capability gave them an edge
over buyers. It boosted their self confidence.

Even though task prioritisation within a day was not felt necessary, a common schedule
in black and white helped all to work around a common goal.

Rather than individually setting and following up daily targets, team work approach and
milestone-based targets was found to work well with the multi-project Gantt chart.

The software feature and reports also helped executives to understand their
interdependent role in an order better and instilled a sense of teamwork.

6.4

Intermittent Work Interruption

During critical path / critical chain implementation in Silvershine Apparels, intermittent

work interruption was found common among pattern making, sampling, quality checking,
and specification sheet preparation activities (section 6.2.3). Account managers were
accountable to their customers for successful completion of the orders. All customers,
228

whether national or international, tend to think that their orders were of the highest priority
and wanted to see frequent progress in their orders. Therefore, resources tended to migrate
between one order and another in response to the latest/loudest customers demand to keep
as many customers satisfied as possible. This phenomenon is referred to as multitasking
by Goldratt (1997). It was decided to first carry out a pilot study with an identified activity
where intermittent work interruption was extant, followed by a longitudinal study of a
representative set of orders to measure the impact of intermittent work interruption in the
manufacturing cycle time.

6.4.1 Pilot Study

A pilot study was carried out with an identified activity where intermittent work
interruption prevails, to test the measurability of interruption time against work time, to
measure the amount of time loss per interruption and to test the authenticity and
reproducibility of measuring technique.

6.4.1.1 Methodology

This study was to provide an illustrative profile (of what is typical in industry) using a
representative case (section 3.5.3). Hence, a typical case of purposive sampling was used to
select Silvershine Apparels. The reason for selecting Silvershine Apparels was familiarity,
while the previous two case studies were conducted with ample management support. Data
was collected by a research associate for one month, supervised by the researcher. The
method of data collection was structured format designed in MS Excel worksheet. Preproduction activities in Silvershine Apparels were observed for one week to locate where
Intermittent Work Interruption was occurring and whether it was measurable. Pattern
making activity in Silvershine Apparels was selected for observation. In this case, pattern
making work defined the manual process which included developing a pattern either from
a measurement chart through drafting, and/or from a basic block, manual grading and
making of final production pattern. Minute to minute activity of one pattern master was
collected for one month excluding lunch breaks. The time scale was divided into 0.5 hours
(half hour) durations and each column in ensuing graphs represents duration of 0.5 hours.
229

Each row represents a different style. A cell is marked black when the pattern master was
working on the style and grey when no work was taking place on the style.

In order to measure the amount of time lost per interruption, a set of similar styles was
selected and pattern making of those styles were compared with and without any
interruption. Similar styles implied that the pattern making time for the styles was similar.
In actual working conditions, the same styles could not be observed for with and without
interruption, therefore similar styles were selected.

6.4.1.2

Data Collection

Data was collected observing one pattern master for one month, with timing initiated from
the moment the pattern master started work on a style. Working pattern of the pattern
master on a particular day is illustrated in table 6.10. Each box represents 0.5 hours
duration. Excluding 0.5 hours lunch break, the pattern maker worked for 10.5 hours in that
day and prepared patterns for 5 different styles. Out of five styles being worked, work was
interrupted on 2 styles (W231 and 2PIE), interruption took place once for each style and the
durations of interruption were 5.5 hours and 6 hours respectively. Pattern making for the
other three styles was uninterrupted.

Table 6.10

Pattern Making in Intermittent Work Interruption

Environment

(Actual Scenario)
Style

Time Scale

W 231
Lunch Break

2 PIE- M Size
S3g-58 T
Jumper
Elastic Skirt
Legend
Working
No work / Time saving

230

6.4.1.3

Data Analysis

In case the pattern maker was given a fixed priority schedule and work was not interrupted,
then all styles could have been worked upon at a stretch without interruption. Table 6.11
represents a hypothetical case scenario of the day represented in table 6.10. However it may
be noted that style W231 and 2PIE took 2 hours each when work was interrupted.
Therefore, it may be safely assumed that styles W231 and 2PIE would take less than 2
hours when worked on without interruption. It was therefore decided to measure the effect
of interruption on activity duration. As in a real life scenario, it was not possible to have
data for activity duration with and without interruption for the same style, so it was decided
to take similar styles.

Table 6.11

Pattern

Making

Without

Intermittent

Work

Interruption

(Hypothetical Scenario)
Style

Time Scale

W 231
2 Pie- M Size
S3g-58 T
Jumper
Elastic Skirt
Legend
Working
No work / Time saving

The hypothetical scenario in table 6.11 could have many different sequences. Assuming
work interruption caused a loss in concentration (and the pattern maker must have spent
some additional time for styles W231 and 2PIE during the interruption), it could be safely
concluded that in a no-interruption scenario, the pattern maker would probably complete
the pattern for all 5 styles in less than 10.5 hours.
To measure the amount of time loss per interruption, 16 nearly similar styles were selected
from those in production or sampling.

231

Table 6.12

Intermittent Work Interruption on Similar Styles

1

64138
64138-7

TS2-3349
64428T

TS2-1349
TS2-1339
TS2-6320
TS2-7315
64428T
7041
TS2-7320
TS2-6320

TS2-5312
SS-1345

67423
64138
TS2-7315
TS2-7320
67424
15543

TS2-6315
SS-3452

TS2-1309
SS-1299
M4213
M4213-2
BP-48352
M4213-5

M1189
M1189-1
L4001EW
SS-1555

Legend:
Orange Standard Time without Interruption
Grey Actual Time Taken with or without Interruption

232

In the chart above, the number of interruptions was shown numerically against the bars. For
example, style TS2-3349 had taken 3.5 hours, while a nearly similar style 64428T had
taken four hours with one interruption. Similarly, times taken for the set of all 16 similar
styles were noted and it was found that in four sets, there was no interruption and no
difference in time, in another two orders there was no interruption but 0.5 hours difference
was observed in time. In the remaining 10 sets of orders, there were interruptions and also
differences in time. An analysis of these 10 sets of orders showed that interruption occurred
16 times and total time lost was 17 hours. On the average, 45 percent of time was lost due
to interruptions. In four out of these 10 cases, a single interruption caused a delay of 0.5
hours and in one case, two interruptions caused a one- hour delay. An interview with the
pattern master supported that fact that for every single interruption, on an average 0.5 hours
additional time was required to acclimatise to the new task; this could be termed as focus
loss or start up loss.

6.4.1.4

Conclusion

In certain technical tasks such as pattern grading, Intermittent Work Interruption induced
start up loss due to time required to regain concentration and style familiarisation, thus
increasing overall task duration. Due to frequent changes of task, the start up loss/set up
time/focus loss could increase the overall task duration by an average of 45 percent. Apart
from pattern making, CAD and sample making were other areas where Intermittent Work
Interruption was a regular phenomenon. Intermittent Work Interruption was found even
among merchandisers and quality controllers. It was observed that while one merchandiser
was preparing size tech pack of one style, she was made to abandon that work half way
and asked to prepare a fax reply for another style. Quality controllers measuring size sets
(for dispatch by courier to a buyer) were often interrupted by merchandisers and made to
attend to other pressing issues.

It was argued by the factory that Intermittent Work

Interruption is necessary for addressing emergent requirements and switched priorities.

After brainstorming with merchandisers, quality controllers, pattern masters and managers,
it was realised that concentration loss would be substantial in case of skill-based activities,
but for managerial level work it was negligible. It was thus agreed that Intermittent Work
Interruption for managerial and executive level personnel may be allowed. However, skill233

based activities must be given a prioritised schedule and Intermittent Work Interruption
avoided as far as possible. It was then decided to conduct longitudinal studies on the effect
of Intermittent Work Interruption on other skill-based activities.

6.4.2 Longitudinal Study on Intermittent Work Interruption

Since focus loss/start up loss in respect of skill-based activities was expected to be

substantial and had not been fully analysed earlier, it was decided to conduct longitudinal
studies on effect of Intermittent Work Interruption on other skill-based activities.

6.4.2.1 Methodology

The sample company selection for longitudinal study was again to provide an illustrative
profile using a representative case (section 3.5.3), therefore typical case purposive sample
selection method was followed and data was collected through structured format. The
manufacturing organization selected for the longitudinal study was Kirat. Silvershine
Apparels was avoided to eliminate the possible wrong practices or biasness that may have
been followed in Silvershine. The Pre-production activities in Kirat were observed for one
week to identify the most crucial areas of Intermittent Work Interruption in skill-based
activities. Two activities, namely pattern making and sampling, were selected for structured
observation. Minute to minute activity in both departments was collected for three months
including lunch breaks. While pattern making involved only the pattern maker (trying to
assess the Intermittent Work Interruption of one person), sampling involved one sampling
master-cutter and three tailors working in make through system. In the second case,
Intermittent Work Interruption of one department was measured as a whole. Pattern making
activity was divided into two parts; pattern making-I and pattern making-II. Time taken for
pattern making-I included manual drafting to prepare the first pattern from the specification
sheet for the first fit, while pattern making-II included pattern alterations (as per fit
comments, if any), grading (manual), and preparing production ready patterns. After
pattern making-I, the fit sample was prepared and sent for buyers approval, which could
take a couple of weeks to sometimes more than a month. During fit sample approval
process, the patterns were modified a number of times based on the number of customer
234

assessment iterations, which was an intermittent process and time was not taken for that
process. Once a fit sample was approved, the patterns were finally modified, graded and
duplicated for production pattern (pattern making-II).

Sampling involved various activities like fabric spreading, which was generally done by the
master cutter and sometimes with help from a tailor; pattern marking and fabric cutting,
generally done by the master cutter. Re-cutting was generally done by the tailor himself.
Selection of right accessories was generally done by the tailor in consultation with the
master cutter and concerned merchandiser. For consulting with the merchandiser, the tailor
had to go to the merchandising dept. and sewing was done by tailors. Generally, one style
was worked upon by one tailor, but in exceptional cases one style could be worked upon by
more than one tailor at a time. Based on the style, embroidery and other value additions are
done either before, during or even after sewing. For embroidery and value addition, the
sample had often to be sent to an outside contractor. A tailor also did the initial inspection
for sewing defects and measurement variations. Sometimes the samples were inspected on
a dummy for fit by the master cutter in the presence of the merchandiser. Once the sample
was ready, the sample was measured according to specification by the merchandiser (while
the master cutter looked on), recorded in the sample measurement sheet and declared ready
for dispatch. While each pattern master was considered as one unit of pattern making
resource, the sampling team consisting of the master cutter and three tailors was considered
as one unit of sample making resource.

6.4.2.2

Data Collection

Forty styles were observed for pattern making-I and the same 40 styles were observed in
sample making. Thirty-one styles were observed for pattern making-II. During the case
study (chapter 6.4.1), it was observed that 0.5 hours was the minimum time span required
to concentrate on any new work and accordingly time was taken in multiples of half hours.
Fractions, if any, were rounded off to the next half hour. Data was collected style-wise for a
period of 4 months and summarised in figures 6.19, 6.20, 6.21 respectively for pattern
making-I, pattern making-II and sample making. Each row in the figure represents one
style. One square box indicates duration of 0.5 hours. In the data collection format, pattern
making was recorded for a maximum of twelve working hours and sample making was
235

recorded for maximum 24 working hours (equivalent to three shift hours of 8 hours each).
The shaded blocks indicated work in progress (either pattern making or sample making) on
the style and empty blocks indicated no work in progress on the style. In the previous case
study (section 5.5.1), data was collected for a given patternmaker for a given period of
time, so the shaded blocks were non-overlapping. But in this longitudinal study, data was
collected style-wise for a period of 4 months and the data collection sheets indicated a total
of how many hours were actually worked on a style continuously, the total of breaks in
continuity and total throughput time in hours taken for a style.

Data interpretation and calculations could be explained using an example. In figure 6.17,
the pattern for style ELC-9109 was made in four and half hours (throughput time) with two
interruptions of 1.5 and 0.5 hours in between. A total of 5 boxes were shaded; this meant
effective time taken to complete the pattern was only two and half hours. From the case
study it was found that, on an average, 0.5 hours time was lost for every interruption
(section 5.5.1); accordingly, for style ELC-9109, there was a total of one hour (two
interruptions of 0.5 hours each) of concentration loss for effective working time of 2.5
hours, which was 40 percent.

236

Figure 6.19

Intermittent Work Interruption in Pattern Making-I

Sl.
No

Style No.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

OR-9097
OR-9099
ELC-9101
OR-9103
ELC-9109
ELC-9111
OR-9112
ELC-9131
OR-9132
ELC-9136
OR-9139
SAYBURY-9141
SAYBURY-9142
SAYBURY-9145
SAYBURY-9147
SAYBURY-9149
SAYBURY-9157
SAYBURY-9161
K-29018
9102-CR
9106 CR
9107-CR
9109-CR
9109-CR
9125-CR
9125-CR
9128(MINT)
9154(N)
ELC-1136
ELC-1137
I-04-1
I-04-2
JDW-060
JDW-160
K-04-123 Gown
K-04-123 Robe
MP 613
MP 615
RM04
Vichy-group

Time Scale
4 Hours

4 Hours

4 Hours

Legend
Working on the Style
Not working on the Style

237

Table 6.13

Intermittent Work Interruption in Pattern Making I (Calculations)

Style No.

Actual
time
(Hr.)

Time
lost
(Hr.)

% time
lost

No.
of
interruptions

Duration of
interruption
(Hr.)

Avg.
throughput
(Hr.)

OR-9097

2.5

0.5

20.0

3.5

OR-9099

0.5

25.0

ELC-9101

33.3

OR-9103

0.5

12.5

ELC-9109

2.5

40.0

4.5

ELC-9111

2.5

2.5

OR-9112

ELC-9131

2.5

0.5

20.0

3.5

OR-9132

0.5

16.7

2.5

5.5

10

ELC-9136

0.5

12.5

11

OR-9139

2.5

0.5

20.0

3.5

12

SAYBURY-9141

13

SAYBURY-9142

2.5

2.5

14

SAYBURY-9145

3.5

28.6

4.5

15

SAYBURY-9147

2.5

0.5

20.0

4.5

16

SAYBURY-9149

33.3

17

SAYBURY-9157

0.5

16.7

18

SAYBURY-9161

0.5

16.7

19

K-29018

2.5

2.5

20

9102-CR

0.5

21

9106 CR

1.5

1.5

22

9107-CR

23

9109-CR

25.0

3.5

7.5

24

9109-CR

3.5

28.6

3.5

25

9125-CR

0.5

16.7

26

9125-CR

0.5

16.7

27

9128(MINT)

0.5

16.7

2.5

5.5

28

9154(N)

3.5

0.5

14.3

5.5

29

ELC-1136

0.5

16.7

30

ELC-1137

0.5

16.7

1.5

4.5

31

I-04-1

32

I-04-2

3.5

28.6

10.5

33

JDW-060

0.5

16.7

2.5

5.5

Sl.
No.

16.7

238

34

JDW-160

1.5

1.5

35

K-04-123 Gown

36

K-04-123 Robe

0.5

16.7

3.5

37

MP 613

0.5

16.7

4.5

38

MP 615

2.5

0.5

20.0

3.5

39

RM04

0.5

16.7

40

Vichy-group

2.5

0.5

20.0

5.5

41

Average

2.775

20.6

0.925

2.175

4.825

Data for pattern making-I was tabulated for 40 styles and for pattern making-II, 31 styles.
Calculations for actual time, number of interruptions, time lost due to interruptions (leading
to transient loss of concentration), percentage time lost due to loss of concentration, and
actual throughput time were made. Calculations for pattern making-I is presented in table
6.13, similar calculations were done for pattern making-II and sample making and
presented in table 6.14 and 6.15. The time lost due to interruptions was directly
proportional to number of interruptions, not to duration of interruptions. For example style
ELC 9101 has two interruptions and therefore loss of concentration is 1 hour, unaffected by
the total duration of interruption, i.e. 6 hours. Two pattern masters were responsible for the
task of pattern making-I and II collectively. Based on shifting priorities presented to them
by the merchandisers, they would start, interrupt and complete the pattern making.

Out of 40 orders that were observed in patternmaking I, Intermittent Work Interruption

was seen in 30 orders and resulted in an average of 20.6 percent loss of time. The
maximum throughput time for making patterns for one particular style (I-04-2) was found
to be 10.5 hours, out of which three and half hours were actual pattern making time.
Average throughput time for pattern making-I was found to be 2.8 hours and for pattern
making-II, 2.4 hours. Similarly, out of 31 orders that were observed in patternmaking-II,
Intermittent Work Interruption was present in 22 orders and resulted in an average of 24.1
percent loss of time.

