Batang Bata Ka Pa:1 An Analysis of the

Philippine Minimum Age of Criminal

Responsibility in Light of International
Standards
Klarise Anne C. Estorninos*

I. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................... 260
II. AN OVERVIEW OF THE PHILIPPINE JUVENILE JUSTICE AND
WELFARE ACT OF 2006 ............................................................... 261
A. Brief History: From a Retributive Approach to a Restorative
Approach
B. The Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility and the Doli Incapax
Presumption of Non-Responsibility
III. INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN’S RIGHTS STANDARDS RELATING
TO THE MACR ........................................................................... 265
IV. ANALYSIS OF THE PHILIPPINE MINIMUM AGE OF CRIMINAL
RESPONSIBILITY AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS .................. 267
A. The Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility should be established
by legislation and should not be lower than 12 years old
B. It should be based on the emotional, mental, and intellectual maturity
of the child
C. Any adjustment in the age should not be to lower it, but to adjust it
towards a higher level

* LL.M. cand., Leiden University; ’11 J.D., Ateneo de Manila University School
of Law. The Author is the Director of Adhikain para sa Karapatang Pambata
(AKAP), the Child Rights Desk of the Ateneo Human Rights Center. This Article
is an update of her previous work in the Journal, In Defense of the Juvenile Justice and
Welfare Act of 2006, 56 ATENEO L.J. 881 (2012), which she co-authored with Atty.
Nina Patricia Sison-Arroyo.

Cite as 62 ATENEO L.J. 259 (2017).

1. This phrase literally means “you are so young” or “you are still a child.” In the
Philippine context, it is used both positively (i.e., said impressively to a young
doctor who performs excellently) and negatively (i.e., said to a child when he or
she does something only adults can or should do, like smoking or drinking,
which is frowned upon depending on the circumstances).
260 ateneo law journal [vol. 62:258

D. There should be no exceptions to the Minum Age of Criminal

Responsibility, i.e., it cannot be lowered in certain cases such as when
the crime involved is a serious offense
E. Where there are two age limits — a lower age range for absolute
exemption and a higher age range for conditional exemption —
measures such as requiring the involvement of psychological experts
should be in place to prevent discrimination in the determination of
discernment or maturity for the higher age range
F. The determination of the minimum age should be consistent with the
best interest of the child, should not be discriminatory, should promote
the right to life and the right to maximum survival and development,
and should respect the evolving capacities of the child
V. CONCLUSION .............................................................................. 273

I. INTRODUCTION
There is a constant debate on the issue of age limits of juvenile justice
systems, especially on the minimum age of criminal responsibility (MACR).
Article 40 (3) (a) of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)2
directs State Parties to establish a “minimum age below which children shall
be presumed not to have the capacity to infringe the penal law[,]” yet does
not state an exact age.3 To clarify this vagueness, the Committee on the
Rights of the Child (Committee) issued General Comment No. 104 that
stated that a minimum age below 12 is not internationally acceptable and
recommended the ages of 14 or 16.5
The governing law on juvenile justice in the Philippines is Republic Act
(R.A.) No. 9344 or the Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006.6 Said law
sets the MACR at 15, and establishes a doli incapax presumption for the age
range of above 15 to below 18 where criminal responsibility may attach

2. Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted Nov. 20, 1989, 1577 U.N.T.S.
3 [hereinafter CRC].
3. Id. art. 40 (3) (a).
4. Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 10 on Children’s
Rights in Juvenile Justice, Forty-Fourth Session, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/GC/10 (Jan.
15-Feb. 2, 2007) [hereinafter General Comment No. 10].
5. Id. ¶ 30.
6. An Act Establishing a Comprehensive Juvenile Justice and Welfare System,
Creating the Juvenile Justice and Welfare Council Under the Department of
Justice, Appropriating Funds Therefor and for Other Purposes [Juvenile Justice
and Welfare Act of 2006], Republic Act No. 9344 (2006).
2017] Batang Bata Ka Pa 261

