African soils: a geographical perspective

Soil across Africa

In general, the African continent may be divided into seven broad
geographical regions. Each region is defined by distinct geological,
climatic and/or ecological characteristics and landscapes which,
in turn, determine the soil properties. Specific soil types are not
necessarily exclusive to a region (i.e. Cambisols may occur in all
regions while Gypsisols are only found in arid locations). However,
broadly speaking each region can be characterised by a typical
assemblage of soil types (e.g. wetlands and river valleys will contain
more gleys, organic-rich and fluvial soils than other regions). In
summary, the soil regions of Africa can be described as:

Mediterranean – found on the northern and southern

margins of the continent. The climate is characterised by a dry, hot
summer (> 35°C) and cooler winters (10°C), with rain fall only in
the winter months. Vegetation tends to be shrubby but agriculture
can be productive if water is readily available. Soil organic matter
levels are generally low. Soil parent material tends to be rich in lime
or gypsum.

Deserts – consisting of the Sahara, the Kalahari and the

northern Kenya–Somalia region. In addition to high aridity, the desert
region is characterised by high mean monthly temperatures and
large daily temperature range (often greater than the annual range
of the mean monthly temperature). As a consequence, vegetation
cover is low or non-existent and soils are coarse-textured, shallow,
rocky or gravelly. Finer particles can be blown away leaving heavier
fragments behind.

Sahel and Savannah – covering almost half of the total

surface area of the continent, the savannah is a mixed grassland/
woodland ecosystem that is adjacent to the forest region. The soils
are generally well drained and posses a thin layer of organic matter,
which can be thicker in wetter conditions. They can support limited
cultivation but can quickly become impoverished. Savannah regions
often receive large quantities of sand and dust from adjacent drier
regions.

Forests – tropical forests are characterised by high-levels

of vegetation and the lack of seasonality (temperature is constant
and conditions are either rainy or dry). Soils are generally nutrient-
poor and acidic. Decomposition of organic matter is rapid and soils
are subject to heavy leaching. Variations in climatic conditions cause The main soil regions of Africa, reflecting both a latitudinal and altitudinal
zonation. See adjacent text for legend. (JRC)
a variation in the species composition and structure of the forest
and consequently affect soil characteristics.

Mountains – the mountains of Africa fall into two

broad types. The Atlas Mountains of North Africa, together with
the highlands of the Sahara and South Africa, are hot and dry
with limited soil development. In the rift region of eastern Africa
and the highlands of Ethiopia, bio-climatic zones are defined by
altitude. Soils can be varied and reflect the underlying geology. On
the highest peaks, such as Kilimanjaro or the Ruwenzori Range,
permanent snow can be found on the summits.

River valleys and wetlands – the soils on the

floodplains of the major river valleys are characterised by stratified
fluvial deposits, good drainage and high nutrient levels. Swamps are
forested wetlands, similar to marshes, often found near rivers or
lakes consisting of mineral soils that drain very slowly. Waterlogged
conditions can result in the formation of peat. Mangrove soils occur
in recent marine or river-borne sediments. Soils have high clay and
silt content and contain high levels of organic matter.

Southern Africa – while not a specific biome as

the others, the southernmost region of the African continent is
characterised by a very old geology and a warm and dry climate
which gives rise to some unique soil types. Overall, soils are
generally thin and moderately fertile.

Characteristic landscapes of the seven main soil regions of Africa. Map

Inset – rain forest from Cameroon (RJ); Clockwise from top left: wheat
cultivation and olive trees in Morocco (EM); sand dunes in the Libyan
part of the Sahara Desert (BN); savannah landscapes support large
concentrations of grazing animals (EM); the Karoo National Park in South
Africa (PLR); the wetlands of the Okovango Delta and sand dunes of the
Kalahari are clearly visible from space (NASA); forested mountains in
Tanzania with shallow Regosols in the foreground (EM).