239

Figure 6.20

Intermittent Work Interruption in Pattern Making-II

Sl.
No

Style No.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

OR-9097
OR-9099
ELC-9101
ELC-9109
ELC-9111
OR-9112
ELC-9136
OR-9139
SAYBURY-9141
SAYBURY-9149
SAYBURY-9157
SAYBURY-9161
K-29018
9102-CR
9109-CR
9109-CR
9125-CR
9125-CR
9154 (N)
ELC-1136
ELC-1137
I-04-1
I-04-2
JDW-060
JDW-160
K-04-123 Gown
K-04-123 Robe
MP 613
MP 615
RM04
Vichy-group

Time Scale
4 Hours

4 Hours

4 Hours

Legend
Working on the Style
Not working on the Style

240

Table 6.14

Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32

Intermittent Work Interruption in Pattern Making II (Calculations)

Style No.
OR-9097
OR-9099
ELC-9101
ELC-9109
ELC-9111
OR-9112
ELC-9136
OR-9139
SAYBURY-9141
SAYBURY-9149
SAYBURY-9157
SAYBURY-9161
K-29018
9102-CR
9109-CR
9109-CR
9125-CR
9125-CR
9154 (N)
ELC-1136
ELC-1137
I-04-1
I-04-2
JDW-060
JDW-160
K-04-123 Gown
K-04-123 Robe
MP 613
MP 615
RM04
Vichy-group
Average

Actual
time
(Hr.)
2
1.5
2
3
3
2.5
2.5
2
2.5
1.5
2
2
3
3.5
2
2
2
2
3
3.5
3.5
2.5
3.5
2.5
1.5
2
2
3
1.5
3
2
2.40

Time
lost (Hr.)
0.5
0.5
0
1
0.5
0.5
0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0
0
0
0.5
1
1
0.5
1
0.5
0
0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0
0.5

%
time
lost
25.0
33.3
33.3
16.7
20.0
25.0
20.0
33.3
25.0
16.7
14.3
25.0

16.7
28.6
28.6
20.0
28.6
20.0

25.0
16.7
33.3
25.0
24.0

No.
of
interruptions
1
1
0
2
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
2
2
1
2
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0.84

Duration of
interruption
(Hr.)
1
1
0
2
3
2.5
0
1
4.5
2
1.5
0
1
4
3.5
0
0
0
1
2.5
2.5
1.5
5.5
1.5
0
0
2.5
2.5
1
0
2
1.60

Avg.
throughput
(Hr.)
3
2.5
2
5
6
5
2.5
3
7
3.5
3.5
2
4
7.5
5.5
2
2
2
4
6.5
6
4
9
4
1.5
2
4.5
5.5
2.5
3
4
4.02

241

Figure 6.21 Intermittent Work Interruptions in Sampling

Legend
Working on the Style
Not working on the Style

242

Table 6.15

Intermittent Work Interruption in Sample Making (Calculations)

Style No.

Actual
time
(Hr.)

Time
lost
(Hr.)

% time
lost

No.
of
interruptions

Duration of
interruption
(Hr.)

Avg.
throughput
(Hr.)

OR-9097

7.5

13.33

11

18.5

OR-9099

6.5

0.5

7.69

13.5

ELC-9101

0.5

7.14

6.5

13.5

OR-9103

5.5

0.5

9.09

7.5

13

ELC-9109

7.5

40.00

13.5

21

ELC-9111

0.5

25.00

10.5

12.5

OR-9112

14.29

ELC-9131

6.5

15.38

6.5

13

OR-9132

25.00

11.5

15.5

10

ELC-9136

8.5

0.5

5.88

13.5

11

OR-9139

11.5

1.5

13.04

5.5

17

12

SAYBURY-9141

0.5

7.14

11

13

SAYBURY-9142

5.5

18.18

9.5

15

14

SAYBURY-9145

6.5

15.38

11.5

18

15

SAYBURY-9147

1.5

16.67

13

22

16

SAYBURY-9149

1.5

18.75

17

17

SAYBURY-9157

6.5

15.38

9.5

16

18

SAYBURY-9161

0.5

16.67

14

17

19

K-29018

14.29

16.5

23.5

20

9102-CR

1.5

16.67

13

21

9106 CR

6.5

15.38

13.5

22

9107-CR

12

8.33

7.5

19.5

23

9109-CR

1.5

16.67

8.5

17.5

24

9109-CR

14.29

13

25

9125-CR

7.5

0.5

6.67

7.5

15

26

9125-CR

5.5

0.5

9.09

9.5

15

27

9128(MINT)

0.5

7.14

13.5

20.5

28

9154(N)

33.33

15

18

29

ELC-1136

5.5

1.5

27.27

11.5

17

30

ELC-1137

5.5

1.5

27.27

14.5

31

I-04-1

0.00

32

I-04-2

8.5

1.5

17.65

17.5

33

JDW-060

14.29

12.5

19.5

Sl.
No.

243

34

JDW-160

16.67

16.5

22.5

35

K-04-123 Gown

0.5

10.00

36

K-04-123 Robe

20.00

11.5

16.5

37

MP 613

9.5

0.5

5.26

18.5

38

MP 615

25.00

9.5

13.5

39

RM04

12.50

11

19

40

Vichy-group

0.5

12.50

11.5

15.5

41

Average

6.61

15.36

1.93

9.10

15.71

For sample making, all activities done in-house were timed and recorded in the following
table sample-wise (Figure 6.21). Anyone in the sampling team of master-tailormerchandiser doing something (either cutting, sewing, inspecting or even selecting
accessories, etc.) on the style is recorded as working. Technically, it was possible to
complete a sample once started, but due to some reason or another (often changed priorities
and pending decisions), there were interruptions which were recorded as not working. Out
of 40 styles observed, only one style was completed uninterrupted. The average working
time for sample making came out to be approximately 6.6 hours and time lost due to
Intermittent Work Interruption in sample making found to be 15.35 percent. Average
throughput time was 15.7 hours with duration of interruption 9.1 hours and number of
interruptions two on an average.

6.4.2.3 Data Analysis

In pattern making-I, pattern making-II and sample making, duration of interruption was
found to have a very strong positive correlation (0.98, 0.95 and 0.85 respectively) with
actual throughput time. In pattern making-I and II, the number of times work was
interrupted also found to have positive correlation (ranging between 0.79 to 0.76) with
actual throughput time. This established the finding that pattern making throughput time
was highly dependent on interruption time as well as number of interruptions. However,
number of interruptions in sample making did not have a strong correlation (0.45) with
actual throughput time. This indicated that loss of concentration was a serious problem in
pattern making activity whereas sample making is not really affected by concentration loss.
244

Table 6.16

Comparison Between Pattern Making and Sample Making

Avg.
Actual time
(Hrs.)

Avg. % time
lost
(on
actual time)

Avg. No.
of
interruptions

Avg. Duration
of interruption
(Hrs.)

Avg.
throughput
(Hrs.)

Pattern Making I

2.78

20.61

0.93

2.18

4.83

Pattern Making II

2.40

24.05

0.84

1.60

4.02

Sample Making

6.61

15.36

1.93

9.10

15.71

The average elapsed time for pattern making-I (including interruption time) is 4.83 hours,
however actual duration for same is only 2.78 hours. The potential to reduce the actual time
by eliminating intermittent work interruptions is another 20.61 percent.

The reasons for interruptions in sample making were observed as:

Merchandiser consulting with the buyer for selecting right accessories, so a decision
was pending (on hold) for that style. The tailor had to perforce work on another style.

During sewing, any confusion in specifications led to clearance pending from the
merchandiser and master. The tailor had to perforce work on another style.

Some construction method required a clarification from the master, who was busy
cutting a pattern in another style, resulting in the tailor switching over to yet another
style.

Some special sewing was required to be done and that special machine (generally only
one was kept in the sampling department) was being used by another tailor, resulting in
the tailor switching over to another style.

6.4.2.4 Conclusion

Although the average time of actual work, number and duration of interruptions as well as
average throughput time for pattern making-II were found to be higher by minimum 10
percent (number of interruptions) to maximum 30 percent (duration of interruptions) than
pattern making-I, no substantial difference in pattern of work was found. Although the
average throughput time for patternmaking I and II cannot be compared as the nature of
work was different, the lower number and duration of interruptions may have contributed to
245

the fact that initial pattern development from specification sheet required more/frequent
clarifications due to incomplete information, lack of understanding and interpretation of
specifications by the pattern master.

The reasons behind Intermittent Work Interruption in pattern making and sample making
were simple changes in priorities and often, measurement clarifications. Prioritising of
work was considered as the prime control parameter to minimise Intermittent Work
Interruption and accordingly, a patternmaking and sampling activities priority chart was
introduced in both. The list of styles for which either the first pattern was to be prepared
(Pattern making- I) or the pattern was to be modified, graded or production pattern
prepared (pattern making-II) was prepared in synchronicity with other activities. Daily
target list was given to the individual pattern masters who were advised to adhere to the
prioritised schedule.

The combined priority list of activities was to be generated after complete implementation
of the multi-project Gantt chart. So the longitudinal effect of control parameters on
Intermittent Work Interruption was not measured as part of the research; however, the
important observations led to conclusions and recommendations to improve efficiency.

Priority charts were also introduced to the sampling section. Adherence to priority charts
was possible to a great extent, but the targets were never met due to the difficulty in setting
realistic targets caused by unforeseen activities. The researcher concludes that even though
target setting was not possible, Intermittent Work Interruption was reduced to a great extent
by adhering to the priority chart.

246

Chapter Seven
7.0

Conclusion

Indian clothing supply chains were studied to explore normal practice with respect to
current supply chain management theory. The aim of this investigation is to identify the
critical issues concerning production lead time for contract apparel manufacturing supply
chain, analyse the reasons behind delay in lead time, evaluate different improvement
options, and suggest easy to use rationale-driven practical solutions. The said solutions
would be arrived at by analysing the reasons behind the delay in lead time, evaluating
different improvement options and suggested for implementation as easy to use rationaledriven practical solutions. The solutions also include best practices backed by scientific
logic and appropriate operation research principles.

7.1

Indian Apparel Supply Chain Issues

Objectives 1(To develop a full understanding of the Indian apparel export manufacturing
industry and its supply chain network) and 2 (To analyse the variability of processes within
the network and develop best practice methods) were aimed at developing an understanding
of the Indian supply chain networks and in particular analysing the variability of the
product development and pre-production processes in the networks.

Product development, sample approval during fit and size set and management of the
critical path are the most time consuming activities and need improvement. Cost of
communication and late submission of samples are given negligible importance. However,
concern about controlling costs was more evident than controlling time. There are three
reasons behind over-emphasis on cost control: firstly, monetary conversion of time delay
was not easy to calculate; secondly, traditional CMT manufacturing practice is overdependent on cost control and thirdly, Indian apparel manufacturers are mainly involved
from the post-merchandising stage onwards, where price is more important
than time (section 2.7).

247

While it is acknowledged that more and more buyers are now looking for Indian
manufacturers ability to develop new products (section 2.3.2), a change is found necessary
in the latters mental outlook. The survey emphasised the communication problem during
sourcing of material, the inordinately lengthy product development period and equally
specific, the long sample approval procedure, all of which require immediate redress to be
able to compete globally.

The unanimous view of industry was an in-depth evaluation of internal activities which
they could influence and control. Moreover, the focus should be on identifying parameters
that are controllable and on techniques that are universally applicable. Hence it was decided
to investigate the product development and pre-production processes in greater depth.

Due to continuous change and unpredictable trends in fashion garments, the product
development process sequence is of the non-exhaustive type, and continuously evolving. It
was realised that it would be impractical to rationalise or standardise the product
development process sequence. Instead, rationalisation of the number of sample approvals
may be a feasible step towards rationalisation of the process, thus shortening the product
development and pre-production lead time.

It was realised that the number of sample approval steps could be rationalised to three. The
first is to check the look, silhouette, overall proportion of measurement and construction
details, in tune with the second stage of Plumlees six stage no-interval coherently phased
product development (NICPPD) model (section 2.3.1). In the next step, the sample is
checked for fit, measurement and balance (compatibility between fabric type, drape and
measurements), which is in tune with the third stage of Plumlees model. In the third step,
the sample is checked for size grades, workmanship, all raw materials and accessories and
proximity to the first sample, in tune with the fifth stage of Plumlees model. While all
three steps would be required for full-packaged (fully factored) manufacturing, it was
found that the second and third step of sampling was generally sufficient for contract
manufacturing. This outcome justified and set the scene for further research.

248

The outcome of the follow-on research can be broadly divided into two sections: firstly,
improvement potential in lead time and secondly, bottleneck management of preproduction resources.

7.2

Improvement Potential in Lead Time

The third and fourth objectives were to analyse value added and non-value added delay
contributing activities in the production cycle, with a view to identifying improvement
opportunities.

Pre-production time took approximately three fourth of total lead time (order confirmation
to delivery). Approval process takes nearly half of pre-production time and iteration, which
is a subset of approval process and a non-value added activity, takes up nearly one third of
approval time.

Figure 7.1 Pre-production, Approval and Iteration Process in Manufacturing Cycle

Although strong positive correlation was found between the overall process time with subprocesses, it was also obvious that different sub-processes had varying degrees of influence
on the overall process time.

This analysis thus testified to the fact that sample making right first time was the weakest
link in the Indian apparel manufacturing supply chain and justifies (re-emphasises) the
apprehension expressed on technical capability of product development (section 2.3.2).

249

No significant correlation (0.37) between actual production time (fabric spreading till
goods shipped out of factory) and total lead time suggested that change in production time
had no effect on overall manufacturing lead time. However as the actual production time
hardly overshoots the planned production time (section 2.7), it may be interpreted that
irrespective of total lead time increase or decrease, the production time allotted remained
unchanged. This phenomenon proves another apprehension correct that pre-production
activities actually overshoot planned time, eating into planned production time (section
2.7). The reduced production time effectively means hastened production process and leads
to compromised product and process quality, a concern expressed by several experts in the
literature (section 2.7).

The instances of iteration during fit sample were found more than double than the cases of
iteration during size set. Fit sample making requires in-depth understanding of silhouette in
context with the specification, while size set sample making merely uses the grade rule
(often supplied by the buyer). This indicates either incapability of correct interpretation of
the sketch and specification during patternmaking, an apprehension expressed by experts
(section 2.3.2) or due to specification changes asked by buyer. Average iteration time
during fit sample was also found to be significantly higher than iteration during size set
sample approval. This indicates possibility of successive iteration due to repeated rejection.
Secondly, this also indicates that the duration of fit sample making is probably higher than
size set making. This may be attributed to the Indian pattern makers habit of drafting
patterns afresh with every changed measurement instead of manipulation of the basic block
(section 2.3.2).

It was also found that approximately 40 percent of pre-production activities were externally
dependent; this meant approximately 60 percent of pre-production time was dependent on
internal resources that could be compressed by half through critical chain implementation.
Iteration took up another 15 percent of pre-production time, which is externally dependent.
As both sets of tasks were mutually exclusive, elimination of both could be beneficial. For
example, elimination of iteration will reduce 15 percent of externally dependent time and
critical chain implementation will result in a further 30 percent reduction (half of 60
percent) of internal activity. Therefore, overall reduction possibility in pre-production time
250

due to elimination of iteration and implementation of critical chain totals 45 percent. It was
also found that in a 100 day lead time period, pre-production consumed 73 days. 45 percent
reduction of 73 percent means 33 percent reduction in overall lead time. So it could be
conclusively stated that elimination of iteration and implementation of critical chain had
inherent potential to reduce manufacturing lead time by one third. Frequent iteration in fit
and size set sample approval corroborated the theory that Indian product development
team is strong in fabric development, sourcing, pricing, etc.but they are very poor in
knowledge of fit and pattern details (Malik, 2009) One third time reduction from total
manufacturing cycle or 33 days reduction in absolute term would give tremendous
competitive advantage to Indian manufacturer and would nearly compensate for the
shipping time.

The value added and non-value added time analysis revealed an interesting aspect of a
manufacturing supply chain. Every macro activity (value addition) was followed by a
validation activity by the downstream player. Validation was primarily the approval
process. Due to geographical distance and other logistic issues, validation activity took two
to three times the original value addition.

Figure: 7.2 Sample Approval Process

251

For example, FIT sample making was followed by FIT sample approval by buyer. While
the FIT sample making took the equivalent of 15 days20, the approval of FIT sample took
31. Similarly size set sample making took the equivalent of 2.5 days, while the approval of
the same took around nine. It is interesting to note that while the first two processes (fit
sample approval) are seen in the third stage of Plumlees model, the size set approval
process is from Plumlees fifth stage. It can thus be assumed that fit sample approval
process actually spreads over into Plumlees fourth stage and market feedback and style
modification at the retail end was probably influencing delayed feedback on fit sample.
Moreover, the limited weekly schedule of live model fitting at the customers end (section
5.3.4) also increases the waiting time, attributing to the delay.

Significantly lower time for size set sample approval may be attributed to two reasons:
firstly, while the fit sample was sent to a buyer in a different country, size set was approved
by the buyers representative office in India. Secondly, during fit sample approval, it is
generally important for manufacturers to await the arrival of the physical sample with
remarks, to be able to understand the fit comments correctly and modify accordingly.
However, for size set, manufacturers may not actually await arrival of the physical sample
and move into the next activity after incorporating changes based on remarks sent by fax/email. It may be concluded that local or on-site expertise and authority is the key to faster
response during sample approvals.

