Chapter 7.
Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms
1. Introduction
The key idea of the chapter is that plastic deformation is due to the
motion of a large number of dislocations. The motion is called slip.
Thus, the strength (resistance to deformation) can be improved by
putting obstacles to slip.
2. Basic Concepts
Dislocations can be edge dislocations, screw dislocations and exist in
combination of the two (Ch. 4.4). Their motion (slip) occurs by
sequential bond breaking and bond reforming (Fig. 7.1). The number of
dislocations per unit volume is the dislocation density, in a plane they
are measured per unit area.
3. Characteristics of Dislocations
There is strain around a dislocation which influences how they interact
with other dislocations, impurities, etc. There is compression near the
extra plane (higher atomic density) and tension following the dislocation
line (Fig. 7.4)
Dislocations interact among themselves (Fig. 7.5). When they are in the
same plane, they repel if they have the same sign and annihilate if they
have opposite signs (leaving behind a perfect crystal). In general, when
dislocations are close and their strain fields add to a larger value, they
repel, because being close increases the potential energy (it takes energy
to strain a region of the material).
The number of dislocations increases dramatically during plastic
deformation. Dislocations spawn from existing dislocations, and from
defects, grain boundaries and surface irregularities.
4. Slip Systems
In single crystals there are preferred planes where dislocations move
(slip planes). There they do not move in any direction, but in preferred
crystallographic directions (slip direction). The set of slip planes and
directions constitute slip systems.
The slip planes are those of highest packing density. How do we explain
this? Since the distance between atoms is shorter than the average, the
distance perpendicular to the plane has to be longer than average. Being
relatively far apart, the atoms can move more easily with respect to the
atoms of the adjacent plane. (We did not discuss direction and plane
nomenclature for slip systems.)
BCC and FCC crystals have more slip systems, that is more ways for
dislocation to propagate. Thus, those crystals are more ductile than HCP
crystals (HCP crystals are more brittle).
5. Slip in Single Crystals
A tensile stress will have components in any plane that is not perpendicular to the
stress. These components are resolved shear stresses. Their magnitude depends on
orientation (see Fig. 7.7).
R = cos cos
If the shear stress reaches the critical resolved shear stress CRSS, slip (plastic
deformation) can start. The stress needed is:
y = CRSS / (cos cos )max
at the angles at which CRSS is a maximum. The minimum stress needed for yielding is
when = = 45 degrees: y = CRSS. Thus, dislocations will occur first at slip
planes oriented close to this angle with respect to the applied stress (Figs. 7.8 and 7.9).
6. Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials
Slip directions vary from crystal to crystal. When plastic deformation
occurs in a grain, it will be constrained by its neighbors which may be
less favorably oriented. As a result, polycrystalline metals are stronger
than single crystals (the exception is the perfect single crystal, as in
whiskers.)
7. Deformation by Twinning
This topic is not included.
Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals
General principles. Ability to deform plastically depends on ability of
dislocations to move. Strengthening consists in hindering dislocation
motion. We discuss the methods of grain-size reduction, solid-solution
alloying and strain hardening. These are for single-phase metals. We
discuss others when treating alloys. Ordinarily, strengthening reduces
ductility.
8. Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
This is based on the fact that it is difficult for a dislocation to pass into
another grain, especially if it is very misaligned. Atomic disorder at the
boundary causes discontinuity in slip planes. For high-angle grain
boundaries, stress at end of slip plane may trigger new dislocations in
adjacent grains. Small angle grain boundaries are not effective in
blocking dislocations.
The finer the grains, the larger the area of grain boundaries that
impedes dislocation motion. Grain-size reduction usually improves
toughness as well. Usually, the yield strength varies with grain
size daccording to:
y = 0 + ky / d1/2
Grain size can be controlled by the rate of solidification and by plastic
deformation.
9. Solid-Solution Strengthening
Adding another element that goes into interstitial or substitutional
positions in a solution increases strength. The impurity atoms cause
lattice strain (Figs. 7.17 and 7.18) which can "anchor" dislocations. This
occurs when the strain caused by the alloying element compensates that
of the dislocation, thus achieving a state of low potential energy. It costs
strain energy for the dislocation to move away from this state (which is
like a potential well). The scarcity of energy at low temperatures is why
slip is hindered.
Pure metals are almost always softer than their alloys.
10.Strain Hardening
Ductile metals become stronger when they are deformed plastically at
temperatures well below the melting point (cold working). (This is
different from hot working is the shaping of materials at high
temperatures where large deformation is possible.) Strain hardening
(work hardening) is the reason for the elastic recovery discussed in Ch.
6.8.
The reason for strain hardening is that the dislocation density increases
with plastic deformation (cold work) due to multiplication. The average
distance between dislocations then decreases and dislocations start
blocking the motion of each one.
The measure of strain hardening is the percent cold work (%CW), given
by the relative reduction of the original area, A0 to the final value Ad :
%CW = 100 (A0Ad)/A0
Recovery, recrystallization and Grain Growth
Plastic deformation causes 1) change in grain size, 2) strain hardening,
3) increase in the dislocation density. Restoration to the state before
cold-work is done by heating through two processes: recovery and
recrystallization. These may be followed by grain growth.
11. Recovery
Heating increased diffusion enhanced dislocation
motion relieves internal strain energy and reduces the number of
dislocation. The electrical and thermal conductivity are restored to the
values existing before cold working.
12.Recrystallization
Strained grains of cold-worked metal are replaced, upon heating, by
more regularly-spaced grains. This occurs through short-range diffusion
enabled by the high temperature. Since recrystallization occurs by
diffusion, the important parameters are both temperature and time.
The material becomes softer, weaker, but more ductile (Fig. 7.22).
Recrystallization temperature: is that at which the process is complete
in one hour. It is typically 1/3 to 1/2 of the melting temperature. It falls
as the %CW is increased. Below a "critical deformation",
recrystallization does not occur.
13.Grain Growth
The growth of grain size with temperature can occur in all polycrystalline materials. It
occurs by migration of atoms at grain boundaries by diffusion, thus grain growth is
faster at higher temperatures. The "driving force" is the reduction of energy, which is
proportional to the total area. Big grains grow at the expense of the small ones.