depending on a child’s discernment. 7 A 2012 amendment to this law

introduced a new condition — children above 12 to 15 who commit serious
crimes or are repeat offenders are automatically considered “neglected” and
will be placed in a special detention center called the Bahay Pag-Asa (House
of Hope).8 Recent attempts by legislators are being re-introduced to amend
the law again, particularly to lower the minimum age of criminal
responsibility to 9.9
The question to be answered is to what extent are the MACR and the
doli incapax requirement in the Philippine Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of
2006 compliant with international standards. The scope of this Essay will
focus on the Philippine Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006 and the
internationally accepted standards with regard to the MACR.
To provide an overall picture, the first Section begins with an overview
of the Philippine Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006 and focuses on the
MACR. The next Section proceeds to discuss the existing international
children’s rights frameworks relating to the MACR and the standards they
provide. In the third Section, these standards will be analyzed with the
Philippine MACR to determine which parts are compliant and which are
not. Finally, the Essay concludes by answering to what extent the MACR
set by Philippine law is compliant with international standards and how the
law can be amended to ensure its compliance.

II. AN OVERVIEW OF THE PHILIPPINE JUVENILE JUSTICE AND WELFARE

ACT OF 2006

A. Brief History: From a Retributive Approach to a Restorative Approach

“You’ll see blood like you’ve never seen in the free world ... so much
blood,”10 said a 9-year-old child describing the situation of children in a

7. Id. § 6, paras. 1-2.

8. An Act Strengthening the Juvenile Justice System in the Philippines, Amending
for the Purpose Republic Act No. 9344, Otherwise Known As the “Juvenile
Justice and Welfare Act of 2006” and Appropriating Funds Therefor, Republic
Act No. 10630, § 6 (2012).
9. See, e.g., Kathyrn Baylon, Alvarez Files Bill Lowering Age of Criminal Liability,
PHIL. DAILY INQ., July 6, 2016, available at http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/
794594/alvarez-files-bill-lowering-age-of-criminal-liability (last accessed Aug.
10, 2017).
10. Translated from the Bisaya language in the Visayas region of the Philippines.
Bunso is an award winning documentary by Ditsi Carolino, and produced by
UNICEF and Consuelo Foundation. Review: ‘Bunso: The Youngest’, available
262 ateneo law journal [vol. 62:258

Philippine jail as captured in a 2005 documentary, Bunso11 (The Youngest).

This child was jailed for stealing goods from a store. Before 2006, a 9-year-
old child in the Philippines could be held criminally responsible according to
the 1930 Revised Penal Code of the Philippines.12 Said child could also be
sent to jail and incarcerated with adults.13 There was no comprehensive
legislation on juvenile justice in the Philippines and several laws had to be
applied depending on the age and crime committed.14 It was only in the 21st
century that the Philippines decided to devote a criminal system solely for
juveniles and, thus, the Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006 was
introduced. This law incorporated principles of the CRC, specifically
mentioning Article 40 in its declaration of state policies.15 It also introduced
the principles of the best interests of the child and restorative justice, and
specifically mandated that the state apply these principles in all its laws,
policies, and programs applicable to children in conflict with the law.16 It
clearly defined restorative justice as
a principle which requires a process of resolving conflicts with the
maximum involvement of the victim, the offender[,] and the community.
It seeks to obtain reparation for the victim; reconciliation of the offender,
the offended[,] and the community; and reassurance to the offender that
he/she can be reintegrated into society. It also enhances public safety by
activating the offender, the victim[,] and the community in prevention
strategies.17
This law was considered a milestone in children’s rights legislation in the
Philippines. One might say that it was prompted by international pressure to
change the dire situation of children in the harsh justice system. Since the
law’s enactment, children were not allowed to be detained by adults and
those who were, were supposed to be freed. It introduced the term
“children in conflict with the law.”18 Diversion became the standard instead