This finding also re-emphasizes the findings of the earlier study (4.3.2) where only half of
the focus group felt that returning of physical sample is not necessary during size set
approval. While it was already argued in the earlier study that there can be no standard
practice (section 4.2.3), it can be justified that a fit sample requires market feedback at the
retailers end and therefore, need to be couriered. However the size set is actually a check
of technical details like placement of accessories, grading of patterns, fitting,
measurements, fabric shrinkage, etc. (section 4.3.3), therefore, the regional office of the
buyer may be capable of evaluating (approving or rejecting) the same. The above finding
reinforces the earlier findings that fit sample making is the bottleneck in sample approval,
accounting for time lost as well as creating vulnerability to iteration.
20

The duration in minutes is by divided by 24 hours and 60 minutes to convert to days equivalent
252

Lab dip preparation is followed by approval by buyer (or buyers office). While the Lab dip
preparation took two days equivalent21, the approval of Lab dip took four. Similarly, the lab
test on bulk fabric took 1.5 days equivalent, while the approval of lab test again took four.
Only in the case of bulk fabric make and procure activity, actual value-addition time (ten
days equivalence) was more than validation time (1.5 days).

Figure 7.3 Material Approval Process

Comment on lab
dip received from
the buyer (4 days)

It is interesting that the size set and fabric-related approvals are dealt with at the buyers
regional office in India, whereas only fit sample approval was couriered to the buyers
country. This also explains what approvals must be done by buyer abroad and which
activities can be validated by the buyers regional office. If we try to analyse all activities
with relation to Plumlees model, we see that the activities in the fourth stage of Plumlees
21

The duration in minutes is by divided by 8 hours (shift) and 60 minutes to convert to days equivalent
253

development cannot be executed at the manufacturers end. Thus the sample has to be
couriered, lengthening the approval process and making it vulnerable to iteration. The
remaining activities can be done at the buyers representative office in the manufacturers
country.

Lastly, a very high positive correlation (86.35) between waiting time and actual elapsed
time indicates that minimisation or elimination of waiting time would compress the
manufacturing lead time. As explained in section 5.3.1, the reason behind waiting time is
the traditional practice of working with a target schedule date rather following the relay
race approach, where succeeding activity pulls the work from the preceding activity. As the
longitudinal study revealed that transportation time was only 10 percent and approximately
51 percent of elapsed time was waiting time (which is pure non-value- added activity), it
can be concluded that change of work practice to relay race approach can safely minimise
or even eliminate a bulk of the waiting time.

The post longitudinal study literature search on value added and non-value added time
measurement in garment industry revealed some interesting insights of value stream
mapping of production processes in the Indian garment industry (Agarwal 2007), (Nagar et
al. 2008). While this research simultaneously tracked 85 pre-production activities and 18
production activities for a total of 35 orders, Agarwals study mapped only one order for
220 activities in production processes (fabric spreading onwards) and Nagars study
covered one order for more than 243 activities, spanning from raw material store to
shipment. Agarwal recorded a little over six percent as value added time while Nagar
recorded a little over one percent as value added time. There was, however, a difference
between both approaches in scope as well as in calculating value added and non-value
added time.

254

7.3 Bottleneck Management of Pre-production Resources

The

fifth

objective

of

the

study

was

'To

evaluate

the

applicability of different optimisation techniques to reduce lead time in the

manufacturing supply chain.

The first optimisation technique evaluated was concurrent and collaborative product
development. While collaboration between partners aims to develop a product in less time
(due to less iteration in the process), concurrency aims to reduce the cycle time by
parallelism. It was found that concurrent and collaborative product development has the
potential to reduce developmental lead time. However, concurrency and collaboration were
practiced, not as a time reduction strategy, but to garner economic benefit, and time
reduction was achieved as a secondary benefit. While the study concentrated on medium
and small scale industries, substantial economic benefit is realised only through a large
scale of operation. Therefore it was realised that the size of the order, popularity of the
brand name and type of merchandise were some of the key drivers behind the concurrency
and collaborative practice amongst small and medium enterprises.

The second optimisation technique evaluated was critical path/critical chain principle to
reduce lead time in apparel manufacturing cycle in general and pre-production activities in
particular. Even though these principles proved to be effective in lead time compression, it
was found that manual implementation and execution of critical path/critical chain in
manufacturing environment was difficult and non- sustainable.

While analysing the reasons it was found that making a Gantt and/or PERT chart manually
or using spreadsheet was voluminous, cumbersome (time consuming), complex in nature
and error-prone. A Gantt and/or PERT chart made manually or by using a spreadsheet was
unable to synchronise workload distribution between a large pool of activities and common
limited pools of resource executives. In the order follow up mode (while the order is
actually being executed), while changes in one activity take place, the Gantt and/or PERT
chart cannot incorporate concomitant changes in other activities dynamically.

255

The benefits that can be realised from software-based critical path/critical chain
implementation was ease of preparation of Gantt chart, automatic generation of critical path
thus prioritising activities, realistic workload calculation for a common pool of executives
for a group of orders, and being guided in day to day order execution /order follow up by
numerous alerts and reports automatically generated by the software. The resultant
prioritised, planned work execution, in contrast to the fire-fighting mode will reduce
uncertainties/buffers in the manufacturing cycle thus reducing lead time.

Apart from lead time reduction, the study also reflected resource allocation pattern in preproduction processes. In tune with phase three of Plumlees model, the study revealed that
manufacturing organisations generally start the product development process converting
the sketches and specifications to actual samples. While the process initiation can be receipt
of techpack (packet containing technical specifications) and/or order confirmation, the
process involved material (fabric and accessories) evaluation and sourcing to construct the
prototype and fit sample development from sketches and specifications, pattern
development and fit standard finalisation. The next stage of activities executed by
manufacturers like preparing size set and approval of material are in tune with phase five of
Plumlees model. Phase four of Plumlees model primarily involves marketing the line to
retail channel and refinement of cost and modification of the line, which does not involve
much activity at the manufacturers end (except of salesman sample if applicable).

From the executive workload pattern (figures 6.11, 6.12 and 6.13) it was clear that during
the total 10-15 week span of the manufacturing cycle, generally the workload during midcycle, i.e. during the sixth and seventh week, was the least. This significant gap of activities
may be attributed to phase four of Plumlees model. Activities in phase four were done by
the buyer, and the manufacturers resources were not used in this phase. This resulted in
freeing up resources workload at the manufacturers end in a sequential chain. This
relatively free period between phases three and five was reflected in all resource
histograms, where workload to resources was found to be zero in the mid section of the
manufacturing cycle (figures 6.8, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13). This polarisation of resources created
bottlenecks, delays, overtime of resources during the beginning and end of the
manufacturing cycle, whereas resources were comparatively free in the middle of the cycle.
256

It was also observed from the multi-project analysis that while executing a single order, the
common resource team were 11 to 16 percent loaded and while executing three orders at a
time, the common resource team was loaded just 23 percent. Although a simple
extrapolation would mean that one team could handle 13 orders, the area of concern
remained the distribution of workload along the manufacturing cycle (by staggering of
delivery days). Although minimised to a certain extent in comparison to a single order
scenario, the multi-project histogram also showed reduced concentration of workload
during the middle weeks of the manufacturing cycle.

This workload analysis actually explains why executives are overloaded during the initial
and end part of a manufacturing cycle while under-tasked during the mid-section of the
manufacturing cycle. While planning multi-project Gantt chart using software tools, a
careful staggering of delivery dates can be planned to ensure peak workload of one order is
superimposed with lean workload of another order to balance the overall workload of
executives.

The third analysis of critical chain implementation in pre-production revealed that skillbased activities in general were comparatively more prone to intermittent work
interruption. While analysing the intermittent work interruption, it was found that the actual
time loss in throughput was only due to loss of concentration and did not depend on the
duration of interruption (as the resource was busy in another activity). However, the
duration of interruption and the number of times an activity was interrupted were both
found to have a very strong positive correlation with actual throughput time of pattern
making activity. Average percentage loss of time due to intermittent work interruptions
ranged from 15 percent for sample making to 24 percent for pattern making, which could
easily be saved by prioritised workload distribution to resources.

In many instances it was found that people were habituated to multitasking even without
any forced interruption. When one person did all operations except sewing, he/she
generally did batch processing. For example, a Pattern Master would prepare a pattern for
three styles, then cut fabric for all three styles and issue them to the sample tailor for
257

sewing and so on. Generally, in any small to medium size company, there was more than
one pattern maker, sample maker, etc. To allow flexibility in such organisations, the
preferred solution could be allowing one operator to do multitasking, who would take care
of pressing emergencies, while the other operators could strictly follow the prioritised
schedule.

Seeking last minute extension of delivery date by Indian apparel manufacturers was a
perennial problem (section 1.3). The reason behind the delay was either due to noninclusion of holidays in the calendar (Jana & Gibson, 2005), or inability to calculate and
allocate resources. The multi-order workload plan (developed using PS8 software) enabled
distribution of workload on resources, pre-empted the overload on executive resources in
advance and thus a decision could be taken to either work overtime or re-schedule activity
dates. The resource levelling option further balanced out the peak and trough loads
scientifically and automatically, thus reducing overtime of resources.

Last minute changes in product specifications (section 2.3.2) often led to a change of
process, thus changing workload of resources. In a real life scenario using a manual
planning method, although the bill of material was changed to meet the new specification,
the resultant change of process and/or change in resource workload was never re-calculated
and/or reallocated, resulting in a bottleneck of resources. The multi-order workload plan
(developed using PS8 software) enabled automatic and quick re-distribution of workload
on resources.

With more and more buyers looking towards India for full service supply, Indian preproduction execution needs to improve efficiency considerably while venturing into other
activities like line planning and research, concept development, marketing to retail channel
and line optimisation, which are currently done by retail organisation/brands themselves.

Indian small and medium apparel industry generally cater to selective seasons (section 1.3).
This resulted in accepting more orders (than resources can handle) in peak season and less
orders (resources remain idle) in trough season. This seasonal factor at the macro level had
already been reflected during the SCM awareness study (section 4.1). At micro levels also,
258

organisations could scientifically calculate and combine orders (using specialised software)
of various lengths of manufacturing lead time and stagger delivery dates in such a way so
that the distribution of workload to one common group of resources remained uniform
during the entire duration of manufacturing lead time.

7.4

Reflections and Scope for Further Work

It was confirmed during primary research that the clothing supply chain was controlled by
influencing retailers as previous authors have stated (Gereffi 1999 cited in Tyler et al. 2006,
Drucker 1992). Different buyers had different approaches to business, different ways of
doing things and also different levels of willingness to give up control and allow
manufacturers to take responsibility of more functions in the value chain. (Lezama et al.
2005). In a condition where a manufacturer could be supplying to many such buyers, the
role and responsibility of a contract manufacturer was limited and he was perhaps inhibited
from taking new initiatives, doing something new, or adopting innovative practices. Even
though the measures suggested are required to be taken at the operational level by contract
manufacturers, if the mandate came from the dominant player in the supply chain, the
adoption of such best practices would be faster and easier. Thus the research established
that reduction of number of iterations for fit and size set (thus approval time) could be a
key area for improvement or even outsourcing to third party expertise.

The improvement could be brought about by imparting training or use of innovative

technology and could be a future scope of study. Innovative technology options like virtual
fit, use of soft dress form and web-based fitting could be explored in future research as a
means to reduce pre-production lead time in the manufacturing cycle.

The research established that there was a strong requirement of rationalisation of sample
approval process to reduce it to the minimum, avoiding unnecessary repeats and waste of
time and effort. The focus group discussion indicated three stages to check. First, the look,
silhouette, overall proportion of measurement and construction details; in the second stage,
fit and measurement; and,

in the third stage, size grades and workmanship, all raw

materials and accessories and proximity to the first sample. The fast fashion proponents
259

had, interestingly, either already rationalised the sample approval process (Barnes and
Gaynor Lea-Greenwood, 2006) or were aiming for it. However, future research is required
towards establishing such goals conclusively.

This research demonstrated improvised techniques to measure the value added, non-value
added and necessary non-value added time in detail for pre-production processes, which
includes external activities. Although standardised formats are available for value stream
mapping, which are suitable for measuring micro details of in-house manufacturing
processes (internal activities), future study may be carried out to standardise the value
stream mapping of a garment pre-production process that contains activities dependent on
both internal and external resources.

260

References and Bibliography

References

AAMA, 1995, Bobbin Show International Seminar, Atlanta, USA (AAMA since renamed
as AAFA, url: http://www.aafa.org)
Abernathy, F., Dunlop, J., Hammond, J. & Weil, D. 1999a, A Stitch in Time: Lean
Retailing and the future of Manufacturing: Lessons from the Textile and Apparel
Industries, Oxford University Press, New York.
Abernathy, F., Dunlop, J., Hammond, J. & Weil, D. 1999b, A Stitch in Time: Lean
Retailing and the future of Manufacturing: Lessons from the Textile and Apparel
Industries, Oxford University Press, New York. p 252
Abernathy, F., Dunlop, J., Hammond, J. & Weil, D. 1999c, A Stitch in Time: Lean
Retailing and the future of Manufacturing: Lessons from the Textile and Apparel
Industries, Oxford University Press, New York. p 9
Abernathy, F., Dunlop, J., Hammond, J. & Weil, D. 1999d, A Stitch in Time: Lean
Retailing and the future of Manufacturing: Lessons from the Textile and Apparel
Industries, Oxford University Press, New York. p 4
Abernathy, W., & Utterback, J. 1988, Patterns of industrial innovation. In M.L. Tushman
& W.L. Moore (Eds.), Readings in the management of innovation. New York: Harper and
Row.
Ackere, A.V., Larsen, E.R., Morecroft, J.D.W. 1993, Systems thinking and business
process redesign: an application to the beer game, European Management Journal, Vol. 11
No.4, pp 412-423.
AEPC 1997, Annual Report, Apparel Export Promotion Council, Ministry of Textiles,
Govt. of India.
AEPC 1998, Annual Report, Apparel Export Promotion Council, Ministry of Textiles,
Govt. of India.
Agarwal, I. and Sahani, S., 2007, Value Stream Mapping of Apparel Manufacturing,
Internship report [MFTech], National Institute of Fashion Technology, New Delhi, India.
Alber, Karen L. and Walker, William. T., 1998, Supply Chain Management Principles and
Techniques for the Practitioner, Falls Church, VA: APICS Educational & Research
Foundation.

261

Alvarez-Valdes, R., Tamrit, J.M., 1989, Heuristic algorithms for resource-constrained

project scheduling: a review and an empirical analysis, in Slowinski, R., Weglarz, J. (Eds),
Advances in Project Scheduling, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp 113-134.
Andersen, T.J. and Segars, A.H., 2001, The impact of IT on decision structure and firm
performance: evidence from the textile and apparel industry, Information and
Management, Vol. 39 No. 2, pp 85-100.
Anderson, D.L., Lee, H. 2000, Synchronised supply chains: The new frontier,
http://www.ascet.com, pp 1-12.
Angrish, S., 2002, Logical Shivam Enterprises, ApparelOnline, 29th July
Annual Report 2007-2008, Ministry of Textiles, India,
Available
http://www.texmin.nic.in/annualrep/ar08_con.htm, [Accessed 25th Nov 2008]

from:

Apparel & Textile Challenge, 1997, Benchmarking the Apparel and Textile Supply Chain.
ApparelOnline, 2006, Available from: www.apparelresources.com, [Accessed 21st August
2009].
ApparelOnline, 2007a, A Growing Trend Buyers Actively Looking Towards India for
Product Development, Available from: http://www.apparelresources.com [Accessed 21st
July 2009].
ApparelOnline, 2007b, Product Development Still the Vehicle for Apparel Export
Growth... No Choice for India, Available from: http://www.apparelresources.com
[Accessed 21st July 2009].
Application of IT in Apparel Manufacturing Process, 2006, Stitchworld, February 2006,
India, p 12
Assyst 2008, Available from: http://www.assyst-intl.com/assyst/assycad.html, [Accessed
25th Nov 2008].
Aviv, Y. and Federgruen, A. (2001), Design for postponement: a comprehensive
characterization of its benefits under unknown demand distributions, Operations Research,
Vol. 49 No. 4, pp 578-598.
Ayers, J.B., 2006, Handbook of Supply Chain Management, CRC Press, p 19
Bain, J.S. 1968, Industrial Organisation, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, NY.
Banerjee, P. 2003, In an Interview I conducted with Pallab Banerjee, Merchandise
Manager, Gap Inc., India on 10th June 2003

