THE BOOK

OF

INDIAN BIRDS
BY

SALUI ALI

(With {l map, 188 platt's ill cololll" (dtpictillg :e96 species)

3 ill linc and 18 in judf-tone)

SECOND EDITION

(Revi,cu alld enlarged)

P!tblishca by

THE BOMBAY NATURAL IllSTORY SPClETY.

6, Apollo Street, Fort.
BOMBAY,
1943.
U. A.S. BANGALORE
lINlVERSITY LIBRARY•

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 Preface
A wise old Chinese proverb has it that one picture is worth
10,000 words. This is only too true in India where bird books and
the amateur are concerned. The greatest drawback in most of the
comparatively small number of books on Indian birds available has
been the absence or extreme paucity of good coloured illustrations.
A notable advance was made by \Vhistler's excellent Popular Hand-
book of Indian Birds which first appeared in 1928 and contained a
small number of coloured plates. The response of the public to this
long-desired feature was marked and immediate as proved by the
fact that the znd enlarged edition of the book has since been sold
out and a 3rd edition, still further enlarged and with more coloured
plates, is now under preparation. *

In the year 1928 the Bombay Natural History Society, as a

step in their campaign for popularising Nature Study and creating
a body of public opinion to back their efforts in the cause of the con-
sen-ation oi Indian fauna, issued a set of 5 wall-charts illustrating
in colour some zoo species of common Indian birds, primarily for
the use of schools and other educational institutions. It was part
of the;r plan that the plates prepared for these charts should be sub-,
sequently used to illustrate a book on the common birds of India'
containing simple descriptions and short life histories of every species
depicted, together with a. few general chapters on bird-life calculated
to interest the beginner and the layman, and stimulate a desire for
deeper study. Unfortunately, the publication of the book lIas been
debyed beyond expectation. The uuforeseen economic depression
that intervened obliged many institutions to cancel or greatly reduce
their orders for the Bird Charts placed prior to publication. This
retarded the liquidation of the very considerable expenditure the
Society had incurred on the charts and held up the publication of
the book, since it was beyond their means to undertake this additional
liability simultaneously. The issue of this book with its l_ar~e !Iu!llber
of coloured plates at a price that f:hnH1,d bring it within' tbe;-nieaitl -
of the average purse, has now bee possible entirely due to the
recoupment by the Society of their ial outlay on the preparation
of the colour-blocks for the charts, tnus minimising, the cost of the
present illustrations.

*Since published.
iii
 The number of species illustrated in colour and fully described
in this book is r8r. In addition, a few more birds have been cursorily
mentioned in their appropriate places.

It is realised that the plates, in many cases, leave much to be

desired, and that as life-like portraits some arc even definitely bad.
Our difficulties in getting them prepared have been great-not the
least being the fact that our artists were not at the same time
naturalists; indeed, they were entirely unacquainted with the re-
quirements of this highly specialised branch of work. Apart from
the question of artistic merit, however, the drawings are on the whole
accurate enough to help in the identifications of the birds they re-
present, and to that extent should serve a useful purpose. They
may also claim the merit of being the first, and so far the only, attempts
at illustrating in colour every species of Indian bird to be described
in a book.

The species selected for illustration and description arc amongst

the more common birds we have in India, and therefore such as the
ordinary citizen is likely to come across at one time or another in the
course of his day to day life. They are principally those found in
the plains, and throughout the work more stress has been laid on
the continental and peninsular races of a species than on the Binla-
layan. Distribution beyond the limits of the Indian Empire has
only been roughly indicated.

l\Iany readers will perhaps deplore the absence of local names.

These have been advisedly omitted. The greatest drawback with
loca' names, so far, is their extreme inconstancy. For instance in
different parts of India I have found the name Garfula applied to the
Vulture as well as to the Bornbill and the Gre.:n Pigeon. The general
tendency is to call any large bird Gancela. These names vary from
Province to Province and often also from one locality to another
within the same Province. Frequently the same name is applied
to two or more totally different birds in adjoining localilies, or two
or more totally different names arc applied to the same bird in the
same locality which in turn may again be loosely applied to two or
more different species in an adjoining locality I On acconnt of this
likely confusion it has been thought best to leave out local names
altogether and let the reader discover and note down for himself those
in use in his particular locality.
iv
 I have departed from the common practice of indicating the
size of a bird in inches in favour of the system of using certain
common and familiar species as standards for comparison. Earlier
experience has convinced me that the old method conveys precious
little to the layman and is hopelessly misleading in cases where
abnormally long necks. bills or tails have to be reckoned "lVith.
Length in inches by itself, moreover, gives no idea whatsoever
of the massiveness or otherwise of the bird described. To me it
seems that describing the Spotted Dove, for example. as "Between
the :Myna and the Pigeon" gives a far clearer idea of the size than
lC Length 12 inches."

The standards employed for comparison of size m the fonow~

ing pages are:

A Sparrow Length 6" G Crow Length 17'

B Quail 7-8" H Kite 24"
C Bulbul 8"
D :lIyna 9"
I Duck 24"
E Pigeon 13" J Village hen 18-30n
F Partridge 13" K Vulture 36 '

It is hoped that the Keys to Identification. on pages x.,,,iii to ..

xxx'."ii will be of further help tu beginners in tracing down a~d
recognising the birds they see.

To the many friends who have been good enough to make

helpful suggestions from time to time 1 wish to express my grateful
thanks. r am particularly beholden to AIr. E. H. N. Lowther for
allowing the use of some of his charming bird photographs and to
Major R. S. P. Bates for the one on page 422 showing his "hide"
camouflaged for action.
Debra Dim, S. A.
August I9'P,
 Preface to the Second Edition
The favourable reception accorded to the first edition, as eviden-
ced by its being sold out just within I2 months after publication,
and the numerous appreciations received by the author and publishers,
show that this is the type of bird book the public wants.

The second edition is being brought out under the difficulties

created by the present world situation: Paper is difficult to come
by; the choice of inks has become woefully restricted in consequence
of which it is feared that a further deterioration may r(,sult in the
reproduction of some of the coloured plates; costs arc soaring from
day to day.

Those familiar with the first edition will notice a change in the
arrangement of the plates which now appear one behind the other.
This arrangement does away with the necessity of using art paper
throughout, and enables the letterpress to be printed on ordinary
paper. By this means we not only overcome the difficulty of pro-
curing the required quantity of a suitable art paper, but we also hope
to keep down the cost. Incidentally, it may further help to reduce
the weight of the book, which in the case of the first edition was rather
unnecessarily heavy; so it may be all to the good.

In the present editIOn I have becn fortunate enough to bc able

to include 15 additional full-page colour plates with their corres-
ponding descriptions, so that in all we now have 188 coloured plates
and 196 full descriptions as against 173 and 181 previously. Also
some more species have been dcscribed in short paragraphs, and I have
inserted an extra key for identification of long-legged birds which it
is hoped wili prove useful.

Illy thanks are due to all those users of The Book who have made
helpful criticisms and suggestions from time to time. These have
been made use of wherever practicable. Such criticisms and sugges-
tions will be welcomed by mc at all times.
Bombay,
October 194z. S. A.

vi
 Contents.

PAGE

PREFACE iii-vi
INTRODUCTION ix
TERMINOLOGY OF A BIRD'S PARTS AND PLUMAGE •• xviii
How TO RECOGNISE BIRDS IN THE FIELD:
I. Birds with prominent Tails .. xxiii
2. Birds with prominent Bills .. xxv
3. Birds ".-ith prominent Crests xxviii
4. Long-legged birds xxix
5. Bright coloured birds x.'Ocii
6. Sober coloured birds x."OCili
DESCRIPTIONS AND COLOURED PLATES 2-97
SOME NESTS AND NESTING BEHAVIOUR 98
DESCRIPTIONS AND COLOURED PLATES II2-19S
BIRD MIGRATION 19 6
DESCRIPTIONS _\ND COLOURED PLATES 208-3 0 9
THE USEFULNESS OF BIRDS •• 3I I
DESCRIPTIONS AND COLOURED PLATES 3 1 9-'-4 1 9
BIRD \V ATCHING 420
INDEX OF SPECIES xx..'(j_x

List of Black & White Plates

Nest and Eggs 01 the Yellow-wattled Lapwing 99

Painted Storks, 'White Ibises and Cormorants often
nest in Company 100
Colony of ?rlud Nests of the Cliff Swallow r03
The Hammock Nest of the Black-headed Oriole 198
Baya \Veaver-Bird and Nest .. 104

Nukta or Comb-Duck at Nest [07

Male Paradise Flycatcber at Nest 108
Cattle Egrets attending on grazing Buffalo •• 154
White Ibises on Nests .. 158
Large Parakeet at Nest-hole ., 193

vii
 PAGE

Swallows collecting before Migration 197

A Plight of Rosy Pastors 20 3

A Ringed Sparrow-Hawk ready to be released 20 4

Jungle Babbler on Coral Blossoms 233
A Scrimmage of Vultures at a Carcase 310
Thick-billed Flowerpecker eating Lorallthtts berries 31 7
A Camouflaged Ground' Hide' 422
A Raised' Hide' Platform 421

Diagram.s

Illustration of names of a bird's parts & plumage xix

Types of Bills xx
Types of Feet xxi

Map

Europe-Asia showing most important recoveries of ringed

birds in and from India, to end 1940 204

viii
 Introduction
What is a Bird?
0- Bird has been described as a 'Feathere~ Biped': This
descnption is apt and precise, and can apply to no other anrmal.

Birds are vertebrate warm-blooded animals' i.e., whose

temperature remains more or; less constant arid independent
of the surrounding temperature.l This is in conu'adistinction to
Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishei which are cold_plooded, i.e., of
temperature that changes with the hutness or coldness of its surround-
ings.

To assist ill maintaining an even temperature, the body of a

bird is covered with non-conducting feathers-its chief characteristic-
which in details of structure and arrangement reflect the mode of
life of the group to which the bird belongs. Compll-re for example
the thick, soit, well-greased covering on the underside of an aquatic
bird like a Duck or Grebe with the peculiar, narrow, l:tairlike, 'double'
feathers of the Cassowary to be seen in any Zoo. Except in the
Flightless Birds such as the last named. the Ostrich ,,"nd the Penguiu
(Ratitm and Sphenici) whose feathers grow more or less evenly over
the entire surface of the body, the gro",,"1;h of feaW ers is restricted
only to welJ-dcfined patches or tracts known as pttl'yltE in various
parts of the body, whence they fall over and evewY cover the ad-
joining naked interspaces or apteria. A study of -the arrangement
of the feather tracts (pterylosis) which varies in the different orders,
families, and even species, is of great importance in determining the
natural relationships of different birds.

The feathers covering the body of a bird fall into 3 classes;

(I) The ordinary outside feathers known as Contour feathers or
pemzre, whether covering the body as a whole or specialised as pinions
or flight feathers (remiges) or as tail feathers (rectrices) which serve
as rudder and brake; (2) the fluffy Down feathers or Plulllu[l'E hidden
by thc Contour feathers and comparable to flannel· underclothing,
whether confined to nestlings or persisting throughout life; (3) the
hair-like FiJCl-plumes which are hardly seen until 'tb e other feathers
have been plucked off. They are particularly noticeaple , for instance,
in a plucked pigeon)
ix
 The body temperature of birds is high-IOOO- II2 0 Fahr.-
higher than that of most mammals. Assisted by their non-
conducting covering of feathers, birds are able to withstand great
extremes of climate. As long as they can procure a sufficiency of
food supply, or ' fuel' for the system, it makes little material difference
to them whether the surrounding temperature is 1500 on the burning
desert sands or 60° F. below zero in the icy frozen north. Their rate
of metabolism is greater than that of mammals. They lack sweat-
glands. The extra heat generated by their extreme activity which
WOUld, under torrici climatic conditions result in o\·erheating, fever
and death, is eliminated through the lungs and air sacs as fast as it is
produced. For one of the functions of the 'air sacs '-a feature
peculiar to birds and found in ,·arious parts within the body-is to
promote internal perspiration. \Vatcr vapour diffuses from the
blood into these cavities and passes out via the lungs, with which
they are indirectly connected.