140 Soil Atlas of Africa | African soils: a geographical perspective

Soil of Mediterranean Africa
So-called Mediterranean conditions occur on the northern (from
Morocco to Egypt) and southern (from West Coast Peninsula to Port
Elizabeth) coasts of the continent. The northern region falls into two
distinct areas; one from Morocco to Tunisia, where the Atlas and Rif
mountains dominate the landscape, and one comprising the Libyan
and Egyptian coastline, where the Sahara almost reaches the sea. The
southern region lies between the coast and the high plateau lands of
South Africa. This region is characterised by mild, moist winters and
hot, dry summers. Annual rainfall decreases along the Mediterranean
coast from west to east, from about 950 mm in Tangiers to about 100-
200 mm along the Egyptian coast. In the southern hemisphere, both
Cape Town and Port Elizabeth receive around 650 mm but rainfall
becomes more evenly distributed throughout the year to the east.
Wind storms occur frequently in both regions. The naming of the
Cape of Good Hope reflects this condition while the sirocco sweeps
Saharan dust deep into Europe.

Arenosol in old dune sand deposit northeast

of Rabat, Morocco. (OS)

A large plume of dust (light-yellow haze) blowing northward off the

 „
?`  
northeastern coastline is visible on the left edge while the Italian island
of Sicily appears in the upper left. This true-color image was acquired
by NASA's MODIS sensor in the autumn of 2003. (NASA)

Historical events have left their imprint on the environment and

soils of North Africa. Native vegetation has almost disappeared
as a result of large-scale deforestation during Roman times (which
led to wide-spread soil erosion) and the introduction of sheep and
goats by the Arabs. In addition, over-exploitation of the water
resources has resulted in salinisation of soils in many locations.
Large areas have been converted to cropland with some replanted
forests along the coast. Where crops cannot be grown due to
climate or topography, sparse grassland can be found which is
used for extensive grazing. Morocco and Tunisia are amongst the
largest producers of phosphate in the world – a key component
of inorganic fertiliser. The famous Fynbos biome of shrubland
and thicket can be found in the southern hemisphere, which also
contains much of South Africa’s wine production.

In summary, the soils of this region are varied but generally low in
organic matter and the presence of salts is common. They range
from very sandy Arenosols in dune complexes to clay-rich Luvisols
and Vertisols in level terrain. Where higher levels of rainfall occur, A Solonetz from South Africa; the columnar structure with
increased vegetation can give rise to Kastanozems in Morocco and rounded caps covered by dark coatings comprising clay
and organic matter is typical of these soils. (ISRIC)
leached Podzols in South Africa. Saline groundwater is responsible
for Solonchaks while calcium carbonate is common along the Vertisol from Morocco. Note the dark colour of the soil and the presence
Mediterranean coast. of deep cracks and smooth slickensides. The white material at the base
of the profile is redeposited calcium carbonate. (OS)

Remnants of a Roman temple in Volubulis, Morocco. (OS)

Vineyards in Western Cape Province, South Africa. (EM) Kastanozem from Morocco. The darker topsoil (0 - 40 cm) contains A red (chromic) Luvisol from South Africa. Luvisols display
significant amounts of organic matter. The lighter material in the subsoil clay accumulations in the subsoil. (EM)
is calcium carbonate. (EM)

African soils: a geographical perspective | Soil Atlas of Africa 141

Soil of the deserts
Africa has two main desert regions: the Sahara in the north,
stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea and the Horn of
Africa; and the Namib and Kalahari deserts in the south, occupying
a zone along the coast of Namibia and South Africa.

The Sahara is the largest hot desert in the world, covering about 9.5
million km2. About 70% of the area consists of rock plateaus and
rock-covered plains (hamadas or regs) while 30% is occupied by sand
or dunes (called ergs). Rainfall is erratic and daytime temperature
during the summer can reach over 50°C, while at night it can freeze.

A flooded salt flat in the Danakil Depression in Ethiopia. Saline water

floods the area in the rainy season. Upon drying, the surface develops
polygonal patterns through the horizontal expansion of salt crystals.
The hill on the lefthand side is a salt mountain (diapir) resulting from a
the upward thrust of the expanding salts. (RA)

Rock plateaus, escarpments and alluvial fans in the Niger Sahara with
very little sand cover as seen by the Advanced Land Imager (ALI) on
"#`# =@ !&     
of the desert and a dry river bed or wadi cuts through the dissected
landscape. (NASA)

The Sahara has not always been as dry and barren as it is today.
Rock paintings showing giraffes, elephants, crocodiles and other
animals indicate that a more lush vegetation and abundant water
must have been present in the past.

