Geographies for Advanced Study Edited by Professor Stanley H. Beaver, M.A., F.R.G.S. The British Isles: A Geographic and Economic Survey Central Europe Concepts in Climatology East Africa Eastern Europe Geography of Population Geomorphology The Glaciations of Wales and Adjoining Regions An Historical Geography of South Africa An Historical Geography of Western Europe before 1800 Human Geography Introduction to Climatic Geomorphology Land, People and Economy in Malaya The Landforms of the Humid Tropics, Forests and Savannas Malaya, Indonesia, Borneo and the Philippines North America The Polar World A Regional Geography of Western Europe 7 The Scandinavian World The Soviet Union Statistical Methads and the Geographer Structural Geomorphology The Tropical World Urban Essays: Studies in the Geography of Wales Urban Geography West Africa The Western Mediterranean WorldStructural Geomorphology J. Tricart Director, Centre de Géographie Appliquée. University of Strasbourg Translated by S. H. Beaver Professor of Geography. University of Keele and E. Derbyshire Senior Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Keele iy aE mY LongmanLongman 1724-1974 LONGMAN GROUP LIKETED London and LONGMAN INC , New York Associated companses, Branches and representatives throughout the world English translation © Longman Group Limited 1974 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Copyright owner. Géomorphologye Siructurate frst published by the Société d’Edition d’Enseignement Supéricur, Paris 1968 English edition first published 1974 ISBN 0 582 48462 6 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number. 73-86130 Printed in Great Britain by William Clowes & Sons, Limited London, Beccles and ColchesterContents List of illustrations Translators’ preface Introduction: the place of geomorphology among the earth sciences The nature of geomorphology General notions of causality in geomorphology Internal forces Lithology Tectonics External forces General morphogenetic evolution Morphoclimatic systems Summary of the history of geomorphology 1 The globe—continents and oceans Distribution of land and sea The pattern of land and sea The continents Islands and seas Distribution of heights and depths The hypsographic curve The arrangement of the major orographical units Continents Ocean basins Structure of the crust and origin of continents Structure of the crust Data derived from earthquakes The crust and its character Dynamism of the crust: isostasy Variations in sea level and coastal changes The mechanism of eustatism xiii ROoOWAneContents Enstatic equilibrium Glacio-eustatism Oscillations of sea level during the Quaternary Correlation of former sea levels Quaternary variations in the general sca level 2 Geosynclines and fold belts Evolution of geosynclines The period of downwarping and heavy sedimentation Origin and distribution of geosynclinal troughs: the unilateral troughs; the intracontinental troughs Sedimentation and the appearance of geosynclines The cordillera phase The opposing roles of regional tension and isostasy The evolution of cordilleras and furrows Tendency towards gradual stabilisation The orogenic phase Deformation of the gcosynclinal suite ‘The end phase of geosynclincal development and regencrated geosynclines Relief forms of geosynclines Massifs dominated by vertical movements: cordilleras, deepseated folds General characteristics: vigour of dissection; the weakness of differential erosion Distinctive qualities of structural units Chains dominated by the ejective style: thrusts, thrust blocks, klippen Common characteristics: tectonic vigour; discontinuity of strata ‘The relief of overthrust blocks The relief of klippen and fault blocks: the klippen; the fault blocks The intermontane basins Accumulation in intermontane basins Tectonic deformation and dissection : deformation and infilling; deformation and evolution of basin margins; deformation and basin drainage General structure of the geosynclinal folded chains Arrangement of the structural units: continental geosynclines; littoral (unilateral) geosynclines Organisation of the drainage networks Folded cover rocks and their relief Flowing parallel folds (classic Jura style) Tectonic style of flowing folds Relief on flowing folds: Jura-type relief forms; genesis of Jura- type relief 50 52 55 58 95 95 98 102 106 106 108 I ur Ig. 118 120 123Contents Interaction of folds and faults The comtois style: the fold fault; pinch; anchorage The Provengal style Folds in rigid cover rocks Diapirs and mushroom folds Conclusion 3 The platform regions The tectodynamics and structural evolution of platforms Characteristics of platform tectodynamics The style of the deformations: openfold deformation of broad radius ; minor features The rhythm of the deformations General geomorphological evolution of the platforms Erosion and sedimentation on the platforms: lithology of the antéclises; tectonic style and modes of dissection ; the nature of the deposits Structural differentiation of the platforms: the duration of development; the types of tectonic disturbance Types of relief on the platforms Relief forms of antéclises The role of lithology: Appalachian relief; pseudo-Appalachian relief and other lithological types Relative importance of planation and tectonics: conditions of planation development; residual relief Types of antéclise: sedimentary antéclises; metamorphic anté- clises Relief forms of synéclises Specific morphogenetic styles: the influence of sedimentation; the influence of tectonic history; the conditions which unleash dissection The relief of cuestas: characteristics; structural factors in the development of cuestas; the importance of the different methods of dissection Landforms developed at the contact between cover rocks and shields: contacts beneath discordant deposits; shield margins with asymmetrical peripheral depressions; shield margins with discontinuous depressions Conclusions 4 Faults and volcanoes Faults and fractures Part played by faults and fractures in tectogenesis The tectodynamics of faults: mechanical aspect ; the time aspect The disposition of faults: quantitative analysis; faults and regional structure 132 134, 139 141 143 146 147 148 148 149 154 157 157 165 169 169 183 189 200 206 209 210 210 210 216 viiContents Geomorphological role of faults and fractures Tectonic relief forms: the shaping of active fault scarps; active faults and the hydrographic system; residual and composite fault scarps Shatter belts and dykes: shatter belts; induration by faults Derived slopes resulting from differential erosion: reversed or opposed faultline scarps; subdued faultline scarps; exaggerated faultline scarps The geomorphological role of vulcanism Volcanic deposits and their formation Magmatic differentiation: structure of the carth’s crust; the role of gas; the role of temperature Principal types of volcanic deposits: petrographical classification; classification by physical form Modes of