262

Barclay, I., Holroyd P. and Poolton, J. (1995), The new product development process: a
sphenomorphic management model, International Journal of Vehicle Design: The Journal
of the International Association for Vehicle Design, Vol. 16 No. 4/5, pp 365-374.
Barnes, L., and Greenwood, G. L. 2006, Fast fashioning the supply chain: shaping the
research agenda, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 10 No. 3, 2006, pp
259-271
Bechtel, C., Jayaram, J. 1997, Supply chain management: a strategic perspective,
International Journal of Logistics Management, Vol. 8 No.1, pp 15-34.
Belova, Inesa Martinkute, Zhu, Yansong, 2008, Value Stream Mapping for Waste
Reduction in Playing System Components Flow, Case study: Leaning the Value Stream of
Origo family components at HAGS Aneby AB, Thesis [Masters] International Logistics
and Supply Chain Management
Bevan, Judi. 2007, The Rise and Fall of Marks and Spencer, Profile Books Ltd. UK, pp
104-105
Bhatt, D., CEO, Link Apparel, India in an Interview on 21st November 2001.
Bheda, R & Shanbhag, V., 2000, Technological Upgradation for Small Scale Industries,
Sponsored Research Report [DFT], National Institute of Fashion Technology
Bheda, R., Narag, A.S., Singla, M.L., 2003, Apparel Manufactruing: A Strategy for
Productivity Improvement, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol.7 no. 1, pp
12-22
Birnbaum, D, 2003, Birnbaums's Global Guide To Winning The Great Garment War,
Birnbaum's Strategic Sourcing Report, Monthly newsletter by David Birnbaum, Available
from: http://www.fashiondex.com/globalguide/, [Accessed 14th July 2008].
Boddy D., Cahill C., Charles, M., Fraser-Kraus, H. and Macbeth, D., 1998, Success and
failure in implementing supply chain partnering: an empirical study, European Journal of
Puchasing and supply Chain management, Vol. 4, pp 143-151.
Bonacich, E., Cheng, L., Chinchilla, N., Hamilton, N., 1994, Global Production: The
Apparel Industry in the Pacific Rim, Temple University Press, 1994, p 337
Bragger, M., 2004, Supply Chain Management and Collaboration in the Apparel Sector Learning from the best? ECR Journal, Students Award 2004, Available from:
http://www.ecr-institute.org/education-and-events/student, [Accessed 23rd April 2009].
Brown, A O, Lee, H.L., Petrakian, R., Xilinx improves its semiconductor supply chain
using product and process postponement, JSTOR Interfaces, Vol. 30, No. 4, Supply-Chain
Management (Jul. - Aug., 2000), pp 65-80

263

Bruce, M. and Biemans, W., 1995, Product Development: Meeting the Challenge of the
Design-Marketing Interface, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester.
Bruce, Margaret, Daly, Lucy, 2006, Buyer behaviour for fast fashion, Journal of Fashion
Marketing and Management, Vol. 10, NO 3, PP 329-344
Bruce, Margaret., Moore, Christopher., Birtwistle, Grete., 2004, International retail
marketing: A Case Study Approach, Butterworth-Heinemann, p 114
Bucklin, L.P., 1965, Postponement, speculation and structure of distribution channels,
Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 2, pp 26-32.
Bucklin, L.P., 1966, A Theory of Distribution Channel Structure, Institute of Business and
Economic Research, University of California, Berkeley, CA
Burgess, K., Singh, P., Koroglu, R., 2006, Supply chain management: a structured
literature review and implications for future research, International Journal of Operations
& Production Management, Vol. 26 No. 7, 2006, pp 703-729
Burns, L. and Bryant, N., 1997, The Business of Fashion: Designing, Manufacturing and
Marketing, Fairchild Publications, New York, NY.
Bussler, Christoph,. And Haller, Armin, 2005, Business process management workshops:
BPM 2005 international workshops, BPI, BPD, ENEI, BPRM, WSCOBPM, BPS, Nancy,
France, September 5, 2005 : revised selected papers,
Byrd, T.A. and Davidson, N.W. 2003, Examining possible antecedents of IT impact on the
supply chain and its effect on firm performance, Information and Management, Vol. 41,
No. 2, pp 227-241.
Cantel product catalogue, Available from: http://www.cantel-cams.com/offshore.htm
[Accessed 21st Feb 2008].
Casson, M., 1997a, Information and Economic Organisation: A New Perspective on the
Theory of the Firm, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Casson, M., 1997b, Institutional Economics and Business History: a way forward?
Business History, Vol. 39, No. 4, pp 151-171
Chandra Pankaj, 2006, The Textile and Apparel Industry in India, the Oxford Companion
to Economics in India, Oxford University Press
Chandra, Charu., and Kumar, Sameer., 2001, Taxonomy of inventory policies for supplychain effectiveness, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Volume
29 . Number 4 . 2001 . pp 164-175
Chapman, Leon D., Lathon, Ruby., Petersen, Marge., October 2000, DAMA Model For
Collaboration, Sandia National Laboratories, USA.
264

Chawla, M. 2000, Interview by Researcher with Manish Chawla, Merchandise Manager,

H&M, India on 10th November 2000
Chen, Zhimin. Murray, Richard, Jones, Richard M., 2007, Fashion supply chain
organisation and management between the UK and China, Journal of Fashion Marketing
and Management, Vol. 11, Issue 3, pp 380 - 397
Chopra, Sunil., and Meindl, Peter., 2005a, Supply Chain Management: Strategy Planning
and Operation, Pearson Prentice Hall, second edition, p 23
Chopra, Sunil., and Meindl, Peter., 2005b, Supply Chain Management: Strategy Planning
and Operation, Pearson Prentice Hall, second edition, p 128
Chopra, Sunil., and Meindl, Peter., 2005c, Supply Chain Management: Strategy Planning
and Operation, Pearson Prentice Hall, second edition, p 529
Christopher, M., 1998, Logistics and Supply Chain Management Strategies for Reducing
Cost and Improving Service, Financial Times Pitman Publishing, London, .
Christopher, M., 2007a, Logistics and Supply Chain Management Strategies for
Reducing Cost and Improving Service, Pearson Education, p 173.
Christopher, M., 2007b, Logistics and Supply Chain Management Strategies for
Reducing Cost and Improving Service, Pearson Education, p 124.
Christopher, M.G. 1998, Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Pitman Publishing,
London, pp 15-17
Christopher, M.G. 2006a, Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Pearson Education,
London pp 28-29
Christopher, M.G. 2006b, Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Pearson Education,
London p 123
Christopher, M.G. 2006d, Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Pearson Education,
London p 295
Clark, J.M., 1961, Competition as a Dynamic Process, The Brookings Institute,
Washington, DC
Clark, K. 1989, Project scope and project performance: The effect of parts strategy and
supplier involvement on product development, Management Science, 35, pp 12471263.
Clark, K.B. and T, Fujimoto, 1991., Product Development Performance Strategy;
CMTC - California Manufacturing Technology Consulting, 2003, The basics of Value
Stream Mapping, ASQ Section 706, San Fernando Valley Section.
265

Coats India 1999, Technical Leaflet on Sewing Thread, Module no 22

Cooper, M., Douglas, L., Pagh, J.D. 1997, Supply chain management: more than a new
name for logistics, International Journal of Logistics Management, Vol. 8 No.1, pp 1-14.
Cooper, M.C., Ellram, L.M. 1990, Supply chain management, partnerships, and the
shipper-third party relationship, International Journal of Logistics Management, Vol. 1
No.2, pp 1-10.
Cooper, R. 1990, Stage-Gate Systems: A new tool for managing new products, Business
Horizons, May/June, pp 4454.
Cooper, R. and Kleinschmidt, E. 1986, An investigation into the new product process:
steps, deficiencies, and impact, Journal of Product Innovation Management, Vol. 3 No. 2,
pp 71-85.
Coopers and Lybrand Technologies, 1991, Technology: The Big Payoff, RIS News,
Randolph, NJ
Council of Logistics Management, 2001 Edition, What Its All About, Pgs 3-4, Council of
Logistics Management, 2805 Butterfield Rd, Suite 200, Oak Brook, IL 60523
Croom, S. 2001, The dyadic capabilities concept: examining the processes of key supplier
involvement in collaborative product development, European Journal of Purchasing &
Supply Management, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp 29-37.
Cuil 2008, Available from: http://www.cuil.com/, [Accessed 13th July 2008].
Dahan, E., Srinivasan, V. 2000, The predictive power of internet-based product concept
testing using visual depiction and animation, Journal of Product Innovation Management,
No.17, pp 99-109.
Dapiran, Peter., 1992, Benetton - Global logistics in action, International Journal of
Physical Distribution & Logistics Management. Bradford: 1992. Vol.22, Issue. 6, p 7
Dejonckheere, J., Disney, S., Lambrecht, M., Towill, D.R. 2003, Measuring and avoiding
the bullwhip effect: a control theoretic approach, European Journal of Operations
Research, Vol. 147 pp 567-590.
Dhingra, S., 2004, Observations on India's Apparel Sector, Available from:
http://www.ficci.com/media-room/speeches-presentations/2004/june/june15-textiledhingra.htm, [Accessed 14th March 2008].
Dickerson, K. 1995, Textiles and Apparel in the Global Economy, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood, Cliffs, NJ.
Dillman, D.A., 2000, Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored design Method (2nd edn),
London, Paul Chapman.
266

Disney, S.M., Towill, D.R. 2003a, On the bullwhip and inventory variance produced by an
ordering policy, OMEGA, Vol. 31 pp 157-167.
Disney, S.M., Towill, D.R. 2003b, The effect of vendor managed inventory (VMI)
dynamics of the bullwhip effect in supply chains, International Journal of Production
Economics, Vol.85 No.2, pp 199-216.
Disney, S.M., Towill, D.R. 2003c, Vendor-managed inventory and bullwhip reduction in a
two-level supply chain, International Journal of Operations & Production Management,
Vol. . 23 No.6, pp 625-651.
Doz, Y. 1988, Technology partnerships between larger and smaller firms: some critical
issues, in Contractor, F., Loragnge, P. (Eds),Co-operative Strategies in International
Business, Lexington Books, Lexiington, MA, .
Droge, C., Jayaram, J., Vickery, S.K. 1996, The ability to minimize the timing of new
product development and introduction: an examination of antecedent factors in the North
American automobile supplier industry, The Journal of Product Innovation Management,
Vol.17 No.1, pp 22-40.
Drucker, P,F., 1992, The Economys Power Shift, The Wall street Journal, September 24,
1992, p A-16.
Dutta, Devangshu, 2004, Time N Action calendar: Role for Computer Aided Solutions,
StitchWorld November 2004
Easey, M. (Ed), 1995, Fashion Marketing, Blackwell Science, Oxford, p 1
Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R., and Lowe, A., 2002, Management Research: An
Introduction (2nd edn), London, Sage
Economist, The, 1997, The Economist Numbers Guide: The Essentials of Business
Numeracy (3rd edn), London, Profile Books.
Edition: illustrated, Published by Springer Science & Business, 2006, Page 376
Ellram, L, 1991, Supply Chain Management: The Industrial Organisation Perspective,
International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics management.
Ellram, L.M. 1990, The supplier selection decision in strategic partnerships, International
Journal of Purchasing and Materials Management, Vol. 26 No. 4, pp 8-14.
Emerald 2008, Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/advancedSearch,
[Accessed 5th Sept 2008].
Emigh J, 1999, Vendor Managed Inventory, Available from: http://www.geocities.com/
royston76/ method/m46.htm, [Accessed 3rd Feb 2002].
267

Erhorn, C. and Stark, J. 1994, Competing by Design: Creating Value and Market
Advantage in New Product Development, Omneo, Essex Junction, VT.
Ernst and Whinney, 1988, The QR Advantage, Apparel Industry Magazine, August, pp 94102
Evans, G.N., Naim, M.M., Towill, D.R. 1993, Dynamic supply chain performance:
assessing the impact of information systems, Logistics Information Management, Vol. 6
No.4, pp 15-23.
eWarnas Online Colour eXchange (OCX) Basis of Leveraging Colour Management
Within PLM, StitchWorld, January 2006
Fashion Apparel Manufacturing, 1982, Report of the Technical Advisory Committee,
American Apparel Manufacturers Association, Arlington, VA
Fast React 2007, Critical Path Management, Product brochure, Available from:
http://www.fastreact.com/critical-path.php, [Accessed 13th March 2007].
Feitzinger, E. and Lee, H.L. 1997, Mass customization at Hewlett-Packard: the power of
postponement, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 75 No. 1, pp 116-121.
Fink, A., 1995, How to Ask Survey Questions, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage
Fiorito, S.S., May, E.G. and Straughn, K. 1995, Quick response in retailing: components
and implementation, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 23
No. 5, pp 12-21.
Fisher, M.L. 1997, What is the Right Supply Chain for your product? Harvard Business
Review, march/April, pp 105-116
Forrester, J.W. 1961, Industrial Dynamics, MIT press, Boston, MA
Forza C., Vinelli A., 2000, Time Compresion in Production and Distribution within the
Textile Apparel Chain, Integrated Manufacturing Systems, 11/2, p 138-146
Fralix, M., 2003, Exploring the Digital Supply Chain, Stitchworld, August 2003.
Fransoo, J. C., Wouters, Marc J.F., Measuring the bullwhip effect in the supply chain,
Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, Volume 5 Number 2 2000 pp 78-89
Frastaci, Mona., 2001, Vendor Managed Inventory: A New Trend? Available from:
http://www. just-style.com 14 May 2001, [Accessed 2nd June 2002].
Freshtex, 2005. Available from: http://www.freshtex.com/index.php?option [Accessed 2nd
June 2005].

268

G, Liberopoulos., and Y, Dallery., 2003, Comparative Modelling of Multi-Stage

Production-Inventory Control Policies with Lot Sizing, International Journal of Production
Research, Available from: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals [Accessed 21st March 2009].
Garfield, M. 1985, What product? When? How many? Compressing cycle times, Bobbin,
Vol. 27 No. 5, pp 99-103.
Gaskill, L. 1992, Toward a model of retail product development: a case study analysis,
Clothing and Textile Research Journal, Vol. 10 No. 4, pp 17-24.
Gattorna J, Ogulin R, Reynolds, M., W., 2003, Gower Handbook of Supply Chain
Management, Gower Publishing ltd. p 259
Gattorna, J., 1998d, Strategic Supply Chain Alignment: Best Practices in Supply Chain
Management, Gower Publishing Limited. UK, p 303
Gattorna, John., 1998a, Strategic Supply Chain Alignment: Best Practice in Supply Chain
Management, Gower Publishing Ltd, p xiii
Gattorna, John., 1998b, Strategic Supply Chain Alignment: Best Practice in Supply Chain
Management, Gower Publishing Ltd, p 228
Gattorna, John., 1998c, Strategic Supply Chain Alignment: Best Practice in Supply Chain
Management, Gower Publishing Ltd, p 219
Gattorna, John., 1998e, Strategic Supply Chain Alignment: Best Practice in Supply Chain
Management, Gower Publishing Ltd, 298
GEAC 1998, Efficient Consumer Response - Improving Value Chain Management: Part 1,
Just-Style.com, 22 Dec 1998, Accessed on 25th Nov 2001.
GEAC, 1999, Activating the Supply Chain: Part 2, just-style.com, 22 Jan 1999, accessed
on July 26 2004
Gereffi, G. 1999, International trade and industrial upgrading in the apparel commodity
chain, Journal of International Economics, Vol. 48 No. 1, pp 37-70.
Gereffi, G. and Memedovic, O., 2003, The Global Apparel Value Chain: What Prospects
for Upgrading By Developing Countries, sectoral studies series, UNIDO. Geneava
Giachetti, R.E. 1999, A standard manufacturing information model to support design for
manufacturing in a virtual enterprise, Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, Vol. 10 No.1,
pp 49-60.
Goldratt, E., 1997, Critical Chain, The North River Press, MA
Google 2008, Available from: http://www.google.com/, [Accessed 13st July 2008].
269

Grewal, C.S. and Singh, B. 2006, Application of value stream mapping in a traditional
Indian environment: A case study, Proceedings: International Conference on Advances in
Mechanical Engineering-2006 (AME 2006), December 1-3, 2006, Baba Banda Singh
Bahadur Engineering College, Fatehgarh Sahib, Punjab, India
Gruenwald, G. 1992, New Product Development, (2nd ed.), NTC Business Books,
Lincolnwood, IL
Gupta, A., Souder, W.E.1998, Key drivers of reduced cycle time. Research Technology,
Management, 41(4), 3843.
Gupta, Raghav., 2004, Dynamics of Global Apparel Business, presentation to Post
Graduate Technology students of National Institute of Fashion Technology, New Delhi
Hardin, J., 1999, Improving Responsiveness at Healthtex,1995-1999, i2 Technologies. Inc.
All rights reserved.
Harland, C. 1996, Supply chain management: relationships, chains and networks, British
Journal of Management, Vol. 7 pp 63-80.
Harrigan, K.R. 1983, Strategies for Vertical Integration, Lexington Books, Lexington, MA
Harrison, A. & Van Hoek, R. 2005, Logistics Management and Strategy. 2nd ed., FT
Prentice Hall.
Hart, S. and Baker, M. 1994, The multiple convergent processing model of new product
development, International Marketing Review, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp 77-92.
Hayes, R. and Wheelwright, S.C., 1984, Restoring our Competitive Edge: Competing
Through Manufacturing, John Wiley, New York
Heikkil, J. 2002, From supply to demand chain management: efficiency and customer
satisfaction, Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 20 pp 747-767.
Himmelfarb, P. 1992, Survival of the Fittest: New Product Development in the 90s,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Hinduja, D., 2003, GE e-systems Facilitating Merchandisers in Their Evolving Role,
ApparelOnline, 13 Nov.
Hines, P. & Rich, N. 1997, The seven value stream mapping tools, International Journal of
Operations & Production Management, 17 pp 1.
Hines, P., 1994, Creating World Class Suppliers Unlocking Mutual Competitive
Advantage, London, Pitman Publishing
Hines, T., 2004a, Supply Chain strategies, Customer driven and Customer focussed,
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, p 247
270