Rock carvings of dancing cats (or perhaps dogs or even baboons!)

from the Wadi Mathandush in central Libya. Such items illustrate
the dramatic changes in climates that have affected the Sahara. (TS)
An exposure of massive gypcrete that developed from the
evaporite sediments of Lake Megafazzan, a giant lake that has
The Namib is regarded as the oldest desert on Earth (with an estimated existed in the Libyan Desert. Most Gypsisols are perceived as
age of 55 million years) and covers an area of about 81 000 km2. It is relicts of past environments and climates. (TS)
also one of the driest places on Earth, with less than 10 mm rainfall
Gypsisol from the Kalahari desert in South Africa. (EM)
annually. The few plants that can survive, amongst them Namibia’s
famous Welwitscha, draw moisture from the frequent fogs that drift
inland from the sea. The southern part is mainly a sand desert with
spectacular dune formations, the northern part is rocky and flat.

Large dune complex in the south of the Namib desert. (EM)

A variety of soils have been recognised in desert regions. Rock

outcrops, gravelly deposits and sands constitute the largest part of
soils in the deserts; these are Leptosols (referred to as Nudilithic
when bare, Lithic when covered with a thin soil or deposit, and
Hyperskeletic when consisting of thick rock debris). Sands are
classified as Arenosols (Protic if non-stabilised, Haplic when
stabilised, Rubic when reddish coloured). Many soils have notable
secondary accummulations of salts (e.g. Calcisols, Gypsisols and
Solonchaks) while abundant Regosols reflect the limited horizon
development. In oases, Anthrosols may occur as a result of
sedimentation through irrigation, whereas the dry river beds or Red Arenosol from Namibia. The strong colour is caused Gypsisol from Somalia. (RV)
by thin iron coatings on the sand grains. (ISRIC)
wadis have Fluvisols.

142 Soil Atlas of Africa | African soils: a geographical perspective

Soil of the Sahel and Savannah
The Sahel and Savannah regions of Africa are bordered on one side
by the deserts, by deciduous forest and tropical rainforest region
on another and by the mountains and highlands on a third side.
Characteristically they have one or two pronounced dry seasons of
several months. Rainfall varies from 300 -1 000 mm per year. Their
vegetation is open, ranging from sparse grassland to open-wooded
grassland.

A village in the north of Ghana. Only land around

dwellings is cultivated. (OS)

The Sahel and Savannah region is the most populated part of Africa.
Most people live in small villages and their main source of income
is agriculture. Depending on the amount of rain, food crops such
as sorghum, maize, sweet potato, cassava, yam and a range of
vegetables are grown. In many places the traditional slash-and-burn
technique is practised. Cotton and tobacco are the most important
cash crops. Attempts to grow wheat have failed, mostly because of
Above: A red Lixisol from northern Ghana; A dark topsoil
the adverse soil conditions and diseases. Cattle and poultry farming overlies a somewhat paler layer from which clay has been
are important. Drought is a major factor in agricultural production moved to the redder subsoil. (OS);
Below: Farmers cultivate Lixisols by scraping together the
in this region. topsoil, the part of the soil with most fertility. (OS)

A termite mound in an Acrisol in Tanzania. Note the spacing between

the larger bushes and trees. The open canopy allows sufficient light to
reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting
primarily of grasses. Soil fertility is generally rather low in savannahs but
may show marked small-scale variations. Trees can play a significant
role in drawing mineral nutrients up from deeper layers of the soil while
decomposing litter may also lead to high organic matter in the vicinity
of trees. (EM)

Slash-and-burn agriculture in Senegal. (OS)

