1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24-26 April, Azores, Portugal - Proceedings-

PEDOSTRATIGRAPHY, PEDOLOGICAL AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF

KASHMIR LOESS: IMPLICATIONS FOR CHEMICAL WEATHERING
HISTORY AND PALEOCLIMATIC RECONSTRUCTION

Rakesh Chandra
Ishtiaq Ahmad
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Abstract:
Integrated pedological and geochemical study of the Quaternary Loess-Paleosols sediments of
the Kashmir Valley was carried out in order to reconstruct their chemical weathering,
paleoclimatological conditions and source. Pedological and micromorphic features of these paleosols
indicate that these are weak to moderately developed. It also indicates that both loess deposition and
pedogenic processes were taking place simultaneously during either phase of the loess/soil formation.
These sediments are generally enriched with Fe2O3, MgO, MnO, TiO2, Y, Ni, Cu, Zn, Th, Sc, V and
Co while contents of SiO2, K2O, Na2O, P2O5, Sr, Nb and Hf are lower than the UCC. Al2O3 is slightly
higher than the UCC. However, CaO and U show large variations. Rb is generally similar to UCC
whereas Ba is slightly lower than the UCC. Chondrite normalized REE patterns are characterized by
moderate enrichment of LREEs, relatively flat HREE pattern (GdCN/YbCN = 1.93 to 2.30) and lack of
prominent negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.73 to 1.01, average = 0.81). The weathering indices
suggest that these sediments are experiencing weak to moderate degree of weathering and not
subjected to potash metasomatism. On the basis of these proxies it is inferred that the climate of
Kashmir Valley for the recent past fluctuated between cold arid to warm semi-arid.

Key Words: Loess, Paleosols, weathering, Karewas, Kashmir

Introduction
Pleistocene loess deposits in the Kashmir Valley of the North Western Himalaya are the
thickest and most extensive in Indian subcontinent. These loess deposits represent an important
archive of terrestrial paleoenvironmental changes. Stratigraphically, the loess-paleosol sequence of
the Kashmir Valley fall into two broad types: a thick sequence and a thin sequence. A thick sequence
is about 21m thick and lie toward the southwest of the Kashmir Valley along the Pir-Panjal flank.
This sequence consists of ten paleosols and three loess horizons (Ahmad, 2012). The thin sequence
lies toward the northeastern part of the Kashmir Valley and contains four paleosols. This sequence is
equivalent to the top part of the thicker sequence (Ahmad, 2012). Singhvi et al. (1987) proposed that
the Kashmir loess sequence extended back to the 350ka B.P. However, Gupta et al. (1991) proposed
much shorter framework and concluded that the base of the loess sequence is approximately 200ka
B.P. In this paper we present the pedostratigraphy as well as pedological and geochemical
characterization of the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sequence. An attempt has also been made for
paleoclimatic reconstruction.
Geological setting
Kashmir valley has the morphological characteristics of an intermountain basin and is located
on a nearly horizontal Nappe sheet (Wadia, 1976). The valley is flanked by the Himalayas to the
northeast and Pir-Panjal Range (Panjal Thrust) in the southwest. These mountainous ranges comprise
metamorphosed Paleozoic and Mesozoic marine sediments and effusive rocks (Farooqi and Desai,
1974). The valley preserves the record of past 4 M.Y in which the sedimentation is controlled by the
tectonic events. The valley possesses almost complete stratigraphic record of rocks of all ages ranging
from Archean to Recent (Fig.1).

467
1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24-26 April, Azores, Portugal - Proceedings-

Fig.1. Geological map of Kashmir Himalaya (modified after Thakur and Rawat, 1992).

The Panjal Volcanic series and the Triassic limestone form the main geological formations
and are underlain by the Archean metasedimentaries of Salkhala Formation (Fig.1). The Panjal
Volcanic series of Permo-Carboniferous age is divisible in to two well marked horizons, the lower
agglomeratic slate and the upper Panjal lava flows (Bhatt and Zainuddin, 1979). These oldest rocks
are found around the northwestern extremity of the Kashmir valley and portions of the Pir-Panjal
range. Exposures of Triassic rocks comprise alternate thick dark grey limestone and shally-arenaceous
impure limestone. The other rocks of lesser distribution include Dogra Slates, Cambro-Silurian,
Zewan Formation and Muth-Quartzites. The Precambrian to Mesozoic basement rocks in turn are
overlain by Plio-Pleistocene sediments constituting the Karewa Group, which in turn capped by the
loess sediments of Dilpur Formation.
Lithostratigraphy of Kashmir Loess-Paleosols
Three representative loess-paleosol containing sections have been selected for detailed study
(Fig.2). On the basis of detailed field observations, four loess horizons with seven embedded paleosol
profiles have been identified at Dilpur Village section. Karapur Village section contains ten paleosol
profiles and three loess horizons. However, at Burzahom Village section four paleosol profiles have
been found. Key macromorphological features of these sediments are illustrated in Fig.3. The paleosol
profiles show low organic matter contents and weak to moderately developed illuvial clay
pedofeatures, which suggests subtle climatic changes that affect relative rates of material supply and
weathering rates. This further suggests that these paleosol profiles are formed when both loess
deposition and pedogenic processes were taking place simultaneously during both stadial to
interstadial phases, representing cold arid to warm semi-arid climate. Therefore, it is inferred that
these paleosol profiles do not each represent a complete interglacial period (Gardner, 1989). The
paleosol profiles DS3, KS4 and BS4 are relatively well developed and record maximum thickness,
which represent warm semi-arid climate. The parent loess horizons are mostly absent at the base of
these paleosol profiles (Fig.3). This indicates relative stable land surface conditions when the