In addition to these two cardinal attributes, warm-bloodcd-

ness and insulated feather-covering, Birels as a class possess certain
well-marked characteristics which equip them eminently for a life
in the air. In India we have at present no indigenous flightless birds
like the Ostrich or the Penguin, so these need not come under dis-
cussion here. The forelimbs of Birds, which correspond to human
arms or to the forelegs of quadrupeds, have been evolved to serve
as perfect organs of propulsion through the air. }Iany of their larger
bones arc hollow and often have air sacs running into them, which,
as mentioned above, function principally as accessory respiratory
organs. This makes for lightness without sacrificing strength, and
is a special adaptation to facilitate aerial loco!1lotion. Modifications
in the structure of the breast hone, pectoral girdle and other parts
of the skeleton, and the enormously developed breast-muscles enable
a birel to fly in the air. It has been estimated from analogy with
birds that a man, to be able to lift himself off the ground by his own
effort, would require breast muscle at least 4 feet deep I There is,
moreover, a general tendency for various bones to fuse with each
other, conduci~g to increased rigidity of the skeletal frame-also a
factor of great importance in flight. As a whole the perfectly stream-
lined spindle-shaped boely of a bird is designed to offer the minimum
resistytllce to the wind. On account of their warm-bloodedness
{;oupled with these peculiar facilities for locomotion with which
x
Nature has endowed them, birds enjoy a wider distribution on the
earth than any other class of animals. They cross ocean barriers
and find their way to remote regions and isolated islands, and exist
under physical conditions where their cold-blooded relatives must
perish. It is also this power of swift and sustained flight that enables
birds living in northern lands to migrate periodically over enormous
distances of land and sea in order to escape from the rigonrs of winter-
sllOrtening days and dwindling food ~;upply-to warmer and more
hosFitable climes.

Birds arc believed to have sprung from reptilian anc~stors in

bygone aeons. At first sight this appears '4 far-fetched notion,
for all the face of it there seems little in common between the
grovelling cold-blooded reptile and the graceful, soaring warm-
blooded bird. But palCl'ontological evidence, supplied chiefly by
the earliest fossil of all undoubted bird to which we hase access-the
Arch<iiOptcryx-and moclern researches on the skeletal and other
characteristics or our present-day birds, tend in a great measure to
support this belief. The method of articulation of the skull with.
the backbone, for instance, and the nucleated red blood corpuscles
of the bird arc distinctly reptilian in character. To this lllay be
added the fact that birds lay eggs which in many cases closely re-
semble those of reptiles in appearance and composition, and that
the development of the respective embryos up to a point is identical.
In the majority of birds scales are present on the tarsus and toes
which arc identical with the scales of reptiles. In some birds like
Sandgrouse, and certain Eagles and Owls the legs are covered with
feathers, a fact which suggests that feathers afe modified scales and
that the two may be interchangeable. The outer covering of the
bills d certain birds, the Pullin (Fratercllia arctica) for example, is
shed annually after breeding in the same way as the slough in reptiles.
The periodical moulting of birds is also essentially the same process
as the sloughing of reptiles. In short, birds Illay reasonably be con-
sidered to be extremely modified reptiles, and according to the
widely accepted classification of the great scientist Huxley, the two
classes together form the division of vertebrates termed Sauropsida.

* * *
Of the senses, those of Sight and Hearing are most highly
developed in birds; that of Taste is comparatively poor, while Smell
xi
is practically absent. In rapid accommodation of the eye, the bird
surpasses all other creatures. The focus can be altered from a distant
object to a near one almost instantaneously; as an American naturalist
puts it, "in a fraction of time it (the eye) can change itself from a
telescope to a microscope."

For the safety of their eggs and young, birds build nests which
may range from a simple scrape in the ground, as of the Lapwing,
to such eleboiate structures as the compactly woven nest of the
\Veaver Bird. \Vith rare exceptions they incubate the eggs with
the heat of their own bodies and show considerable solicitude for the
young until they are able to fend for themselves. Careful experi-
ments have, however, pfO"l,'ed that in all the seemingly intelligent
and purposeful actions of nesting birds, in the solicitude they display
for the welfare of their young and in the tactics they employ when
the latter are in danger, instinct and not intelligence is the primary
operating factor. The power of reasoning and the ability to meet
new situations and overcome obstacles beyond the most ordinary,
are non-existent. It is good therefore always to bear this in mind
when studying birds, and to remember that their actions and
behaviour cannot be judged purdy by comparison with human
standards and emotions.

*
The total number of bird species known to science as inhabiting
the earth to-day may be put down as between 8 and IO thousand.
If subspecies or geographical races are taken into account, the figure
would rise to about 30,000.

For its size, the Indian Empire, in which it is customary for

biological considcratiolls to include Ceylon and Burma, contains one
of the richest and most varied avifaunas on the face of the globe.
Covering some 40 degrees of latitude and about the same of longitude,
it encloses within its boundaries a vast diversity of climate and
physical features. These range from the dry, scorching sandy deserts
of Sind and Rli,jputiina and the humid evergreen rain forests of Assam
and the south ~We5tern Ghats, to the region of glaciers and eternal
sno:-", in the mighty Himalayas. Smooth wide spaces of depressed
xii
river basins, either sandy, dry and sun·scorched or cultivated, or water-
logged under a steamy moisture·laden atmosphere (the terai) lie at
the base of the northern ramparts. The great Central Indian and
Deccan Plateaux succeed the fertile alluvial Gangetic Plain and are
:flanked on the \vest by the broken crags and castellated outlines of
the ridges of the \Vestern Ghats which overlook the Arabian Sea
and continue southward in gentle, smoothly·rounded slopes of green
uplands-the Nilgiri and other hills of Southern India.

This far-flung continent-2/3rd of Europe in superficial area-

offers suitable living conditions to a great variety of feathered
inhabitants. The second edition of the Fauna of British India Series
O;:J Birds enumerates some 2>400 species and sub-species, of which
Toughly 500 are winter visitors from lands to the North.

The Indian Empire as a whole falls into the zoo-geographical

division of the earth known as the Oriental Region. For the sake
of convenience the arl-a has been split up (Blanford, Phil. Trans.
of the Royal Soc., Vol. 19.), 1901, pp. 335--1]6) into 5 primary sub-
lliyisions as under:

(a) The Iudo-Gaugetic Plain extending across the whole of

Northern India from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. Its
boulldMics run up the hill ranges ironl Karachi to Peshawar and
thence along the outcr spurs of the HimiiJayas to Bhutan, and
tllCnce roughly southward to cast of the Sunderbans. The southern
boundary takes a line from the Rann of Cutch to Delhi and from
about Agra to Riijmahal whence it goes south to the Bay of Bengal.

(b) Peninsular India, southw"rd of the above area.

(c) Ccylvil.

(d) The Himtllayas including the whole area. of the mountain

ranges from their IOOtllills up to the limit of tree-growth.

(0) Assam alld Burma.

The Punjilb, Sind and Riijputii.na, however, haye a fauna

dilIcring considerably from that of the other parts of Indi~l and re-
sembling that found in !::l-W. Asia and N. Africa, whilst the animals
of the Higher Himftlayiis (above the tree-liue) and the Upper Indus
xiii
Valley resemble those of Central Asia. Both these areas belong to
the zoological region which extends over the greater part of Asia and
all Europe and known as the Palrearctic Region.

A still further splitting up of the fauna within these broad sub-

divisions on the basis of ecological or environmental factors is clearly
desirable. A scrutiny shows that there is a close similarity between
the fauna and flora of those regior.s in which the incidence of the
South-OWest "'Ionsoon is heaviest, namely the Himalayas east of Sikkim
and the hilly portions of Assam and !lurma on the one hand, and
the south-western corncr of the Indian peninsula, south of about Goa,
together with the south-western portions of Ceylon on the other.
On account of the similar physical configuration of all these areas
and their geographical position relatin to the strike of the S. \V.
)lonsoon currents, they are areas of hca\'y rainfall and excessive
humidity. These, precisely, arc two of the most important factors
that regulate the character of the vegetation. Similarity in vegeta-
tion is a striking feature of these he;l,\'y-rainfall areas. As would be
expected, this similarity extends to the insect forms dependent upon
the plants, which in turn conduce to similarity in the birds predatory
upon them. It has thus been suggested that all these parallel areas,
far-flung as they are, are perhaps better lumped together in one zoo-
geographical sub-division.

There are certain biological axioms of marc or less universal

application which arc found to hold good in the case of our Indian
avifauna also. They arc of great importance, particularly in view
of the modern practice of recognising geographical vari,ltions and
races. A cursory glance through any well-arranged muscum col-
lection, or through the description of geograpLical races in any up-to-
date work on systematic ornithology reveals the fact that the largest
race of a bird species-this is true of other warm-blooded animals
as well-is, with ran. exceptions, found inhabili'lg the cooler part of
its distributional range while the smallest inhabits the warmer.
Parallel with this axiom is the fact that in the Northern Hemisphere
races occupying the cooler (northern) portions of the range of a
species tend to lay larger clutches of eggs than those occupying warmer
(southern) parts.

Furthermore, it i!; well known that of a given species the races.

that inhabit desert areas arc always pale or sandy-coloured whereas
xiv
others living under the influence of heavy rainfall, in well wooded
or humid tracts, tend to be darker in colouration. This is true not
only of individual races' and species, but also of the entire aspect of
the avifauna of these tracts as a whole. 'What the precise factors
are that bring about these changes in colouration, and the manner
of their operation, we do not know. That humidity has to do with
increased pigmentation is clear enough, and it has recently been sug-
gested that the reduced force of ultra-violet rays due to ,yater-vapour
suspended in the air may account for the darkening.

* '"
A few remarks with regard to the classification of birds seem
called for in the interest of the beginner. It will be observed that
under the English or tri"ial name of each species in the following
pages, there appear in brackets bl'o Latin names. The practice
of employing a uniform Latin terminology is current throughout
the modern scientific world. It is a boon to workers in different
countries since it is marc or less constan t and enables the reader
of one nation to understand \I'hat the writer of another is talking
about. To take an example; what the Englishman calls Hoopoe
is \Viedellopf to the German. :\ Pole knows the bird as something
else-doubtless with a good many c's, z's, s's and other consonants
in bewildering juxta-position-while the Russian has yet another
equally fantastic looking name for it. A fair working knowledge
of a language seldom implies a familiarity with popular names as of
birds, for instance. many of whieh often arc of purely local or collo-
quial application. Thus it is possible that "'hile the Englishman
may follow more or less all hc reads in German about the \Viedehopf
he may still be left in some doubt as to the exact identity of the bird,
The international Latin name U pupa Cf)OPS after the English or Polish
or Russian name will kave no doubt as to wbat species is meant.

In the above the lirst name Upupa denotes the Genus of the
bird corresponding roughly, in everyday human tenns, to the
Surname. The second name CPOf)S indicates the Species and cor-
responds, so to s<ty, to the Christian name. Modet:n trend of
scientific usage has tended to split up the Species further,into smaller
units called Geographical l~aces or Subspecies. An example will
clarify what this means: It will be admitted th<tt all the peoples
living in India are human and belong to one and the same human
xv
species. Yet a casual glance is enough to show that the Punjabi
is a very different type in build and physiognomy from the dweller
in ~Iadras, or the Bengali from the Burman. The differences, though
small, are too obvious to be overlooked. They are primarily the
result of environment which includes not only climatic conditions
of heat and cold, dampness and dryness, but also of diet and many
other subtle factors working unceasingly upon the organism in direct
or indirect ways. Thus, while retaining all these inhabitants under
the human species, when you talk of the :JIadrasi or the Punjiibi or
the Burman you automatically recognise the sum total of the differ-
ences wrought in each by his particular environment.

