Control Systems

Root Locus Diagram

Objective
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:

Plot the Root Locus for a given Transfer Function by varying gain of the system,

Analyse the stability of the system from the root locus plot.

Determine all parameters related to Root Locus Plot.

Plot Complimentary Root Locus for negative values of Gain

Plot Root Contours by varying multiple parameters.

Introduction
The transient response of a closed loop system is dependent upon the location of closed
loop poles. If the system has a variable gain then location of closed loop poles is dependent
on the value of gain. It is therefore necessary that we must know the how the location of
closed loop varies with change in the value of loop gain is varied. In control system design it
may help to adjust the gain to move the closed loop poles at desired location. So, root locus
plot gives the location of closed loop poles as system gain K is varied.
Root loci: The portion of root locus when k assume positive values: that is 0 k
Complementary Root loci: The portion of root loci k assumes negative value, that is
k 0
Root contours: Root loci of when more than one system parameter varies.
Criterion for Root Loci
Angle condition: It is used for checking whether any point is lying on root locus or not & also
the validity of root locus shape for closed loop poles.
For negative feedback systems, the closed loop poles are roots of Characteristic Equation
1 G sHs 0

G s H s 1

G s H s 1800 tan1 0 1800 1800 2q 11800

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Control Systems

Angle condition may be started as, for a point to lie on root locus, the angle evaluated at that

point must be an odd multiple of 180

Magnitude condition: It is used for finding the magnitude of system gain k at any point on
the root locus.
1 G sHs 0

G s H s 1

G s H s 1
Solved Examples
Problem: Determine whether the points s 3 4 j & s 3 2 j lie on the root locus of

G s Hs

s 1 4

ss

Solution: G s H s

3 4 j 1

2 4 j

G s H s 00 4 1800 63.430 4640 Not an odd multiple of 1800

G sHs

ss
2

k
3 2 j 1

k
2 2 j

G s H s 00 1350 4 5400 3 1800 =Odd multiple of

1800 .

Control Systems

Advantages of Root Locus

The root locus is a powerful technique as it brings into focus the complete dynamic
response of the system and further, being a graphical technique, an approximate root locus
can be made quickly and designer can be easily visualize the effect of varies system parameters
an root location.
The root locus also provides a measure of sensitively of roots to the vacations in parameters
being considered.
It may further be pointed out here that root locus technique is applicable to single as well
as multiple loop system.
Construction Rules Of Root Locus
Rule 1: The root locus is symmetrical about real axis (G(s)H(s) = -1)
Rule 2: Each branch of Root Locus originates at an open loop pole and terminates at an open
loop zero or infinity.
Let P = number of open loop poles
Z = number of open loop zeroes
And if P > Z
Then,
No. of branches of root locus = P
No. of branches terminating at zeroes = Z
No. of branches terminating at infinity = (P Z)

Rule 3: A point on real axis is said to be on root locus if to the right side of their point the sum
of number of open loop poles & zeroes is odd.
Ex: G s

k s 2 s 6
s s 4 s 8

P 3 ; Z 2 ; PZ 1

NRL Not Root Locus; RL Root Locus

Control Systems

Rule 4: Angle of asymptotes

The P Z branches will terminate at infinity along certain straight lines known as asymptotes
of root locus.
Therefore, number of asymptotes = (P - Z)

2q 1 180
Angle of asymptotes is given by:

P Z

; q 0,1,2,3.......

Suppose if P Z = 2, then angle of asymptotes would be:

2 1 1
2 0 1 1800

900 and
1800 2700
1
2
2
2

Solved Examples
Problem: Find the angle of asymptotes of a system whose characteristic equation is
s s 4 s2 2s 1 k s 1 0

Solution: The characteristic equation can be written in standard form as shown below:

K s 1
0
s s 4 s2 2s 1

G sHs

K s 1
s s 4 s2 2s 1

P 4 ; Z 1 ; PZ 3
2 0 1
1800 600

1
3

2 1 1
1800 1800

2 2 1
1800 3000

3
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Control Systems

Rule 5: Centroid
It is the intersection point of asymptotes on the real axis, it may or may not be a part of root
locus.
centroid

Real part of open loop poles Real part of open loop zeroes
P Z

Solved Examples
Problem: Find centroid of the system whose characteristic equation is given as:
s3 5s2 K 6 s k 0

3
2
Solution: s 5s sk k 6s 0 => s3 5s2 6s k s 1 0

k s 1
k s 1

s3 5s2 6s s s 2 s 3

P = 3, Z = 2
Poles = 0, -2, -3
centroid

0 2 3 1
3 1

zeroes = -1
2,0

Rule 6: Break Points

They are those points where multiple roots of the characteristics equation occur.
Procedure to find Break Points:
1. Construct 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0
2. Write k in terms of s
dk
3. Find
0
ds
dk
4. The roots of
0 give the locations of break-away points.
ds
5. To test the validity of breakaway points substitute in step 2.
If k > 0, it means a valid breakaway point.