468
 1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24-26 April, Azores, Portugal - Proceedings-

pedogenic processes become more dominant and the parent loessic material transformed into illuvial
(‘Bt’) horizon (Yakimenko et al. 2004). The lithological characteristics such as organic activities,
illuvial pedofeatures and granularity of soil are relatively weakly developed at Dilpur village section
as compared to Karapur and Burzahom village sections. However, the different types of calcretes such
as CaCO3 coating, infilling, platy concretions and nodules are relatively well developed at Dilpur
Village section than Karapur Village section. Lithological characters reveal that the Dilpur Village
section experienced relatively arid climatic conditions as compared to the Karapur and Burzahom
Village sections. The Dilpur Village section is lower in altitude than Karapur and Burzahom

Dilpur Village Karapur Village Burzahom Village

a b

0m 0m 0m
BS1
DL1
KS1
BS2
2m DS1 2m 2m
BS3
KS2
DS2 BS4
4m 4m 4m
Pampore
KS3
Member c d
DS3
6m 6m
KS4

DL2
8m 8m
KL1

DS4
10m 10m
KS5
e f

12m 12m
DS5 KS6

14m 14m

KS7

DS6
16m 16m
KS8
g h
DL3
18m KL-2
18m
DS7 0m

KS9
DL4
Shopian 20m 2m
Member KS10
KL-3
Shopian
Member

CaCO3 nodules Fig.3. Photograph showing (a) clay coating (black arrows) and
calcareous nodules (red arrows) in paleosol profile DS5, (b)
Fig.2. Lithostratigraphic correlation of Kashmir granular structures and root traces coated with CaCO3 in paleosol
Loess-Paleosol sediments at Dilpur, Karapur and profile DS7, (c) root traces coated with CaCO3 in paleosol profile
Burzahom Village sections. DS3, (d) clay coating (red arrow) and nodules of CaCO3 (black
arrow) in paleosol profile KS9, (e) root traces coated with CaCO3
(arrow) in paleosol profile KS4, (f) burrows (red arrow) and root
traces (black arrows) in paleosol profile KS7, (g) platy concretions
in BS2 paleosol profile, (h) clay coating (red arrows) and platy
concretion of CaCO3 (blue arrow) in BS3 paleosol profile.

469
1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24-26 April, Azores, Portugal - Proceedings-

Village sections and hence has high potential for evapo-transpiration. Hence, it experiences
relatively dry climatic conditions than the Karapur and Burzahom Village sections. Therefore, the
soil-water balance of these locations differs which affects the rate of pedogenesis (Bronger et al.
1987). This suggests that the local geographical conditions also played vital role in the pedogenic
modification of these sediments (Bronger et al. 1987). Overall these loess-paleosol sediments show
similar type of lithological characteristics although there is difference in degree of maturity of soil at
different sections.
Micromorphology
The micromorphological study of three loess-paleosol containing sections of Kashmir Valley
has been carried out to determine the pedogenic processes and climatic conditions prevailing during
their development. Key micromorphological features of these loess and paleosols sediments are
illustrated in Fig.4. The description refers to the most representative and typical micromorphological
features of the about 150 thin sections. Presented here in detail are only the most typical pedofeatures
with clear environmental implications. Among a large variety of microstructures, massive or apedal
microstructures, channel microstructures, peds microstructures, spongy structure, textural
pedofeatures, calcitic pedofeatures, basic mineral components and organic matter are the most
common in the studied loess-paleosols sediments.

Fig.4. Photomicrographs from Kashmir Loess-Paleosols at Dilpur, Karapur and Burzahom Village sections
illustrating some key micromorphological features of the Kashmir Loess-Paleosols sediments. (a-b) massive
structures with CaCO3 nodules (CN) in D-L1 and K-L1 loess horizons respectively, (c) massive structures with
disseminated organic matter and fine root traces (RT) in K-S2 horizon, (d) massive structures with thin clay
coating around the skeleton grains (dotted arrow), feldspar (Fel) and partially altered biotite (Bi) in paleosol
profile K-S10, (e) peds (dotted arrows) and limpid yellow brown clay coating along the channels (solid arrow) in
paleosol profile D-S5, (f) fluid conducting channels coated with CaCO3 in paleosol profile B-S1, (g) ferruginized
plant remains (solid arrow) and CaCO3 infillings (dotted arrow) in paleosol profile K-S5, (h) channels showing
thick ferruginous clay coatings in paleosol profile D-S3, (i) rounded channels with alternate layers of thick limpid
yellow clays in paleosol profile D-S3, (j) platy pedal microstructures in paleosol profile K-S5, (k) spongy
microstructures in paleosol profile D-S2, and (l) spongy microstructures with Fe/Mn oxides in D-L3 loess
horizon.