A comparative study of birds reveals that there are similar

minor but well-marked and readily recognisable differences in size,
colouration and other details in those species which range over a
wide area and live under diversified natural conditions, or which
have been subjected to prolonged isolation as on oceanic islands, or
through other causes. It is important for science that these differences
should be duly catalogued and recognised since they facilitate the
study of variation and evolution. This recognition is signified by
adding a third Latin name to the two already existing, to designate
the Geographical Race or Subspecies. Thus, for example, the species
Corvus splendclls-the House Crow-has becn sub-divided on the
basis of constant differences in size and colollration brought about
in the different portions of the Indian Empire it occupies as follows:

Corvus splendws splelldclls (the typical race)-The Common

House-Crow.
Corvus splendens =uglllaycri-The Sind House-Crow.
Corvus splendcils illsolclls-Thc Burmese House-Crow.
Corvus splcilde,ls pyotcgatus-The Ceylon Honse Crow.

* *
Barring restricted areas and particular groups of birds which
still require careful collecting and working out, we can now claim
to have a sufficiency of de,Ld ornithological material frotu India in
the great m~scums of the world to satisfy the needs of even an
exacting taxonomist. :ylost bird lovers in this country possess
neither the inclination, training nor facilities for making any
substantial additioJls to our knowledge of systematics. Speaking
xvi
generally, therefore, Indian systematic ornithology is best left in the
hands of the specialist or museum worker who has the necessary
material and facilities at his command. Our greatest need to-day
is for careful and rational field work on living birds in their natural
environment, or what is called Bird Ecology. It is a virgin field;
both the serious student and the intelligent amateur can contribute
towards the building up of this knowledge. A great many biological
problems await solution by intensive ecological study. It is a line
of research that may be commended to workers in India; it will afford
infinitely more pleasure and is capable of attaining much greater
importance and promise than the mere collecting and labelling of
skins.

Finally, to those desiring a closer acquaintance with birds in

general, no better or more readable book can be recommended than
The Biology of Birds by J. A. Thomson. For India in particular,
the excellent serial on " The Study of Indian Birds" by Hugh Whistler·
published in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, and
his Popular Handbook of Illdim. Bil'ds are useful guides. Inglis and
Fletcher's Birds of an Indian Garden is good and describes and
illustrates a number of the commoner birds. Douglas Dewar's series
of books on Indian birds will be found helpful, and no one should
be without EHA's (E. H. Aitken) classic little~olllmon Bil'as of
Bombay-which, despite its title, covers a good many of the commoner
birds found in India. Fcr masterly touch of matter and charm of
style EHA is unapproachable. To the advanced student the 8
volumes of the 2nd edition of the Fauna of British India Series on
Birds by Stuart Baker and the 4 companion volumes of his NiaijicatiolJ
of Indian Birds must remain indispensable for a long time to come.

xvii
 I, Forehead.
2. Crown.
3. Nape or occiput.
4. Lores (space in front of eye).
5. Supercilium.
6. Cheeks.
7. Ear-coverts.
8. Upper mandible or maxilla.
9. Lower mandible.
10. Culmen or upper profile of maxilla.
11. Commissu-re or YIDe 01 junctlol) 01. tile 'two manulDle5.
12. Rictal bristles or vibrissre.
13. Chin.
14. Throat.
15. Breast.
16. Abdomen.
17. Back.
18. Rump.
19. Scapulars.
20. Primaries (the earlier or outermost 9 or 10 visible quills of
the wing).
21. Outer secondaries (wing-quiJ.Ls springing from the radius lind
"\\\!I:a').
22. Inner Secondaries.
23. Lesser wing-coverts.
24. Median wing-coverts.
25. Greater wing-coverts.
26. Primary wing. coverts.
27. Winglet or bastard wing.
28. Upper tail-coverts.
29. Tail-feathers or rectrices.
30 • Under tail-coverts.
3I. Tarsus.
3 2 • Hind toe or first toe or hallux.
33. Inner or second toe.
34. . Middle or third toe.
35. Outer or fourth toe.

xviii
...

r. Cutting.

2. Tearing and
piercing flesh.

: 3. Seed cl'Ushing.
4. Flower probing.

6. Mud probing.

5. Wood chiselling.

8. Tootll-edged for
7. A sieve for straining mud. gripping fish.

I. Jungle-Crow. 2. Pariah Kite. 3. House-Sparrow. 4. Purple

Sunbird. 5. Golden-backed Woodpecker. 6. Stilt. 7. Flamingo.
8, Cormorant.
xx
 Types of Feet

5. Clinging.

6. Leaf-
watlling.

7. Swim-
ming.

Swimming.
8. Swimming.

I. Jungle-Crow. 2. Sparrow.Hawk. 3. Woodpecker. 4. Courser.

5. Swift. 6. ]a~ana. 7. Sea-Gull. 8. Cormorant. 9. Dabchick
or Grebe.
 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
1. Bitds with Prominent Tails.

Size of Length Predominant Colours

Species. of :Bird. Page.
:Bird.· of Tail.

A- Indian vVren-Warbler
(se) " " .. z"
2"
Earthy brown
Ashy-slate,
..
fulvous-
97
Asby Wren-Warbler ..
Tailor Bird " .. white ..
Ii" Olive-green, white "
" 94-
go
A Grey Wagtail (4b) .. 4" Grey, yellow .. "
..
152
White Wagtail .. 4"- \Vhite, grey, black 156
Common Swallow ·. 5" Steel blue,
chestnut .,
white,
.. 148
Wire-tailed Swallow 7"'- jSteel blue, white,
I chestnut .. .. 151
Green Bee-eater
(2,4a) .. ..5" Green .. .. 212
C Blue-tailed Bee-eater
(4a) .. .. ..6"- Green .. .. 215
Paradise Flycatcher,
ad. male (3, Sb) " 10-1 5" \Vhite, black .. "
62
Paradise Flycatcher,
imm. male (3, 5e) " 10-1 5" lChestnut, black white. 62
ShUma .. ....
6'" Black, chestnut, white. 50
Black DroDgo (sa) 7"'- Black.. .. .. 85
White-bellied Drongo. 6" Indigo, whitish .. 86
Common Babbler (se) 5" Streaked earthy
brown .. .. .. 18
Large Pied Wagtail
D
(5 C) •• .. "
5"_ Pied black & white .. ISS
Indian Tree-Pie (5e) 12" Chestnut brown, sooty.
black, grey .. 6
Racket-tailed Drongo
(3, sa) " ·.
IS" Black .. .. .. 89
Pied Crested Cuckoo
(3,Sc) .. ·.7" Pied black & white .. 184
Grey Shrike (Sd) " 5" Grey, black, white ., 66
Blossom-headed Para-
keet (4a) " " 9" Green, purplish.plum 195
--
'" A=Sparrow; C = Bulbul; D = Myna.
+ = bigger; - = smaller.
The numbers in brackets after na.me of species are to facilitate
cross references to these keys.
xxiii
 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
1. Birds with Prominent Tails-contd.

S~e Of!
Bird.'" , Species. Length
of Tail.
Predominant Colours
of Bird. Page.

D+ Rose-ringed Parakeet
(4 a) .. .' .. ION Green 192
E- Large Parakeet (4a) .. lZ" Green 191
Common Sandgrouse
(se) .... zl."-
~
Sandy. black .. 28 7
F Pheasant-taiJed Ja"ana
(sc) .• 5"~ Chocolate-b r 0 w n,
' white ., 32 8
G- Koel, male (sa) 8" Black .. r87
Keel, female ., S" Brown, sported and
barred black 1 87
G+ Crow-Pheasant 11"_ Black. chestnut 188
Little Cormorant (sa) 6" Black .. 371
H Grey Bornbill (z, Sd). 12" Slaty grey z27
1- Darter or Snake Bird
N
(z, sa) .. .. 9 Black-brown, s i 1v e r,
) grey 372
J IRed Jungle-fowl, cock
. (4 C) 13" -jOrange-red. chestnut.
black . . .. 291
Gtey Jungle-f 0 Vi' I ,
cock 18"_ Grey, brownish-yellow,
black 292
K fPeafOWI, cock (3, 4d) 36-4 8" Metallic blue, green,
(train) brown 288

.. D = Myna; E = Pigeon; F = Partridge; G = Crow

H = Kite; I = Duck; J = Village hen; K = Vulture.
+ ~ bigger; - = smaller. •

xxiv
 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
2. Birds with Prominent Bills

Size of Shape, Colour Predominant Colours Page.

Species. and Length of of Bird.
Bird.*
Bill.

I
A- P"",1e sunb"d'icumd' black,IMetallic pur p lis h-
male (5a) . . 1"- . .: black .." 168
Purple-rumped Curved, black, Metallic green, purple,
Sunbird, m. r H_ .. crimson .. .. 171
Fern a I e s oflCurved, black, Brown, pale yellow .. 168,
above two. I
1"- 17 1
A Green Bee-eaterICurved, black, Green .. ., .. 212
(r, 4a). I
r,t"-
Common IndianlStraight, point- Blue, green, rusty .. 220
Kingfisher ed, black, 2".
\ (4 d ). I
B+ Painted Snipe IStraight, slen· Metallic olive-green,
der, brO\\'11, 2/1. white, buff, black 331
Icornmon or Straight, slen- Dark brown, black,
Fant?il sniPe der, brown rufous, buff. 36 7
(5e). 3"-
Il
C Blue-tailed Bee- Curved, black, Green .. .. .. 21 5
eater (1, 40.). z"_
CoD DeccanScimitarlCurved, yellow, Dark brown, white .. 21
Babbler (se). r"+
D Roopoe (3, 5e) .. ICurved, slen- Fawn, black, white .. z28
der, dark
bro"~n, 2/1 +
D+ Golden-backed Straight, wedge- Golden yellow, black,
Woodpecker. I shaped, black white, crimson. 179
1Y·
D-E Pied KingfisherlStraight, point- Pied black 8:: white. 219
(5 C). I
ed, black, 3"·
White-breastcd Straight, point- Blue, chocolate brown,
Kingfisher ed, red, 3"- white. 223
(4 d).
E+ Brown-headed Straight, point- Pale blue, buffy
- Stork-billed ed, compress- brown 224
Kingfisher ed, blood·red,
4":-
F Black-'Vlnged IStralght, skn- \Vlute, greY-brown,l.
Stilt (4, 6c). der, bJack,3"- black. 357
* A = Sparrow; B = Quail; C = Bulbul; D = Myna; E =
Pigeon; F = Partridge.
+= bigger; - = smaller.
xxv
 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
2. Birds with Prominent Bills-contd.

Shape, Colour Predominant Colours

Size ofl
Bird.* I Species. and ~~rh of of Bird. Page.

F+ Avocet (sc) .. !Iupcurved, Slen.llPied black & white 3S9

der, black,
, 3"+
H Grey Hornbill11curved, h~avy, Slaty-grey ., .. 227
(I,Sd). hornllke,1

I
black and!
i white, 5"· I
Night Heron,l I Ashy-grey, black .. 400

f
adult (Sd). Straight"
Night Heron, heavy, black I Streaked brown " 400
immature & yellow, 4"-1 I
(se). J ! l
H+ Grey Her 0 niStraig!It, dag-iAshy-grey, white,
(3d). I
gerhke, yel- I black.
low. 6". I
Open-b i 11 e dIRed~ish-b I a c kIGreyish-white, black ..
Stork (S<:.~. "nth.. I?;<l.p be-)
(S tan din gil tween mandi-
36"-). bles 6".
1- Dar t e r orlStraight, dag-IBlack, brown, silver-
S n a k e-Birdi ger-! i k e,1 grey. 372
(I, sa). I
brown ~ n d!
I I yellow, 2. i
I+iSpoonbill (Sb) I'S pat u I a t e,iWhite .. 375
brm,vn and Ii
yellow, 8".
J- Whimbrel (se) Curved, slen-I'Sandy-brown, streak-
der, brown, ed black & fulvous.