Hines, T., 2004b, Supply Chain strategies, Customer driven and Customer focussed,
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, p 187
Hines, T., and Bruce, M., 2007, Fashion Marketing: Contemporary Issues, ButterworthHeinemann, pp 43-45
Hirschkind, M., 2001, Rationalizing The Supply Chain, Available from:
http://www.techexchange.com/ thelibrary/oxford_implementation.html, [Accessed 6th
August 2001].
Hitt, L. and Brynjolfsson, E. 1996, Productivity, profit and consumer welfare: three
different measures of information technology value, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp 121142.
Hobbs, Anne Marie., 2007, Industrial report about Laura Ashley, (27th Sept 2002)
Hong-Minh, S.M., Disney, S.M., Naim, M.M. 2000, The dynamics of emergency
transhipment supply chains, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Materials
Management, Vol. 30 No.9, pp 788-815.
Hunter, A. 1990, Quick Response in Apparel Manufacturing: A Survey of the American
Scene, The Textile Institute, Manchester.
Hwang, M.Y. and Weil, D. 1998, The diffusion of modern manufacturing practices:
evidence from the retail-apparel Sectors, Report [Sponsored Research], Alfred Sloan
Foundation, Harvard Business School, National Science Foundation, US.
International Labour Office in Geneva. It has since been reprinted in modified form in
Textile Outlook International.
Jacobs, L., Herbig, P. 1998, Japanese product development strategies, Journal of Business
& Industrial Marketing, Vol. 13 No.2, pp 132-154.
Jana Prabir, 2003, An investigation into Indian apparel and Textile Supply Chain
Networks, M-Phil PhD transfer document, Nottingham Trent University, UK
Jana, P., 2000, Supply Chain Dynamics in Contract Manufacturing Scenario,
Technological Innovation in Apparel Industry, International Conference, Oct, New Delhi,
India.
Jana, P., 1999, Indian Garment Exports, A Small Scale Industry: Little Too Small to Fight
the Competition? ApparelOnline.
Jana, P. and Gibson, S., 2005, Production Planning: Made Easy, StitchWorld, September,
pp 38-40
Jayaraman, Sunderashan. 1999, Information Technology: The Key to Success of the Textile
Industry, 79th World Conference of The Textile Institute conference,Chennai, India.
271

JBA, 1998, 1998 Apparel and Footwear Industries Survey, report published by JBA
International (JBA was taken over by Geac), Available from: htto://www.geac.com
[Accessed 21st July 2006].
Johansson, H. J., McHugh, P., Pendiebury, A.J. & Wheeler, W.A., 1993, Business Process
Re-engineering: Breakpoint Strategies for Market Dominance, Wiley. p 189
Jones, D. 1999, Keeping up With Jones, Drapers Record, 1999, 17th April, pp 11
Jones, J. 1995, Forces behind restructuring in US apparel retailing and its effect on the US
apparel industry, Industry, Trade and Technology Review, March, pp 23-27.
Jones, R.M. 2006, The Apparel Industry, Blackwell Publishing Limited, p 1
Jones, R.M. 2006a, The Apparel Industry, Blackwell Publishing Limited, pp 1-33
Jones, R.M. 2006b, The Apparel Industry, Blackwell Publishing Limited, pp 37-66
Jones, T. and Riley, D.W. 1985, Using inventory for competitive advantage through supply
chain management, International Journal of Physical Distribution and Materials
Management, Vol. 15 No. 5, pp 16-26.
Jurgen, M., Van, Der. Pol. & Akkermans, Henk. A. 2000, No one in the drivers seat: An
agent based modelling approach to decentralized behaviour in supply chain co-ordination,
11th International Working Seminar on Production Economics, Vol. 3, pp 621-643
Just-style.com, 2000, DuPont Launches Lycra Assured Supply Chain Management
Concept, Available from: http://www.just-style.com, 26 April 2000, [Accessed 14th July
2008].
Just-style.com, 2007, Sri Lankan apparel giants make moves into India, Available from:
http://www.just-style.com, 29 May 2007, [Accessed 13th July 2008].
Justwin, 2002, How mainstream Sewn-Products Companies Are Cutting Time and Costs
with Collaborative Product Commerce March 2002. Available from:
http://www.justwin.com, [Accessed 16th July 2003].
Kapuge, A. M. and Smith, M., 2007, Management practices and performance reporting in
the Sri Lankan apparel sector, Managerial Auditing Journal Vol. 22 No. 3, 2007, pp 303318
Kapur, K., 2003, Interview by Researcher with Kamal Kapur
Karabas, Antony., and Granovsky, Stephen., 2003, Mastering the Process of
Merchandising, Karabus Management: Measurable Result, available at Available from:
http://www.karabus.com, [Accessed 26th July 2003].

272

Karandikar, S.K., 2005, Indian Apparel Industry: Opportunities Unlimited, MEDC Industry Monitor (March 2005), Available from: http://www.asapofga.com, [Accessed
22nd January 2008]
Karlsson, C., Nellore, R., Soderquist, K. (1998), Black box engineering: redefining the role
of product specifications, The Journal of Product Innovation Management, Vol. 15 No.6,
pp 534-549.
Kathawala,Y.K. & Abdou, K. 2003, Supply chain evaluation in the service industry: a
framework development compared to manufacturing, Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol.
18, Issue 2, pp 140-149
Katla, M., Lowe, T., and Tyler D., 1998, A decision Support Systems for Designing
Assembly Cells in Apparel industry, in Suresh, N.C., and Kay, J.M., (eds), Group
Technology and Cellular Manufacturing: A State-of-the-art Synthesis of Research and
Practice, Springer, pp 255-271
Kauffman, R.G. 2002, Supply management: whats in a name? Or, do we know who we
are? The Journal of Supply Chain Management, Fall, pp 46-50.
Kerr, E.S.F. 1999, The Key Performance Factors in an effective supply Chain in UK,
Thesis [BA (Hons)], Nottingham Trent University, UK
Kinaxis,, 2005, Available from: http://www.kinaxis.com, before 2005 the company was
named as Webplan. [Accessed 23rd July 2006].
Knox, A. & Newton, E., 1998, Clothing Industry Supply Chain management &
Technology, International Conference on Apparel manufacturing: Future Scenario,
National Institute of Fashion Technology, Fashion Spectrum, Jan, New Delhi, India
Knox, A., 2009, E-mail discussion by Researcher with Dr. Alistair Knox, Senior
Lecturer,The Nottingham Trent University on 10th June 2009
Koshy, D.O. & Jana, P. 2000, Readymade Garments in Technology for Small Scale
Industries: Current Status and Emerging Needs, Tata Mcgraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited, New Delhi, pp 261-284.
Koshy, D.O. 1995, Effective Export Marketing of Apparel to the US, EU and Japan,
Global Business Press, India.
Koshy, D.O., 1997a, Garment Exports: Winning Strategies, Prentice Hall India Private
Limited, p 22-23.
Koshy, D.O., 1997b, Garment Exports: Winning Strategies, Prentice Hall India Private
Limited, p 36.
Krishnan, R, 2001, Readymade garments: Clothed for success, THE HINDU group of
publications, Sunday, October 21, 2001
273

Krishnan, V., Ulrich, K.T., 2001, Product Development Decisions: A Review of the
Literature, Management Science, 47(1), pp 1-21
Kumar Rajiv, Midha, P.S., 2001, A QFD based methodology for evaluating a companys
PDM requirements for collaborative product development, Industrial Management & Data
Systems, Vol. 101, Number: 3
Kumpe, E., Bolwjin, P.T. 1988, Manufacturing: the case for vertical integration, Harvard
Business Review, March/April, pp 75-81
Kurt Salmon Associates (KSA), 1992, Bridging the Quick response gap, Kurt Salmon
Associates, Randolph, NJ
Lam, Jimmy K.C. and Postle, R, 2006, Textile and apparel supply chain management in
Hong Kong, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, Vol. 18, Issue 4,
pp 265 - 277
Lamming, R. 1993, Beyond Partnership: Strategies for Innovation and Lean Supply,
Prentice Hall, pp 178-211.
Latamore, Berton G., 1999, Reengineer or Perish, Interview with Dr. Michael Hammer,
APICSThe Performance Advantage January 1999, Vol. 99, No. 1, Available from:
http://www.apics.org, [Accessed 22nd Nov 2004].
Lawrence, F, Barry, and Verma, Anoop. 1999, Integrated Supply: Supply Chain
management in material management and Procurement, Production and Inventory
Management Journal, 2, page 3
Lawson, B., King, R. & Hunter, A., 1999. Quick Response Managing the Supply Chain to
Meet Consumer Demand, Chichester, John Willey and Sons
Lectra, 2008, Available from: http://www.lectra.com/en/index.html, [Accessed 22nd
November 2008]
Lee, H. 1993, Design for supply chain management: concepts and examples , in Sarin, R.
(Eds), Perspectives in Operations Management: Essays in Honor of Elwood S. Buffa,
Kluwer, Boston, MA, pp 45-65.
Lee, H.L. 2002, Aligning supply chain strategies with product uncertainties, California
Management Review, Vol. 44 No. 3, pp 105-119.
Lee, H.L. and Billington, C. 1993, Material Management in Decentralized Supply Chains,
Operations Research, Vol. 41 No. 5, pp 835-847.
Lee, H.L., Padmanabhan, V., Whang, S. 1997, The bullwhip effect in supply chains, Sloan
Management Review, Vol. 38 No.3, pp 93-102.

274

Lezama Marlon., Webber, Brian, Dagher, Charles, 2005, Sourcing Practices in Apparel
Industry: Implications for Garment Exporters in Commonwealth developing countries,
Commonwealth Secretariat, p 194
Li Ling, 2007, Supply chain management: Concepts, Techniques and Practices Enhancing
Value through collaboration, World scientific, pp 37-38
Lim, Jeen-Su, Sharkey, Thomas.W., Heinrichs, John.H., 2006, Strategic Impact of New
Product Development on Export Involvement, European Journal of marketing, Vol. 40,
Number 1/2, pp 44-60
Little, D., Kenworthy, J., Jarvis, P., Porter, K. 1995, Scheduling across the supply chain,
Logistics Information Management, Vol. 8 pp 42-48.
Logility Inc., 2000, Collaborative Transportation Management, An Executive White Paper
Lovejoy, J., and Curran, T., 1999, Supply Chain Simulation, Textile Clothing Technology
Corporation, September, 2001
Lummus, R.R., Krumwlede, D.W. and Vokurka, R.J. 2001, The relationship of logistics to
Supply Chain Management: Developing a Common industry Definition, Industrial
management and Data Systems, Vol. 101, Issue 8, pp 426-432
Mac, Irene., 2006, In an Interview I conducted with Irene Mac, Technical Director,
American Eagle Outfiters, US on 22nd September 2006
Macbeth, D.K. and Ferguson, N. 1994, Partnership Sourcing: An Integrated Supply Chain
Approach, UK, Pitman Publishing, p 79
Mahajan, Narinder., and Ramachandran, Divya., 2003, Exploring Causes For PreProduction Delays, Thesis [GMT], National Institute of Fashion Technology, Gandhinagar
Malik R., 2009, ApparelOnline, Available from: http://www.apparelresources.com,
[Accessed 21st July 2009].
Marbert, V.A. and Venkataramanan, 1998, Special Research on Supply Chain Linkages:
Challenges for Design and Management in the 21st Century, Decision Sciences, Summer.
Marketing Committee of the American Apparel Manufacturers Association, 1989,
Merchandising calendar, Apparel Manufacturer, Vol. 1 No. 2, p. 26.
Mason-Jones, R., Towill, D.R. 1999a, Using the information decoupling point to improve
supply chain performance, International Journal of Logistics Management, Vol. 10 No.2, p
16
Mason-Jones, R., Towill, D.R. 1999b, Using the information decoupling point to improve
supply chain performance, International Journal of Logistics Management, Vol. 10 No.2, p
17
275

Mason-Jones, R., Towill, D.R. 1999c, Using the information decoupling point to improve
supply chain performance, International Journal of Logistics Management, Vol. 10 No. 2,
pp 13-26.
Massey, L. 2000, An Investigation into Apparel and Textile Supply Chain Developments,
Thesis [PhD], Nottingham Trent University, UK
McCormack, Kevin, and Kasper Katie, 2002, The Extended Supply Chain: A Statistical
Study, DRK Research.
Mcdermott, C and Handfield, R. 2000, Concurrent Development and Strategic
Outsourcing: Do The Rules Change In Breakthrough Innovation?, The Journal of High
Technology Management Research, Elsevier Science Inc. Volume 11, Number 1, pages
3557.
McLaren, R., Tyler, D.J., Jones, R.M., 2002, Parade exploiting the strengths of Made
in Britain supply chain, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 6, no.1, pp
35-43
Meijboom, Bert, Voordijk, Hans and Akkermans, Henk, 2007, The effect of industry
clockspeed on supply chain co-ordination: Classical theory to sharpen an emerging
concept, Business Process Management Journal, Vol. 13, issue: 4, Page 553 - 571
Mentzer, J. T. 2001, Supply chain management, SAGE, pp 244-245
Mentzer, J.T., DeWitt, W., Keebler, J.S., Min, S., Nix, N.W., Smith, C.D. and Zacharia,
Z.G. 2001, Defining supply chain management, Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 22 No.
2, pp 1-25.
Merrills, R., 1989, How Northern Telecom competes on time, Harvard Business Review,
July- Aug, 108-114
Middlebrook, K.J., Zepeda, E, 2003, Confronting Development: Assessing Mexico's
Economic and Social Policy Challenges, Contributor Kevin J. Middlebrook, Stanford
University Press, 2003
Millstein, Mitchell., 1999, A New Approach To Inventory Management, APICS on line
Newsletter, February 1999, Vol. 9, No. 2, Available from: http://www.apics.org, [Accessed
26th July 2004].
Mintel, 2007, Retail Review, UK, March 2007, Mintel
Mintel, 2008, Retail Review, UK, March 2008, Mintel
Momentis product catalogue, accessed on Feb 2008, Available
http://www.momentis.com/mfs_overview.asp [Accessed 21st July 2009].

from:

276

Monczka, R.M., Handfield, R.B. and Trent, R.J. 1998, Purchasing and Supply Chain
Management, South-Western College Publishing, Cincinnati, OH.
Monden, Y. 1993, Toyota Production System: An Integrated Approach to Just-in-Time.
2nd ed., Industrial Engineering and Management Press, Norcross, GA.
Mowery, D.C. (Ed.) 1988, International Collaborative Ventures in US Manufacturing,
Ballinger, Cambridge, MA.
Naik, S., 2000, Interview by Researcher with Satish Naik, Head, Quality Assurance, Gap
India Liaison office, on 12th June 2003
New, S.J. 1997, The scope of supply chain management research, Supply Chain
Management, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp 15-22.
Nguyen, Ngoc Thanh, Adam Grzech, Robert J. Howlett, Lakhmi C. Jain, 2007, Agent and
Multi-Agent Systems: Technologies and Applications, First KES International Symposium,
KES-AMSTA 2007, Wroclaw, Poland, May 31-June 1, 2007 : Proceedings, SpringerLink
(Online service), Edition: illustrated, Published by Springer, 2007, Page 417
Nick, Rich. 2001, An Executive Introduction To Supply Chain Mangaement, Deloitte &
Touche senior executive series of briefing papers.
Nijssen, E., Arbouw, A. and Commandeur, H. 1995, Accelerating new product
development: a preliminary empirical test of a hierarchy of implementation, The Journal of
Product Innovation Management, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp 99-109.
Nurmilaakso, J. M., 2004, Supply chain scheduling using distributed parallel simulation,
Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, Vol. 15 Number 8 2004 pp 756-770
Oppenheim, A.N., 2000, Questionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude Management
(new edn), London, Continuum International.
Organisation and management in the auto industry, Boston, Massachusetts, Harvard
Business School
Oxborrow, L. 2000, Changing Practices in the U.K. Apparel Supply Chain: Results of an
Industry Survey, Harvard Centre for Textiles and Apparel Research. Available from:
http://www.hctar.org/pages/pub_1.html [Accessed 21st July 2006].
Oxborrow, L. and Massey L., 2000, Mass Market to Market Led: Fashion or Fantasy?
Pagh, J.D. and Cooper, M.L., 1998, Supply Chain Postponement and Speculation Strategy:
How to Choose the Right Strategy, Journal of Business Logistics., Vol. 19, no. 2, pp 13-33
Paik, S. K., Bagchi, P. K., 2007, Understanding the causes of the bullwhip effect in a
supply chain, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 35 Number
4 2007 pp 308-324
277