470
1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24-26 April, Azores, Portugal - Proceedings-

Massive microstructures are generally observed in loess (Fig.4a,b) and weakly altered ‘Bw’
horizons of the sequences (Fig.4c,d), showing homogeneity and small porosity in the groundmass.
Thin clay coating is also observed around the skeleton grains in ‘Bw’ horizons (Fig.4d), with finely
disseminated organic matter assimilated with the groundmass (Fig.4c). The paleosols possessing these
structures imply their subjection to only weak soil forming processes. However, channels mainly
result from root growth (Zarate et al. 2000) and by the fluid migration within the profile (Fig.4e,f).
These channels sometimes contain ferruginized plants remains with coatings, hypocoatings and
infilling of secondary CaCO3 (Fig.4g). This type of microstructure is generally found in weakly
developed paleosol profiles (Li et al. 1992). In contrast, channels in the moderately developed
paleosols profile are relatively large and more abundant (Fig.4h,i). All the paleosols show weak to
moderate pedality along with large channel and platy peds microstructures (Fig.4e,j). These peds are
formed by shrink-swell activities due to fluctuations in water saturation because of seasonal wetting
and drying conditions (Kemp and Zarate, 2000). Spongy microstructure mainly results from strong
biological activity. This is observed in the surface horizons of paleosol profiles DS2 and KS3 and
loess horizon DL3 (Fig.4k,l). It is typically associated with surface (A) horizons of soils, so the
presence of spongy microstructures in the lowermost ‘C’ horizons (Fig.4l) of the profile supports the
accretionary nature whereby the loess was modified by bioturbation (and probably leaching)
processes as it accumulated (Kemp et al. 2003). Rates of loess deposition eventually diminished to
such an extent that a stable land surface was established and pedogenic processes became more
dominant (Kemp et al. 2003). The soils with spongy microstructures can be regarded as weakly
developed steppe soils in semi-arid environment (Zhengtang et al. 1996). Thick microlaminated clay
coatings along large channel voids and thin clay coatings along planar voids or channel walls are
common (Fig.4e). The secondary CaCO3 nodules show clear boundaries to the groundmass (Fig.4b).
The depth distribution of these features provides the basis for the modification of the horizon
nomenclature and a reconstruction of the pedosedimentary events. Quartz is the dominant mineral in
both paleosols and the parent loess material followed by feldspar (Fig.4d). The overall lack of coarse
material suggests these sediments are mostly from the distant and uniform source region suggesting
large provenance with variable geological settings which apparently have undergone weak to
moderate recycling processes (Ahmad and Chandra, 2013).
Geochemical characterization
For chemical analysis, 46 samples of Kashmir loess-paleosols were analyzed and average
composition is presented in Table 1. Major and trace elements were determined by

Sampl KL KS1 K
DL1 DS1 DS3 DS4 DS6 DS7 KS1 KS2 KS7 KL2 BS1 BS4
e 1 0 L3
55.1 60.5 56.2 54.0 57.7 58.7 62.9 62.6 58.2 59.9 63.1 60.7
SiO2 51.4 54.5 53.9
7 7 7 5 1 2 7 0 1 6 8 3
12.5 13.7 16.4 14.0 14.0 15.4 15.7 16.0 13.9 16.5 15.6 16.1 13.5 16.3
Al2O3 13.8
8 6 7 1 1 3 7 8 5 3 5 3 0 0
6.75
Fe2O3 4.87 5.26 6.78 5.34 5.13 5.81 6.04 6.18 5.34 6.39 5.72 7.02 6.83 5.10
6
0.09
MnO 0.08 0.08 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.07 0.11 0.10 0.07 0.08 0.08
1
MgO 2.59 2.77 2.55 2.73 2.69 2.52 2.62 2.52 2.58 2.36 2.65 2.40 2.62 2.52 2.59

CaO 8.6 6.55 1.31 6.36 6.83 4.06 3.06 1.51 6.33 1.09 3.87 1.97 3.08 7.02 1.43

Na2O 0.87 0.94 0.92 0.96 0.81 0.78 1.00 1.15 0.81 0.88 0.97 0.92 1.36 0.80 0.91

K2O 2.68 2.79 3.11 2.78 2.71 2.92 2.87 2.89 2.73 2.89 2.87 2.43 1.86 2.92 2.64

TiO2 0.6 0.63 0.78 0.64 0.63 0.72 0.71 0.78 0.65 0.79 0.69 0.91 0.99 0.64 0.94
0.12 0.13
P2O5 0.12 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.14 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.09
8 9
14.8 11.4 10.7 12.2 11.7
LOI 7.95 9.7 9.26 7.10 7.84 8.33 7.08 5.73 12.5 7.73
1 1 0 5 4
99.2 99.5 100. 99.3 99.8 100. 101. 98.8 101. 99.1 99.0 99.6 99.1 100.
Total 100
0 1 6 1 5 3 4 8 6 9 8 5 4 2

471
1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24-26 April, Azores, Portugal - Proceedings-