Cattle E!;ret, 1
3"+' III(
Golden yellow, white
breedIng
(Sb). {Straight,!
Cattle Egret, poi n t e d'i ~
~on-b r e e d- yellow, 3"· lWhite 39S
mg.
Reef Heron Straight, pOint-'lBlUisb.-Slaty or White. 396
(Sd). ed, brownish·
yellow, 4".
F = Partridge; H = Kite; I = Duck; J = Village hen;
+= bigger; - = smaller.
xxvi
 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE fiELD
2. Birds with Prominent Bills-concld.

)1 I Shape, Colour IPredominant Colours

Size
Bird.* Species.
Iand ~ftth of ! of Bird. Page.

I
jpond Heron or'llstraight, point-;Earthy brown, white. 399
Paddy Bird ed, brownI
I (se). and yellow,

J
I 3"· I
!Curlew (se) .. Curved, Slender'lsandY-brown. streaked
I brown. 5-6". black and fulvous. 360
jBlack Ibis (sa). Curved, slender, Black 379
\ black 6"- \
'I Little Egret,Straight. poi~t- \Vhite ., 392
J+
(Sb). 1 ed, black. 4 '1
\Yhite Ibis (Sb"Curved, slender, White .. 37 6
4)· I black. t'- i
K White I
Stork Straight;, heavy, White, black 3 80
(5 C ,4). 1 red, S -
(St~nding 40"1 I
lllgh.) I
W hit e-neckedIStraight, heavy,iBlack, white
Stork (Sc, 4). black, 7"- I
(Standing 36"
high.) i
IPainted Stork Heavy, yellow,iWhite, black, rose-
(Sc, 4). decurved at\1 pink,
(Standing 43" tip, 10".
high).
K+ Adjutant Stork. Heavy, 4-Sided,!IBlaCk, grey. white
(Standing 48. wedge-shaped
60" higl1), (4). 13".
Sarus Crane Straight, heavy, Ashy-grey 33 2
(5\1, 4.) I poi n ted,
(Standing. 48-' g r e e n i s h-
60" high). brown, 7".
Flamingo Red, heavy. Rosy white 40 3
(Standing about down·curved
4ft.) (4). ("broken"),
Pelican sieve. Brownish white
Long. fiat, with
elastic bag
below.
J := Village hen; K = Vulture.
+ = bigger; - = smaller.
xxvii
 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
3. Birds with Pt'ominent Crests

Size of Species Principal Associated Page

Bird.* Colours Colours

A Ye 1 low-cheeked Yellow. black ., White .. .. 10

Tit (4b).
A+ Indian Crested Brown ., .. Whitish .. .. 163
Lark (5e).
C Rcd-vented Bul- Brown ., · . Black, crimson .. 33
bul (5 e).
R e d~whiskered,Brown
I .. " \vllite, black,
Bulbul (5e). crimson. 37
\Vhite-c11eeked Brown " " "Vllite, black,
Bulbul (5e). yellow. 34
Paradi~e Fly- \Vhite ., •. Black .. .. 64
catcher, adult
male (I. 5b).
Paradise Fly- Chestnut · . Black. whitish .. 62
catcher, adult
female and im-
mature male
(1, 5e).
D- Brahminy :Myna Reddish-fawn · . Grey, black " 12 3
(5e).
D Racket-t a i I e dlBlack .. ., .. 89
Drongo (r. sa). I "

Rose-coloured Pale pink, black .. "

II9
Starling or Rosy
Pastor.
IHoopoe (2, 58) .. Fawn .. .
, Black, white
..
.
. 228
184
D+/Pied Crested Pled black & "
Cuckoo (r, 5c). white.
R Crested Serpent Dark brown, ful- White .
, .. 26 3
Eagle (5e). vous.
K Peacock (1, 4d) .. Glistening blue, Brown ,. ., 288
green.
Peahen (se) .. Variegated brown,
white, glisten-
.. .. 283

ing green.

A = Sparrow; C = Bulbul; = Myna; H = Kite;

K =• Vulture. D

+ = bigger; - = smaller.
xxviii
 o
~

b
.2:
'0

'H

g ...o
g
5: '0
o
:r
C)

til
.'!l
u
<j)
0.
(J)

0)
N .... ]"
.~ 0
(J) •
f:Q
XXIX
:xxx
 G>
no 00
00
,",0
0\00
r--
...,
00
..;-
00
. ....,
0
<U
p. '" '" '" '" '" rt') v

~ ...
...,.,
P,' '0 -:>, . :>, .~

.,~
<U~ OG> >'~.~>
>,a..j.o)
d:
~ c:
I:.Q"O ... t:.o d
no+> <d 0"
§
... ,.c: .0 00 '0 t'd
'O-a
].~ S cd P.
C,)~ ~ 0) ..Q ...
..Q d..Q ~:P
.~
~
1:)'0 ~ .- :>::_.
~ ;Q.,j§ ....
:..
] 1:; ~
(l) Q 'Vl '" 'OcU
.~
p,..c:
cv Q) ...::: .,j.sc::...,0..c:.~~ '0.s;::.~'--ci.ac: ~t'd "g:>- ~~
"d ,.Q
"'0 ._ ~ . 0 ~ cd ~ .. 0·,...., a O'~ ~ ............ Q.)
"0 0 " g) ~ ._ ..Q '0 _OC1)_O~o"O~ .......
OJ P-!,o _ "S d rn ~ 03 A..o 03 p. ~ p.., () al
~ :>< ~ :>< :>< \) ~

"0
<1) '"
.,
-;;; ...
._ ::l
uo~
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..c
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~ :>,
<:'" u () ~ +'
:a
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<U c: .!:=
ii1 p; Q ~
+' '0
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,
:::,
~'O ....0>
...,.,
c: c::
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<d "...no ~
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.~

...G>
:>,
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.... ~_ il= (.)
C\l
.,:>,
... III
0
....II
D:i ~
..
\) \) f:Q f:Q \)
I:: i:l..Q
'"
no :::0 ..e'" :t::
G>
:l ..cUl ...
..0
"' .... A
""0 :.;;; .... 'tl . ~

... c: .iJ oll: "0 ll:",

d.b

U
::l
,.g
0 -'s.
'3
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'a.,
...'"
\)
'0
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<1)"'..0'"
:><
e';;'
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"0
II>
'0
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... 'Cj'
0
+' :0- u'C 'C
~
'C
~
~ ~
(/)

.~ ~ ~ ...
.!>4 ...0
.!>4

., ~ ...,0 til c: $
()
d II>
'tl
~
II>
...0 .s (/) ....
Si-
,I:f'C
CI)

::r: (/) 'tl ~ 5 0

CD
c:
e 's
.$ .$ ..... VI
c:<!) ..- to .S<U ::l ,
~
:fj'
~
p,--
0 0 p. <: '"
(/)

*
~"" '0
U)o~ ::a J
xxxi
 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
5. Bright Coloured Birds
a. Chiefly GREEN

Size ofl
Bird.'" I
Species. Associated Colours. IPage.
A ICrimson-breasted BarbetllYellOW, crimson 180
or Coppersmith.
Loriquet . . .. . ..,Crimson .. .. 208
Common Bee-eater (1,2) IRusty brown ., 212
C Blue-taled Bee-eater (r,z).,Chestnut, yellow, blue 215
Gold-fronted Chloropsis .. IGolden yellow, purple,
black. 29
Jerdon's Chloropsis, male. iBlack, purple 30
Do. do. female .. I Bluish-green 30
D Blossom-headed Parakeetl'Plum colour, maroon, blue. 195
(1).
D Rose-ringed Parakeet (1) iBlack, rose-pink (in male). 192
E Large Parakeet (1) .. iBlack, rose-pink, maroon
I (in male). 19I
Common Green Pigeon .. ;French grey, yellowish,
I dark brown. 279
b. Chiefly or Largely YELLOW
A-I White-eye.. .. I
. • Olive green ., I67
I Purple-rumped Sun bird, Metallic green. crimson,
i male. purple. 171
A i Yellow-cheeked Tit (3) .. Black, white 10
I lora. male .. . . Black. white 26
: Do. female .. Greenish-yellow, dark
I brown. 26
Baya 'Weaver Bird, malelBrown (streaked) 13 1
I (breeding) .

:~~~!~~::e:unti:~l:i~::i~l:::::~~l::~:vn
144
A+ Ii 144
Grey Wagtail (brcedingIGre y, blackish 152

D
C I plumage) (1).
Golden Onole ..
I
I Scarlet Mi~ivet, female .. iAshy-grey
. . ,Black ..
74
IIZ
j Black-headed Oriole .. !BlaCk .. 115

*A = Sparrow; C =
Bulbul; D = Myna, ; E = Pigeon;
J= Village hen.
+ = bigger; - = smaller.
xxxii
 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
5. Bright Coloured Birds-coutd.
c. Chiefly or Largely RED

Size ofl
Bird.'"I Species. Associated Colours. I Page.

A_I Red l\Iunia, male (breed-;White (spots)

i ing). !
A Small:'.Iinivet .. . . !Black, grey 77
Hodgson's Rose-Finch, iBrO'.vll •. 139
male. I
C Scarlet l\Iinivei., male . 'IBlack 74
G+ Crow Pheasant or Coucal .. ,mack .. ISS
J Red Jungle-fowl, cock (I) • IBlack, orange 291

d. Several BRIGHT Colours in Plumage

A Common Indian KingfishenBlue green, rusty brown "1 220
(2). I I

D Indian Pitta .. iGreen, blue, bro\';'n, black,

I crimson, white. 175
D-E White-breasted KingfiSherlBlue. chocolate brown.
(2). whitc. 223
E Indian Roller .. . . Oxford and Cambridge
I
blue, rufous brown, lilac. 211
K ! Peafowl (I, 3) .. (Metallic blue, green, brown. 288

6. Sober Coloured Birds

a. General ejled more or less wholly BLACK
~------------------------------------------------~----
Size ofl
~ird.* I Species. IPage.
A-I:Purple Sunbird, male (breeding) (2)
Common House Swift (50) •.
A+I Indian Robin, male ., ..
C
D
I
Black Drongo (I) .. .,
~ackct-tailed Drongo (I, 3)
•.
..
D+ Grackle or HIll Myna .. ..
I

G =
*A = Sparrow,; C Bulbul; =
D = l\1yna ;
Crow; J = Village hen; K = Vulture.
E = Pigeon;
+= bigger: - smaller. =
xxxiii
 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
6. Sober Coloured Birds-contd.
a. General effect more or less wholly BLACK

Size of I'
Bird." Species. II Page.
D-E Malabar Whistling Thrush.
G- Koel, male (I)
G House Crow 2
G + ] ungle Crow 5
Little Cormorant (1) 37I
I - Coot 32 4
Darter or Snake Bird (I, z) 37 2
K
I
J+ Black Ibis (2)
King Vulture
379
247
b. General effect more or less wholly WHITE
C Paradise Flycatcher, adult male (I, 3) 62
1+ Spoonbill (z) 375
]- Cattle Egret (z) 395
] Little Egret (2) 392
J + White Ibis (z) 37 6
K+ Flamingo (2, 4) 40 3
c. General effect PIED BLACK 0- WHITE
A-I' White-backed :;Ylunia
Common Swift (5a)
A I Pied Bush.Chat, maJe
C I Magpie Robin, male ..
Pied or ivlahratta \Voodpecker
I
Large Pied Wagtail (I) ..
D- Pied Myna .. ..
D+ Pied Crested Cuckoo (I, 3)
D-E Pied Kingfisher (z)
F Pheasant-tailed Ja«ana (I)
Black-winged Stilt (z)
F +
Avocet (z)
H+ Open-billed Stork (z)
K White Stork (z)
White-necked Stork (Z)
Painted Stork (z) .,

* A = Sparrow; C = Bulbul; D = Myna; E = Pigeon ;

F = Partridge; G = Crow; H = Kite; I = Duck; J = Village
hen; K= Vulture.
+ = bigger; - = smaller.
xxxiv
 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
6. Sober Coloured Birds-contd.
d. General effect largely ASHY-GREY, BLUE-GREY or
SLATY

Size of I'
Bird."
Species. Associated Colours. IPage.
A Grey Tit .. !B1ack, white .. \
Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch iChestnut . '1
Tickell's Blue Flycatcher !Rusty bro:vn, azure blue .' "1
C

C+
Black-headed
Shrike.
Cuckoo-:Black, wblte
:
Indian Blue Rock-Thrusb ... :Dark brown
Rufous-backed Shrike .. (Rufous, black
..