deposition of volcanic materials : the Lacroix classifica- tion of volcanic eruptions; the rhythm of vulcanicity Volcanic landforms and their evolution Simple forms: larva flows; aiguilles and domes; pyroclastic deposits; mud volcanoes; destructive forms—craters Composite volcanoes: stratovolcanoes; complexes of cones and calderas ; subsidence volcanoes (Scottish type) Volcanic structures Evolution of lava flows Denudation of vents, plugs and dykes Bibliography Index viii 238 243 244 244 248 252 255 255 266 273 273 277 282 303List of illustrations 0.1 Diagram of causal relationships in geomorphology 11 Coherence of the areas of continental character (after L. Egved, 1957, p. 107) 1.2 Sigmoid axes of continents and oceans (afler P. Fourmaner, 1962, p. 1416) 1.3 Global distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes 1.4 Structural map of the world, after Glangeaud, Beloussov, Gutenberg, Richter and others The Flandrian transgression, based on C,, dating (from H. Graul, 1959) Glacio-eustatic oscillations of sea level during the Quaternary (after Farbridge, 1961, p. 131) 2.1 Schematic outline of geosynclinal development according to Beloussov (1951) 2.2 Schematic diagram ofa bilateral tectogene: the Spanish-Moroccan assemblage (after Glangeaud, 1957) 2.3 Geophysical structure of the East Indian arc (after Umbgrove, 1949, and Auboum, 1961) 24 Schematic map of the tectonic evolution of the central Mediterranean (after Muratov, 1962, p. 188) 2.5 Collapse structure: the ‘Barre de Sisteron” 2.6 Accordant summit levels (gipfeffluir) of the Sierra de la Culata, in the Venezuelan Andes 2.7. The rift valley of Lagunillas, in the Venezuelan Andes 2.8 Nappes in the southern Tell: schematic sections by A. Caire, 1962 2.9 Folded strata in a nappe, in the Diablerets massif, Switzerland 2.10 Schematic section across the Tellian nappes (on the Bordj-bou-Arreridj map- sheet) (after Caire, 1962) 2.11 A geosynclinal chain formed by the piling up of nappes (the ‘hyperplastic’ form) in western Timor (after Lemoine, 1958, p. 209) 2.12 A series of sections across the Nepalese Himalaya (after Hagen, 1954, Pp. 327) 2.13 The front of a nappe, near Sallanches in Savoy 2.14 Sections across the Djurdjura, showing fractured recumbent folds (after Flandrin, 1952) 2.15 Recumbent folds (*ejected’ style) in the southern Pindus, Greece (afler Antonin, 1959) 16 The flank of an anti ti an line, at southern foot of Lubéron, western pre-Alps ine in quartzitic sandstones, in the Venezuelan Andes ticlinal ridge crossed by a gorge, Kuh-i-Kialan, Iran (drawn by Rambert from an aerial photograph) Mountainside, and part of annular valley, near Bienne in the Swiss Jura The valley of Pont de Gueydan, Alpes Maritimes 2.21 An asymmetric anticline with eroded core, Bou Amrane, in the middle Moulouya valley of Morocco 27 30 38 53, 59 67 69 n 74 77 82 86 98 100 Tor 102 103 104 105 11g 120 122 123 124 126,List of ulustrations 2 2 2 2 2 a 3 3 2.29 Lroded anticline with core-ndge, Suchet, mn the Jura 23 Outer crest ofa “perched” synchne, on the western cdge of the Forest of Saou (French 1 80 o00 series sheet 199, Privas) 24, Discordance on the flank ofan anticline (southern flank of Lance anuchnem the pre-Alps of Dioss) 25 Production of ridges by renewed uphft of an anticline m the region of Chota, Peru 26 Formation of an eroded antichne 27 Rekef developed on folds, in the Chota region of Peru 28 Ongin of a ‘perched’ syncline (based on the Forest of Saou—see French 1 80 000 sheet 199, Privas) 29 Perched synclines m the Basque Pyrenecs of Binbaleta and Kartchila (after Viers, 1960 p 101) 30 Jurassic folds A series of cross-scctions in the Syam area east of the plateau of Champagnole, in the ‘plateau Jura (fiom Guillaume, 1961, p 108) gx Eroded monochne at Plasians (Dréme}, in the Baronntes area of the pre-Alps 32 Formation of an overthrust Based on examples fiom Provence (on the 1 80.000 sheet 225, Nice) 33 Barner ridge (barre) at the foot of the Vercors, in the pre-Alps (La Baume Cornillane) 34 Ahomoclinal scarp formed bs the front edge of a thrust mass, at Lac de la Motte in the Jura 35 Sections across folds in Thessaly (after Inbomn 1959) 36 The flank ofa drapsr, at Sodom, in Jsrael, on the western edge of the Dead Sea 37 Folds and overfolds at La Roche des Arnaulds (Hautes-Alpes) 1 Folds and faults on the western border of the Dead Sea rift valley 2 The flexure that bounds the western side of the Dead Sea trench, in the hulls of Tamar 33 Gramitic mtrusions of Taounrts im the western Ahaggar (afler Bois-Sonnas, 1963) 3.4 Differential dissection of a deep-seated fold (pli de fond) in the Gordsllera de Ta 3 3 3 8 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 x Costa, near Caracas in Venezucla 5 Gradual evolution of Appalachian rehef 6 Appalachtan-type relief in central Austraha, near Alice Springs 7 Domed up-warping of an ancient massif Penarroya, im Spain (a/ter Beral, 1959, p 125) 8 Southern flank of the Argoual, m the Cevennes 9 Homochnal ndges in the alluvial deposits of ulted predmonts, at the contact of the Andes and the Venezuelan Llanos 10 The‘ button-hole’ or eroded anticline of Makhtesh Gadol in the Negev of Israet 11 Escarpments in the region of Alice Springs, im central Australia (after Par, Mabbutt et al 1962, 69) 12 Sandstone scarp near Douentza in Malt 13 Muschelhalk scarp near Hardheam, Alsace (drawn fiom a photograph) 14 Rehef of escarpments 15 A composite scarp-face in the Vich basin, Catalufia, Spain 16 A scarp produced by hmestone resting on marl, in the Agenais region of France 37 Evoluon of a coastal platform under the mfluence of continental warping (after Mescheniahov, 1960, p 32) 18 The cuesta of Botucatu, in Sao Paulo state, Brazil (after 1b'saber, 1956, p 12) 1A fault passes upwards into a flexure 2 Tectomic breccia at Delphi in Greece 3. Shichenside near Corverssiat in the Jura 4 Shchenside m basaltic breccias, north of Chirilagua in Salvador 127 128 128 129 130 131 133, 133, 136 137 139 14 142 144 145 150 152 160 170 172 74 181 182 186, 188 189 191 192 193 198 199 201 207 aur 212 213 arg45 46 48 49 = 3 qu 412 413 au 415 416 417 418 419 420 4q2t 422 = & Last of wlustrations Gaping faults in micaschist, in the Cordillera de la Costa near Valencia (Venezuela) Relationship between the width of a fault and its throw (after Carlleus, 1960, 109) Seder stan the northern part of the Red Sea, from geophysical data (afler Drake and Girdler, 1964, p 489) Section across the faulted zone of the northern Red Sea (from Vaumas, 1961) Onginal fault-scarp on the side of the Waitaki valley in New Zealand (drawn by Schnerder from a photograph 6) Cotton} Fault-scarp at the junction of the Gordillera de la Costa and the Caracas basin, in Venezuela An onginal fault-scarp near Lagunillas, in the Venezuelan Andes A faulted coasthne, with ulted raised beaches, Barmg Head, New Zealand (after Cotton, 1951, p 108) Influence of a fault on the river pattern, at Wellington, New Zealand (after Cotton, 1951, p 