100. 112. 152. 112. 106. 125. 127. 140. 108. 128. 105. 68.0 114. 110.
Rb 141
9 4 0 3 5 8 2 4 4 1 6 6 7 8
142. 143. 112. 136. 146. 155. 116. 114. 146. 106. 135. 133. 149. 139. 108.
Sr
3 5 5 6 6 7 8 0 3 6 6 6 8 5 2
24.4 27.2 32.6 25.8 25.9 33.4 32.5 33.6 28.4 33.7 31.1 34.6 31.6 26.4 37.5
Y
0 1 5 7 7 5 6 5 9 3 2 8 1 2 9
162. 180. 208. 182. 178. 201. 204. 223. 179. 230. 207. 234. 172. 295.
Zr 205
1 9 1 2 9 2 2 4 6 2 6 4 1 1
14.3 14.6 18.2 14.4 14.5 16.3 17.1 18.6 18.4 16.7 19.4 19.8 14.4 19.3
Nb 15
0 1 5 8 5 9 7 7 1 3 1 8 5 6
374. 406. 412. 393. 471. 474. 519. 508. 478. 433. 306. 395. 447.
Ba 557 391
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 9 1 2 3 4 8
41.8 44.5 58.6 44.9 43.1 46.5 53.1 50.9 55.2 43.4 45.6 35.8 42.4 45.4
Ni 48.2
2 6 7 5 9 6 1 7 4 7 1 4 0 1
43.2 45.9 52.8 44.1 43.1 45.9 47.3 46.7 49.5 48.3 45.7 42.5 49.3 45.9
Cu 47.3
4 6 4 9 1 5 9 6 0 1 6 2 4 0
74.4 78.1 102. 75.3 75.8 84.6 88.5 85.6 100. 86.0 86.5 71.2 89.3 77.7
Zn 85.1
3 3 3 7 7 1 8 8 3 8 6 1 3 0
12.0 13.1 17.5 12.8 11.8 14.4 14.9 16.2 15.9 14.1 15.7 13.4 11.9 14.6
Ga 12.6
6 7 3 9 9 0 4 7 5 8 2 4 2 6
17.0 20.2 23.6 20.3 19.7 20.4 22.3 21.3 21.0 20.3 18.9 13.4 21.4 21.6
Pb 19
5 2 4 5 9 4 3 8 2 1 9 4 4 9
10.9 13.7 16.4 12.7 12.9 17.3 16.7 18.6 15.3 16.9 12.7 11.2 15.9
Th 12.5 8.02
6 0 1 4 7 6 3 9 3 0 3 6 4
0.94
U 2.98 3.84 6.45 5.06 7.35 8.48 5.49 7.53 5.64 5.78 4.81 6.62 3.82 4.41
9
12.3 12.9 14.9 13.2 13.2 15.3 13.8 14.3 13.4 13.9 16.6
Sc - - -
9 7 9 4 9 9 1 9 4 3 6
189. 89.3 100. 99.5 93.2 107. 112. 99.9 103. 135.
V 110 - - - -
3 3 8 6 6 3 6 1 7 5
15.0 16.0 18.2 15.9 17.3 17.5 17.2 18.2 21.4
Co 16.5 19.4 - - - -
4 9 5 3 4 6 7 1 5
3.67
Hf 2.09 2.32 2.72 2.5 2 3 2.64 3 - - - - 1.87 3
5
34.1 37.1 41.5 37.8 37.1 41.5 40.1 45.3 38.1 42.6
La - - - - 49.4
3 2 1 7 8 9 8 6 3 3
66.2 72.8 72.7 72.3 79.6 78.0 87.0 69.4 79.5 93.2
Ce 82.1 - - - -
8 7 2 6 8 4 1 2 5 8
9.01 10.2 10.2
Pr 7.26 8.10 9.19 8.21 8.01 9.25 8.26 - - - - 8.91
5 1 8
26.7 30.0 33.7 30.0 28.9 33.7 34.4 39.6 31.9 39.4
Nd 32.5 - - - -
1 7 2 5 2 4 4 9 1 3
Sm 5.5 6.7 6.89 6.75 6.99 7.21 6.79 7.26 6.72 - - - - 6.51 7.77

Eu 1.33 1.54 1.61 1.57 1.42 1.8 1.58 1.65 1.55 - - - - 1.55 1.82

Gd 4.83 5.05 5.72 5.2 5.07 6.25 5.62 6.16 5.36 - - - - 5.57 6.61

Tb 0.71 0.73 0.84 0.74 0.73 0.93 0.80 0.87 0.76 - - - - 0.82 0.94

Dy 3.85 4.02 4.64 4.05 4.09 5.02 4.59 5.12 4.34 - - - - 4.22 4.99

Ho 0.96 0.99 1.16 1 0.99 1.25 1.10 1.19 1.07 - - - - 1.05 1.3

Er 2.2 2.21 2.60 2.31 2.27 2.83 2.48 2.67 2.3 - - - - 2.45 2.94

Tm 0.37 0.37 0.43 0.38 0.37 0.47 0.41 0.45 0.4 - - - - 0.4 0.47

Yb 2 2 2.30 2.02 2.02 2.44 2.18 2.24 2.05 - - - - 2.14 2.30

Lu 0.26 0.25 0.3 0.25 0.26 0.32 0.29 0.31 0.26 - - - - 0.29 0.33
68.5 69.0 71.9 69.1 71.4 72.9 71.0 69.8 71.2 73.1 68.0 69.8 73.5
CIA 71.3 74
8 2 7 1 4 3 7 9 8 6 2 7 5
81.4 81.4 84.4 81.3 84.0 85.7 82.7 80.8 83.9 84.9 83.0 84.1 75.5 83.5 84.4
CIW
6 9 3 6 1 3 1 8 6 5 6 5 1 7 6
Table 1. Average geochemical composition of loess-paleosol sediments of Kashmir valley, India.
using X-Rays Fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer and REE with some trace elements were determined
by ICP-MS at Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), Dehradun, India. The accuracy of the
analytical method was established using two internationally recognized standard reference materials:
MAG-I and MAG (R.V). Loss on ignition (LOI) was calculated as a percentage of dry weight after
the samples were ignited at 950°C for 24 hour.