::
I 54
70
D- Bank i>lyna .. )Blackish, white 12 7
D Grey Shrike (1) •. :White, black 66
E- Large Cuckoo-Shrike .. iWhite, black 81
Indian Ring Dove .. :Vinous, dark brown 28 4
Indian River Tern .. ,\Vhite, black .. 347
E Indian Blue Rock Pigeon .. :Glistening purple and green,
! black.
Hawk-Cuckoo or Brain-!\\c'hite, rusty brown
fever Bird. I
Shikra Hawk , . "\\'hite, rusty brown 27 6
G Black-winged Kite .. iWhite, black .. 27 2
G+ Black-headed Gull .. iWhite, black 344
H- Pale Hat'rier, male . ,j\Vhite, black '275
H Night Heron (2) .. iWhite, greeniSh-black 400
Grey Hornbill (I, 2) •• :Dark brown .. 227
H+ Grey Heron (2) .. !White, black
+I
391
I Bar-headed Goose .. ':Brownish, white, black 4 08
J- Indian Reef Heron (2) .. ;Dark brown 39 6
K- Demoiselle Crane .. . . 'Black, white .. 335
K+ Sarus Crane (2) .. . .:White, dark brown 33 2
e. General effect more or less BROWN (all shades)
A- Rufous-bellied Babbler .. 1
Streaked Fantail Warbler.
Indian Wren-Warbler (I) ..
I .. \ U
93
97
White-throated l\!unia .
Spotted Munia ,. . . \\'hite
'1 135
136

.. A = Sparrow; C = Bulbul; D = Myna; E = Pigeoll;

G = Crow; H = Kite,; I = Duck; J = Village hen; K = Vulture.
+ = bigger; - = smaller.
xxxv
 HOW TO ,RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
6. Sober Coloured Birds-colltd.
e. General effect more or less BROWN (all shades}-contd.

i
I
Size of Associated Colours.
Species. Page.
Bird.*

A- Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark,White. black

male. !
Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark,!
female. i
Purple Sun bird, female •. ,Pale yellow .. 168
Purple-rumped Sun bird, Pale yellow 171
female.
Tickell's Flowerpecker .. :Whitish
Palm Swift - .. :Sooty grey
Dusky Crag ~Iartin !
A Pied Bush-Chat, female .. :
Indian Bush-Chat, female. i ••
Redstart, female .. . .IRusty reddish
Indian Robin, female .. i
Spotted Fantail Flycatcher.!White
Hodgson's Rose-Finch,:
female. .
House Sparrow, male .. i,\\'hite, grey, black
Do. do. female I
YeHow-throated Sparrow .. jSulphur yelloW; white,
I chestnut... .. 140
Indian Pipit "1 •• •~ •. 15Y
Baya \\'eaver Bird .. !Yellow (only in male breed-
i ing plumage). .. .. 13 1
Striated Weaver Bird · . [Yellow (only in male breed-
! lng plumage)
Little Stint .. !\\'hite ..
Small Skylark .. i
A+ Indian Crested Lark (3\
Red-headed Bun tin g.
female. .
Black-headed Bun tin g' 144
female.
B- Rain or Black-breasted Buff. black 299
Quail.
Jungle Bush-Quail · . iVinous. black
Bustard Quail · . ,Buff, black

* A = Sparrow; B = Quail.
+ = bigger; - = smaller.
x:-.. xvi
 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
6. Sober Coloured Birds-contd.
e, General effect more or less BROWN (all shades}-contd.

Size ofl
Bird.* Species. Associated Colours. IPage.

B- Little Ring Plover .. White, black

B Common or Grey Quail .. Buff, black
Spotted Sandpiper .. White
B + Common or Fantail Snipe Rufous, buff, whitish
(2).
C- Yellow-eyed Babbler .. White 25
C Common Babbler (t) IS
Indian Blue Rock-Thrush, Whitish 54
i female.
I Paradise Flycatcher, female Black, white
II (3) and young male (t, 3)
, Red-vented Bulbul (3) •. Black, crimson 33
Red-whiskered Bulbul (3) White, black. crimson 37
\Vhite-cheeked Bulbul (3) .• White, black, yellow 34
I
CoD t Deccan Scimitar Babbler White •. .• 21
i (2).
D-! Brahminy Myna (3) •• Grey, black 12 3
D Common Myna .. White 124
Indian Tree-Pie (I) .. Sooty black, grey .. 6
Jungle Babbler 17
Southern or Black-capped 53
Blackbird
Hoopoe (2, 3) .• Black, white
Common Indian Nightjar. Grey, buff, black
Spotted Owlet .. White
E- Common Sandgrouse (I) •• Black
E Little Grebe or Dabchick White
F Grey Partridge .. Whitish
Indian Courser .. Black, rufous, white
Yellow-wattled Lapwing .. Black, white
F + Indian Stone-Curlew or Buff, white
Goggle-eyed Plover
Red-wattled Lapwing or Black, white 35 2
" Did-he-do-it."
G+ Laggar Falcon .. White
\Vhite-eyed Buzzard-Eagle.

*C = Bulbul; D = Myna; E = Pigeon; E = Partridge;

G = Crow; H = Kite.
+ = bigger; - = smaller.
xxxvii
 HOW TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE FIELD
6. Sober Coloured Birds-contd.
e. General effect more or less BROWN (all shades)-contd.

Size
Bird.'"
ofl Species. Associated Colours. I Fage.

H Pariah Kite 27 I
Brahminy Kite, immature 268
Do. do. adult White 268
Brown Fish Owl 239
Indian Homed Owl Buff, black 24°
Scavenger Vulture, imma- 25 1
ture.
Night Heron, immature (2). 400
H+ Tawny Eagle 259
Crested Serpent Eagle (3). 26 3
Ring-taUed or Pallas's White, greyish 26 7
Fishing Eagle.
I - Lesser Whistling Teal 411
White-eyed Pochard White 4 16
Common Teal, female 4I)
J- Pond Heron or Paddy Bird White 399
(2).
Whimbrel (2) · . IFulvous buff, black .. :
3 60
J Red Jungle-fowl, heD .. 1 ..•. 291
Grey Jungle-fowl, hen · ·IWhite .. 292
Curlew (2) ., · . IFulvous, buff 3 60
K White-backed or Bengal White 24 8
Vulture.
Peahen (3) .' Metallic green 288
K+ Grea.t Indian Bustard .. White, black . 'j 33 6

.. IT = Kite; I = Duck; J= Village hen; K = Vulture.

+ bigger; - = smaller.

xxxviii
'~~ '~ :"--_
~?:::_.._,

'('><
,~"''-. ""
,'_
·ot'.~;- "
-t· .
 ~ The Common House-Crow
CorVHS splendens (Vieillot)

Size: About that of the BluEl Rock-Pigeon; slightly largoI'.

(17 8 ).
Field Characters: The grey neck and somewhat smaller size
serve to distinguish this species from the wholly black Jungle-Crow,
frequently found living side by side with it, especia.lly on outskirts
of human habitations. Sexes alike.
Distribution: A resident species everywhere in the plains of India,
Emma and Ceylon. Limited numbers have secmcd a footing cyen
in somo of our highor hill-stations. Based on slight differences,
mainly in coloura~ion, four geographical races are recognised within
our area.
Habits: The House-Crow ii; the commonest and most familiar
of Indian birds, an unfailing commensal of man and an clement of
his social system. His intelligence and boldness, coupled with an
infinite capacity for scenting and avoiding danger carry him trium.
phantly through a life of sin a.nd wrong-doing. Food getting is II
simple matter with tho crow. Nothing comes amiss to him. Ho
will tak8 a deud rat or kitchen refuse, pilfcr from u protesting fish-
wife's basket, or decamp with tho egg on your breakfast table. His
thieving propensities, howo"er, arc in !l. great measure redeemed 'by
his eilicient service as scavong8r_ Although crows devour locusts,
termites and other injurious insects, particularly when thcso are
swarming, t,hey also raid ripening crops such as wheat and lnaizo
and cause damage to fruit in orchards. Their status il~ regard to
agriculture, therefore, is summed up as ncutritl.
They have communal roosts where litrgo numbers forga.thor
at sunset, often froIn considerable distances aroun.d, dispersing
again at daybreak to feed.
Nesting: The breeding season varios in different parts of tho cowlt,ry.
In Westem India House-Crows nost boiween April and Juno, in Bong!d
slightly earlier, whilo in the heavy rainfall arens of S-\V. India
breeding is usually over before the onset of the South-iVest Monsoon
in l\Iay. The nest is an U!'tidy platform of twigs-also wire or hoop-
iron when available-with a central cup-liko depression lined with
coix and other fibre. It is placed in the fork of a tree at any height
from 10 feet up. Tho normal clutch is of 4-5 eggs, palo blue-green,
speekled and streaked with brown. Both sexes share in nest-building,
incubation and care of the young. Tho Kool, ono of our commonest
parasitic cuckoos, habitually Jays in tho nost of this crow.
2
The Common House-Crow
3
The Indian Jungle-Crow
 2. The Indian Jungle-Crow
Corvus macrorllynchos 'Wagler

Size: Between the House-Crow and the Kite.

Field Characters: A uniformly glossy, jet black crow with a heavy

bill. Its voice differs from that of the Common House-Crow in the
, caws' being much deeper and hoarser in tOlle. Sexes alike.

Distribution: Resident throughout India, Burma and Ceylon,

where 3 races are recognised on differences mainly in size of
wing and bill.

Habits: Though small nun;bers are lured into towns and cities
by the prospect of profitabl'! scavenging, the Jungle-Crow is
mainly a rural bird, abundant on the countryside and met with even
in forested and unfrequented parts, far from the haunts of :Man.
1Iany live in the neighbourhood of villages and outlying hamlets
where sanitation is elementary and refuse abundant. Jungle-Crows
are not as gregarious as Common Crows. They are usually solitary,
but at times congregate in biggish parties. Several will collect in
company with vultures to feed on a carcase. Their liking for carrion
is sOllletimes a help to the shikari, since in dense jungle their presence
often reveals the whereabouts of a tiger or panther' kin: Jungle-
Crows are just as omnivorous as their grey-necked relatives and
notoriously destructive to the eggs and young of other birds. In
the monsoon, land crabs form a favourite item of food-a useful
service to agriculture if land crab., aTe really as destructive to seedling
crops as they are believed to be. At all times lizards, frogs, and
centipedes as well as a large variety of fruits are eaten. ,

Nesting: The normal breeding season in peninsular India is

between December and March or April; north of the Ganges and
in Assi"tlll and Burma it is usually later, between March' and May.
They build the usual type of crow's nest of twigs high up in a tree.
130th sexes partake in building work, incubation and care of the
young, Though slightly larger, the eggs, +-5 in number, resemble
those of the COlllmon Crow in colour. Like the Common Crow,
though less frequently, Jungle,Crows arc selected by the Koe1 as
suitable foster parents for its offspring, and it is not unusual to see a
clamouring young cuckoo being assiduously and carefully tended
by this species.