64) The Welhngton fault (drawn from a photograph in Cotton, 1957, 6) 1 Maurer) Median facets on ndges marking the position ofa fault (after Cotton, 1950,p 227) Fault-scarp cut up mto facets, Deep Springs Valley, California (drawn by Schneider from a photograph by E Blackwelder} Fault-scarps in Alsace at Gueberschwihr A transverse fault with formation of truncated spurs (after Cotton 1950, 750) Exolution of faulted blocks (after Cotton, 1950, » 739) An orginal fault-scarp, on the edge of the Jow-lving Wartakt valley in New Zealand (drawn by Schneider from a photograph b Cotton) Tiltg against a fault, Hanmer Plain, New Zealand (after Cotton, 1953, p 216) Geomorphological result of renewed movement of a fault, on the edge of the Vosges south of Saverne 3 Hydrographic pattern oriented by fractures, m the granitic massif of the Guarda region in Central Portugal (from Fe1o and Brilo, 1950, p 261) Fault-guided meanders of the middle Zezera in central Portugal (from Fe10 and Bnito, 1950, 259) 5 Complea evolution of a fault-scarp Faults on the eastern margin of the Causses, near Treves The pelean ‘aguille’ of Pent Piton, in St Lucia, West Indies Distribution of ash from a rhy olituc erupuon of Hecla (Bed H3) (after Thorarins- son, Finarsson and Kyartansson, 1959, p 154) Hydrocinentes, spread and deposited by water, in the island of Sel, in the Cape Verde group Valley fossihsed by hydrocinenttes, south of Valle Pescadores in Peru cate scouring by stream action of a rain of ashes, south of Arequipa in cru Deposits of a Jahar near Vieu.-Fort in St Lucia, West Indies ‘The crater of Mist. m the Peruyian Andes Section across a crate: (Svemar Iceland) (afler Thorarmsson, Finarsson and Ayartansson 1959, p 161) The Souftiere volcano, Guadeloupe, in eruption im October 1956 (draun by Rimbert from a photograph by Lasserre) Cauldron subsidence (the ‘Scottish’ type of A Guilcher) the evolution of the caldera on the island of Mull, in the Inner Hebrides (from Guilcher, 1950,p 3) Cauldron subsidence in the island of Niuafo, in the South Pacific (after Cotton, 1952 p 38) 8 \low cone made by fluid basalt, with a crater much enlarged by an caplosion heat San Francisco Arzona (after Cotton 1952, p 75) 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 230 231 232 232 234 236 237 240 242 256List of illustrations 4.39 Secondary cone within a caldera, Fogo island (Cape Verde group) (after Ribeiro, 1954, p- 38) 4-40 Section across Fogo island (Cape Verde group) (after Ribetro, 1954s P. 40) 4.41 A pyroclastic cone, at the Col de la Coulée de la Souliére, in the Coirons district, France 4.42 Acomplex volcano. Monte Amiata, in Tuscany (from Htaltan geological maps) 4443 The volcano Challapalca, in the Tacna region of Peru 4-44 Inversion of relief in a volcanic area 4-45 Basalt mesa at St Jean le Centenier in the Coirons district of France 4.46 Scarpland relief due to basalt flows in southern Brazil (after Almeida, 1960, p..96) 4.47 Basalt necks north of Rochemaure, Ardéche, France 4.48 Basic dyke thrown into relief by differential erosion, south of Marble Bar in Western Australia (drazon by Rombert from an acral photograph) 4.49 Interstratified cuffs and lavas cut by dykes, on the inner side of Monte Somma, Vesuvius (from Cotton. 1952, 228) 4.50 Volcanic alignments at Ludent, in Iceland (after Thorarmsson, Exarsson and Kiartansson, 1959. 6 159) 4.51 Alignment of basalt cones along a fissure, Craters of the Moon, Idaho, USA (after Cotton, 1952, p. 99) 267 268 269 27 274 275 276 277 278 278 280 281 The geological maps of France referred to so frequently in the text arc in the £80 000 series known as the Carte géologique détaillée de la France. These maps have been issued at various dates since 1870 and the series now totals some 258 sheets. The topographical base, printed in sepia, is the Carte de f’Etat-Major on the same scale. xii wsTranslators’ preface Structural Geomorphology is the first volume of a major work, Précis de Geo- morphologie, the second volume of which, Elements of Pedology and Hydrology, appeared in French in 1972. The Précis is designed to provide both an introduction and a detailed systematic text of particular value to students reading for their first degree in geography. It is also intended to provide a comprehensive over-view of the science of geomorphology for specialists in cognate disciplines, notably geology, pedology, ecology and planning. Such is the organisation of the material that Structural Geomorphology may be used at a variety of levels depending on the degree of generalisation appropriate to the needs of the user. English-speaking readers coming to this work for the first time will find several distinctive and valuable features, amongst which might be mentioned the comprehensive reading guides which gather to- gether a great deal of material rarely encountered in English-language texts of geomorphology ; the impressive diversity of examples of structural land- forms, many of them illustrated from Professor Tricart’s own field-work; and a lucid introductory statement on the place of geomorphology within the Earth Sciences which contains a typically forthright assessment of the cycle of erosion according to W. M. Davis. Professor Tricart’s numerous other geomorphological texts, two of which have appeared in translation in the ‘Geographies for advanced study’ series, are listed in an appendix. University of Keele S. H. Beaver July 1973 Edward Derbyshire xiiiIntroduction The place of geomorphology among the earth sciences Geomorphology, as the Greek roots of the word indicate, is the science of landforms. Its object is the study of the appearance and behaviour of the lithosphere, the earth’s solid crust. The nature of geomorphology The surface of the earth’s crust brings the solid mass of the globe into contact with the liquid hydrosphere and the gascous atmosphere that surround it. Since man is by his very nature a terrestrial creature, it is the subaerial surface that is best known and most easily studied, but submarine relief is no less a part of geomorphology, and rapid advances are being made in this field. The earth’s crust, like any other surface affected by contact between different bodies, is moulded by the interaction of forces which originate on either side of it; this general physical law is basic to geomorphology. On the one side the crust is modified by internal forces, manifesting themselves in tectonic movements and vulcanicity; these forces control the differentia- tion between the continents and the ocean basins. On the other side are the external forces originating in the atmosphere and hydrosphere; these also play their part and interact with the internal forces. Atmospheric weather- ing affects rocks at their outcrop, and water, ice and wind transport the debris, here sculpturing patterns of erosion and there forming accumu- lations, not in the open air but also, especially, beneath the seas and oceans. Itis the interaction between the