Pan Barnice, and Holland, Ray. 2006, A mass customised supply chain for the fashion
system at the design-production interface, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management,
Vol. 10, no. 3, pp 345-359
Pandey, V., 2002, Woolrich: From the Eyes of Hot Source, ApparelOnline, 29th April 2002
Park, H.G., Baik, J.M. 1999, Enhancing manufacturing product development through
learning agent system over the internet, Computers and Industrial Engineering, Vol. 37
No.1, pp 117-20
Parnell, Clay. 1999, Reshaping Apparel: SCM & Enterprise Control, Apparel Industry
Magazine, Oct 1999, p 16
Patton, M.Q., 2002, Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods (3rd edn), Thousand
Oaks, CA, Sage.
Pearson, Steve., and Knudsen, David., 2003, Critical Trends and Emerging Solutions,
Available from: http://www. just-style.com, 31 Mar 2003, [Accessed 7th March 2004].
Plumlee Traci May and Little Trevor J, 1998, No-Interval Coherently Phased Product
Development Model for Apparel, International Journal of Clothing Science and
Technology, Vol. 10, no. 5, pp 342-364
Poirier, Charles C.; Reiter, Stephen E., 1996, Supply Chain Optimization: Building the
Strongest Total Business Network, Berrett Koehler, p 31
Popp Andrew, 2000, Swamped in Information but Starved of Data Information and
Intermediaries in clothing Supply Chains. Supply Chain Management: An International
Journal, Vol. 5 number 3 pp 151-161
Popp, Andrew., Ruckmann, J. E., and Row, H., 2001, Quality in International clothing
Supply Chains: cost Versus Quality, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management,
Henry Stewart Publications 1361-2026, Vol. 5, 4, pp 275-288
Porter, M. E. and Ghemwat, P., 1994, Developing Competitive Advantage in India,
National Seminar, New Delhi, Confederation of Indian Industry and Harvard Business
School.
Porter, M.E., 1988, Managing Value: From Competitive Advanrage to Corporate Strategy,
McKinsey Quarterly, Spring, pp 35-36
Power, D.J., Sohal, A.S., Rahman, S.R., 2001, Critical success factors in agile supply
chain management - An empirical study, International Journal of Physical Distribution &
Logistics Management, Vol. 31 Iss: 4, pp 247 - 265
Pradhan, S. 2007, Retailing Management: Texts and Cases, Tata McGraw-Hill, pp 389

278

Prahlad, C.K. & Hamel, G. 1990, Core Competencies of the Corporation, Harvard
Business Review, May-June, pp 79-91
Prahlad, C.K., 1993, Globalisation: Pitfalls, Pain and Potential, Global II, pp 8-11
Rabinovich, E., Evers, P.T., 2003, Postponement Effects on Inventory Performance and the
Impact of Information Systems, International Journal of Logistics Management, The, Vol.
14 Issue: 1, pp 33 - 48
Raia, E., 1991, Taking time out of product design, Purchasing, April 4, pp 3639.
Raman, Ananth., 1995, Apparel exports and the Indian Economy, Harvard Business
School, case study.
Redfern Robert and Davey Caroline, 2003, Supply chain market orientation in new
product development in the UK: A Pilot Case Study, Journal of Fashion Marketing and
Management, Vol. 7 No 1, pp 65-77
Regan, C., Kincade, D. and Sheldon, G. 1998, Applicability of the engineering design
process theory in the apparel design process, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Vol.
16 No. 1, pp 36-46.
Regan, Cynthia, L., 2007, Apparel Product design and Merchandising Strategies, Pearson
Prentice hall, p 112
Rice, J.B. Jr. and Hoppe, Richard. M. 2001a, Supply Chain versus Supply Chain: The hype
and the reality, Supply Chain Management Review, September-October, p 3
Rice, J.B. Jr. and Hoppe, Richard. M. 2001b, Supply Chain versus Supply Chain: The hype
and the reality, Supply Chain Management Review, September-October, p 10
Rice, J.B. Jr. and Hoppe, Richard. M. 2001c, Supply Chain versus Supply Chain: The hype
and the reality, Supply Chain Management Review, September-October, pp 15-16
Rigby, D. & Bryne, C. 2000, The Industrial and Social Impact of New Technology in
Robson, C., 2002a, Real World Research, second edition, , Oxford, Blackwell.
Robson, C., 2002b, Real World Research, second edition, , Oxford, Blackwell, p 59
Rochford, L. and Rudelius, W. 1992, How involving more functional areas within a firm
affects the new product process, Journal of Product Innovation Management, Vol. 9 No. 4,
pp 287-299.
Rollins, R.P., Porter, K., Little, D, 2003, Modelling the changing apparel supply chain,
International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, Vol. 15 Number 2 2003 pp 140156
279

Rothberg, H.N. and Erickson, G.S., 2004, From Knowledge to Intelligence: Creating
Competitive Advantage in the Next Economy, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp 129-130
Rother Mike and Shook John, 1998, Learning to see: value stream mapping to create
value and eliminate muda, Brookline, Mass: Lean Enterprise Institute [1999]
Rushton, A., Walker, S., 2007, International Logistics Supply Chain Outsourcing: From
Local to Global, Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport in the UK, Published by
Kogan Page Publishers, 2007
Sadd, D. 1996, Structuring product development for higher profits, Bobbin, Vol. 38 No. 2,
pp 68-73.
Sareen, R., 2006, Today's Apparel Isn't Rocket Science; Its Far More Complicated,
StitchWorld, January-2006
Sareen, R., 2008, I Want It Faster I Want It Cheaper: I Want e-fitting Solutions,
StitchWorld, September 2008
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., and Thornhill, A., 2007a, Research Methods for Business
Students, Pearson Education Limited, third edition, pp 100-123
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., and Thornhill, A., 2007b, Research Methods for Business
Students, Pearson Education Limited, third edition, p 267
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., and Thornhill, A., 2007c, Research Methods for Business
Students, Pearson Education Limited, third edition, pp 288-290
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., and Thornhill, A., 2007d, Research Methods for Business
Students, Pearson Education Limited, third edition, pp 249-255
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., and Thornhill, A., 2007e, Research Methods for Business
Students, Pearson Education Limited, third edition, p 170
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., and Thornhill, A., 2007f, Research Methods for Business
Students, Pearson Education Limited, third edition, pp 188-195
Seth, D. & Gupta, V. 2005, Application of value stream mapping for lean operations and
cycle time reduction: an Indian case study. Production Planning & Control, vol. 16, Issue
1, pp 44-59.
Sethi, V. and King, W.R. 1994, Development of measures to assess the extent to which an
information technology Application Provides Competitive Advantage, Management
Science, Vol. 40, No. 12 (Dec., 1994), pp 1601-1627
Shah Janat, 2009, Supply Chain Management: Text and Cases, Pearson Education, p 67.

280

Sharma, A., and Jana, P., 2005, Inventory Management: An Inter Industry Comparison,
Thesis [MFTech], National Institute of Fashion Technology, New Delhi
Simchi-Levi, D., Kaminsky, P., Simchi-Levi, E. 2000, Designing and Managing the
Supply Chain: Concepts, Strategies and Case Studies, International ed., McGraw-Hill,
Singapore
Singh, Sailaja. & Arora, Rajat. 1998, Supply Chain Management in Indian Apparel
Industry, Thesis [GMT], National Institute of Fashion Technology, New Delhi, India
Smith, P.G.,& Reinertsen, D.G. 1991, Developing products in half the time, NewYork:
Van Nostrand.
Stein T and Sweat J, 1998, Killer Supply Chains: Six companies are using supply chains to
transform the way they do business, Information Week Online, Available from:
http://www.informationweek.com/708/08iukil6.htm, [Accessed 3rd Feb 2002].
Sterman, J.D. 1989, Modelling managerial behaviour: misperceptions of feedback in a
dynamic decision-making environment, Management Science, Vol. 35 No.3, pp 321-399.
Stevens, G.G. 1989, Integrating the Supply Chain, International journal of Physical
Distribution and Materials Management, 19, 3-8
Stitchworld, 2005, TUKAweb Offers Fashion Design Help in Reducing Product
Development Time, StitchWorld, September 2005
Styleman 2008, Styleman product catalogue, Available from: http://www.styleman.com/
manufacturing.html [Accessed 21st July 2009].
Subbu, R, 2003, Textiles: On the threshold of a change, The Hindu, Wednesday, Apr 16,
2003
Taguchi, H., & Nonaka, I. 1986, The new product development game, Harvard Business
Review, Vol. 64, pp 137146.
Taras, John., 2001, The Vendor Managed Inventory,
http://www.supplychainmetric.com [Accessed 21st August 2001].

Available

from:

Tedesco, Catherine., 2000, An Overview of the Supply Chain, Special Seminar in

Operation Management: Supply Chain Strategy, Term Project for Prof. Charlie Fine,
Accessed on 25th Nov 2003.
Teece, D.J. 1986, Profiting from technological innovation: implications for integration,
collaboration, licensing and public policy, Research Policy, Vol. 15 pp 285-305.
Thackray, J., 1986, Americas Vertical Cutback, Mmanagement Today, June
The Binran, 1990, Juki Corporation, Japan
281

the Clothing Industry into the 2000s, This paper was originally produced for the
Towill, D.R. 1991, Supply chain dynamics, International Journal of Computer Integrated
Manufacturing, Vol. 4 No.3, pp 197-208.
Towill, D.R. 1996, Time Compression and Supply Chain management- a guided tour,
Logistics Information management, Vol. 9 No 6 pp 41-53
Towill, D.R., McCullen, P. 1999, The impact of agile manufacturing on supply chain
dynamics, International Journal of Logistics Management, Vol. 10 No.1, pp 83-96.
Towill, Dennis., and Christopher, 2007, Dont Lean Too Far Evidence from the First
Decade, International Journal of Agile Systems & Management, Vol. 2 No. 4, pp 406-424
Trend Fusion, Vol 2, 2005, pp III-X
Trend Fusion, Vol 3, Jan 2006, pp 30-31
Trend Fusion, Vol 6, Jan 2007, pp 30-31
Trot, P., 1998, Innovation Management and New Product Development, Pitman
Publishing, London
Tyler, D. 2008a, Carr and Latham's Technology of Clothing Manufacture, Blackwell
Science
Tyler, D. 2008b, Carr and Latham's Technology of Clothing Manufacture, Blackwell
Science, pp 289-296
Tyler, D., Bhamra, T., 2006, Supply chain influences on new product development in
fashion clothing, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 10 No. 3, 2006, pp
316-328
Urban, G. and Hauser, J. 1980, Design and Marketing of New Products, Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Valle S, and Vazquez-Bustelo D, 2009, Concurrent engineering performance:
Incremental versus radical, International Journal of Production Economics,
doi:10.1016/j.ijpe.2009.02.002
Van Hoek, R, I., 1998, Measuring The Unmeasurable Measuring And Improving
Performance In The Supply Chain, Supply Chain management, Vol. 2 , No. 1, pp 15-22
Van Hoek, R, I., 2001, The rediscovery of postponement a literature review and Directions
for research, Journal of Operations Management, Volume 19, Issue 2, February 2001,
Pages 161-184

282

Van Hoek, R.I., Vos, B., and Commandeur, H.R., 1999, Restructuring European Supply
Chains by Implementing Postponement Strategies, Long Range Planning, Vol. 32, No. 5,
pp 505-518,
Venkatesan, R. 1992, Strategic sourcing: To make or not to make, Harvard Business
Review, November/December, pp 98107.
Vosti, Ernest, and Wimple, Carolyn. 1997, Benefits of Sourcing Shirt Flannel On-Shore,
Version 1.0, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Demand Activated Manufacturing
Architecture, Enterprise Modeling and Simulation, UCRL-ID-128742
Waller, M.A., Dabholker, P.A. and Gentry, J.J. 2000, Postponement, product
customization, and market-oriented supply chain management, Journal of Business
Logistics, Vol. 21 No. 2, pp 133-159.
Walwyn, S.S. 2002, Who needs a sourcing strategy Available from: http://www.juststyle.com, 19th June [Accessed 21st July 2009].
Watson, K. 2002, Speed, Industry Forum 2002 Annual Conference, 2nd July 2002, Marriot
Hotel, Grosvenor Square, London, UK
Watts, Charles, A., and Knechtges, J., 1999, The Small Business Link, APICS-The
Educational Society for Resource Management, January 1999, Vol. 99, No. 1,
Weill, P. 1992, The relationship between investment in information technology and firm
performance: a study of the valve manufacturing sector, Information Systems Research,
Vol. 3 No. 4, pp 307-333.
Westbrook, R., New, S.J., 2004, Understanding supply chains: concepts, critiques, and
futures, Oxford University Press, p 141
White, Ian. 2000, Data Management in the Retail Supply Chain, Available from:
http://www.greshamticket.com [Accessed 2nd June 2002].
Whitehead D., 2001, Chain Reaction, Drapers Record, March 17, p 16
Whitney, D.E. 1988, Manufacturing by design. Harvard Business Review, July/August, pp
8391.
Williams M. K., 1999, Making Consignment and Vendor Managed Inventory work for
You, Available from: http://www.supplychainmetric.com, [Accessed 20th March 2003].
Womack, J. and Jones, D.T., 1996, Lean Thinking Banish waste & create Wealth in your
corporation, New York, Simon & Schuster.
Womack, J.P., Jones, D.T. et al. 1990, The Machine That Changed The World, New York,
Macmillan Publishing.
283

WTO 2007, International Trade Statistics 2007, WTO Publications, World Trade
Organization, 154, rue de Lausanne CH-1211 Geneva 21, Available from:
http://www.wto.org/ english/ res e/statis_e/its2006_e/its2007_e.pdf, downloaded on 5th
September 2008-09-07
Yang, B., Burns, N.D. and Backhouse, C.J., 2004, Postponement: a review and an
integrated framework, International Journal of Operations & Production Management,
Vol. 24 No. 5, pp 468-487.
Yeung, J.H.Y., Selen, W., Deming, Z., and Min, Z., 2007, Postponement strategy from a
supply chain perspective: cases from China, International Journal of Physical Distribution
& Logistics Management, Vol. 37 No. 4, 2007, pp 331-356
Yosri, A. 1992, The relationship between information technology expenditures and
revenue contributing factors in large corporations, unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Walden University, Minneapolis, MN.
Zahra, S. and Ellor, D. 1993, Accelerating new product development and successful market
introduction, S.A.M. Advanced Management Journal, Vol. 58 No. 1, pp 9-15.
Zirger, B.J., & Hartley, J.L. 1996, The effect of product acceleration techniques on product
development time, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 43(2), pp 143152.