The soils in this region are characterised by moderate leaching

and, when adjacent to desert regions, by the addition of airborne
dust. Most soils are old and deep, with a low nutrient-retention
capacity because they are dominated by a kaolinitic clay mineralogy.
Exceptions are the large level areas where shrink-swell clays are
found; here the dominant mineralogy is montmorillonitic, resulting
in a high nutrient-retention capacity. In general, the soils are poor
in organic matter. The low leaching also results in the accumulation
of carbonates if a source of calcium is present. Carbonates are also
A cultivated Vertisol that has developed on a very
deposited as wind-blown dust (e.g. in the Harmattan regions). Many crystalline, intrusive igneous rock (pegmatite) in the
soils are red in colour due of the accumulation of hematite (iron Harmattan dust as viewed through a microscope. The larger shapes savannah of central Burkina Faso. (MB/IRD)

oxide). The dominant soil types are Arenosols, Cambisols, Lixisols, in the lower half of the image are quartz grains of an Arenosol from
Burkina Faso. The darker, upper half of the photograph is made
Planosols, Plinthosols, Regosols, Solonetz and Vertisols. up of much finer dust that has been deposited on top of the sand
during a Harmattan event – note the difference in grain size. (ISRIC)

A savannah landscape from the Congo. (EK/IRD) Truck on a temporary road over Planosols in central Ghana. The
silty topsoil has no cohesion. Wheels leave deep spurs in the soil
and the individual particles are swirled in the air by the truck to
be blown away over hundreds of metres in the surrounding area. Black Vertisol from the Abu Naana area in Sudan with a
When wet, cars can easily sink in the mud up to their axles. (OS) typical crumbly surface. (PB)

African soils: a geographical perspective | Soil Atlas of Africa 143

Soil of the forests
Dense tropical rain forests cover the coastal zone of West Africa
from Guinea to Nigeria (with a short break in East Ghana and
Benin), the southern parts of Cameroon, Chad and Central African
Republic, and large parts of Gabon, Congo and DR Congo. In
East Africa they are found in northern Mozambique and southern
Tanzania, and along the east coast of Madagascar.

Dense tropical forest rises up on the banks of the

Bodingué River in the Mbaéré-Bodingué National Park
in the Central African Republic. (HG/IRD)

The climate is characterised by high temperature, high humidity

and high rainfall all year round, although short dry spells do occur.
Average temperature ranges from about 20 to 30°C with little
Moist evergreen Afromontane forest in the Belete-Gera National Forest
fluctuation over the year and between day and night. Relative Priority Area, Oromia, Ethiopia. Farmers manage plots as 'coffee forests',
humidity is usually 90% or higher. Annual rainfall varies from 1 500 a traditional, low-impact coffee production system where arabica coffee
berries are collected from wild coffee shrubs. (RA)
mm in the drier parts of the forest zone to about 10 000 mm along
the western slopes of Mount Cameroon, the wettest part of Africa.

Ferralsol with a dark, humus-enriched topsoil over a Plinthosol from Ghana; a greyish layer abruptly overlies a layer rich in
uniform, yellowish subsoil from Gabon. The yellowish iron, which hardens irreversibly to “ironstone” when exposed to air and
colour indicates the presence of goethite. (ISRIC) sunlight. When soft this material is called “plinthite”. (ISRIC)

Tropical rain storm over central Congo. (OS)

As in other parts of the world, the tropical rain forest in Africa

is under pressure. Logging, expansion of cities and infrastructure,
industrial activities and mining, development of large plantations
(e.g. cacao, oil palm and rubber), and shorter fallow periods after
cultivation are the main reasons for the disappearance of virgin
forest. Only in the Democratic Republic of Congo do large tracts
of original rain forest remain.

The soils of the upland forests in Africa are highly weathered,

often deep and generally infertile. Due to the high rainfall and high
temperature, the chemical alteration of primary rock constituents
is rapid, leaving behind insoluble residues such as silica, iron and
aluminium compounds. The resulting soil is often a mixture of quartz,
the clay mineral kaolinite, goethite (iron-hydroxide) and sometimes
gibbsite (aluminium-hydroxide). Most nutrients that are essential
for plant growth (e.g. potassium, phosphorus) have disappeared.
Large trees in the forest usually have a tap-root extending deep into
the soil to take up nutrients from the weathering rock. Other plants
live from the litter layer on the forest floor and the thin humus-rich
topsoil.