at http://www.variety.com/2006/film/reviews/bunso-the-youngest-1200515
123 (last accessed Aug. 10, 2017).
11. BUNSO: THE YOUNGEST (2005).
12. See An Act Revising the Penal Code and Other Penal Laws [REVISED PENAL
CODE], Act No. 3815, art. 12 (1932).
13. Id. art. 80, para. 7.
14. See Nina Patricia Sison-Arroyo & Klarise Anne C. Estorninos, In Defense of the
Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006, 56 ATENEO L.J. 881, 882 (2012).
15. See Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006, § 2 (d).
16. Id. § 2 (b) & (f).
17. Id. § 4 (q).
18. Id. § 4 (e).
2017] Batang Bata Ka Pa 263

of an exception, and the MACR was increased from 9 to 15. 19 It

decriminalized status offenses, clearly laid down the rights of children in
conflict with the law, mandated detention as a last resort, and spared children
from the death penalty.20 It also established the Juvenile Justice and Welfare
Committee to oversee and monitor the implementation of the juvenile
justice system.21
The Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006, however, was not as
effective as hoped for. Local government units found difficulties in
implementing these completely new programs of diversion and
intervention.22 Media started highlighting crimes committed by children.23
Hence, in 2012, an amendment to this then six-year-old law was introduced.
The amended Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006 retained the MACR
at 15, yet imposed automatic detention for children above 12 to 15 who
committed serious crimes or were repeat offenders.24 In a way, the law
lowered the MACR to 12. Many consider this a step backward25 and the
details of this will be discussed below.

19. Id. §§ 6 & 23.

20. See Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006, §§ 5, 36, & 58-59.
21. Id. § 8, para. 1.
22. Sadie Xinxin Yang, et al., Evaluation of the Intervention and Rehabilitation
Program in Residential Facilities and Diversion Programs for Children in
Conflict with the Law at 46, available at http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/
files/Philippines_2015-004_Final_Report.pdf (last accessed Aug. 10, 2017).
23. See, e.g., Maan Macapagal, 9-year-old boy killed by “batang hamog”, available at
http://news.abs-cbn.com/nation/metro-manila/11/02/12/9-year-old-boy-
killed-batang-hamog (last accessed Aug. 10, 2017); Mike Frialde, Makati police
renew drive against “batang hamog”, PHIL. STAR, July 25, 2012, available at
http://www.philstar.com/breaking-news/2012/07/25/831397/makati-police-
renew-drive-against-batang-hamog (last accessed Aug. 10, 2017); GMA News
Online, Pambabato ng isang batang hamog sa taxi driver, huli sa CCTV,
available at http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/video/112370/
stateofthenation/-pambabato-ng-isang-batang---hamog-sa-taxi-driver-huli-sa--
-cctv (last accessed Aug. 10, 2017).
24. Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006, § 20, para. 3 (as amended).
25. See, e.g., Statement on the proposed amendments to Republic Act 9344,
available at https://hronlineph.com/2011/08/08/statement-statement-on-the-
proposed-amendments-to-republic-act-9344-clan (last accessed Aug. 10, 2017).
264 ateneo law journal [vol. 62:258

B. The Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility and the Doli Incapax Presumption
of Non-Responsibility
The amended Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006 states that it retained
the MACR at 15. A child in conflict with the law below this age, however,
is required to go through an intervention program.26
In addition, the law sets a doli incapax presumption and treats children
below 15 and children above 15 but below 18 who acted without
discernment27 in the same way. A child above 15 but below 18 who acted
with discernment is required to go through diversion if the crime committed
is generally punishable by not more than 12 years of imprisonment.28 The
Supreme Court of the Philippines further explained that “[d]iscernment is
that mental capacity of a minor to fully appreciate the consequences of his
unlawful act. Such capacity may be known and should be determined by
taking into consideration all the facts and circumstances afforded by the
records in each case.”29 A local social worker from the Department of Social
Welfare and Development (DSWD) determines whether the child acted
with or without discernment.30
The amended law added a new category — children above 12 to 15
who commit a serious crime31 or are repeat offenders (regardless of the crime