5
 3. The Tree-Pie
Dendrocitta vagabunda Latham

Size: About that of the JltIyna, with a tail I2 ir.ches long.

Field Characters: A long-tailed chestnut-brown bird with

sooty - head and neck. The broad black tips of the longest tail
feathers and the greyish-white wing-coverts are particularly
conspicuous while on the wing. The flight is undulating-a swift
noisy flapping, followed by a short glide on outspread wings and
tail. Sexes alike.

Distribution: Tbe wbole of India, Burma and Ceylon. Over this

wide range 4 races are recognised on differences in size and colour-
ation.

Habits: The Tree-Pie is a bird of open forest. It often frequents

wooded country and scrub jungle near towns and villages and freely
enters compounds and gardens. It is of a social disposition going
about in pairs or family parties which kcep up a loud grating con-
versation. They have a wide repertoire of calls, some harsh and
guttural, others quite melodious. Bob-a-link or Kfikila is a more
or less faithful syllabification of one of their pleasanter calls. Like
their near relations, the crows, Tree-Pies are omnivorous. Fruits,
both wild and cultivated are eaten. They are invariably present
among the mixed gatherings of birds on Banyan and Peepal trees
to gorge themselves on the ripe figs. Insects, caterpillars, lizards,
frogs and centipedes are relished, and even carrion is not despised on
occasion. They are amongst the most constant members of the
hunting parties of insectivorous bird, that move about in forest.
They also hunt systematically for birds' nests, and are highly des-
tructive to the eggs and young of the smaller species.

Nesting: The season extends from February to July, the

majority of eggs being laid between illarch and May. The nest,
well concealed by foliage, is placed near the top of a tree, not
necessarily a high one. In structure it is of the cro\v type, a deep
platform of twigs-often thorny-with the cup well lined with finer
twigs and rootlets. Both sexes share in building, incubation and
care of the young. The eggs-4 or 5 in number-vary slightly in
shape and size and rather more in colour. The commonest type
is pale salmon-white, splashed and streaked with bright reddish-
brown.
6
The Tree-Pie
7
The Grey Tit
8
 4. The Grey Tit
Part~S major Linmeus

Size: That of the Sparrow.

Field Characters: The glossy jet black head, throat and broad
ventral band down centre of breast contrasting with the white cheek-
patches, grey back and whitish underparts help to recognise this
typical tit. Sexes alike.

Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Empire, in

the plains as well as hills upto about 6,000 feet. In this range five
races are recognised on slight differences in size, shade of colouration
and the relative extents of black, white and grey in their tail
feathers.

Habits: The Grey tit is found in well-wooded localities, but it

avoids heavy evergreen forest. It goes about singly, in pairs or
small flocks either by themselves or in association with other small
insectivorous birds. They scatter about the trees keeping in. touch
with one another by a joyous cheepillg and twittering. These
restless little busy·bodies spend most of their time hunting for insects
-climbi:Jg about and clinging to sprigs and flowering stems in every
conceivable position, peering under leaves, probing into flowers and
searching the crevices of the bark. Their food consists mainly of
insects, but seeds and berries are also eaten. Tits destroy large
numbers of noxious insects "and their larvae and are thus welcome
in orchards in spite of some little damage they may do to fruit and
fruit· buds. They get at the kernels of hard-shelled nuts by holding
the nut down under one foot and piercing it with repeated blows of
their strong conical bills. In the breeding season the male utters
a loud, clear, '.\·histling song: Whee-chi-chi . . wlzee-chi-chi . . whee-chi-
chi . . &c.

Nesting: The season, which varies somewhat in different locali-

ties, is between February and November. Often two' successive
broods are raised. The nest is a pad of hair, 111055 or feathers placed
in holes ill trees, masonry walls or earth cnttings, 5 to I j feet from
the ground. It is remarkable what a tiny entrance hole the bird
will. squeeze itse][ through. Fonr to six eggs are laid, white or pinkish-
white in colour, spotted and speckled with reddish-brown. Both
sexes share in building, incubation and care of the young. They are
close sitters and will often refuse to desert even while the nest hole
is being hacked open.
9
 5. The Yellow-cheeked Tit
11'1 achlolophus xanthogell)!s (Vigors)

Size: Same as the Grey Tit (=Sparrow).

Field Characters: A dainty little black and yellow tit with
a prominent pointed crest. Sexes alike in the Northern race, both
having black crest and black ventral band. In the Peninsular and
Southern races the ventral band of the female is dull olive-green.
The female of the latter race is dimorphic, sometimes having the
crown also of this colour.
Distribution: A resident chiefly of hill forests and wooded
plateau country throughout India. Three races-a Northern
(\V. Himalayas), a Peninsular (Central India, Deccan, &c.) and
a ·Southern (W. Ghats) are recognised on differences of size and
colouration. Absent in Ceylon. Represented in Burma by an allied
species, 111. spilonotus, with bright yellow forehead.
Habits: Like others of their tribe, these tits hunt in family
parties, generally in company with other small insectivorous
birds. They prefer the leafy canopy of tall trees, but will descend
lower where the prospect of food is inviting. The .individuals keep
up a joyous c1zee-clzee as they restlessly s(earch for insects, grubs and
spiders which comprise the major part of their diet. Various fruits
and berries are also eaten. Like Grey Tits they hop abollt the
leaves and twigs, clinging head downwards, prying into cracks and
crevices, and flit from sprig to sprig in their quest. Usually they
are not shy and do not resent being watched. During tile breeding
season the male has a loud, clear whistling song: Clwcwit-pretty-
cheewit, &c. This is uttere'l with crest erect and wings drooping
at the sides.

Nesting: The season varics in differcnt parts of its range

according to local conditione, between April and September. The
nest is similar to that of the Grey Tit-a pad of 111055, hair, wool
Of feathers placed in a hole in a tree-stem. Old Barbet holes are
frequently appropriated. Sometimes a hole or crack in a lllasonry
wall or in an earth bank is utilised. The eggs-four to six in num-
ber-ate a glosslcss white or pinkish-white, more or less spotted and
blotched with reddish or purplish-brown. Both sexes share in
building, incubation and care of the young. A female whose nest-
hole was cut open did not desert her abode, but continued to lay her
full complement of eggs in spite of the fact that her daily contribution
was removed from the nest on four successive mornings I
10
The Yellow. cheeked Tit
11
The Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch
T2
 6. The Chestnut.-bellied NuthaJeI(
Sitta castanea Lesson

Size: Slightly smaller than the Sparrow.

Field Characters: A small bird slaty-blue above, deep
chestnut below. The underparts of the female are paler. Short
square tail (not used in climbing as by the woodpeckers) ; long heavy
pointed bilL It scuttles jerkily up, sideways or down and around
the trunk and branches of a tree, or clings to and runs along the
undersurface of a bough with surprising agility.

Distribution: A resident species throughout India, Burma and

Assam (not Ceylon) though often patchy. Four races are here re-
cognised on differences in size of wing and bill, and colouration-
chiefly of the underparts.

Habits: The Chestnut-bellied :Nuthatch is not a bird of deep forest

though it likes wooded tracts. It is partial to mango groves on the
outskirts of "illages. There is in the Nuthatch something of the
tit and something of the woodpecker. Like the tit it scours the
trunk and branches of trees for its food; like the woodpecker it climbs
ane! taps away on the bark to dislodge insect prey. On a casual
glimpse it is possible to mistake it for a tree-mouse. Indeed the
manner in which it runs up and down a tree, slips behind a trunk
or branch or clings to it upside down is strongly reminiscent of the
antics of that rodent. It utters feeble mousy squeaks and also has a
quick-repeated dOllble note; ClJilp-chilp. _ Unless paired off for
breeding, these nuthatches ]]lay he seen in small parties usually in
the mixed company of woodpeckers, tits, warblers, flycatchers and
other insectivorous birds, working the tree-trunks and branches "ith
industry and thoroughness in search of spiders, grubs and insects
lurking on the bark and in its holes and crevices. They also eat the
kernel of various nuts ane! hard-shelled seeds of forest trees. These
are wedged firmly into sOllle crevice and pierced or hacked open by
repeated blows of their strong, pointed bills.

Nesting: The season over most of its range is between February

and lIray. The eggs are laid in natural holes and hollows in
tree-tmnks on a lining of leaves, moss, wool, feathers or merclychips
of bark. The hollow is walled up with a plaster of lUud, leaving a
small neat rouncl entrance hole. Two to six eggs arc laid, white in
ground colour, speckled with red. Sometimes two broods are raised
in succession.

13
 7. The Velvet-fronted Nuthatch
Sitta frontalis Swainson

Size: Slightly smaller than the Sparrow.

Field Characters: Similar to the Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch, but
purplish-blue above greyish-lilac below. Forehead velvety jet·black,
Chin and throat whitish. The female differs from the male
(illustrated) in having no black stripe above and behind the eye.
Pairs or family parties creeping up and around branchcs of trees
in forest.

Distribution: Ceylon and the better-wooded portions of the Indian

peninsula (chiefly the Eastern and \Vestern Ghats and their outliers
to about 5000 ft. elevation) are occupied by the typical race. The
slightly smaller race corallin a inhabits the belt of wooded country
along the base of the Himalayas and the foothills, and extends into
the plains of Assam, all Burma, and l\1alay Peninsula and Islands.

Habits: This nuthatch is a resident of moister, better wooded tracts

than the preceding species and is fond of submontane and foothills
country. It is usually seen in pairs or family parties of 5 or 6, dili-
gently working the moss and lichen covered trunk and branchcs of
forest trees, jerkily creeping up and down, and along or around them
in the manner described. It is most commonly met with among thc
mixed hunting parties of small birds that rove the forest, of which the
usual members are tits, flycatchers, minivets and warblers.

The call of the Velvet-fronted Nuthatch is a loud. checpi:lg whistle,

somewhat of the volume of a sunbird's. It also utters a variety of
mousy cheeps.

Nesting: The season in South India is from about February to

April. In Northern India it ranges between April and June. The
nest is placed in a natural tree hollow or in an old woodpecker or
barbet hole, often fairly low down. The entrance hole selected is
usually small enough not to need further reduction by plastering up
with mud as in the ease of the Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch. The cavity
is well padded with hair, moss or feathers. The eggs-3 to 6-are
white in ground colour, densely speckled and blotched with red or
purplish. Incubation is said to takc 13 or 14 days.
The Velvet..fro.nted Nuthatch
15

-
 J
The Jungle Babbler
16
 8. The Jungle Babbler
Turdoides somervillei (Sykes)

Size: About that of the )'Iyna.