internal and external forces that controls the moulding of the earth’s surface; and it is this which gives it its unique character. The surface of the moon, for example, now reasonably well known, has been fashioned solely by internal forces, in the absence of any atmosphere; this is the explanation of its resemblance to our earthly volcanic landforms, which themselves are largely manifestations of the internal forces. The internal and external forces vary both in time and in space. Vulcan- icity, for example, affects only certain parts of the globe at the present time, especially the borders of the Pacific Ocean, whilst other areas, such as 1Introduction Scandinavia and the lands surrounding the North and Baltic Seas, are completely exempt. But this is only a synoptic glimpse in the long history of the earth; volcanic landscapes resulting from eruptions that have now ceased are to be found, for example, in the Eifel region of Germany. Similarly with tectonic movements. Intermittent earthquakes show that certain parts of the earth’s crust are in a state of disequilibrium and subject to particularly intensive movement. Their distribution at the present time, however, is not the same as might have been observed 20 million years ago. The Alps, the Rhine graben, and the Limagne, which today are only affected by rare and very slight earthquakes, were at that time the scene of the violent and repeated shocks of a tectonic paroxysm. The external forces fluctuate also. Coastlines have changed unceasingly during geological time. Encroachments of the sea—usually called trans- gressions—have subjected to submarine erosion surfaces that were formerly sculptured by subaerial agencies. Some 20 000 years ago the North Sea was almost all dry land, and peat bogs formed on the Dogger Bank before the area was submerged by the ‘Flandrian transgression’ which was caused by the rise of sea level resulting from the melting of the Wiirm or Weichselian ice sheets. Much of the relief of the continental shelves is of subaerial origin, resculptured to a greater or Jess extent by the recent advance of the sea. Only 15 000 years ago ice caps similar to that which now covers Greenland, enveloped Scandinavia and the Baltic, and the whole of northern and northeastern Canada as far south as the Great Lakes. The conditions under which the land surface of those regions evolved at that time were thus very different from those of the present day. Both in time and in space, therefore, as well as in their nature and intensity, the manifestations of the internal and external forces are variable, as also is the degree of their interaction. Sometimes the internal forces are strongest, as when mountains are raised and depressions are invaded by the sea. At other times the external forces predominate, gradually reducing the mountains and filling the lower parts of the crust with sediment. There is thus a perpetual struggle, an uninterrupted morphological evolution, always in progress but never finished. If this were not so, the earth’s surface would be dead, like that of the moon or an extinct star. The object of geomorphology is thus the study of this surface of contact that is the earth’s crust: the description and classification of the many forms and shapes that result from the ever-changing interaction of the opposed forces; the understanding of the mechanism of this interaction in order to comprehend the landforms that are generated by it, if necessary by pene- trating backwards into time so as to trace the evolution of these forms and to place the present landscapes in their true historical context. Like the biological sciences, geomorphology is based on notions of evolution, of the interference of the various factors and their mutual adaptation. As with specics, landforms are born, develop and then decline and disappear; some of them are relics or survivals, and the biogeographical term endemism 2The nature of geomorphology springs to mind with regard to some of them. There exists a veritable ecology of landforms, that is an assemblage of circumstances that are necessary for the growth and development of this or that type of relief. But whereas in biology these circumstances are necessary but not sufficient, in geomorphology they are both necessary and sufficient, for although the landforms evolve they are not living things. These analogies between biology and geomorphology are not just artificial. They are one aspect of the fundamental processes of nature, and we must have regard for them if we wish to comprehend these profound truths. Our methods of reasoning share the same complexities as those of biology ; and dealing as they do with antagonistic and ever-changing forces, they can only be dialectical. The Davisian theories, springing from geo- metrical reasoning nourished by imagination, have in fact checked and retarded the development of modern geomorphology. Instead of opening our eyes to the complex realities, they have lulled us into the security of a deceptive simplicity. Before embarking on the study of the different types of landforms, it is necessary to take a broad general view of the interaction of opposing forces and to formulate a general model of causality in geomorphology that will guide our reasoning and place our observations in perspective. General notions of causality in geomorphology Figure 0.1 shows in graphical form the causal relationships that govern geomorphology. This diagram has two conceptual bases, first that of evolution (time) shown vertically and ending in the present day, and secondly that of dynamism, of which the various aspects appear in the vertical columns, since their role is temporal. We have thus a system of interactions; these vary with time and their elements change in intensity from region to region, in conformity with the ideas expressed above. The vertical columns show the factors which are modified with the passage of time. Vertical arrows show how these factors bear on presentday geo- morphology; horizontal arrows take account of the temporary or per- manent interactions between these same factors. Lastly, the oblique arrows show the interactions that are produced over a period of time. In all cases the strength of the arrows is a rough indication of the intensity of the actions and interactions that they represent. Although this model has been reduced to its utmost simplicity, and has been drawn with as much clarity as possible, it is by no means simple. Its complexity can but reflect the complexity of the causal mechanisms in geomorphology, and for this reason some further comments are necessary. We shall deal with each of the vertical columns in turn.Inhoduction DYNAMISM internal Forces External Forces Types of Types of aevcrune ie Structural Retief ZI Morphoclimatic Retief é Actual influence == . 