26. Juvenile Justice and Welfare Council, Revised Rules and Regulations
Implementing the Republic Act No. 9344, as amended by R.A. 10630, Council
Resolution No. 2 (2014). Rule 2 (18) defines intervention as “programmatic
approaches or systematic social protection programs for children that are
designed and intended to: (a) [p]romote the physical and social well-being of
the children; (b) [a]vert or prevent juvenile delinquency from occurring; and (c)
[s]top or prevent children from re-offending.” Id. at rule 2 (18).
27. Rule 38.a of the Revised Rules and Regulations Implementing the Republic
Act No. 9344, as amended by R.A. No. 10630, defines discernment as the
“capacity to understand the difference between right and wrong, and its
consequences.” Id. rule 38.a.
28. Id. at rule 44.
29. People v. Jacinto, 645 SCRA 590, 617 (2011) (citing Madali v. People, 595
SCRA 274, 296-97 (2009) (citing the RULE ON JUVENILES IN CONFLICT WITH
THE LAW, A.M. No. 02-1-18-SC (Nov. 24, 2009)).
30. Revised Rules and Regulations Implementing the Republic Act No. 9344, as
amended by R.A. 10630, rule 38.b.
31. The law enumerates these serious crimes as
parricide, murder, infanticide, kidnapping and serious illegal detention
where the victim is killed or raped, robbery, with homicide or rape,
destructive arson, rape, or carnapping where the driver or occupant is
2017] Batang Bata Ka Pa 265

committed) are automatically deemed neglected and are mandatorily placed

in a special facility within the Bahay Pag-Asa.32 Bahay Pag-Asa is a youth
home for detaining children in conflict with the law and children at risk.
The figure below explains the MACR and the age limits of the new law:
Figure 1. The Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility and Age Limits
Under R.A. No. 10630

Arguably, by creating a new category for children above 12 to 15, the

amended law did not retain the MACR at 15. It effectively lowered the
MACR to 12. A discussion as to why will be argued more in depth in the
succeeding Sections.

III. INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN’S RIGHTS STANDARDS RELATING TO

THE MINIMUM AGE OF CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY

Article 40 (3) (a) of the CRC requires the “establishment of a minimum age
below which children shall be presumed not to have the capacity to infringe
the penal law[.]” 33 The CRC does not specifically mention what the
minimum age should be. Rule 4 of the Beijing Rules,34 however, states that
“the beginning of that age shall not be fixed at too low an age level, bearing
in mind the facts of emotional, mental[,] and intellectual maturity.” 35 It

killed or raped[,] or offenses under Republic Act No. 9165

(Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002) punishable by more
than twelve (12) years of imprisonment.
Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006, § 20-A, para. 1 (as amended).
32. See Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006, §§ 20, 20-A, & 20-B (as
amended).
33. See CRC, supra note 2, art. 40 (3) (a).
34. United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile
Justice (“The Beijing Rules”), G.A. Res. 40/33, U.N. Doc. A/RES/40/33
(Nov. 29, 1985) [hereinafter The Beijing Rules].
35. Id. ¶ 4.1.
266 ateneo law journal [vol. 62:258

briefly talks about the importance of having an appropriate age, and

mentions that, if there is none or if it is set too low, then responsibility
would be meaningless.36
General Comment No. 10 attempts to shed light on this in that a
minimum age of below 12 is not internationally acceptable.37 It does not say,
however, that 12 should be the minimum age and goes on to say that it is
merely the absolute minimum and recommended to continue to increase
it.38 It recommends the ages of 14 or 16 and urges countries that have a
MACR above 12 not to lower it.39 Before (and arguably even after) this
General Comment, there was no consensus as to the exact minimum age and
there were major differences in ages across the world, even those within the
same continent.40
Hence, international standards provide a useful guideline in order to
analyze how state parties should set their MACR. The enumeration41 of
standards is as follows:
(1) The MACR should be established by legislation, and should
not be lower than 12 years old;42
(2) It should be based on the emotional, mental, and intellectual
maturity of the child;43
(3) Any adjustment in the age should not be to lower it, but to
adjust it towards a higher level;44
(4) There should be no exceptions to the MACR, i.e., it
cannot be lowered in certain cases such as when the crime
involved is a serious offense; 45