Control Systems

Breakaway Points
If the break point lies between two successive poles then it is termed as a Breakaway Point.
Predictions
1) The branches of root locus either approach or leave the breakaway points at an angle of

1800

Where n = no. of branches approaching or leaving breakaway point.

2) The complex conjugate path for the branches of root locus approaching or leaving or
breakaway points is a circle.
3) Whenever there are 2 adjacently placed poles on the real axis with the section of real axis
between there as part of RL, then there exists a breakaway point between the adjacently placed
poles.
Solved Examples
Problem: Plot Root Locus for the system shown below:

Solution: Applying Construction Rules of the Root Loci

C s
R s

G s

k
s2 2s k

k
s s 2

Rule 2: P = 2, Z = 0, P Z = 2
Rule 3: Section of real axis lying on Root Locus

Control Systems

Rule 4:
1

2 0 1
2

Rule 5: centroid

2 1
180 900 ;
1800 2700
2 2

0 2 0
2

Rule 6: Breakaway points

s2 2s k 0 => k s2 2s
dk
2s 2 0
ds

s 1

From the third prediction about Breakaway points we know that there must be a breakaway
point between s=0 and s=-2. Hence s= -1 is a valid breakaway point.
Since centroid and breakaway point coincide the branches of root locus will leave breakaway
point along the asymptotes.

Break in points
The points where two branches of roots locus converge are called as break in points. A Breakin Point lies between two successive zeroes.
To differentiate between break in & break away points.
d2k
0 For break in points
ds2

d2k
0 For break-away points
ds2

Otherwise by observation a breakaway point lies between two poles and a break-in point lies
between two zeroes.

Control Systems

Predictions about Break-in Points:

1. Whenever there are 2 zeroes on real axis & the portion of real axis between 2 zeroes lies
on root locus then there is a break in points between 2 zeroes.

2. Whenever there exists a zero on real axis & real axis on left is on root locus & P > Z, then
there will be a break in to left of zero.

Effect of adding poles to a transfer function

Suppose we add a pole at s=-4 to our previous Transfer Function G s

The new transfer function will be:

G s

K
s s 2 s 4

Rule 2: P = 3, Z = 0, P Z = 3

Rule 3: The sections of real axis lying on Root Locus is shown on right

K
s s 2

Control Systems

Rule 4: 600 , 1800 , 3000

Rule 5: Centroid
0 2 4 0

2
30

Rule 6: Break away points

Characteristic Equation: s 6s 8s K 0 => K s 6s 8s

dK
3s2 12s 8 0
ds
3s2 12s 8 0 s 0.845, 3.15

Since Breakaway point must lie between two successive poles that is it must lie between 0 and
-2 so s=-0.845 is a valid breakaway point whereas s=-3.15 is invalid.
The root locus for this system is shown below:

Here, the root locus shifts towards right & hence stability decreases.
Effect of adding zeroes to a transfer function
Suppose we add a zero to the transfer function in the previous case at s= -1, then the Transfer
Function becomes:

G s

K s 1
s s 2 s 4

Control Systems

Rule 2: P 3, Z 1, P Z 2
Rule 3: The sections of real axis lying on Root Locus are shown below:

Rule 4: 900 , 2700

Rule 5: centroid

0 2 4 1
2

2.5

Rule 6: Breakaway point

Characteristic Equation
s3 6s2 8s
K
s1

dk

ds

of

Closed

Loop

s 1 3s2 12s 8 s3 6s2 8s

s 1

System

is:

s3 6s2 8s Ks K 0

0 s 2.9

The branches originate at Breakaway Point and tend to infinity along the asymptotes.
Here, the root locus shifts towards left and hence stability increase.

10

=>

Control Systems

Solved Examples
Problem: Draw Root Locus for the system whose open loop transfer function is

G s

K s 2
s s 1

Solution: Applying Construction rules of the Root Loci

Rule 2: P 2, Z 1, P Z 1
Rule 3: The sections of real axis lying on Root Locus are shown below:

Rule 4: Angle of Aymptotes 1800

Rule 5: centroid

0 1 2
1

Rule 6: Break away points

s s 1 K s 2 0 => K

dk
0
ds

s2 s
s 2

s 2 2s 1 s2 s 1
2

s 2

s2 4s 2 0 => s 2 2 0.6, 3.4

Since, s = -0. Lie between two consecutive poles it is a Break away point and since s = -3.4 lies
between a zero and infinity it is a break-in point.
So, the root locus looks like as shown below:

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Control Systems

Proof of path being a circle

k s b
s s a

Let s x jy

K x jy b

x jy x jy a

For s x jy

K x b jy

x2 2 jxy ax jay y 2

K x b jy
x2 ax y 2 j 2xy ay

lies on the root locus, angle should be odd multiple of 1800

y
1 2xy ay 1800
tan1

tan

x2 ax y 2
x b

Taking tan on both sides

y
2xy ay

0
2
x b x ax y 2

2
2
x2 ax y2 2x a x b 0 => x 2bx y ab 0

x b 2 y2 b b a

centre b,0
radius b b a

So, in such a case the centre of circular trajectory of Root Locus lies at the zero of Open Loop
System.