284

Bibliography

Agarwal, S. 2000, Supply Chain Management, Thesis [MA], The Nottingham Trent
University
Berry, D., Naim, M., 1996, Quantifying The Relative Improvements of Redesign Strategies
in a PC Supply Chain, International Journal of Production Economics, Vol. 46 No.4, pp
181-196
Bowersox, D., Closs, D., 1996, Logistical Management: The Integrated Supply Chain
Process, 1st edition, The Mcgraw Hill
Bryman, A., 1989, Research Methods and Organisational Studies, London, Unwin Hyman
Burns, K., 1996, Manufacturing Logistics Reducing Costs, Logistics Focus, November
Chandra, Charu, Kumar, Sameer, 2001, Supply Chain Management in Theory and
Practice: A passing Fad or a Fundamental Change, Available from:
www.engin.umd.umich.edu, [Accessed 21st Aug 2003]
Chistopher, M., 2002, The Magic of the Supply Chains Agility, Available from:
www.zum-thema.st/archive, [Accessed 21st Aug 2003]
Chopra Sunil and Meindl Peter, 2001, Supply Chain Management: Strategy, Planning and
Operation, Sunil Chopra and Peter Meindl Prentice Hall, Inc.,
Clark, K.B. and T, Fujimoto, 1991., Product Development Performance Strategy;
Organisation and management in the auto industry, Boston, Massachusetts, Harvard
Business School
Cravens, D.W., Piercy, N.F. & Shipp, S.H., 1996, New Organisational forms for
competing in highly dynamic environments: the network paradigm, British Journal of
Management, Vol. .7 pp 203-218
Cusumano, M.A. and Noboeka., 1998, Thinking Beyond Lean: How Multiproject
Management is Transforming Product Development at Toyota and Other Companies, New
York, The Free Press
Dale, A., Arber, S., and Proctor, M., 1988, Doing Secondary Analysis, London, Unwin
Hyman
Dickerson, K., 1995, Textiles and Apparel in the Global Economy, Second Edition,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.
Dimancescu, D. and K, Dwenger., 1996, World Class New Product Development:
Benchmarking Best Practices of Agile Manufacturing, New York, American Management
Association
285

Dowlatshahi, S., 1997, The Role of Product design in Design buyer supplier interface,
Product Planning and Control 8(6): 522-532
Drucker, P,F., 1992, The Economys Power Shift, The Wall street Journal, September 24,
1992, p.A-16.
Efficient Consumer Response, 1993, Enhancing Consumer Value in the Grocery Industry,
Kurt Salmon Associates Management Consultants.
Fernie, J., 1994, Quick Response: An International Perspective, International Journal of
Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 24 No 6
Fisher, M. and Raman A, 1996, Reducing The Cost Of Demand Uncertainity Through
Accurate Response To Early Sales, Operation Research, Jan-Feb, Vol. 44. No. 1, pp 87-99
Forza, C. and Vinelli, A., 1996, Design Towards Quick Response: An Analytical Scheme
for The Change, International journal of clothing science and technology
Gattorna, J. 1999. Strategic Supply Chain Alignment, Hampshire, Gower Publication
Ghosh, Atanu and Jain Karuna, 2006, A Study on Indian Apparel Industry: Strategic
Options for Enhancing Capabilities, Thesis [PhD], Indian Institute of Technology,
Mumbai
Grandori, A. & Soda, G. 1995, Inter-firm networks: antecedents, mechanisms and forms,
Organisation Studies, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp 183-214.
Graneshan, R. and Harrison T., 2001, An Introduction to Supply Chain Management,
Available
from:
http://mason.wm.edu/faculty/ganeshan_r/documents/intro_supply_chain.pdf,
[Accessed
21st Aug 2009]
Hakim, C., 1982, Secondary Analysis in Social Research, London, Allen and Unwin.
Harland, C. 1995, The Dynamics of Customer Dissatisfaction in Supply Chains, Production
Planning and Control, Vol. 6, no. 3, 209-217
Harrison Alan., Hoek, Ramco Van, 2005, Logistics Management and Strategy, Pearson
Education.
Hines, P., 1994, Creating World Class Suppliers Unlocking Mutual Competitive
Advantage, London, Pitman Publishing
Hines, T., 2004, Supply Chain strategies, Customer driven and Customer focussed,
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
Kanter, R.M., When Giants Learn to dance, 1st edition, 1989, Simon & Schuster
Kerr, Esther., 1999, The key performance factors in an effective supply chain in UK, Thesis
[BA Hons], NTU, UK
286

Koshy, D.O. 1995, Effective Export Marketing of Apparel to the US, EU and Japan,
Global Business Press, India.
Koshy, D.O., 1997, Garment Exports: Winning Strategies, Prentice Hall India Private
Limited.
Lamming, R., 1989, Beyond Partnership, Startegies for Innovation and lean Supply, 1st
edition, Prentice Hall
Lamming, Richard, 1996, Squaring Lean Supply with Supply Chain Management,
International Journal of Operations & production Management, Vol. . 16 No. 2 pp 183-196
Lamming, Richard., Johnsen, Thomas., Zheng, Jurong., and Harland, Christine. 2000, An
Initial Classification of Supply Networks, International Journal of Operations & Production
Management, Vol. 20, No. 6
Lapide, Larry, 2002, What About Measuring Supply Chain Performance? Available from:
http://lapide.ASCET.com, [Accessed 12th July 2004]
Lawson, B., King, R. & Hunter, A., 1999. Quick Response Managing the Supply Chain to
Meet Consumer Demand, Chichester, John Willey and Sons
Lee, H. L., 2001, Ultimate Enterprise Value Creation, Stanford University
Leon D. Chapman, Ruby Lathon, Marge Petersen, October 2000, DAMA Model For
Collaboration, Sandia National Laboratories, USA.
Li, Jingquan, Shaw, Michael. J. and Sikora, Riyaz. T., 2001, The Effects of Information
Sharing Strategies on Supply Chain Performance, University of Illinois at UrbanChampain.
Logility Inc., 2000, Collaborative Transportation Management, An Executive White Paper
Macbeth, D.K., 1998., Partnering Why Not? The second Symposium in purchasing and
supply chain management London, The Chartered Institute of Purchasing and Supply
Macfarlane, J. 1996, Cycle Time Reduction: From Raw Materials to Finished Products,
Textiles Go Online: Conference of the Textile Institutes Information Technology
Group: (2-3 April, Manchester, UK)
McCormack, Kevin, and Kasper Katie, 2002, The Extended Supply Chain: A Statistical
Study, DRK Research.
Nick, Rich. An Executive Introduction To Supply Chain Mangaement, Deloitte & Touche
senior executive series of briefing papers.
Oakes, Paul, 2002, The Five Myths of Supply Chain Management, Available from:
www.techrepublic.com, [Accessed 14th July 2004]

287

Parnell Clay, 1996, Supply Chain Management, APICS-The Educational Society for
Resource Management. www.apics.org.
Petersen M. and Mitchiner J., 2001, Developing Collaborative Environments: A Holistic
Software Development Methodology, Sandia National Laboratories, USA.
Plunkett, J. W., 2007, Plunkett's Apparel & Textiles Industry Almanac 2007: Apparel and
Textiles Industry Market Research, Statistics, Trends and Leading Companies, Plunkett
Research Ltd, Published by Plunkett Research, Ltd.
Pyke, D.F., Cohen, M.A., 1994, Multi-Product Integrated Production-Distribution
Systems, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 74 No.1, pp 18-49.
Rachel Mason-Jones and Denis R. Towill., 1998, Time Compression in the Supply Chain:
Information Management is the Vital Ingredient, Logistics Information Management, Vol.
11, issue 2, pp 93-104
Richardson J., 1996, Vertical Integration and Rapid Response in Fashion Apparel,
Organisational Science, July-August, Vol. 7 pp 400-412
Russel, Eric, 2000, E-Retailing May Mean Logistics Revolution, World Clothing
Manufacturer.
Saunders M., 1997, Strategic Purchasing & Supply Chain Management, 2nd edition,
Pitman publishing.
Schonberger, R.J., 1996, World Class Manufacturing: The Next Decade, New York, The
Free Press.
Schonberger, R.J., 1987, World Class Manufacturing Case book: Implementing JIT and
TQC, USA, The Free Press.
Seagrave, William, 2002, The Apparel World: Lagging Behind the Supply Chain Curve,
Available from: www.techexchange.com/thelibrary, [Accessed 14th July 2004]
Singh, Sailaja. & Arora, Rajat. 1998, Supply Chain Management in Indian Apparel
Industry, Thesis [GMT], National Institute of Fashion Technology, New Delhi
Snow, C.C. and Miles, R.E. 1992, Managing 21st Century Network Organizations,
Organisational Dynamics, Winter.
Stalk, G. and Hout, T., 1990, Competing Against Time: How Time Based Competition is
Reshaping Global Markets, New York The Free Press
Sturley, Samantha., 2002, Supply Chain Issues Arising Between The UK And Indian
Manufacturing, Thesis [BA Hons], NTU, UK
Supply Chain Council, 2000, Supply Chain operations Reference Model, Available from:
www.supply-chain.org, [Accessed 12th Feb 2002]
288

Tan, K.C., Lyman, S.B. and Wisner, J.D., 2002, Supply Chain Management: A Strategic
Perspective, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. . 22 No.
5/6, pp 614-631.
Taylor, D.H., 1997, Global cases in Logistics and Supply Chain management, Thomson,
UK,
Towill, D.R. 1996, Time Compression and Supply Chain management- a guided tour,
Logistics Information management, Vol. 9 No 6 pp 41-53
Tracey, M., Leng tan, C., 2001. Empirical analysis of supplier selection and involvement,
customer satisfaction, and firm performance, Managing Service Quality [online] 6 (4).
Available from: http://clorinda.emerald-library.com, [Accessed 12th Feb 2002]
Just-Style, 2002, Trends in European garment sourcing, 17 Jun 2002, Author: juststyle.com
Urban, G. and Hauser, J., 1980, Design and Marketing of New Products, Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Walker, William. T. 1999, Defining Supply Chain Management, Academic/ Practitioner
Summer Workshop Proceedings, APICS Educational & Research Foundation.
Warburton, D.H., 2002, Quick Response Manufacturing is Competitive, presentation to
Nottingham Trent University.
Wash, Gayle., 2002, Supply Chain strategy: Response to Environmental Change, Thesis
[BA Hons], NTU, UK
White, Andrew., 1999, Its all in a Name, Logility Inc.
Wilding, R., 1998, The supply chain complexity triangle: uncertainty generation in the
supply chain, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol.
28 No.8, pp 599-616.

289

Appendices
Appendix I
Human Nature of Working in a Project Environment
In a traditional critical path concept tasks are scheduled as-soon-as-possible (ASAP) from
the project start date. Every task has a published start and finish date. While this task
scheduled start and finish dates seems logical, it does not promote speed-to-market driven
performance. In fact, it ensures that early finishes are lost, and only late finishes
accumulate in the schedule.
Goldratt doubted that while critical path may be effective in machine driven project
environment, it needs subtle modification to suit human driven project scenario. In his
book Critical Chain Goldratt (1997) exemplified and summarized human nature of
working in a project environment and demonstrated a modified concept critical chain.
These characteristics are:
Firstly while estimating task duration, people worry about the effect of unplanned work
interruptions and generally add hidden safety. A 10-day task duration may have 5 days of
safety. This safety is hidden because the task is entered in the project as a 10-day task.
While its perfectly reasonable to have safety factor (especially with third party activities in
apparel manufacturing), but being hidden, often the purpose of safety is lost. General
human nature is to put off starting of any task until the last minute, thus eating away the
safety buffer in the beginning. Unfortunately, if the task then faces unplanned work
interruptions then the task will overrun estimate no matter how hard one works, as there
was simply not enough safety left to recover, this is referred as Student Syndrome.
Realistic estimation of activity duration time (without any buffer) and transparent pooled
buffer at important milestone and at the end of project is more realistic solution to the
problem.
Secondly work expands to fit the allotted time. If a task is estimated at 10 days, it usually
doesnt take less, people will simply adjust the level of their effort to keep busy for the
entire task schedule, and this phenomenon is called Parkinsons Law. Critical path
suggests all work should be scheduled as-late-as-possible.
Thirdly while working in a multi-project environment, people tend to stop working on one
task so that progress can be accomplished on another task in another project even though it
comes with the penalties of reduced focus and loss of efficiency. Unwittingly resources
tend to migrate between several projects in response to the latest, loudest customer demand
in an attempt to keep as many customers satisfied as possible (Goldratt 1997), this
phenomenon of showing progress on as many active projects as possible is called Multitasking. Critical chain suggests multitasking should be minimized and for that
prioritizing of activity is pre-requisite.
Fourthly as every task has a published start and finish date, and conventional wisdom
rarely reward early finishes, people tend to meet the published dateline and never
complete before time. Thus crucial early finish advantage of any activity is lost. Critical
290

chain proposes relay race approach, which de-emphasize the scheduled start and finish
dates and rather concentrate, instead, on triggering their preparation and start on the
preceding tasks progress.
Fifth, Critical Path is defined as the longest chain of tasks based upon only task
dependencies and generally does not consider resource dependencies. In the enclosed four
task example assignment both B and C can work concurrently as per dependencies are
concerned. However if common resources are to be used for B and C, the dependency
relation will change accordingly.

Picture One: Critical Path Concept

Diagram
Concept

Two:

Critical

Chain

Critical Chain is defined as the longest chain of tasks that consider both task dependencies
and resource dependencies. Thus critical chain concept is bound to work more realistically
in actual work environment where common resources are being used for a set of activities.

291

Appendix II

Indian Textile and Apparel Supply Chain

292

Manufacturer
Supplier
Buyer
Distributor
Retailer
Other, please specify

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

Fibre
Yarn
Fabric
Accessories
Garment
Home Textiles
Other, please specify

2. Which level of industry do you represent?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

1. You are a

293

In this section your organisation is being classified. Please choose the type that represents your organisation. If your organisation represents more than one
type (question no. 1-3), e.g. if you are manufacturer as well as buyer, please complete separate Feedback Format

ORGANISATIONAL CLASSIFICATION

Please do not write anything on the questionnaire, fill up the Feedback Format

Good morning / afternoon, my name is Prabir Jana, Associate Professor at NIFT, New Delhi. This questionnaire is a part of the research work undertaken by me
on Supply Chain Management in Indian Clothing Industry. This part of questionnaire (version 2000.07) aims to document the Indian Benchmark practices in
the area of product development, pre-production planning and manufacturing functions. I would like the senior operation manager of the organisation to spare
some of his valuable time answering the questionnaire, which will take approximately 45 minutes. By sharing the authentic information you will only contribute
towards development of our industry.

Supply Chain Management in Indian Clothing Industry: Pilot Survey (version 2000.07)

Appendix III-A
Supply Chain Awareness Survey: Questionnaire

Menswear
Women swear
Kids wear
Intimate apparel
Sportswear
Home textiles
Other, please specify

Spring
Trans (season between spring and summer)
Summer
Autumn (Fall)
Trans (season between autumn and winter)
Winter
Holiday

Spring
Trans (season between spring and summer)
Summer
Autumn (Fall)
Trans (season between autumn and winter)
Winter
Holiday

Yes / No.
If yes, what do you think about it? (You can tick multiple). If no, go to Q.no. 9
(a) It is a management tool (or software solution) for reducing cost
(b) It is a management tool (or software solution) for reducing time

7. Have you heard of Supply Chain Management (SCM)?

(a) Seasonal
(b) Continuous.

6. How do you perceive the business? (tick appropriate)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

5. What is the average no. of styles (production executed) per season?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

4. Write season wise percentage of total turnover.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

3. Which market segment do you serve?

294

India should be more concerned with productivity quality improvement rather SCM implementation
India should understand ERP first then talk about SCM
India should improve communication infrastructure first before talking about SCM
In this knowledge economy software tools can't replace human being. As India has great human resource, we should not bother really.
SCM is a concept, and can be implemented without computer support

11. What is the annual turnover (calculated based on factory cost of the product) of the factory?
(a) < 25 lakhs
(b) 26 - 125 lakhs
(c) 125 400 lakhs

INFORMATION FROM MANUFACTURING UNIT

In this section different statistical data of the manufacturing unit is asked. Please write down the answer in correct units or tick the closest answer.

295

10. Rank the areas where you think improvement (in terms of reducing time) is possible using modern technology in different categories of supply chain?
Max. improvement possible (5) and min. improvement possible (1)
[a] Product development (concept to style approval) time
[b] Approval of initial sample to approval of production sample
[c] Bulk fabric ordering to fabric received in house
[d] Cutting to packing
[e] Shipment leaving factory to buyers warehouse

9. Rank the areas where improvement (in terms of reducing time) is required in different categories of supply chain? Required max. improvement (5) and min.
improvement (1)
[a] Product development (concept to style approval) time
[b] Approval of initial sample to approval of production sample
[c] Bulk fabric ordering to fabric received in house
[d] Cutting to packing
[e] Shipment leaving factory to buyers warehouse

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

8. What do you believe sincerely? Please rank, strongly believe (5) to don't believe (0)

(c) It is a management tool (or software solution) for improving quality

(d) It is something beyond Enterprise solutions.
(e) It is just another technical jargon

19. What percentage of sewing machines are occupied (having work) during lean season (i.e. less than 80% work)

18. What is the total number of sewing machines in your sewing floor?

17. What is the annual operator (operators & helpers) turnover?

(a) <10%
(b) 11% - 25%
(c) 26% - 40%
(d) 41% - 55%
(e) > 55%

16. What are the total numbers of operators (operators + helpers)?

(a) < 8
(b) 9 - 30
(c) 31 - 80
(d) 81 - 130
(e) > 130 (please specify)

15. What is actual average working hours per day (Average of best six month)?

14. What is the production floor (only cutting+sewing+finishing) covered area ? (sq. mt)
(a) Sprading & Cutting
(b) Sewing
(c) Finishing

13. What is total Factory (Admn.+ Production floor) covered area ?

12. What is the annual turnover of the factory in volume?

(a) < 12500
(b) 12500 62500
(c) 62500 200000
(d) 200000 400000
(e) 400000

(d) 400 800 lakhs

(e) > 800 lakhs (please specify)

296

27. Average time (Consider average of any 20 samples developed) spent in each of the following stages of the pre-production process.
(a) Concept to style approval (initial sample) from buyer
(b) Approval of initial sample to approval of technical and fit sample
(c) Approval of technical and fit to approval of production sample
(d) Approval of production sample to start of production.