36. Id.
37. See General Comment No. 10, supra note 4, ¶¶ 32-33.
38. Id.
39. Id.
40. GERALDINE VAN BUEREN, A COMMENTARY ON THE UNITED NATIONS
CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD 27 (2006).
41. First compiled in the Sison-Arroyo & Estorninos Article, In Defense of the
Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006, but slightly modified for this Article. See
Sison-Arroyo & Estorninos, supra note 14, at 907.
42. See General Comment 10, supra note 4, ¶ 32.
43. Id.
44. Id.
45. Id. ¶ 34.
2017] Batang Bata Ka Pa 267

(5) Where there are two age limits — a lower age range for
absolute exemption and a higher age range for conditional
exemption — measures, such as requiring the involvement
of psychological experts, should be in place to prevent
discrimination in the determination of discernment or
maturity for the higher age range; 46 and
(6) The determination of the minimum age should be
consistent with the best interest of the child, should not be
discriminatory, should promote the right to life and the
right to maximum survival and development, and should
respect the evolving capacities of the child.47
These guidelines will be used to analyze the Philippine MACR and its
compliance to international standards as discussed in the next section.

IV. ANALYSIS OF THE PHILIPPINE MINIMUM AGE OF CRIMINAL

RESPONSIBILITY AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

A. The Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility should be established by legislation

and should not be lower than 12 years old
As discussed, the Committee categorically stated that 12 years of age is the
absolute minimum age, and a lower MACR is not acceptable. There is no
clear reason why the Committee chose 12 years old. Scholars say that it may
have been due to the general average of countries at that time.48
The amended Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006 of the
Philippines establishes the MACR at 15. It improved the previous law by
clearly defining what exactly 15 years old means: a “‘[c]hild who is above
[15] years of age’ refers to a child who is at least [15] years and [one] day
old.” 49 On this point alone, Philippine law is compliant with the
international standard that the MACR is clearly established by legislation and
is not lower than 12.
It can be argued, however, that the amendment actually lowered the
MACR to 12 from 15. The amendment added that children who are above
12 to 15 years of age who commit serious offenses or are repeat offenders

46. Id. ¶ 30.

47. Id. ¶¶ 3, 6, 11, & 16.
48. DON CIPRIANI, CHILDREN’S RIGHTS AND THE MINIMUM AGE OF CRIMINAL
RESPONSIBILITY: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 51 (2009).
49. Revised Rules and Regulations Implementing the Republic Act No. 9344, as
amended by R.A. 10630, rule 2 (7).
268 ateneo law journal [vol. 62:258

will be mandatorily detained. It is important to note that the MACR is not

just an age below which children should not have criminal responsibility but
also “an age limit beneath which no treatment or penalty indicative of
criminal responsibility can be applied by law.”50 The new requirement of
mandatory detention is a form of treatment or penalty indicative of criminal
responsibility. Hence, the amendment essentially lowered the MACR to 12.

B. It should be based on the emotional, mental, and intellectual maturity of the child
The requirement that the MACR should be based on the emotional, mental,
and intellectual maturity was set by the Beijing Rules even before the CRC
came to be. 51 These criteria show the importance of considering the
psychological and socio-anthropological component of the juvenile justice
system aside from the legal component. Many studies have shown that the
part of the brain that is responsible for planning and impulse control, among
others, is not fully developed until one is in their 20s. 52 Hence, there is a
need for a more lenient approach toward children who commit crimes.
The Philippine MACR was set at 15 because of certain studies. One
study by Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila (which studied the age of
discernment of Filipino children in school) set the age at 15.53 Another study
done by the Philippine Action for Youth Offenders, which studied the age
of Filipino children out of school (a common status of youth in the
Philippines), set the MACR at 18.54 As a compromise, Philippine legislators
settled for 15 also after studying the ages that different countries set.55
This shows that the age of 15 was not chosen arbitrarily and was chosen
using reliable studies. Hence, the law, setting the MACR at 15 is compliant