472
1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24-26 April, Azores, Portugal - Proceedings-

To evaluate the nature of the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments and chemical behavior of
major oxides during pedogenic process, the concentration of major oxides is also plotted in Upper
Continental Crust (UCC) normalized spider diagrams (Fig.5). SiO2 and Al2O3 wt% show constant
proportions and generally follow the similar trend to that of UCC, PAAS and NASC. This suggests
warm semi-arid climatic conditions because these elements remain stable under semi-arid climate
(Guo, 2010). However, the UCC normalized Fe2O3, MnO and MgO wt% show slightly higher
concentration than the UCC but follow similar pattern to that of PAAS. This suggests that the
ferromagnesian minerals are least affected by the pedogenic modification.
10 DL1 DS1 DS2
10 DL1 DS1 DS2
1000 DL1 DS1 DS2
DS3 DL2 DS4 DS3 DL2 DS4
DS3 DL2 DS4

Samples/Chondrite
DS5 DS6 DL3 DS5 DS6 DL3
DS5 DS6 DL3 DS7 PAAS NASC DS7 UCC PAAS

Samples/UCC
DS7 PAAS NASC 100 NASC
Samples/UCC

1 1
10

Dilpur
Dilpur Dilpur
1
0.1 0.1
10 10 KS1 KS2 KS3
1000
KS1 KS2 KS3 KS4 KL 1 KS5 KS1 KS2 KS3

Samples/Chondrite
KS4 KL 1 KS5 KS6 KS7 KS8 KS4 KL 1 KS5
KS6 KS7 KS8 KL2 KS9 KS10 KS6 UCC PAAS
KL2 KS9 KS10 PAAS NASC
Samples/UCC

Samples/UCC

PAAS NASC 100

1 1
10

Karapur Karapur
Karapur
0.1 0.1 1
10 1000
10 BS1 BS2 BS3
BS1 BS2 BS1 BS2 BS3 BS4 UCC PAAS
BS3 BS34 Samples/Chondrite
NASC
PAAS NASC BS4 PAAS NASC
Samples/UCC

100
Samples/UCC

1 1
10

Burzahom Burzahom Burzahom

0.1 0.1 1
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Ba Ni Th U Sc V Co Hf Cu Zn Ga Pb La Ce Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Er Yb Lu
Si Al Fe Mn Mg Ca Na K Ti P
Fig.5. UCC normalized spider diagrams for major oxides and trace elements composition of Kashmir
Loess-Paleosol sediments at Dilpur, Karapur and Burzahom Village sections, (PAAS and UCC
values after Taylor and McLennan, 1985; NASC values after Gromet et al. 1984). Also shown
are the chondrite normalized REE patterns for these sediments. All the major oxides are as
oxides wt%.

All the three sections show almost similar concentration of K2O wt%, which is generally lower
than the UCC, PAAS and NASC. The negative anomalies of Na2O followed by K2O wt% (Fig.5)
indicate relatively more alteration of plagioclase feldspar than the K-feldspar. However, CaO wt%
shows wide range of variation in its concentrations with respect to UCC. It is well known that the
CaO contents of loess varies greatly and shows both positive and negative anomalies on UCC
normalized spider diagrams (Gallet et al. 1998). The wide range of variations in CaO wt% may be
argued for high LOI, which ranges from 5.71 to 14.8 wt% (Honda et al. 2004). The lower values of
CaO wt% relative to PAAS indicate an intense mobilization during post depositional processes,
whereas high values indicate that these sediments are relatively less mature than the PAAS (Mahjoor
et al. 2009). TiO2 wt% contents are significantly higher than the UCC. However, it is slightly lower
than the PAAS. The enrichment of TiO2 wt% is generally ascribed to the presence of Ti-bearing
phyllosilicates (biotite and chlorite). These minerals generally reside in fine clay sediments. It also
suggests significant contribution from the mafic source rocks. The positive correlation between ΣREE
and Al2O3 contents (r = 0.81) also indicates that the REE are mostly concentrated in the fine clay
fraction. This suggests significant proportion of clay minerals in the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol
sediments.

473
1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24-26 April, Azores, Portugal - Proceedings-