26. Average time (Consider average of any 20 samples developed) spent in each of the following stages of the product development process.
(a) Concept received from buyer to sample fabric procured
(b) Approval of fabric and sample order received from buyer
(c) Exhibition sample made and shipped

25. What is your product development (first spec to first fit sample) time? (Consider average of any 20 samples developed)

24. What is your fabric mix?

(a) Solid dyed woven
(b) Yard dyed woven
(c) Printed woven
(d) Solid dyed knits
(e) Yard dyed knits
(f) Printed knits

23. What is your product mix? Write top four products with % breakup and balance styles grouped into others.

22. What is your average throughput time? (Consider average of 20 orders in a year)

21. What are the average no. of styles handled per month? (Calculate average of best six months)

Jan ---Feb---Mar---Apr---May---Jun---Jul---Aug---Sep---Oct---Nov---Dec

20. Which are the months you work with full load (up to 80% capacity)? (tick the months)

PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND PRE-PRODUCTION PLANNING:

297

34. Rank the pre-production activities in terms of most troublesome (5) and least (1).
(a) Development and approval of embroidery from embroidery contractor
(b) Development and approval of garment wash/dyed effect from outside process house

33. Do you own the following facilities or subcontracting? Yes - No - N/A

(a) Embroidery for bulk production
(b) Garment washing/dying for bulk production
(c) Textile testing facility
(d) Garment care label making
(e) Fabric washing (for shrinkage control)

32. From how many different accessory suppliers (total) you source your accessories?

31. The reasons why all of the samples developed are not okayed for production. Rank maximum as (5) and minimum as (1)
(a) Raw material in the developed sample was not as per specification
(b) Measurement of the developed sample was not as per specification
(c) Sample reached too late to buyer
(d) Price point not accepted
(e) Order quantity was too small to accept

30. How important are the following operational issues regarding planning? Most important as (5)
(a) Compare actual to forecasted demand (of style) indicated by buyer
(b) Compare actual to forecasted demand (of fabric type) indicated by buyer
(c) Include third party capacity in calculations
(d) Visualise future capacity requirements
(e) Others, please specify

29. How important are the following operational issues regarding product development? Rank most important as (5)
(a) Communicate design electronically with the buyer
(b) Rapid calculation of accurate costings and effects of design changes
(c) Management of product development critical path
(d) Ability to transfer development data to production systems
(e) Others, please specify

298

28. What is your average sample adoption rate? No. of sampling styles get converted into production order upon total no. of sample developed, expressed in %.
(Consider average of last two seasons)

39. Sourcing of which of these accessories you face problem? Rank them according to max.(9) and min.(1) problem.
(a) Thread
(b) Fastners (Buttons, zips, rivets etc.)
(c) Interlining
(d) Shoulder pad
(e) Cord, laces, etc.
(f) Labels
(g) Tags
(h) Polybag
(i) Carton
(j) Velcro

38. Why do you have multiple suppliers for same accessory?

(a) Availability of variety
(b) Not to put "all eggs in one basket"
(c) Price comparison
(d) Different quality requirement.
(e) Lead time comparison (some are quicker and some are slower)

37. Write down details of preferred 10 accessories suppliers from abroad. (First column indicates no. of suppliers you have for any one type of accessory).

36. Write down details of preferred 10 accessories suppliers from India. (First column indicates no. of suppliers you have for any one type of accessory).

35. What do you think average cost of product development (inclusive of mistakes and rework, try the break up in %)
(a) Raw material (fabric + accessories) development charges
(b) Labour charges for pattern development
(c) Communication charges (fax, e-mail, telephone etc.)
(d) Transportation & conveyance (courier, travel etc.)
(e) Other (specify)..

(c) Textile testing of fabrics till approved

(d) Development and approval of DTM (Dyed to Match) threads, buttons, etc.
(e) Development and approval of garment care label

299

45. What is the annual average inventory (stock) of greige and finished fabric in terms of value and volume?

44. How many different fabric suppliers (total no.) do you source your fabric from?
(a) Within India
(b) From abroad

300

43. While sourcing accessories from abroad, which of the following was common? Rank as most occurrence (5) and least occurrence (1)
(a) Communication gap between supplier's office and warehouse (as you are communicating with supplier's office whereas goods are actually delivered
from supplier's warehouse)
(b) Communication gap between you and your subordinate (store staff who actually receive the goods).
(c) Delayed communication resulting delayed delivery of goods (as supplier's office and warehouse are at different places).
(d) You need to communicate something visual, which was not possible through telephone (so, need to be sent through courier).
(e) Others, specify

42. While sourcing accessories from India, which of the following was common? Rank as most instances (5) and least instances (1)
(a) Communication gap between supplier's office and warehouse (as you are communicating with supplier's office whereas goods are actually delivered
from supplier's warehouse)
(b) Communication gap between you and your subordinate (store staff who actually receives the goods).
(c) Delayed communication resulting delayed delivery of goods (as supplier's office and warehouse are at different places).
(d) You need to communicate something visual, which was not possible through telephone (so, need to be sent through courier).
(e) Other, specify

41. What type of problem you face while sourcing these accessories from abroad? Rank severest (5) to no problem (0)
(f) Getting the right quality, i.e. specification
(g) Getting the right quantity
(h) Getting it DTM (Dye to Match)
(i) Getting it in right price
(j) Getting it in specified time

40. What type of problem you face while sourcing these accessories from India? Rank severest (5) to no problem (0)
(a) Getting the right quality, i.e. specification
(b) Getting the right quantity
(c) Getting it DTM (Dye to Match)
(d) Getting it in right price
(e) Getting it in specified time

301

Thank you very much for your kind attention and patience in filling up the questionnaire. You may like to contact [email protected] for further details.

48. Write down details of preferred 10 fabric suppliers (both India & abroad):

47. Write the break up (%) of different types of fabric being sourced from suppliers abroad.

46. Write the break up (%) of different types of fabric being sourced from suppliers in India.

Appendix IIIB
Supply Chain Management in Indian Clothing Industry: Pilot Survey (version 2000.07)
QUESTIONNAIRE FEEDBACK FORM
If your organisation more than one type (question number 1-3) e.g. if you are manufacturer as well
as buyer, please complete separate questionnaire.
Organisation Name
Organisation Address

Organisation Code
Contact Person/s
Contact Person/s
(alternate)
Email Address
(Important)

ORGANISATIONAL CLASSIFICATION
QF-01

QF-02

QF-03

QF-04

QF-05

QF-06

QF-07

QF-08

QF-09

QF-10

302

INFORMATION FROM MANUFACTURING UNIT

QF-11

QF-12

QF-13

QF-14

QF-15

QF-16

QF-17

QF-18

QF-19

INFORMATION ON PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND PRE-PRODUCTION PLANNING

QF-20

Jan

QF-21

QF-22

QF-23

QF-24

QF-25

QF-26

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

QF-27

QF-28

QF-29

QF-30

June

July

Aug

QF-31

QF-32

QF-33

QF-34

QF-35

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

303

QF-36

QF-37

Fill the table

No. of
Supply from
Supplier (location)

Supply to
(location)

Accessory
type

Max. lead
time (days)

Gurgaon

Thread
Thread
Button
Zips
Interlining
Shd. pad
Cord
Label
Tags
polybag
Carton
Others

21

Supply to
(location)

Accessory
type

Max. lead
time (days)

Delhi

Fill the table

No. of
Supply from
Supplier (location)

Min.
lead
time
(days)
7

Min.
lead
time
(days)

Thread
Button
Zips
Interlining
Shd. pad
Cord
Label
Tags
polybag
Carton
Others
QF-38

QF-39

QF-40

QF-41

QF-42

QF-43

QF-44

304

QF-45

QF-46

Inventory
Value

Greige Fabric

Finished Fabric

Meterage
Write the break up (%) of different types of fabric being sourced from suppliers in INDIA
%
Max. lead Min.
lead
Sourcing of following fabrics
time (days) time (days)
100% cotton greige fabric
100% manmade (rayon, polyester etc.) greige
Blended greige fabric
Cotton yarn dyed stripes & plaids (plain / dobby)
Manmade & blended yarn dyed stripes & checks
Blended solid dyed and printed
Cotton solid dyed and printed
Manmade solid dyed and printed
Cotton greige knits
Cotton yarn dyed & jacquard knits
Cotton printed knits
Blended greige knits
Blended yarn dyed & jacquard knits
Blended printed knits
Others

QF-47

Write the break up (%) of different types of fabric being sourced from suppliers in ABROAD
%
Max. lead Min.
lead
time (days) time (days)
Sourcing of following fabrics
100% cotton greige fabric
100% manmade (rayon, polyester etc.) greige fabric
Blended greige fabric
100% polyester finished woven fabric
Denims
100% polyester Knits
100% polyester polar fleece
Blended yarn dyed & jacquard knits
Others

QF-48

Write down details of preferred Ten Fabric suppliers (both India and abroad)
Supplier
Supply from
Received at Fabric type
Max.
lead Min.
lead
time (days)
time (days)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J

305

Appendix IV
Brief of Organisations Participated in Pre-production Time Analysis
Kirat
Kirat is a 15 yrs old company, headquartered in Delhi, specialised in making nightwear for
European and American market and having Rs. 160 million turnovers in 2003. The
company has centralised merchandising division and two location of production. In the
head office it has merchandising division and also has cutting and finishing facilities but
subcontract the sewing capacity. The company also has an integrated manufacturing facility
of 20,000 sq ft. in Haryana, around 30 km from the head office. In the integrated facility
Kirat has cutting, sewing and finishing facility of 1500 garments per day. The head office
has centralised merchandising department where 5 merchandisers control the total activity.
The job responsibilities of merchandisers at Kirat are designated as handling different
accounts. The company was strong in product development and 34% of the eventual order
is from its own collection. The company participated in longitudinal study.

Uni Style Impex

Uni Style Impex (hereinafter referred as USI) is a owner driven company specialising in cut
and sew knitwear catering to high value childrens and ladies wear for European market.
The export division has clocked Rs. 100 million turnovers in the first year of inception in
2003. The experienced staffs were having experience from erstwhile domestic enterprise
with a new breed of young professionals with export manufacturing background. The
company is very strong in product development and 87% of the eventual orders secured are
from its own development collection. The company has 100% in house manufacturing
capacity of 800 garments per day. The company participated in longitudinal study.

Gokaldas Images
Gokaldas Images (hereinafter referred as GI) is a owner driven but professionally run
organization. Indias one of the most respected and large manufacturing organization based
in Bangalore. GI has more than 28 manufacturing facilities located around Bangalore and
having turnover of $ 100 million. The dedicated manufacturing facilities make wide variety
306

of products form shirts, trousers, ladies fashion, structured garments like suits, ski jackets
and lingerie. The manufacturing location participated in the research was making ladies
high fashion merchandise.

Essel Inc.
Essel is a buying agent based in Bangalore sourcing high fashion merchandise for retailers
from UK and South East Asian countries. Essel is a partnership organization having
turnover of $ 5 million in 2003. It was known to researcher that Essel has relatively netter
system of record keeping of merchandising activities.

H&M
Liaison office for H&M Sweden sourcing high fashion merchandise. The turnover during
2003 was $ 80 million. The buying division participated in the study was sourcing from all
over India. Thus collecting record will have representation from all over India. The
company used to have custom built MIS software for record keeping and follow up.

V Overseas
Vishesh is a 15 yrs old company, headquartered in Delhi, makes high fashion garments and
having approximately $ 8 million turnovers in 2003. The company has multiple location of
production in NCR.

Misami Garments
Misami was a 10 yrs old company, headquartered in Chennai, makes high fashion garments
for boys and childrens and having approximately $ 8 million turnovers in 2003. The
company has multiple 4 location of production in Chennai and Bangladesh

ACC
Ambattur Clothing Company (hereinafter referred as ACC) is a owner driven but
professionally run organization. Indias one of the most respected and large manufacturing
organization based in Chennai. ACC has more than 10 manufacturing facilities located
around Chennai and having turnover of $ 100 million. The dedicated manufacturing

307

facilities make wide variety of bottoms, trousers, mens shirts. The manufacturing location
participated in the research was making mens shirt

Auric
Auric style was a 15 yrs old company, headquartered in Delhi, makes high fashion
garments and having approximately $ 4 million turnovers in 2003. The company also
sources garments for high fashion European buyer from several manufacturers in NCR. The
company claimed to be using MS-Excel based time and action calendar

Vertex
Vertex Pvt. Limited is headquartered in NCR and have installed capacity of 48000 standard
minutes per hour. Vertex Pvt. Limited has Rs. 900 million turnovers during year 2006, truly
representing Indian exporter in medium to big category as explained in chapter 1.3. The
company is working with multiple procurement channels; medium to big buying office,
importers abroad as well as direct export. The company works with both woven and
knitwear, having vertically backward integrated knitting facility while in woven category
company works with domestic as well as imported fabrics. The company has 85% in-house
own manufacturing and 15% out-house fabrication to balance the seasonal fluctuation. The
company is headed by a dynamic and visionary leader, alumni from countrys top business
school. The company uses a web based ERP solution to manage its data. The young team
of management are open to ideas and most importantly guided by a willing and cooperative top management. The company participated in Longitudinal study.

308

Appendix V

Value Stream Mapping Format

309

Appendix VI
Part-I
style no
Buying agency
destination
Activity

Buyer meeting
Fit sample making
a-requisition making
finalised design making
tracing design into butter
paper
tracing
design
into
garment
pattern making/cutting
cutting of fabric
Embellishments
Embroidery
Sewing
Finishing
Packing
sending the sample to
buying house
TOTAL
comments of the buyer
sending the sample to
buyer
Buyer analyse fit of the
garment
decision making
sending back to the vendor
TOTAL
5) Size set sample making
a-requisition making
tracing design into butter
paper
tracing
design
into
garment
pattern grading n cutting
(per piece include)
cutting of fabric
Embellishment/embroidery

s4r 1147
AIE
London
Actua Non-value
value added time
l time added in Waiting
(in min)
min
Time in
in
%
Conversi transpor days
waiting
on
tation

6
15
7
57
13
86
16
20
2
45
216

45

45

21339

99

31

38865

87

2880
15

15

2880
5760

28
75
37
183
67
428
310

sewing of garments
Finishing
Packing
TOTAL

80
94
12
1005

2356

70

Part - II
Non-value
value added (in
added
Actua
min)
time
in Waiting
l time
min
Time in
in
%
Transpo
days
Convers
waiting
rtation
ion time
time
time
Comments of the buyer
sending the sample to
buyer
sending to buying agency
Analysis of the fit of the
garment
decision making
sending back to the vendor
TOTAL
Reqisition for lab dips
from supplier
Making swatch card
sending to the supplier
making of lab dip
recipie making
knitting samples
Dyeing and finishing
packing and sending to the
exporter
TOTAL
Comments of the buyer
sending to buyer
Analysing the lab dips
tests if required
sending back to the vendor
TOTAL
Making purchase order
for bulk fabric
Costing of the fabric
rate/lead time discussions
with suppliers
making purchase order
sending to the supplier

1440

75

75

1440
2880

10005

77

976

41

12

2865

50

14
480
120
30
300
480
464

960
1440

15

15

1440
2880

9
480
311

Bulk
fabric
manufacturing
fabric
development
if
required
recipe making
yarn dyeing (if required)
Rewinding
knitting
dyeing (if applicable)
finishing
checking
packing
sending to the exporter
TOTAL

420
540
2880
120

3969

480
960

29

8991

65

Part -III
Non-value
Actual added time Waiting
time inin min
time in %
Conversion transportati Days waiting
time
on time
time

value added (in min)

Sending bulk fabric for

color approval
making swatch card
16
sending
to
the
buyer/buying agency
Comments of the buyer
Analysis of colour
tests if required
sending back to the vendor
TOTAL
16
Lab test approval
sending for lab test to
testing centre
Lab tests done
sending reports back to
exporter
Sending the report to
buyer/buying agency
Analysis of the report
15
comments send back to
buyer
TOTAL
15
Sourcing of Trims
making requisition for15

45

45
90

1814

94

1260

66

120

120
45

480
645

312

threads labels beadings

sending
to
different
30
suppliers
getting
back
from
30
suppliers
making swatch card
16
sending the sample to
buying house
Approval for embroidery
10
threads
Approval for labels
5
Approval for laces
10
sending the sample to
exporter
TOTAL
116

-30

45

480
525

3199

83

Part-IV
Non-value
value added (in min)
added time
Actual
in min.
Waiting
time in
time in %
transport
days
Conversion
waiting
ation
time
time
time
Photo shoot sample making
a-requisition making
6
tracing design into butter
15
paper
tracing design into garment 7
cutting of fabric
13
Embellishment
86
Embroidery
86
Sewing
16
Finishing
20
Packing
2
sending the sample to buying
house
TOTAL
251
cutting of fabric
preperatory for spreading
9
Spreading
57
marker making (manual)
29
Cutting
28
Order qty
2100
No of lays
18
TOTAL
2166
Embelishments
streaching the fabric in the1

45
45

184

38

1674

44

313

frame
making design on the fabric 2
beading work
78
TOTAL
170905
Embroidery
hand
embroidery
(if
applicable)
TOTAL
0
Sewing
Sewing of garments
15
TOTAL
31500
Finishing
thread cutting
3
Measurement checking
4
ironing
5
packing n tagging
4
TOTAL
34335
Packing
Inspection
packing into cartons
13
TOTAL
546
245609

18

4415

17

6900

85

16

813

11

414

43

14790

216
39768
38
Actual
no
of
(total
total
days
% waiting
None of the activities are
waiting time
conversion transporta
(not in
considered in critical path
time
time)
tion time
critical
path)

314