50. See CIPRIANI supra note 48, at 77.

51. See Beijing Rules, supra note 34, at 3.
52. Anthony L. Pillay, Deliberating the minimum age of criminal responsibility, 45 S.
AFR. J. PSYCHOLOGY 143, at 145 (2015) (citing Sara B. Johnson, et al.,
Adolescent Maturity and the Brain: The Promise and Pitfalls of Neuroscience Research
in Adolescent Health Policy, 45 J. ADOLESC. HEALTH 216, 216-21 (2009)). See also
Stephanie Rap, A Children’s Rights Perspective on the Participation of Juvenile
Defendants in the Youth Court, 24 INT’L J. CHILDREN’S RTS. 93, 100 (2016).
53. See generally PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA, BEYOND INNOCENCE:
STUDY ON THE AGE OF DISCERNMENT OF FILIPINO CHILDREN (1998).
54. See generally PHILIPPINE ACTION FOR YOUTH OFFENDERS, ARRESTED
DEVELOPMENT: THE LEVEL OF DISCERNMENT OF OUT-OF-SCHOOL
CHILDREN AND YOUTH (2002).
55. See Sison-Arroyo & Estorninos, supra note 14, at 897 (citing S. JOURNAL Sess.
No. 29, at 340, 13th Cong., 2d Regular Sess. (Oct. 10, 2005)).
2017] Batang Bata Ka Pa 269

with the requirement that it should be based on the emotional, mental, and
intellectual maturity of the child.
However, noting again the amendment that created a new condition for
those above 12 to 15, the age of 12 was not backed by any studies and was
chosen merely as an attempt to compromise several versions of the law filed
by different congresspersons and senators that proposed several ages ranging
from 9 to 15. 56 Therefore, the law is only partly compliant with this
requirement.

C. Any adjustment in the age should not be to lower it, but to adjust it towards a
higher level
The Committee recommended that State parties, including those with
MACRs at 12, continue to increase the age to a higher one.57
Although several bills have attempted to lower the MACR, the 2012
amendment did not adjust the official MACR from 15. In this sense, the law
is compliant with international standards. Again, it must be noted that the
amended law, in a way, adjusted the age by creating an exception to the
MACR for those above 12 to 15 who committed serious crimes and are
repeat offenders. On that note, the law is not compliant. This issue will be
discussed further in the next requirement.

D. There should be no exceptions to the Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility,

i.e., it cannot be lowered in certain cases such as when the crime involved is a
serious offense
The Committee does not prohibit a different treatment towards children
who commit serious offenses. What it prohibits, however, is the use of a
lower age as an exception for children who commit serious offenses.58
The amendment to the Philippine Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of
2006 exempted children above 12 to 15 from criminal responsibility, but
created an exception to the MACR. As discussed earlier, it essentially
lowered the MACR because of the requirement of mandatory placement in
a special facility. The CRC allows special protective measures for children
under the age of the MACR, but only if it is in the best interests of the

56. The Author was present at the round table discussion with principle author
Senator Francis “Chiz” Escudero at the Senate deliberating the final minimum
age of criminal responsibility before R.A. No. 10630 was passed in 2012. No
official minutes were made.
57. See General Comment No. 10, supra note 4, ¶ 32.
58. Id. ¶ 34.
270 ateneo law journal [vol. 62:258

child.59 In the Philippines’ case, however, detention is the first resort, and a
child who committed a serious crime or a repeat offense is not qualified on a
case-to-case best interests basis, but is already assumed to be in need of
detention. This amounts to a violation of not only Article 40 but also Article
37 (b) which requires detention as a last resort.60
This amendment is in clear violation of the standard that there should be
no exceptions to the MACR such as a lower age for serious offenses.