28 | on reafressive : 3 mal ow any Se e z tu |cpmatic influence on] & = s aes een! RE s 3 gtacioeustatism)| > S = on E o = Oe [Influence of bose | | = 7 = = & PTevel on retvet 33 Intive| S| tithotogy on ee ge w pon of feliet & | morphoclimatic =3 w : e~ sé © = System 8 = = [Diataten tractures = co z b 2 Tectame style LITHOLOGY Seok Hentage from past g & 2: gE 2 eg etl {2 | Fic, 0.1. Diagram of causal relationships in geomorphologyGeneral notions of causality in geomorphology Internal forces Three columns end at the level of the present day in the rectangle inscribed ‘structure’. This shows that the geological structures that we see now, like those which might have been seen at any moment in the past, are the result of the combined action of several factors that depend more or less on the internal forces. LITHOLOGY Lithology, the nature of the rocks, is a direct product of the internal forces in the case of magmatic rocks like granite and basalt, that have been formed by plutonic and volcanic action. But a closer look at volcanic rocks shows that the situation is far from simple, for the form of the lava flows may be much modified by the nature of the land over which they pass; there is interaction between the internal forces that are responsible for the emission of the lavas, and other factors that control the nature of the underlying surface, which may be of sedimentary rocks almost unaffected by the internal forces. In the case of metamorphic rocks the interaction of internal and external geodynamic forces is even more obvious, for such rocks result from the modification of sedimentary rocks that are in contact with elements derived from the magma. Lithology thus reflects the interactions of the internal and external forces. The latter are represented by the mineral components of rocks of magmatic origin and by the modifications suffered at depth by sedimentary rocks— which in turn are related to the tectonic movements that caused them to reach such depths. This is why, on the diagram, an oblique arrow leads from the ‘tectonic evolution’ column into ‘lithology’. Along the course of this arrow we are reminded of the three ways in which tectonics influence lithology: AMetamorphism. This takes place when sedimentary rocks are depressed to a great depth; tectonic movements facilitate their penetration by material of magmatic origin, generally through the action of tensions which open up fissures into which the magma can more easily enter. Thus meta- morphism often penetrates upwards to a greater extent in tensional structures such as domes and geanticlinecs. Pulcanism. This results from the localised rise of magma through fissures; the rise is so rapid that the magma has no time to get polluted by contact with the rocks traversed. All volcanic phenomena are associated with fracture zones, either the great faults that break up folded mountains into separate blocks or the faults that rupture the continental shields and Platforms, Japan provides an example of the first case, East Africa of the second.Introduction Sclustosity. This results from the squeezing and stretching of sedimentary rocks under very great pressure. It is particularly clearly displayed in clays that have been subjected to foliation, but it is seen also in other rocks, especially marls and limestones. It only develops beneath at least 4 000 or 5 000 m of superincumbent strata, and occurs in geosynclinal structures, Other less extreme features are also discernible in some rocks. Diagenesis, which transforms mobile sediments into coherent rocks, results in part from the pressure exerted on the sediments by the deposits of younger age that accumulate on top of them, and this accumulation in turn results from slow subsidence. Friction along the tectonic discontinuities known as faults and thrust planes shatters the rocks and gives rise to fault breccias, sometimes called crush or tectonic breccias. External influences on lithology are expressed through the medium of sedimentation. The sediments that are laid down at any given moment of time in any region are controlled by the following factors: The nature of the rocks that are being eroded. Granite, for example, yields an abundance of quartz grains, whercas limestone yields almost none; lime- stone however yields much more calcium than does granite. The processes by whech the soled rocks are converted into rock debris that can be transported far from its point of origin. These processes vary greatly from one part of the world to another, especially in response to climate but also toa lesser extent in response to the nature of the relief. Where there is a dense vegetation cover the processes are mainly biochemical, and the products are chemical compounds in solution, and clays resulting from complex alteration mechanisms. On the other hand, where there is little or no vegetation, asin hot or cold deserts, and beneath ice, the rocks are rendered mobile through mechanical fragmentation and plucking. The products in this case are detrital, clastic materials, composed of unaltered rock frag- ments ranging in size from sit to boulders, The mechanisms of transport. The materials weathered from the rocks at the surface are carried into sedimentation basins by running water, by ice or by the wind. They undergo, both in water and in the air, a sorting process that is a function of the strength of the current, and it is the finer material that stands the greatest chance of eventually reaching the sediment basin. While in the course of transportation by water, the materials are also subject to chemical action that alters them and extracts some substances in solution. Within glaciers and ice sheets there is no such sorting, but only abrasion that reduces part of the debris to rock flour. Of these factors controlling the nature of the raw materials subsequently deposited to form sedimentary rocks, only one results directly from structure, and that is lithology. But the other two, the mechanisms of 6General notions of causality in geomorphology mobilisation and transport, are also integral parts of the morphogenetic system, controlled by climate and the nature of the relief. For this reason, in the lower righthand corner of the diagram, two columns represent morphogenetic evolution and the morphoclimatic system of a given period in the past; from the top of these columns runs an arrow leading to the base of the ‘lithology’ column. This is to indicate that the character of one sort of rock—the sedimentary—depends directly on the external forces that were operative at the time of the sedimentation. Subsequently, the internal forces play their part, in diagenesis, in crushing, in foliation—in a word, in the metamorphosis by which the rocks are variously modified. To this must be added vulcanism, bringing in other elements of internal origin. TECTONICS Tectonics are divided in the diagram into tectostatic and tectodynamic. In the usually accepted sense of the term tectonics, two ideas are confused : the disposition of the strata and the deformations that caused such dis- positions. Thus, in referring to a folded mountain