Field Characters: A familiar earthy-brown bird of frowzled,
untidy appearance and a longish tail that gives the impression of
being loosely stuck into the body. Always in flocks of half a dozen
or so, whence its popular names of Siitbhiii and 'Seven Sisters.'
Sexes alike.
Distribution: Throughout India and Assam, in the plains and
up to about 5,000 feet elevation. It avoids both heavy evergreen
forest and treeless country. Five geographical races are recognised
on slight differences, mainly of colouration. Replaced in Ceylon
and Burma by other related species.
Habits: This Babbler inhatits outlying jungle as well as well-
wooded compounds, gardens and groves of trees about towns and
villages. The flocks or 'sisterhoods' spend their time hopping
about on the ground, rummaging amongst the fallen leaves for·
insects. They habitually io:rnl. the nucleus of the mix.ed hunting
parties of iusectivorous birds that move about the forests. They
keep up a constant harsh chatter and squeaking, and as a rule the
best of good fellowship prevails within a sisterhood. Occasionally
differences of opinion arise between members, and loud and
discordant wrangling ensues; bill and claw are then freely plied
and feathers fiy. To outside aggression however, they always
present a united front and when one of the fiock has been set upon
the others will boldly attack and often put to rout the marauding
hawk or cat.
Their food consists of spiders, cockroaches and other insects
and larv<:c. Banyan and Peepal figs, Lantana and other berries,
anel grain are also relished. Babblers are inordinately fond of the
fl.;)wcr-ncctar of the Coral and Silk CottOll trees and incidentally
do conSiderable service in cross-pollinating the blossoms.
Nesting: There is no well defined season and odd birds breed
irregularly throughout the year. The breeding pairs continue
to remain with the flock, only detaching themselves now and
again to attend to their private concerns. The Ilest is a loosely put
together cup of twigs, roots and grass placed in the fork of SOnte
leafy mango or other tree, 8 to 10 feet from the ground. Three or
four eggs comprise the clutch. They are of a beautiful turquoise
blue colour. Both sexes build, incubate and tend the young. The
Pied Crested and Common Hawk-Cnckoos often foist their eggs in this
babbler's nest, and shed their parental responsibilities upon tbe dupe.
17
 9. The Common Babbler
Argya caudata (Dumont)

Size: That of the Bulbul with a relatively longer tail.

Field Characters: Slimmer than the Jcngle Babbler and like
it always seen in flocks of half a dozen or so on the ground or in low
bushes. The earthy-brown upper plumage is streaked darker, and the
long, graduated, loosely attached tail is finely cross-rayed. Sexes alike.
A closely allied species, the Large Grey Babbler (A. ma/colmi)
with grey forehead and white outer tail feathers is also common in
the drier portions of the plains.
Distribution: The typical race caudata is resident throughout
the dry plains and hills of India up to about 4,000 feet. Not in
Burma, Assam or Ceylon. It has two other geographical races
outside India proper viz., eclipes in the Trans-Salt Range Plateau
and lwttoni, in Afghanistiin, Baluchistan, etc.
Habits: The Common Babbler is strangely catholic in its choice of
habitats. It avoids heavy evergreen forest and on the whole prefers
dry open country. But it is equally at home in the deserts of Sind
and ltajpiitiina where the annual rainfall is under 5 inches a year,
and the HimiLlayan foothills where it often exceeds a hundred.
Flocks spend their time scuttling along the ground like rats
under hedges or tllrough prickly scrub and thickets, rummaging
for insects. They are loth to take wing and usually rely on their
nimble legs when alarmed or moving from bush to bush. The
flight is feeblc-a few rapid flaps followed by a glide OIl outspread
wings and tail. Their calls are a series of short pleasant trilling
whistles. \Vhcn agitated-as for instance at the "ppcarance of a
prowling cat or mongoose-the birds utter a masical whistling
Which-which-wlzichi-ri-ri-ri-l'i-I'i-ri, etc., as they nervously twitch
ti1eir wings and hop from bush to bush, peering down at the
intruder, loosely jerking tlicir tails, the • whole sisterhood com-
bining to hurl invectives at it in disorderly chorus.
Their food consists of spiders, grasshoppers and other insects, and
theirlarv<c. Lantana and other berries as well as grain arc also eaten.
Nesting: The season is poorly defined and odd birds breed
more or less throughout the year. The most general period
however is between :'I1areh and July, and often two broods arc
raised. The nest is a neat compact cup of grass and rootlets
placed in a low thorny bush, seldom more than 5 feet up. Three
or four glossy turquoise coloured eggs form the clutch. Both
sexes share in the domestic duties. The nests are commonly
parasitised by the Pied Crested and Hawk Cuckoos.
18
The Common Babbler
19
The Deccan Scimitar Babbler
20
 10. The Deccan Scimitar Babbler
Pomatorkill"s Iwrsfieldii Sykes

Size: Between the Bulbul and the :Myna.

Field Characters: A dark brown babbler with white throat

and breaC't, a prominent white eyebrow, and curved, pointed
yellow bilL Pairs or small flocks usually in dense cover. Sexes
alike.

Distribution: Peninsular India from the Vindhya Mountains

to Travancore and Ceylon. So far five races are recognised
mainly on depth of colonration and size of bilL

Habits: The Scimitar Babbler is confined to thickly forested

country, preferably where it is broken and hilly. It is met with
up to about 6,000 feet elevation, being most abl!ndant in secondary
evergreen jungle with patches of bamboo and cane or thorn-
brakes. The birds go about in pairs or small scattered flocks of
4 to 10 individuals which rummage on the ground in the dense
undergrowth, 'flicking the leaves over or digging in the moist
earth with their scimitar bills, in search of insects and grubs.
They also hop "hout the moss-covered branches of forest trees
or amongst the bamboo culms in this quest. The members of a
flock maintain contact with one atlother by mellow bubbling or
gurgling calls. In the case of pairs the male usually acts as
leader and is followed from one thicket to another bv the female
who acknowledges by a subdued kroo-leroo or krokallt "e"ery one of
his musical flute-like calls. \Vhen alarmed, the birds hop along the
branches with great agility as if to get under weigh before launching
down into the seclusion of the dense undergrowth. Like the other
hah':>lers, their flight is fecl;lc and ill-sustained. The deep mellow
',vhistling call of four notes. consbntly uttered, proclaims their
presence in a patch of jungle long before they arc "isiLle. The birds
are as a rule shy and great skulkers, but will sometimes boldly enter
town limits in quiet hill-stations. c_<S
Nesting: The principal bl'ccding months arc from December
to I1Iay. Thc nest is " loooely put together domed structure-"'7a
ban of grass, moss, rootlets and leaves. It is placed on the ground
at the foot of some bush growing. for preference, on the side of a dry
forest nullah, and is inconspicuous in its surroundings. Three to
five eggs are laid, pure white, thin-shelled and translucent. Both
sexes share in the nest-building.
OZ[
 11. The Rufous-bellied Babbler
Dltmetia hyperythra (Franklin)

Size: About that of the Sparrow.

Field Characters: A restless little bird olive-brown above,
fulvous below, in small cheeping flocks in scrub and grass jungle.
Sexes alike.

Distribution: Resident throughout the greater part of India

(excepting the dry areas in the north-west) from the Himalayan
foothills south, and acrQss into Ceylon. Absent in Assam and
Burma. Two races arc recognised. The Southern race
albogularis differs from the typical Northern mainly in depth of
tint and in having the chin and throat white.

Habits: The Rufous-bellied Babbler'. inhabits lightly wooded.

and thorny scrub country, being ~specially partial to areas
with an intermingling of tall coarse grass. It goes about in loose
flocks of 5 to 10 birds searching the undergrowth and grass stems
for insects. The individuals keep in touch with one another by
means of feeble but sharp cheeping calls-Sluech, sweech. &c.-
mistakable at a casual hearing for a Sunbird's. These arc punc-
tuated by harsh tittering notes when perturbed. They arc
great skulkers. On taking alarm the birds promptly sGatter and
dive into the thickest portions of the undergrowth. Soon,
however, the flock reassembles by the louder and more agitated
cheeping and tittering of its members, and resumes the hunt for
food.

The diet consists principally of insects and their larv<£. They

are also fond of the flower-nectar of Silk Cotton, Coral and other
blossoms.

Nesting: The breeding season over most of its range is during the
S.-IN. Monsoon, between the middle of May and September. Also
November to :March in Ceylon. The nest is a neat ball-shaped
structure about six inches across, composed of coarse grasses and
bamboo leaves, lined with finer grass and rootlets, with small round
entrance hole at the side. It is placed in a thorny bush or clump
of grass or bamboos, seldom above 3 feet from the ground, and is
often concealed by a dense growth of monsoon creepers. The eggs-
three or four in number arc a glossy pinkish-white, profusely speckled
and blotched with reddish or dark brown.
22
The Rufou~bellied BabbJer
The Yellow..eyed Babbler
24
 12. The Yellow",eyed B~bbler

Clirysomma sinensis (Gmelin)

Size: Slightly smaller than the Bulbul.

Field Characters: A long-tailed bird, cinnamon and chestnut-
brown above white below, with conspicuous orange-yellow eyelids.
In small parties in scrub and grass undergrowth. Sexes alike.
DistributiDD: Resident throughout the plains and lower hills
(up to about 5.000 ft.) of India proper. Assam, Burma and Ceylon.
Over this range 4 geographical races are recognised on depths of
colouration.
Habits: The Yellow-eyed Babbler is a resident of thorn-scrub
and grass-jungle, and like its Rufous·bellied relative. with which
it is often found side by ~ide-it is partial to thickets in which tall
coarse grass predominates. It is commonly met with about
culti,'ation among the thorn and gmss tangles growing on bands
dividing the fields. The birds move about ill small loose flocks of
1 or 5. hunting among the hrushwood for insects. often clinging to
the grass-stems sideways or npside down in the manner of tits. The
notes usually uttered are a clear, loud and somewhat plaintive cheep-
cheep·cheep. &e. In the breeding season. principally. the males
clamber up to exposed situations-the top of a bush or tuft of grass-
and utter a loud and pretty song. They are great skulkers, and when
alarmed will hop from bush to bush through the undergrowth and
disappear. uttering harsh tittering notes. The flight is feeble, jerky
and undulating.
The food consists of spiders. grasshoppers and other insects
and caterpillars, but like others of their ilk they will im'ariably
take Hower-nectar from Coral and Silk Cotton blossoms whenever
available.
Nesting: The season is during the S-\V. Monsoon, between
June and September. The nest is a neat. deep cup of coarse
grasses lined with finer material and more or less cemented on the
outside with cobwebs. It is wedged into the crotch of a bush,
or slung hammockwise between the upright stems of grasses or
monsoon plants, and usually under 5 feet from the ground.
Four m five eggs form a clutch. These are yellowish-white in
colour finely spcclded with purplish-brown. and llave a fair
gloss. Both S{)XCS build, incubate and tend thp , ..,,--_. 'eave
the nest 12 or I3 days after pn~n'" n.RY GK\lK
Up..S l-IBR,.....

\~,~" \\\~\~,\~\~\\~~\\
44132
 13... The Common lora
JEgitltina tiphia (Linnaeus)

Size: About that of the Sparrow.

Field Characters: A glossy jet-black and canary-yellow tit-like
bird, usually accompanied by his mate chii'f1y greenish-yellow. In
non-breeding season (winter plumage) the male "resembles the female
in appearance. In gardens, groves and light forest.
Distribution: Resident throughout the plains and hills (up
to about 3,000 feet) of the Indian Empire east of a line running
from the Gulf of Cambay through 1It. Aboo to Gurdaspiir
(Punjab). Three races are recognised on details of colouration,
viz., K orthern (tiphia), Central Indian (humci) and Ceylonese
(multicolor). the last extending into Travancore.
Habits: The lora is a bird of gardens, groves of trees on the
outskirts of villages (such as of ;\lango, Tamarind and Neem) and
light secondary forest. It is usually seen in pairs which hunt
for caterpillars and insects among the foliage, hopping from twig
to twig and frequently clinging sideways or upside down to peer
under the leaves. The birds keep in touch with each other by
mellow whistles and short musical chirrups. Its Hindustiini
'name 'Shoubeegi' is rather a good rendering of one of its
commonest whistling calls: The nuptial display consists of the
male chasing the female and posturing before her with wings
drooping, white rump feathers fluffed out and tail slightly cocked
to the accompaniment of chirrupping notes, it variety of musical
whistles or a long drawn sibilant chee-cc, A very spectacular
turn in the display proceedings consists of the male springing several
feet up in the air, fluffing out and exhibiting the glistening white
feathers on his mmp and parachuting down to his perch in spirals
looking like a ball of fluff.
Nesting: The season varies somewhat from one locality t.o
another but may be put down as mainly between !lIay and
:'ieptember. The nest is a compact little cup, about zy across,
of soft grass and roots fibres neatly rounded off at the bottom.
It is worked into the crotch of a slender twig 4 to 30 feet from the
ground, but most commonly between 6 and 12. The exterior
is well plastered with cobwebs. The eggs number two to four
and are pale pinky-white in colour blotched with purplish-brown.
Both sexes share in nest-building, incubation and care of tl1C
young.
26
The Common lora
Female

27
The Gold-fronted Chloropsis
.Vale
28
 14. The Gold-fronted Chloropsis or
, Green Bulbul '
Chloropsis aurifrons (Temm. & Laug.)