E. Where there are two age limits — a lower age range for absolute exemption and a
higher age range for conditional exemption — measures such as requiring the
involvement of psychological experts should be in place to prevent discrimination
in the determination of discernment or maturity for the higher age range
The Committee does not prohibit, but warns against, the setting of two age
limits because of the possible discrimination that may occur in the exercise of
discretion. 61 The practice of setting two age limits with criminal
responsibility depending on whether or not the child acted with discernment
is called the doli incapax presumption of non-responsibility. Doli incapax
means “incapable of evil.” 62 This presumption acknowledges that even
children who are above the minimum age may not be held criminally liable
because of incapability of possessing criminal intention.63
The Philippine Juvenile Justice Law sets this age range at above 15 to 18.
A child above 15 but below 18 who acted with discernment is deemed
criminally responsible. A child in the same age range who acted without
discernment is deemed to have no criminal responsibility and is treated with
the same process as those 15 and below.64
The local social welfare officer from DSWD does the initial assessment
of discernment using a discernment assessment tool.65 The report of the
social worker is then used by the police handling the case of the child to

59. Id. ¶ 31.

60. See CRC, supra note 2, art. 37 (b).
61. See General Comment No. 10, supra note 4, at ¶ 30.
62. Oxford University Press, Doli Incapax, available at https://en.oxford
dictionaries.com/definition/doli_incapax (last accessed Aug. 10, 2017).
63. Paul Wagland & Kay Bussey, Appreciating the wrongfulness of criminal conduct:
Implications for the age of criminal responsibility, 22 LEGAL & CRIMINOLOGICAL
PSYCHOLOGY 130, 131 (2017).
64. See Revised Rules and Regulations Implementing the Republic Act No. 9344,
as amended by R.A. 10630, rule 37.a.
65. Id. rule 38.c.
2017] Batang Bata Ka Pa 271

decide whether the child should go through intervention, diversion, or

preliminary investigation.66
The DSWD Guidelines state that the following should form part of the
basis for discernment: facts and circumstances surrounding the case;
educational level and performance of the child in school; appearance,
attitude, and the child’s demeanor before, during, and after the commission
of the offense; and an assessment of a psychologist or psychiatrist.67
In terms of law and policy requirements, Philippine law is compliant
with the requirement to involve experts in order to prevent discrimination
when there is a doli incapax presumption in the law.
Nevertheless, no presumption exists for those who are above 12 to 15
who commit serious crimes or are repeat offenders. The law assumes that
they are in need of special care that can only be given through detention.
This clearly discriminates against this category of children in conflict with
the law, and is, thus, in violation of international standards.

F. The determination of the minimum age should be consistent with the best interest
of the child, should not be discriminatory, should promote the right to life and the
right to maximum survival and development, and should respect the evolving
capacities of the child
General Comment No. 10 says that the CRC’s leading principles should be
part of a comprehensive policy for juvenile justice, and this rule applies to
the setting of a MACR.68
In terms of considering the best interests of the child and the non-
discrimination principle, Philippine legislators who kept the MACR at 15
years of age clearly had such in mind when they carefully used reliable
nationwide studies and international standards to back up the age chosen.69
Legislators took into account the cultural and societal context of the
Philippines and made sure to use nationwide studies of both in school and
out of school children. Although a doli incapax presumption was included in
the law, as discussed previously, there were safeguards to ensure non-
discrimination.

66. Id. rule 38.d.

67. Department of Social Welfare and Development, Guidelines for Social Workers
in the Handling and Treatment of Children in Conflict with the Law,
Administrative Order No. 10, Series of 2007 [DSWD A.O. No. 10, s. 2007],
No. V (B) (2) (June 28, 2007).
68. See General Comment No. 10, supra note 4, at 12.
69. S. JOURNAL Sess. No. 29, at 385.
272 ateneo law journal [vol. 62:258