belt such as the Alps, we speak of the tectonics of thrusts to indicate the disposition of overthrust beds already in position, but we also use tectonics in referring to the complex movements that created such dispositions. In the first case we are concerned with a static disposition that has happened in the past and suffers no further modification : feciostasy. In the second case, on the contrary, we are concerned with the actual folding process: tectodynamism. The two terms tectostatic and tectodynamic must be used, of course, in relation to time. They are only valid for a given moment of time in the history of a given region of the earth. Tectostasy refers to the actual disposition of existing strata (tabular, faulted or folded) and tectodynam- ism to the deformations that the rocks underwent at the given time period. Tectodynamism may be negligible—there may be an interval of tectonic calm. On the other hand, it may be very great, in which case we speak ofa tectonic upheaval or paroxysm. Tectodynamism often changes its character, so that, in the Jura for example, a phase of folding may follow a phase of faulting, or, as in the southern fore-Alps, several successive phases of folding may be charac- terised by folds of different orientation and aspect. Geologists call this superimposed tectonics. Each new paroxysm impresses its own brand of tectodynamism upon the pre-existing tectostatic circumstances. Another example of widespread occurrence may be drawn from those old massifs that were folded in the Palaeozoic; the folds are still visible because the metamorphism was not intense, and the tectostatic character is of a folded chain ; subsequently the massifs were, affected mainly by folds of less Intensity and larger amplitude, accompanied now and again by fractures. After relatively recent uplift by tectodynamic forces, differential erosion acts on the tectostatic folds and in favourable lithological circumstances sculptures them into an appalachian type of relief. The distinction between 7Introduction the static and dynamic aspects of tectonics at any given moment of time in the earth’s history, but principally at the present time, thus plays an in- dispensable part in the development of ideas in structural geomorphology. The successive tectodynamic episodes of the past are spoken of as the tectonic evolution which culminates in the tectodynamics of the present. This is why these two expressions form part of the same column in the diagram. Naturally, the state of affairs at any moment in the past consti- tutes a certain set of tectostatic circumstances, represented by certain dis- positions of the rocks; and the durability of such dispositions varies with the rhythm and amplitude of the tectodynamic forces. In a period of tectonic calm the dispositions will be more long-lasting than during a paroxysm, when they will be in a state of continual disturbance. At any moment in the earth’s history, the existing structure integrates the tectodynamic effects which have taken place since the emplacement of the affected strata. For this reason, in the diagram, a series of arrows leads from ‘tectonic evolution’ to ‘tectostasy’, and one of the arrows Jeads into the base of the latter column. In reality, we are dealing with effects that are more or less con- tinuous, but a series of arrows is the most convenient form of diagrammatic representation. Tectostasy and tectodynamism lead directly into present structure; but the arrows that indicate this are of different dimensions, for in fact in most cases the influences of tectostasy are much more important in morphogenesis than the influence of actual tectodynamism—though of course, the part played by each will vary from region to region. In a region that is going through a period of tectonic calm, tectostatics are much more important. Such is the case, for example, in the Paris Basin and southern England. On the contrary, in a region that is suffering a tectonic upheaval, like Japan, New Zealand or California, tectodynamism plays an important part that varies with the intensity of the paroxysm and is combined with the effects of differential erosion on the uplifted sections. Active faults, for example, give fault scarps that change with each earthquake. For this reason an arrow is shown leading from the ‘tectonic evolution’ column towards ‘morphogenetic evolution’; it indicates the control of morpho- genesis by tectodynamism. There are several interactions (indicated by arrows) between tectonic evolution and lithology. Lithology not only influences tectogenesis directly through the medium of diapirism but also acts in a less direct fashion. Diapirism is a particular form of tectodynamism brought about by masses of salt (rock salt, potash etc.). Such salt masses, which are more plastic and have a density appreciably less than that of other rocks, have a tendency, when compressed, to seek an outlet to the surface by breaking through the rocks which cover them, They thus form domes, or diapirs, which often take on a mushroom form. The movements of the salt domes are relatively independent of other deformations and may occur even in times of tectonic calm. They are simply a product of lithology. 8General notions of causality in geomorphology The mechanical properties of rocks also influence tectonics, for they control the degree of resistance that the rocks offer to tectodynamism. A sheet of paper does not fold in the same way as a piece of cardboard. Rock strata either fracture or bend, depending on their plasticity and on the intensity of the deforming stresses. For example, granite does not fold; it fractures. Clay strata containing salt, however, are not only very plastic but may also be slippery. Quite often they become stretched out, enabling the more rigid superincumbent strata to slide over them. In this way the rock layers become loosened, and differential movement culminates in the formation of overthrusts. On the other hand, as we have seen, tectonic history modifies the characteristics of rocks and so influences lithology. Thus certain tectonic features, such as open faults, permit volcanic emis- sions; and metamorphism results not only from the deep burial of sedi- mentary rocks but also from a whole series of conditions favouring the diffusion of magmatic elements through these rocks. The compression that produces schistosity is the direct result of the mechanical stresses to which the rocks are subjected in the course of tectonic deformation. Important interactions thus occur between the various internal forces, while others are produced between the internal and the external forces. Both types have their part to play in the development of geological struc- tures, but the internal forces are dominant. Indeed, the external forces operate only through the medium of the morphogenetic systems as they influence the formation of sediments. Though not negligible, this influence dates from the remote past, when