Ferralsols and Acrisols are common in well-drained positions with

Plinthosols and Gleysols where drainage is poorer. Outcrops of
basic rocks rich in iron may give rise to the formation of Nitisols.
Acrisol from Gabon with a thick, black, humus-rich topsoil over a Gleysol from a forested valley in the Taï National Park of
greyish, clay-enriched subsoil which becomes more red towards Côte d'Ivoire. (ISRIC)
the sandstone rock from which the soil is derived. (ISRIC)

144 Soil Atlas of Africa | African soils: a geographical perspective

Soils of mountains and highlands
The mountains and highlands of Africa occur in the extreme
north-west (Atlas and Rif mountains), in its eastern part (Ethiopian
highlands, the Ruwenzori range in Uganda and the Democratic
Republic of Congo and the mountains of Kenya, Rwanda and
Burundi), in central Africa (Cameroon and Angola), in the south-east
(Drakensberg mountains in South Africa and the eastern highlands
of Madagascar) and in isolated positions such as the Tibesti plateau
in the central Sahara. The eastern highlands and mountains are
related to the uplift action around the Rift Valley, which traverses
Africa from Ethiopia to central Zambia. The Rif and Atlas mountains
form part of the Alpine mountain building process. The others are
remnants of earlier tectonic activity or are related to volcanism
(e.g. Mount Cameroon). Some of the mountain peaks reach so high
that permanent snow covers the top (e.g. Kilimanjaro, Ruwenzori),
although much has disappeared during the past decades due to
climate change.

Cultivation systems on Andosols in the volcanic

highlands of Madagascar. (MB/IRD)

The summit of snow-capped Kilimanjaro on the border

between Kenya and Tanzania in the late 1980s. (OS)

The highlands, particularly in east Africa, are densely populated areas.

For example, the average size of land per household in Rwanda is
about 0.2 ha. People are attracted to the highlands because of the
mild climate, fertile soil and the wide range of crops that can be
grown there (including cash crops such as tea and coffee).

Young tephra deposits in volcanic ranges give rise to Regosols, or

Andosols in more weathered volcanic ash. Over time, these soils can Ferralsol from the highlands in Rwanda. The darker coloured layer in
develop into Luvisols, Nitisols, Lixisols and Acrisols, and, ultimately, the centre of the picture is a so-called sombric horizon. Latest research
into Ferralsols. The profile shows a young Andosol in the highlands suggests that this layer is a remnant of a deep, dark-coloured surface
of Kenya. The soil is built-up from several volcanic eruptions, which layer formed under grassland, of which the upper part has disappeared
are recognisable from the different colours of the various volcanic after forest took over (pers. comm. B. Delvaux). (ISRIC)
ash layers. (EM)

Intensive land use in central Rwanda where many tea and

coffee plantations can be found. (OS)

The mountainous regions of Africa are dominated by shallow and

weakly developed soils. Where mountains are steep, or where the
climate is dry, such as in the Atlas and Rif mountains in the north-
west and the Tibesti plateau in the Sahara, Leptosols and Regosols
prevail. Under more humid climatic conditions or in less steep parts
Cambisols develop, locally even Alisols or Acrisols. Due to more
undulating topography, the soils of the highlands are generally much
deeper than in the mountainous regions. The most common soils
are Acrisols, Andosols, Ferralsols, Lixisols, Luvisols, Nitisols and
Phaeozems. Vertisols occur on valley floors with Cambisols and Deep Nitisol profile from Tanzania showing a lack of strong horizon
development due to a homogenisation of the upper part of the soil by
Regosols on the steeper slopes. biological activity. Nitisols show a characteristic blocky aggregate or
  "      
    
tropical soils due to their high nutrient content and deep, permeable Phaeozem under grassland in recent volcanic deposits,
structure. They are widely exploited for plantation agriculture. (MK) Kenya. A buried soil occurs below 120 cm depth. (ISRIC)

African soils: a geographical perspective | Soil Atlas of Africa 145

Soils of wetlands and river valleys
Wetlands in Africa are found along the coast in estuaries and deltas,
as well as in inland areas. Well-known coastal wetlands are the
Casamance Region in Senegal, the Niger Delta in Nigeria, the tidal
flats near Douala, Cameroon and the Nile Delta in Egypt. Famous
inland wetlands are the inner delta of the Niger River in Niger and
the Okavango Delta in Botswana, the Etosha Pan in Namibia, the
Zambezi floodplain and the Kafue Flats of Zambia, the Sudd along
the Mountain Nile in South Sudan and the confluence of the Upper
and Lower Congo Rivers in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Wetlands also occur on low-lying watersheds such as between the
Zambezi and Kafue Rivers in Zambia.