However, the condition imposed upon children above 12 to 15 years old

did not take into account their best interests and also discriminated against
this category of children. The requirement of mandatory detention is in
violation of the CRC because, as stated earlier, it makes detention not the
last, but the first resort, which is not in accordance with the best interests
principle. It is also discriminatory because the age of 12 was set arbitrarily
and was not backed up by any studies. Moreover, there is no substantial
distinction between the two age ranges (12 to 15 and 15 to 18 years of age) if
the ones aged above 12-15 are automatically assumed to be in need of
detention. Hence, this provision is discriminatory against children above 12
to 15 years old who commit serious crimes or are repeat offenders.
In terms of promoting the rights to life, survival, and development, the
increase of the MACR from 9 to 15 years old was clearly geared toward
such.70 However, essentially decreasing the MACR to 12 years of age is also
against the right to life, survival, and development because mandatory
detention is against these rights when there are no safeguards to ensure that
the detention is not arbitrary, of last resort, or of the shortest period of
time. 71 This is especially true for the Philippines where most detention
centers are in poor condition.
The right to be heard in line with the evolving capacities of the child
was taken into account when the law increased the age from 9 to 15 years
old, and even when it imposed the doli incapax presumption. This is seen
from the above discussion that cites studies that researched on the age and
maturity of children to arrive at the MACR. Children in conflict with the
law even have a role in the formation of their intervention and diversion
programs which can only be imposed with their consent.72 However, yet
again, the provision on the children above 12 to 15 years of age does not
take into account the right to be heard and the evolving capacities of the
child as it does not give the child the right to express his or her own views,
and mandatorily imposes detention.
In summary, this analysis shows that the Philippine Juvenile Justice and
Welfare Act of 2006 was essentially compliant with international standards:
the 15-year-old MACR was established by legislation; it was based on the
emotional, mental, and intellectual maturity of the child; the measures

70. See Sison-Arroyo & Estorninos, supra note 14, at 905.

71. Barry Goldson & Ursula Kilkelly, International Human Rights Standards and Child
Imprisonment: Potentialities and Limitations, 21 INT’L J. CHILDREN’S RTS. 345, 350
(2013).
72. See Revised Rules and Regulations Implementing the Republic Act No. 9344,
as amended by R.A. 10630, rule 76.
2017] Batang Bata Ka Pa 273

against discrimination for the doli incapax presumption were set in place; and
it took into account the leading principles of the CRC. The amendment in
2012, however, caused its non-compliance when it introduced the condition
for children above the age of 12 until 15 who commit serious crimes or are
repeat offenders. This condition was against the standard not to lower the
age or have an exemption to the MACR. It was also discriminatory and
took no account of either the best interests of the child or the rights to life,
survival, and development, and the right to be heard. In fact, the law may
have stated that the MACR is still at 15. But applying the true purpose of a
MACR, it can be said that the new MACR is actually at 12 years old. The
condition imposed may be couched in welfare protectionist wording, but
that does not discount the fact that it imposed a penalty attributing criminal
responsibility to children younger than 15 years old.

V. CONCLUSION
Marta Santos-Pais, a known child rights expert, stated that: “[i]t is [ ] critical
to establish a legal minimum age of criminal responsibility in line with
international standards” in order to ensure children’s rights in the juvenile
system are ensured.73 What is critical, however, is often what is hardest to
do. The worldwide debate on the MACR seems to be unending and the
Philippines is not spared from this. The Philippines took a progressive leap
forward in 2006 when the legislature passed its first comprehensive policy on
juvenile justice. The increase of the MACR from the age of 9 to 15 years of
old was hailed as a concrete achievement in compliance with international
standards. The 2012 amendment, however, added a discriminatory and
violative condition imposed upon children above 12 to 15 who committed
serious crimes or are repeat offenders. Because of that, what was once an
essentially compliant law became subpar vis-à-vis international standards.
In order to make the law internationally compliant, a few critical things
need to be changed such as removing said discriminatory and violative
conditions that actually lower the MACR. This, however, is not the trend
of current legislators who seem to be more focused on lowering the age and
re-introducing jail time for minors, thinking this would help solve the
problem of the alleged increase in crimes committed by children. Should
these new amendments pass, the prior leap toward compliance with
international standards would arguably have been useless. The amendments
would instead be a bigger leap backward.

73. Marta Santos-Pais, Children’s Rights, Freedom from Violence and Criminal Justice, in
CHILD-FRIENDLY JUSTICE: A QUARTER OF A CENTURY OF THE UN
CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD 23 (2015).