To evaluate the nature and chemical behavior of various trace elements during pedogenic
process, the average concentration of trace elements is also plotted in Upper Continental Crust (UCC)
normalized spider diagrams (Fig.5). The Sr shows negative correlations (r = −0.68) with SiO2 (wt%)
which indicates that the sediments are depleted in carbonate minerals. SiO2 show positive correlation
with Ba (r = 0.66) and Rb (r = 0.50) suggesting their robustness during pedogenesis. The Rb and Sr
show different geochemical behavior during pedogenesis. The relatively higher concentration of Rb
indicates that mica and K-feldspar are not strongly affected by the pedogenesis. The weathering of
plagioclase decreases the concentration of Sr because Sr is more mobile than the Ba.
Rb/Sr ratio shows higher concentration in paleosols than the altered loessic layers. Ba/Sr ratio
also follows the similar trend (Fig.6). This ratio has been considered as related to the leaching
intensity (Gallet et al. 1996). High peaks of Rb/Sr and Ba/Sr in paleosols are the result of land surface
stability during the warm and wet periods which accelerate pedogenesis (Gallet et al. 1996). The
diagram also used to correlate the lithostratigraphy of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments. The
pedocomplex between DL1–DL2 (0m−8.5m) at Dilpur is stratigraphically equivalent to the KS1−KL1
(0m−8.7m) at Karapur. The whole Burzahom section is stratigraphically equivalent to this
pedocomplex. The pedocomplex between DL2−DL3 represents another warm-wet period. It is
stratigraphically equivalent to KL1−KL2. The other small peaks represent the minor fluctuations in
precipitation conditions. The increase in concentration of CaO (wt%) upward suggests the increasing
aridity during the close of Pleistocene Period. Similar patterns are also observed for Al2O3/SiO2,
(Al2O3 +Fe2O3)/(Na2O+K2O+MgO+P2O5), Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O), Fe2O3/CaO and Fe2O3/Al2O3
(not included here). Further, the ratios of immobile elements such as La/Co, Zr/Y and Zr/Hf, show no
correlation with Al2O3 (−0.49, 0.0029, 0.075 respectively) and CIA values (−0.57, −0.0366 and 0.051
respectively) which suggest that these elements are resistant to chemical weathering. The whole
Burzahom section is stratigraphically equivalent to this pedocomplex.
Dilpur village Karapur village Burzahom village
Ba/Sr Rb/Sr Ba/Sr Rb/Sr Ba/Sr Rb/Sr

CaCO3

Fig.6. Showing variations of Ba/Sr (ppm) and Rb/Sr (ppm) with stratigraphic depth in Kashmir Loess-Paleosol
sediments at Dilpur, Karapur and Burzahom Village sections.

474
1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24-26 April, Azores, Portugal - Proceedings-

The pedocomplex between DL2−DL3 represents another warm-wet period. It is

stratigraphically equivalent to KL1−KL2. The other small peaks represent the minor fluctuations in
precipitation conditions. The increase in concentration of CaO (wt%) upward suggests the increasing
aridity during the close of Pleistocene Period. Similar patterns are also observed for Al2O3 / SiO2,
(Al2O3 + Fe2O3) / (Na2O + K2O + MgO + P2O5), Al2O3 / (CaO+Na2O+K2O), Fe2O3/CaO and
Fe2O3/Al2O3 (not included here). Further, the ratios of immobile elements such as La/Co, Zr/Y and
Zr/Hf, show no correlation with Al2O3 (−0.49, 0.0029, 0.075 respectively) and CIA values (−0.57,
−0.0366 and 0.051 respectively) which suggest that these elements are resistant to chemical
weathering.
The Chondrite normalized REE patterns are plotted in Fig.5. These are characterized by
moderate enrichment of LREEs, relatively flat HREE pattern (GdCN/YbCN = 1.93 to 2.30), lack of
prominent negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.73 to 1.01, average = 0.81) and variable amount of
∑REE. The Eu and Ce anomalies in the samples are determined according to: Eu/Eu* = (Eu CN) / {(Sm
0.5
CN) × (Gd CN)} and Ce/Ce* = (Ce CN)/ {(La CN) 0.666× (Nd CN) 0.333. Eu anomaly ranges between 0.73
and 1.01 (average = 0.81). In contrast, nearly half of the samples show positive Ce anomaly and it
ranges from 0.92 - 1.04 (average = 0.99. The LaCN/YbCN ratio of the studied samples do not correlates
with the weathering indices (CIW vs LaCN / YbCN; r = 0.090 and PIA vs LaCN / YbCN; r = 0.14).
Further, the absence of correlation between Eu/Eu* vs Al2O3 (−0.29) and Eu/Eu* vs CIA (−0.38)
indicates that chemical weathering did not fractionate LREE from HREE. This lack of evidence of
intense weathering at the source depicted by the LREE/HREE (LaCN/YbCN) ratios suggests that the
REEs are not subjected to weathering (Cai et al. 2008). Hence, REE pattern of the studied samples is
mainly inherited from the source provenance.
Weathering Intensity
To know the extent of pedogenesis, Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA), proposed by Nesbitt
and Young (1982) have been calculated. This index used to determine the proportion of primary
minerals and the transformation of feldspars to secondary clay minerals relative to the fresh parent
material. Hence CIA value provides an accurate measurement of degree of weathering and it can be
obtained by using molecular proportions: CIA = (Al2O3 /Al2O3 + CaO* +Na2O+K2O) ×100. CaO*
represents the CaO in silicates bearing minerals. The CIA value of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments
ranges from 67.13 to 75.27 (Table-I). This narrow and restricted range of CIA value shows moderate
degree of weathering, suggesting dry and cold climate during deposition (Nesbitt and Young, 1982).
According to Taylor and McLennan (1985), the moderate weathering suggests that the effect of
weathering had not advanced to the stage where alkali and alkaline earth elements are substantially
removed from the soil. Chemical index of weathering (CIW) proposed by Harnois (1988) also used to
determine the degree of weathering and it can be obtained by using molecular proportions. CIW =
(Al2O3 /Al2O3 + CaO* +Na2O) × 100. CIW values of these samples range from 79.93−88.63,
suggesting moderate degree of weathering. The consistency of CIA with CIW values indicate that the
degree of pedogenesis operated on the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol is moderate. Ternary A−CN−K
diagram {Al2O3− (CaO* + Na2O) − K2O) also used to deduce the weathering trend (Nesbitt and
Young, 1982). In this diagram (A = Al2O3; CN = CaO* + Na2O; K = K2O), the loess-paleosol
sediments plot above plagioclase-potash feldspar line (Fig.7), and clustered close to the PAAS and
NASC and fall intermediate between A–CN and A–K lines, which show weak to intermediate
removal of Ca and Na (Buggle et al. 2008). The plots do not exhibit any inclination towards the K
apex indicating that the loess-paleosol sediments were not subjected to potash metasomatism
(Moosavirad et al. 2010).