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Control Systems

Rule 7: Intersection of Root Locus with imaginary axis

Roots of auxiliary equation A(s) at k k

max

(i.e. Maximum value of Gain K for which the

closed loop system is Stable) from Routh Array gives the intersection of Root locus with
imaginary axis.
The value of k k

max

is obtained by equating the coefficient of s1 in the Routh Array to zero.

Solved Examples
Problem: Find the intersection of root locus with the imaginary axis and also the intersection
of asymptotes with imaginary axis for the system whose open loop Transfer Function is given
by G s

k
.
s s 2 s 4

Solution: Characteristic Equation of the system is given as

s3 6s2 8s k 0
Routh Array:

s3
s2
s1
s0

6
K
48 k
6
K

For stability

48 k
0 k 48 & k 0
6

range 0 k 48
At k k

max

48

A s 6s2 k 0 6s2 48 0

s j 8 j2.82

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Control Systems

Shortcut method
If the Transfer Function is of the type

G s

K
s s a s b

Intersection of RL with j axis is given by

s j ab

Intersection of asymptotes with j axis

Since we are aware about the angle of asymptote from Rule-4 and also the x-axis intercept of
the asymptote which is centroid so we can find y-intercept as shown below:

tan y

tan60 y

y 2 3 3.4

To find Gain, k at any point on root locus geometrically

Pr oduct of vector length of poles

Pr oduct of vector length of zeroes

Suppose, we need to find Gain k of the root locus plot for 0.5 , then we need to find the
roots of characteristic equation corresponding to 0.5 ,which can be done by finding
intersection of root locus with a straight line oriented
and passing through origin.

fromve x axis in clockwise direction

cos1 600
l l l
p1 p2 p3
Gain, k Pr oduct of vector length of poles
1
Pr oduct of vector length of zeroes
This is shown in the figure below.

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Control Systems

Rule 8: Angle of Departure and Arrival

The angle made by root locus with real axis when it departs from a complex open loop poles
is called as angle of departure.
The angle made by root locus with real axis when it arrives at complex open loop zero is called
as angle of arrival.

angle of departure 180 GH'

D
angle of arrival 180 GH'
A

GH' = angle of the function excluding the concerned poles at the poles itself.

Solved Examples
Problem: Plot Root Locus for the system whose open loop transfer function is given by:

G sHs

k
s s 4 s2 4s 20

Solution: Rule 2: P = 4, Z = 0, P Z = 4
Rule 3: The section of real axis lying on root locus is shown
In adjoining figure

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Control Systems

Rule 4: 450 , 1350 , 2250 , 3150

1
2
3
4
0 2 2 4 0

Rule 5: centroid

Rule 6: Breakaway points

s4 8s3 36s2 80s K 0

K s4 8s3 36s2 80s
dk
3
0 = 4s
ds

24s2 72s 80 0 => s= 2, 2 j2.45

Note: To check validity of complex break point use angle criterion.

Rule 7: Routh Array

s4

36 K

s3
s2

80 0

26

s1
s0

2080 8k
26
K

For stability

2080 8k
0 k 260 & K > 0
26

range 0 k 260

For k=260 A.E.= A s 26s2 k 0

26s2 260 0 =>

s j3.16

Intersection of asymptotes with j axis

y tan 45 2 j2

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Control Systems

Rule 8: Angle of departure

40
1
0
180 tan1
180 tan 2 116.56
p1
0

900
p2
40
0
tan1
63.4
p3

Sum of Angles from zeroes - Sum of Angles from Poles

z p
180 180 116.6 90 63.4 180 270 900
D
Else

G s Hs

s 2 4 j

K
K

s s 4 s 2 4 j s 2 4 j 2 4 j 2 4 j 8 j

GH' tan1 4 tan1 4 900 180 tan1 4 2 tan1 4 2 900 = 270

2
2
180 270 900
D

So, the root locus of the system looks like as shown below:

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Control Systems

Problem: Plot Root Locus for the system whose Open Loop Transfer Function is given by
G s

k s2 2s 5

s 2 s 0.5

Solution: Rule 2: P = 2, Z = 2, P Z = 0
Rule 3: The section of real axis lying on Root Locus is shown below:

Since P-Z = 0, Rule 4 and Rule 5 are of no use as there are no asymptotes.
Rule 6: Breakaway points
Characteristic Equation of the system is:

s2 2s 5

s2 1.5s 1
2
s 2 s 0.5 k s 2s 5 0 => k

dk
0 => s 0.4, 3.6
ds

Here, since Breakaway point must lie between two consecutive poles so s = -0.4 is a valid
Breakaway Pont whereas s = 3.6 is an invalid point.
Rule 7: s2 1 k s 1.5 2k 5k 1 0
Routh Array:

s2

1k

5k 1

s1
s0

1.5 2k

5k 1

For stability 1 k 0 k 1 & 1.5 2k 0 k 0.75 & 5k 1 0 k 0.2

range 0.2 k 0.75

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Control Systems

k k

max

0.75

A.E. = A s 1 k s2 5k 1 1.75s2 5 0.75 1 0

s j1.25
Rule 8: Angle of arrival

G s

k s 1 2 j s 1 2 j

s 2 s 0.5

at s 1 2j
A
GH'

1 2 j 1 2 j

3 2 j 0.5 2 j

3 tan1 2 0.5

tan1 4 j tan1 2

2
GH' 900 tan1 tan1 4 900 760 340 200

3
1800 200 2000

The Root Locus for the system looks like as shown below:

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Control Systems

Analysis of system having dead time or transportation lag

Dead Time: It is one of the form of non linearity and is defined as the time in which a system
does not respond to change in input. It is approximated as a zero in RHS s plane.
Transfer function having poles or zeroes in RHS s plane are called as non minimum phase
functions.

For curve 1
Output y(t) = input x(t)
For curve 2
y t x t T

Applying Laplace Transform both sides

Y s esT s

Y s

X s

esT

Time domain approximation

y t x t T x t Tx t

T2
x t ...................
2!

y t x t Tx t

Y s X s sTX s X s 1 sT X s esT
esT 1 sT

Ex: G s

k 1 s
kes

s s 3 s s 3

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Control Systems

Complimentary Root Locus (CRL)

Angle Condition:

G s H s 00 2q1800
Magnitude Condition:

G s H s 1
Construction Rules
Rule 1: The CRL is symmetrical about real axis G s H s 1
Rule 2: Number of branches terminating at infinity is (P Z).
Rule 3: A point on real axis is said to be on CRL if to the right side of the point the sum of
open loop poles & zeroes is even.
Rule 4: Angle of asymptotes
2q 1800
, q 1, 2,3................

P Z

Rule 5: Centroid: same as Root locus

Rule 6: Break point: Same as RL
Rule 7: Intersection of CRL with j axis same as root locus.
Rule 8: Angle of departure & arrival.

Where GH'
Z
P

Solved Examples
Problem: Plot Root Locus for the system whose Open Loop Transfer Function is
Kes
G s
s s 3

21

Control Systems

Solution:

G s

k 1 s
s s 3

k s 1
s s 3

So, here the gain becomes negative and we thus plot the Complimentary Root Locus.
Rule 2: P = 2, Z = 1, P Z = 1
Rule 3: The section of real axis lying on Root Locus is shown in the figure below:

Rule 6: Breakaway points

Characteristic Equation of the system is:

K 1 s
s s 3

s2 3s
s s 3 k 1 s 0 => k
1s
dk
0=
ds

1 s 2s 3 s2 3s 1

1 s 2

s2 2s 3 0 => s=3,-1
Since Breakaway point must lie between two consecutive poles, so it must lie between 0 and 3 and hence s=-1 is a valid breakaway point.

Rule 7: Intersection of Root Locus with Imaginary Axis

Characteristic Equation: s2 s 3 k k 0

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Control Systems

Routh Array:

s2
s1

3k 0

s0

For stability 3-k>0 => k<3 & k>0

Range 0<k<3
k k

max

A.E.= A s s2 k 0

s j1.732

Root Contours
Root contours are multiple root locus diagrams obtained by varying multiple parameters in a
transfer function diagram in same s plane.

G sHs

k s
s s 1 s 8

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Control Systems

Case 1: let 0 , and gain K is varied

G s

s 1 s 8

Case 2: In this case, gain K=1 and is varied

For plotting Root Locus with respect to , we must first manipulate Characteristic Equation in
such a way that acts as gain of the system.

k s
s s 1 s 8

0 => s s 1 s 8 k s 0

k
0
s s 1 s 8 ks

1 G sHs 0

G sHs

k
s s 1 s 8 ks

Put k = 1

G sH s

s s2 9s 9

24