palaeogeographical circumstances were very different from those of the present day. Nevertheless, structure is not entirely the product of internal forces, especially in regions of sedimentary rocks, where interactions between internal and external forces are apparent. But the predominance of the internal forces justifies the position of the terms ‘internal forces’ and ‘structure’ on the diagram. External forces Two major aspects of the working of the external forces may be distin- guished, general morphogenetic evolution and morphoclimatic systems. GENERAL MORPHOGENETIC EVOLUTION General morphogenetic evolution responds to cosmic forces which are of two distinct kinds. In the first place there is gravity, which acts perpen- dicularly to the carth’s surface and controls the downward movement of objects. In geomorphology, gravity sometimes acts directly, as in the forma- tion of boulder screes, but more often indirectly through the agency of Tunning water, glaciers and solifluction. It tends to lessen relief by removing debris from high places (slope summits, interfluves, mountain ranges) and depositing it in lower places (slope-foot colluvium, terminal moraines, Ones de déjections, deltas and submarine depressions where turbidity currents 9Introduction lose their loads). This reduction of relief by running water was the basis of W. M. Davis's theory of the cycle of erosion and peneplanation. Secondly, there are the tangential movements that take place in the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. The winds and the currents in the sea and in lakes have an important horizontal component which is of some significance in morphogenesis. The winds, blowing over the surface of the earth, whip up dust and sand grains—a functional effect that is not funda- mentally different from that exercised by a river on its bed, for both obey the same laws of fluid mechanics and only differ in respect of the value of the parameters representing the density of air and of water. But there is an important geomorphological difference, for running water obeys the law of gravity and always rans downhill, whereas moving air only responds to gravity in respect of its convectional movements and not in its turbulence when in contact with the carth’s surface. Thus wind can overcome gravity and lift the debris it transports, as in the formation ofsand dunes. The same effect happens on the sea shore; waves and tides may throw up beach material into strand lines which represent the level reached by the highest tides. Tidal currents and longshore drift cause the displacement of beach material laterally along coasts, an action more important than that of gravity. Gravitational and tangential movements obey Newton’s laws, which are among the basic principles of physics. They have been going on over the whole of the earth's surface ever since that surface came into being, and are thus the motive force behind the evolution of relief. They come into play wherever movable particles on the earth’s surface are free to be trans- ported. The wind, for example, with a power of movement much less than that of ice or water, can only act if the movable particles are not protected by vegetation and if they are small enough to be transported; the same applies to the movement of particles by a stream. This notion ofcompetence can also be applied (excluding the protective vegetational cover) to the action of waves and longshore drift. Gravitational ahd tangential movements may thus take place anywhere; they are of potential importance over the whole globe but are not necessarily effective everywhere. Gravitational movements are geomorphologically much more important than tangential ones, for they may affect all sorts of particles, from the chemical element dissolved in water running in a stream or percolating downwards through the rocks, to the boulder that rolls down the mountainside when its support is removed. The effects of gravitational movements are much greater than those of tangential move- ments, for the functional force of the wind is relatively slight, thus the former play the major role in the evolution of relief, except in limited spheres such as sand dunes and beaches. This is why there is a general tendency for relief to diminish with the passage of time. During the course of this evolution the surface rocks that yield the most mobile particles will be most rapidly eroded. This differential denudation is a function of Jith- 10General notions of causality in geomorphology ology; through its medium the dissection of the surface becomes adapted to lithology and tectonic structure. Thus we get the sculpture of structural relief forms like cuestas, faultline scarps and the diverse forms derived from folded strata. But gravitational forces depend directly on the existence of inequalities in the earth’s surface, and these result from tectonic action. A change of level of tectonic origin creates a certain morphogenetic potential, just as a waterfall offers hydroelectric potential. Under the influence of gravitational forces the change of level tends to be reduced, but before it can be reduced it must first appear. It is thus clear that interaction between tectonic movements and gravitational forces controls the evolution of tectonic relief. For this reason the rectangle labelled ‘morphogenetic evolution’ in the diagram leads directly, by a broad arrow, into ‘types of structural relief’, into which there also comes an arrow from the compartment labelled ‘structure’. Types of structural relief are the result of the inter- action of gravitational and tectonic forces, working now in their tecto- dynamic aspect, now through tectostasy, within a certain lithological framework. This general morphogenetic evolution controlled by gravity interferes with tectogenesis and even with lithology. But these reper- cussions are apparently slight, and in the diagram they are shown by thinner arrows. As for influences on tectodynamism, they are of two kinds: 1. Isostatic reactions are provoked on the one hand by the unloading that results from the erosion in an area subjected to vigorous dissection, and on the other hand by the arrival of large masses of debris in an area of accumu- lation such as a piedmont. Bearing in mind the high viscosity of the earth’s crust, itis clear that such reactions will only take place when the forces pass a certain threshold. It has been calculated that reaction is only possible in the case of sharply delimited areas that are several dozen kilometres in size. For areas with more blurred margins the threshold is higher. The reaction in the case ofan area subject to intense and rapid erosion, and so lightened, will be a tendency to uplift. But such erosion necessarily implies a previous tectonic uplift, so that isostatic reaction simply sustains an uplift of tectonic origin. The same thing happens, though in the opposite sense, in the case of depressed areas, which are subject to considerable accumulation. 