475
1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24-26 April, Azores, Portugal - Proceedings-

Al2O3
+ Dilpur Village section
Δ Karapur Village section
Kaolinit, Gibbsit, Chlorite 100
Fig. 7. A–CN–K ternary diagram for the
90
UCC
Smectite
Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments
PAAS Illite 80
NASC CIA (after Nesbitt and Young, 1984), also
Parent loess
70 plotted are the average UCC, PAAS
Predicted
weathering trend
60 (Taylor and McLennan, 1985) and
Plagioclase 50 NASC (after Gromet et al., 1984) values
K-feldspar as well as some rock forming minerals
important in silicate rock weathering;
shown at the side is the CIA scale. The
Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments fall
closer to moderately weathered
minerals.
CaO*+Na2O K2O

Therefore, use of CIA index in weathering studies assumes that this index is a measurement
of the amount of the chemical weathering. However, other factors that may affect the CIA value and
need to be taken into account include sediment provenance and post-depositional processes that lead
to K+ addition (e.g. diagenetic illitization and metasomatism). Sedimentary sorting can significantly
influence the chemical composition of terrigenous sediments due to grain size and mineral sorting
(Bauluz et al. 2000). For instance, aluminum is concentrated in the clays, hence the larger the
transport (i.e. distal regions), the finer the sediments and the higher the Al concentration (Soreghan
and Soreghan, 2007). There is also a tendency of larger grain sizes to concentrate feldspars, which
leads to lower CIA values (Zimmerman and Bahlburg, 2003). Therefore, the use of the CIA as a
weathering index, however, can be limited by the inheritance of clays from sedimentary rocks in the
source area. However, in this study it reveals that these sediments are enriched in rock forming
minerals with significant proportion of clays, indicating that CIA value to some extent is affected by
these clays. In addition, the A-CN-K diagram (Fig.7) also indicates that these loess-paleosol
sediments are not subjected to potash metasomatism. Therefore, weathering intensity inferred by these
proxies indicating moderate degree of weathering, probably suggest combined result of weathering
and grain size effect due to transportation processes. Hence, on the bases of these geochemical
observations it is proposed that the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments experienced weak to moderate
degree of weathering.
Conclusion
Integrated micromorphological and geochemical study of the Quaternary Loess-Paleosols
sediments of the Kashmir Valley revealed that all these sediments are characterized by similar
pedofeatures irrespective of horizon types suggesting syndepositional origin of loess deposits and
weak to moderate weathering. It further suggests that loess deposition and pedogenesis is likely
competing processes and neither stop completely during either phase of the loess/soil formation.
Chemically, these sediments also show similar compositions and alteration history. Only mobile
elements Ca, Na, P and Sr are depleted in these sediments. Chondrite normalized REE patterns are
characterized by moderate enrichment of LREEs, relatively flat HREE pattern (GdCN/YbCN = 1.93 to
2.30), lack of prominent negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.73 to 1.01, average = 0.81) and variable
amount of total REE (∑REE = 156.1 to 226.43). The weathering indices (CIA, CIW and A-CN-K
diagram) and others elemental ratios suggest that these sediments experienced weak to moderate
degree of chemical weathering and not subjected to potash metasomatism during diagenesis. Ratios of
various major and trace elements suggest that Middle to Late Pleistocene period is defined by several
episodes of pedogenic activity representing warm arid to semi arid climatic conditions in the valley.
This is further supported by the clay mineralogical study of these sediments which indicates that these
sediments are enriched with smectite with lower concentration of mixed-layered chlorite + kaolinite
(c+k) and traces of illite clay minerals (not included here).
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Head of Department, Department of Earth Sciences, University of
Kashmir, Srinagar, J&K, India and Director, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG),

476
1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24-26 April, Azores, Portugal - Proceedings-

Dehradun, India for providing laboratory and analytical facilities for generating micromorphological
and geochemical data.