The green area is the Inland Niger Delta. Fed by floodwaters from
the Niger, Bani and a myriad of smaller rivers, the delta covers some
20 000 km2 during the four-month rainy season that begins each July.
During the dry season, the delta shrinks by roughly 80%. (NASA)

Wetlands play an important role in Africa. Many of them have a

large variety of wildlife, which is attractive to tourists; hence, a
number of wetlands are declared national parks. Some wetlands
feature unique species, not to be found elsewhere in Africa, such as
The red mottling below 50 cm is indicative of a soil that is
several Lechwes in Zambia, or the small wetland forest elephant in affected by periodic waterlogging. The topsoil has been
the Democratic Republic of Congo. cultivated and does not show any features due to mixing. (EM)

Black Lechwe, only to be found in the

Bangweulu swamps of northern Zambia. (OS)

Some wetlands, such as in the inner delta of the Niger River and in Soils consistently saturated by groundwater (Gleysols)
the Nile Delta, provide sufficient water for irrigation, turning these develop a characteristic greyish/blue colour pattern as a
result of the lack of oxygen in the soil. (CVH)
regions into large agricultural areas. Other wetlands are used by local
communities for fishing, which provides a major source for protein.
Wetland vegetation varies from the submerged forests of the Congo
Basin to salty grasslands in the Okavango Delta and the Etosha pan
to mangrove forests in the Casamance. Seasonal floods in wetlands
sometimes force people to move temporarily to higher grounds.

The soils of the wetlands and river valleys are all strongly influenced
by water. The periodic or permanent wetness manifests itself as
pale colours, strong mottling, sometimes giving rise to plinthite
and, in the presence of saline water, salt accumulation. The
most common soils are Fluvisols, Gleysols, Histosols, Planosols,
Plinthosols, Solonchaks and Vertisols, and gleyic or histic variants
Thionic Fluvisol (also known as acid sulphate soil) in the Senegal River
of other types of soil. Delta near Saint Louis. Acid sulphate soils contain high amounts of
iron sulphates and are formed under waterlogged conditions, often
in marine muds and sands of coastal wetlands. When exposed to air Bog soil (Histosol) in the Kisanga Valley,
(e.g. due to drainage), they produce sulphuric acid that releases large Democratic Republic of Congo. (ISRIC)
and toxic quantities of iron, aluminium and heavy metals. (JD)

The royal barge of the king of the Lozi people on its way over the flooded
Mangrove vegetation along the Senegal River. Such soils are The Etosha Pan, a saline wetland in northern Namibia.
Zambezi floodplain. Soils on fluvial sediments can be found in all climatic
an important carbon sink and are often described as having During the dry season the lake occupying the centre of the
and ecozones across Africa. Soils characteristics reflect the depositional
tidalic characteristics. (JD) pan retracts, leaving a salt crust at the surface. (OS)
environment. Coarse textured soils are indicative of flowing water while fine
grained clays and silts (e.g. Vertisols) denote still water conditions. (K)