2. The existence of pre-cxisting relief influences tectogenesis. For example, studies begun in the Jura and later extended to many other folded areas have brought to light modifications of tectonic deformations due to the resistance of the pre-existing folds. It is easy to see how an escarpment, subjected to tangential pressure, could advance laterally without en- countering much resistance, whereas the rocks beneath the surface would be blocked against cach other. When a shearplane occurs at the base of an ¢scarpment—a condition easily produced in soft rocks like clays and marls—the whole feature may move forward to cover the rocks beneath IrIntroduction which are more resistant to the tangential pressures. In Provence, for example, many rock splinters are made up of the former crests of overfolds which have been thrust over the hollow which formerly lay at their foot. (For further details see Chapter 2.) As for the repercussion of morphog:netic evolution on lithology, this is also a consequence of the removal of debris from regions undergoing erosion. It has been noted in many types of region, in high mountains and in narrow gorges, as in the Colorado, that cracks parallel to the walls develop as a result of the existence of the deep chasms. Some authors have ascribed the joints in granite to the progressive erosion of the overlying sediments. In very rigid rocks, the decompression resulting from erosion certainly tends to create fissures (called ‘dilatation fractures’) that are generally parallel to the surface; these in their turn facilitate further erosion. As we have seen, gravity seldom works directly. Tangential forces, such as the wind, are hindered by a screen of vegetation. The intensity and the processes of morphogenetic evolution are influenced by a whole series of factors which are a function of the state of the earth’s surface (vegetation, soil, superficial deposits etc.). Since climate controls these, we group them under the heading of ‘morphoclimatic systems’. MORPHOCLIMATIC SYSTEMS The direct and indirect influences of climate play a fundamental role in morphogenesis. The vegetation cover protects the soil from certain mechanical actions such as the impact of raindrops, which are of great importance in the formation of runnels. In its turn, the decaying vegetation modifies the nature of the infiltrating solutions, and so not only influences soil formation but also chemical weathering such as karstification. The vegetation cover thus plays a large part in the process of transforming coherent rocks into debris that may subsequently be transported. Climate exerts its influence indirectly through the vegetation : cach major vegetation type, forest, savanna, steppe and desert, is found in climatically determined areas. But there are also direct influences, through rainfall intensity, the strength and regularity of wind and frost. Polar coasts, for example, are protected from wave action during the whole or the greater part of the year because of the ice pack. For this reason we have begun to talk about climatic geomorphology: the study of the direct and indirect influences of climate in morphogenesis. Corresponding to each climate there tends to develop a vegetation cover in equilibrium with it; this is termed the climatic climax. Under similar conditions morphogenesis is effected through the medium of a certain combination of processes, of which some are conditioned by climate and vegetation. In arid regions, for example, the sporadic rains attack the surface soil directly, for there is but a sparse protective vegetation cover. The development of runnels is easy, and this is everywhere the mode of 12General notions of causality in geomorphology surface sculpture. But chemical weathering, in the virtual absence of water, is ata minimum. Running water, moreover, can only erode friable rocks; when it comes up against the slightest solid obstacle it goes round it, leaving an upstanding edge or cliff. The erosion pattern is thus finely incised by innumerable small gulleys on the slopes, as is clearly seen in parts of the Sahara. Concentrated runnel development is not peculiar to deserts, far from it; but in the absence of a vegetation cover it develops without hindrance and gives the relief an unmistakable imprint. Indeed, it is the cornerstone of what we may call a ‘morphoclimatic system’. Morphoclimatic systems are specially important in conditioning the fragmentation of rocks, the transformation of coherent rocks or large boulders into fragments sufficiently small to be moved by the normal agencies of transport. In this way they control the whole process of morpho- genetic evolution. Moreover, they exercise a strong influence on the way in which the gravitational forces operate. In the desert, for example, they work through the medium of sudden and concentrated torrents. In the savannas, the obstacles provided by plants hinder concentrated torrent formation, and the stream pattern remains diffuse for a long time. In peri- glacial regions, during the ice melt, with the soil still frozen to some depth, surface water that cannot infiltrate becomes liquid mud and gravitates slowly under its own weight; this is solifluction. Beneath the wet tropical forest, intense weathering and the loss of chemical elements in solution lead to subsidence and thus to another kind of soil flow. In each morpho- climatic system, the modes of operation of the gravitational and tangential forces are modified in a particular way. In the forest the wind merely waves the trees about, thus producing wind-fallen dead branches and trunks; but in the desert, provided there is sand, it heaps up dunes. The nature of the forces, by reason of their cosmic origin, is always the same; but the way in which they operate varies from one climate to another. Morphoclimatic systems thus control the processes of landscape evo- lution. The vegetation cover and the climatic factors influence the stream regime and the ability of the rivers to transport debris, upon which depends their incision into uplifted regions. Vegetation and climate also control the fragmentation and alteration of rocks and the mobilisation of the debris on slopes, and so the way in which debris reaches the streams. If the debris is not too abundant or too large, it can be carried away, the rivers can incise their channels, and dissection makes progress. In the contrary case dissec- tion is hindered. Thus there is continual interaction between morpho- climatic systems and morphogenesis. An increase in slope, of tectonic origin, may set in motion a phase of erosion that involves the incision of the streams and then headward recession. This is a common phenomenon of morphogenesis. The incision of the stream beds increases the angle of the valley slopes, and so may modify the speed and even the nature of the sculptural processes. For example, earth slides may replace soil creep. Within the framework of the 13