References:
Ishtiaq Ahmad 2012. Geochemical study of loess-paleosol Quaternary sediments of Karewa Basin
with reference to paleoclimate of Kashmir valley, J&K, India. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Earth
Sciences, University of Kashmir, India.
Ishtiaq Ahmad and Rakesh Chandra. Geochemistry of loess-paleosol sediments of Kashmir Valley,
India: Provenance and weathering. J. Asian Earth Science 66, 73-89, 2013.
B. Bauluz, M. J. Mayayo, C. Fernandez-Nieto, and J. M. G Lopez. Geochemistry of Precambrian and
Paleozoic siliciclastic rocks from the Iberian Range (NE Spain): implications for source-area
weathering, sorting, provenance and tectonic setting. Chemical Geology 168, 135–150, 2000.
M. I. Bhat, and S. M. Zainuddin. Origin and evolution of Panjal volcanics. Himalayan Geology 9,
421-461, 1979.
A. Bronger, R. K. Pant, A. K. Singhvi. Pleistocene climatic changes and landscape evolution in the
Kashmir Basin, India: Paleopedologic and Chronostratigraphic studies. Quaternary Research 27, 167-
181, 1987.
B. Buggle, B. Glaser, L. Zoller, U. Hambach, S. Markovic, I. Glaser, and N. Gerasimenko.
Geochemical characterization and origin of Southeastern and Eastern European loesses (Serbia,
Romania, Ukraine). Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 1058–1075, 2008.
I. A. Farooqi, and R. N. Desai. Stratigraphy of Karewas, Kashmir, India. Jour. of the Geol. Soc. of
India, 1974.
S. Gallet, B. Jahn, and M. Torii. Geochemical characterization of the Luochuan loess-paleosol
sequence, China, and paleoclimatic implications. Chemical Geology 133, 67-88, 1996.
S. Gallet, B. Jahn, B. Van Vliet-Lanoe, A. Dia, E. A. Rossello. Loess geochemistry and its
implications for particle origin and composition of the upper continental crust. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 156, 157–172.1998.
Z. T. Guo. Loess geochemistry and Cenozoic paleoenvironments. Geoche. News, 143, 1-10, 2010.
R. Gardner. Late Quaternary loess and paleosols, Kashmir Valley, India. Zeitschrift fur
Geomorphologie Supplement 6, 225-245, 1989.
L. P. Gromet, R. F. Dymek, L. A. Haskin, R. L. Korotev. The North American Shale Composite: its
compilation, major and trace element characteristics. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48, 2469–
2482, 1984.
S. K. Gupta, P. Sharma, N. Juyal, and D.P. Agrawal. Loess-paleosol sequence in Kashmir: correlation
of mineral magnetic stratigraphy with the marine paleoclimatic record. Journal of Quaternary Science
6, 3-12, 1991.
M. Honda, S. Yabuki, and H. Shimizu. Geochemical and isotopic studies of aeolian sediments in
China. Sedimentology 51, 211–230, 2004.
L. Harnois. The CIW index: A new chemical index of weathering. Sedimentary Geology 55, 319–322,
1988.
R. A. Kemp, and M. A. Zarate. Pliocene pedosedimentary cycles in the Southern Pampas, Argentina.
Sedimentology 47, 3-14, 2000.
R. A. Kemp, P.S. Toms, J. M. Sayago, E. Derbyshire, M. King, and L. Wagoner. Micromorphology
and OSL dating of the basal part of the loess–paleosol sequence at La Mesada in Tucumán province,
Northwest Argentina. Quaternary International 106/107, 111–117, 2003.
J. J. Li, J. J. Zhu, J. C. Kang, F. H. Chen, X. M. Fang, D. F. Mu, J. X. Cao, L. S. Tang, Y. T. Zhang,
and B. T. Pan. Comparison of Lanzhou loess section of last glacial epoch with Antarctic Vostok ice
core. Science in China Bulletin 35, 476-487, 1992.
A. S. Mahjoor, M. Karimi, and A. Rastegarlari. Mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of clay
deposits (Central Iran) and their applications. Journal Applied Science 9, 601-614, 2009.
S. M. Moosavirad, M. R. Janardhana, M. S. Sethumadhav, M. R. Moghadam, and M. Shankara.
Geochemistry of lower Jurassic shales of the Shemshak Formation, Kerman Province, Central Iran:
Provenance, source weathering and tectonic setting. Chemie der Erde-Geochemistry 2011.
H. W. Nesbitt, and G. M. Young. Early Proterozoic climates and plate motion inferred from major
element chemistry of lutites. Nature 299, 715-717, 1982.

477
1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24-26 April, Azores, Portugal - Proceedings-

A. K. Singhvi, A. Bronger, R. K. Pant, W. Sauer. Thermoluminescence dating and its implications for
the chronostratigraphy of loess-paleosol sequences in the Kashmir Valley, India. Chemical Geology
65, 45-56, 1987.
M. J. Soreghan, and G. S Soreghan. Whole-rock geochemistry of upper Paleozoic loessite, western
Pangaea: implications for paleoatmospheric circulation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 255,
117–132, 2007.
S. R. Taylor, and S. M. McLennan. The Continental Crust: Its composition and evolution. Blackwell,
Oxford, 312pp, 1985.
V. C. Thakur, and B. S. Rawat. Geological map of the Western Himalaya. Published under the
authority of the Surveyor General of India. Printing Group of Survey of India, 101 (HLO), 1992.
E. Yakimenko, S. Inozemtsev, S. Naugolnykh. Upper Permian paleosols (Salarevskian Formation) in
the central part of the Russian Platform: Paleoecology and paleoenvironment. Revista Mexicana de
Ciencias Geologicas 21, 110-119, 2004.
M. Zarate, R. A. Kemp, M. Espinosa, and L. Ferrero. Pedosedimentary and paleoenvironmental
significance of a Holocene alluvial sequence in the southern Pampas, Argentina. The Holocene 10,
481-488, 2000.
G. Zhengtang, N. Fedoroff, L. Dongsheng. Micromorphology of the loess-paleosol sequence of the
last 130 ka in China and paleoclimatic events. Science in China D 29, 468-477, 1996.
U. Zimmerman, and H. Bahlburg. Provenance analysis and tectonic setting of the Ordovician clastic
deposits in the southern Puna Basin, NW Argentina. Sedimentology 50, 1079-1104, 2003.

478