146 Soil Atlas of Africa | African soils: a geographical perspective

Soils of southern Africa
Although not a bio-climatic region as those described in the
preceding pages, the soils of southern Africa deserve a special
mention. This region, which includes roughly South Africa, Lesotho,
Swaziland, a large part of Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and
the southern parts of Angola and Zambia, is underlain by a some
of the oldest rocks on Earth - varying in age from 1 billion to 3.4
billion years. Granite, gneiss, migmatite, greenstone belts, volcanic
intrusions and sedimentary rocks such as turbidites, greywackes,
shales, sandstones and conglomerates form the main lithological
constituents. The whole complex is of great economic importance;
containing gold, diamonds, iron, platinum, chromium, titanium,
uranium and tin ores. An important geological formation in the
Above: Soils with an
region is the Upper Pleistocene Kalahari Sand; with an area of 2.5 accumulation of silica are a
million ha it is the largest terrestrial sand body on Earth. It occurs feature of southern Africa. The
photographs shows pieces of
in Botswana, western Zimbabwe, and the south of Angola and Durisol (locally called dorbank)
Zambia; outliers even reach the southern part of the Democratic that have been mechanically
broken up by a ripper plough
Republic of Congo. in semi-arid Western Cape
Province, Vredendal, South
The climate is typically subtropical bi-modal with a rainy season Africa. This area is used for
the production of quality
starting around October/November and lasting until March/ wines under irrigation and
April. Temperatures are between 20°C and 25°C during daytime, no planting is possible on
such shallow soil without this
dropping to around 15°C during the night; at higher elevations it soil preparation action. The
may freeze during the nights in June and July. Humidity is relatively Durisol occurs on the higher,
older terraces along the
low apart from at the onset of the rainy season. The extreme Olifants River where it is cooler
south-west of South Africa experiences a Mediterranean climate and therefore more suitable
for the production of quality
with winter rains and summer dryness. white vines such as Sauvignon
Blanc. (FE)
Topography is generally smooth to undulating, except for some
isolated mountain ranges such as the Drakenberg Mountains in South Right: A typical “Sandveldt” soil
or Albic Acrisol from southern
Africa, hill ranges comprising volcanic dykes (e.g. in Zimbabwe) and Zambia. The reddish subsoil marks
deep valleys such as the Zambezi Gorge on the border between the zone of pronounced clay
increase; the textural class shifts
Zambia and Zimbabwe. Quite typical is the occurrence of many from loamy sand/sandy loam in
kopjes (exfoliated large granite boulders) scattered over the the topsoil to sandy clay/clay in the
subsoil. (OS)
landscape.

Close up of a Petroplinthite surface in Swaziland. It is clear from this

photograph why it is also called ironstone in many parts of Africa. (CG)
Granite “kopje” balancing precariously
in Zimbabwe. (ISRIC)
Chromic Luvisol in eastern Botswana. Although sufficiently deep and
dark, the surface layer is too hard and lacks the required structure to
be referred to as mollic. (ISRIC)
Native vegetation is mainly Mopane woodland, with grassland in the
shallow valleys (known locally as dambos or vleis). Much of it has
disappeared at the expense of large agricultural enterprises, cities
and opencast mines.

Tourists are drawn to the large game parks in the region, of which
the Kruger National Park in South Africa on the border with
Mozambique is the most well-known.

The large variety of parent material, the long period of soil formation
under relatively stable tectonic conditions, and historical climatic
variations (e.g. a long dry period during the Upper Pleistocene)
causing considerable changes in vegetation have resulted in a
vast array of soils; almost any soil type imaginable can be found.
However, the uplands are dominated by sandy soils due to the
influence of the Kalahari sands, and soils with a pronounced increase
of clay with depth, locally known as Sandveldt soils. Depressions or
vleis are often filled with cracking clays, whereas non- to weakly-
developed soils prevail on slopes.

The main soil types of this region are Acrisols, Arenosols,

Cambisols, Leptosols, Lixisols, Luvisols, Nitisols, Phaeozems,
Regosols and Vertisols. Subdominant soils are Alisols, Calcisols,
Gleysols, Ferralsols, Fluvisols, Planosols and Solonetz, while rarer
soils include Chernozems, Histosols, Kastanozems, Podzols and
Umbrisols.

In areas with a lot of human activity, such as around mines,

Technosols can be found.

A comprehensive review the soils of South Africa can be found in Arenosol from South Africa. The mottling in the bottom A Luvic Phaeozem from South Africa with an organc-
[74a]. indicates the occasional presence of water in the soil. rich topsoil over weathering bedrock. (ISRIC)
Provided their roots can reach it, such moisture can
sustain plants even if the topsoil appears very dry. (ISRIC)

African soils: a geographical perspective | Soil Atlas of Africa 147