Size: About that of the Bulbul.

Field Characters: An elegant, restless grass-green bird with
bright golden forehead, purple and black chin and throat, and
slender curved bill.' The female is less brilliant. Pairs or
parties in leafy or fio\\'er-Iadcn trees.
Distrihution : Resident in well-wooded areas more or less
throughout India, Burma. and Ceylon up to about 6,000 feet
elc\·ation. 'Vitllin this range three races are recognised on differences
of size and depth of colouration.
Habits: This Chloropsis inhabits forest and on the whole
prefers more thickly wooded country than the next species.
It is usually met with in IKiirs or parties of up to 8 or so, hunting
industriously for insects among the foliage, clinging to the
twigs upside down and in all lllanner of acrobatic positions
in the 'l.uest. Its colour harmonizes with the leaves so admirably
that the bird is oftener heard than seen. Even then it is fre-
quently passed over since, being an accompli"hed mimic, it rather
ob;cun:; its own iuelltity by its perfect imitation of the calls of other
birds. Among the species commonly mimicked are the Tailor-bird,
Red-whiskered and Common Bulbuls, Black Drongo, lora. \Yhite-
breasted Kingfisher, H.ufous-backed Shrike and ::\Iagpie-Robin. The
v;trious impersonations follow one anoth"r without bre~li and convey
the impression of a vcritable ,wian Leaguc of Kations in plenary
sC3sion! Calls of migratory birds arc oftei1 intriguing when they
are reproduced long after the originals ha\"e left the locality. This
fact postulates a rem~lrkably retentive memory on the llart of the
Chloropsis.
Its food consists of spiders, insects, fruits and berries.
Flower-nectar is also regularly eaten.
Nesting: The season over most of its range is between May
and August. In Travancore and Ceylon November to February
stem to be the favoured months. The nest is a loose shallow cup of
tendrils, moss, rootlets, <'tc., lined with soft grass or bast fibres. It
is carefully concealed, and usually difficult of access owing to its
situation at the extremity of an outhanging branch near the top of
some high tree. The eggs, nOfmally two, arc cream or reddish-cream
1n colour, with profuse claret specks all over.
29
 15. Jerdon's Cbloropsis
Chloropsis jcrdolli (Blyth)

Size: Same as the last.

Field Characters: Differs from the Gola-fronted species in the
absence of golden-orange on the forehead and in haYing bright
purplish-blue moustachial streaks. The difference between the
colouration of the male and female is shown on the plate. Arboreal
habits.

Distribution: The Gangetic Plain, all Peninsular India and

Ceylon. Its range largely overlaps that of the Ia.<;;t species, but on
the whole it prefers less thickly wooded country. It is not found
in Assam or Burma.

Habits: J erdon's Chloropsis does not differ appreciaoly in

habits from the foregoing .species and the descriptions apply equally
to both. It often frequents gardens, but is particularly fond of
densely foliaged trees such as pallas (Flame.of·the Forest), mango and
mlt9wa growing on the outskirts of villages and cultivation. On Coml
and Silk Cotton trees in bloom, where the birds are regular visitors,
they act the blustering bully. attacking and driving off eye!)·
other bird feeding on the nectar, not only in their immediate
proximity but often in quite another part of the tree. They will
even resort to dog-in-the-mangcr tactics swooping down with harsh
shikra like" war cries" from a neighboUling tree, chasing away other
birds from the flowers and returning to their base after each sortie.

Chloropscs of various species arc known as Harewa in Hindiistiuli.

They make amusing pets and are much prized by fanciers. Their
pugnacious disposition, however, makes them unsuited for mixed
aviaries.

Nesting: The principal breeding months are between April

and August, but somewhat earlier in the sout.h. The nest is
very like that of the Gold-fronted species. It is a fairly deep, cup
of fine roots and fibres plastered on the outside with cobwebs. ano
suspended hammock-wise between the stems of two leaves or
branching end twigs, 20 to 30 feet from the ground. The eggs-two
or rarely three in number-are. however, very di1Ierent in appearance.
The ground colour is pale creamy or pinkish-wllite, sparingly marked
with specks, blotches and hair lines of blackish. purplish <_lud
reddish-brown. chiefly about the broader end.

30
 Jerdon's Chloropsis
.Vale
Female (inset)
31
The Red"vented Bulbul
32
 16. The Red-vented Bulbul
Molpastes cafer (Linnaeus)

Size: Somewhat smaller and slimmer than the 1I1yna. (8').

Field Characters: A perky smoke-brown bird with partially
crested black head, scale-like markings OIl breast and back, and
a conspicuous crimson patch under the tail. Sexes alike. Pairs or
parties in gardens and lightly wooded country.
Distribution: A resident species, upto elevations of about
4,000 fect, throughout the Indian Empire. Over this wide range
five geographical races are difIercntiated on depth of colouration
and minor variations in size.
Habits: The Red-vented Bullml is a common bird of gardens and
light scrub jungle both near and away from human habitations. It
is usually seen in pairs, but whorey01 food happens to be plentiful-as
for instance on a Banyan tree in ripe fruit or at a swarming of winged
termites-large numbers will collect. .-'l.lthough it has no song as
such, its notes have a peculiar air of joyousness \\'l1ic11, coupled with
the bird's vivacious disposition, always make it a welcome visitor
to the garden.
Its food consists of... \X'rrics and insects. Occasionally it
causes some damage to fruit in orchards and is at all times a
lluisance in the \'egctablc patch on account of its weakness
for peas. But it devours a great many injurious insects as well,
thereby largely compensating for the mischief it docs.
This bulbul is of a pugnacious nature and ranks high with
Indian bird fanciers as a iighting bird. Great riyalry obtains
among the owners and often considerable sums change hands on
tho bents. Champion birds feich big prices.
Nesting: Tho breeding season, which varies slightly in the
diifcrcnt parts of its distribution, is between February and
October. The nest is a cup of rootlets sometimes plastered on
the outside with a little cobweb. It is placed at heights of
between 3 and 30 feet from the ground, but oftenest under [Q
feet. Shrubs and creepers growing on or near yerandahs,
stunted date palms, cactus hedges or polJarded 'Bhelldi'
r01cspcsiq) [md guava trecs in gardcns and 011 the countryside'
arc some of the sites chosen. The eggs-two or three in number-
arc pinl,ish-white, profusely blotched with purplish-brown or
claret. Both sexes share in building, incubation and care of the
young.

33
 17. The White-cheeked Bulbul
iYlolpastes le1!cogenys (Gray)

Size: Same as the last.

Field Characters: A typical earth brown bulbul with tufted black
head, conspicuous glistening white checks and bright sulphur.
yellow under the tail. Sexes alike. In gardens and open scrub
country.

Distribution: Up to between 3 and 9,000 ft. in the Himalayas

from the extreme west to the Assam hills north of the Brahma-
putra River. Throughout the north-nestern part of the Peninsula
including Gujeriit and Kiithiawar, south to Bombay and east
to Jhii.nsi. Three races are recognised mainly on the colour and
length of the crest which varies from almost none, as in the race
illustrated (leucotis) , to the highly developed forwardly drooping
pointed tuft of the typical race.

Habits: The "White-cheeked Bulbul is a bird of the same jaunty

and vivacious disposition as its Red-vented and Red-whiskered
cousins. "Within its range it is found wherever there arc gardens or
orchards, but it may also be met with far from the haunts of !\Ian in
semi-desert "with a ~parse sprinkling of 'Peeloo' (Solvodora persico,)
v;ild caper (Capparis) and other thorny bushes. About human habi-
tations it becomes excessively tame and confiding,-as everybody
who has lived on a houseboat in Srinagar knows-and is a general
favourite. Its cheery notes and happy presence have won for it a
chp[ished place in local poetry and song. The birds go about in pairs
but small scattered flocks will collect where feeding is p:entiful.
1is diet consists of fruits and berries of various kinds, as well
as insects, grubs and spiders. 'Bcr' drupes and the frllit of the
Persian Lilac or . Boqain' (Melia a;;adirachla) , Peelno and wild
caper arc largely eaten.
Nesting: The breeding season is not sharply defined.' It
varies somewhat with local conditions, but the principal months
are from March to September. The nest is the typical bulbul type
of structure --a cup of twigs, grass or rootlets, rather loosely put
together. It is placed in some low tree or thorn bush seldom'morc
than 5 feet from the ground, in a garden or in open scrub country.
The eggs--3 or 4 in number-closely resemble in appearance and
markings those of the Red-vented Bulbul.
34
The White-cheeked Bulbul
35
The Red.whiskered Bulbul
36
 18. The Red-whiskered Bulbul
Otocompsa jocosa (Linnaeus)

Size: Same as the Red-vented Bulbul.

Field Charai:ters: Distinguishable at a glance from the foregoing
by the presence of an upstanding, pointed black crest which som~
times curves forward almost over the beak. The crimson 'whiskers'
and undertail patch, and the white underparts are other diagnostic
features. Sexes alike.

Distribution: Resident up to about 6,000 feet throughout the

Indian Empire excepting the dry portions in the North-west. Three
geographical races are recognised on the tints and minor differences
in col.ouration. Though often found side by side with the Red-vented
species, this bulbul appears on the whole to prefer more humid
habitats.

Habits: The Red-whiskered Bcllbul is another of thp. more

familiar birds' of our gardens and countryside, being found
wherever trees affonl the prospect of food and shelter, not un-
commonly even in the heart of noisy cities. Its joyous, querulous
notes may be heard at all hours of the day. The birds go about
in p:tirs, but numbers will collect at some tree or shrub in fruit.
Their diet consists princip;-tlly of berries-those of the Lantana
being a favourite--but they also devour a consiuerablc nUlllber of
spiders insects and caterpiliars, They make engaging pets, becoming
exceedingly tame and confiding, following their master about and
flying long distances when called.

Nesting: Xests may be iouild at all seasons of the year, but

chid::,' fr0111 February to August. The nest, iike that of the
l~ed-\'entccl Bullml, is a compact cup made of rootlets, line twigs'
and gra<;s. Casuarina needlcs a!-e ntilised where available. The
site selected is usually somc low tree, shrub or hedge in a garden
or in scrub country, UlCrc oeing little effort at concealment.
Occasionally it is placed ill the thatch or palm-leaf walls and roofs of
111.lts~ the birds sitting complacently on the eggs or feeding the young
wlthm a few inches of the inmates. The eggs-two to four in
numbcr-"re very similar to those of the last species. Both sexes
:hare in ne,t building, incubation and care of the young. The
mcube.tion period is 15-16 da~'s. T"o, or even three, broous are
frequently raised or attempted in succession, the casualty alllong
the eggs ane! young being amazingly heavy.

37
 ~/The White ..browed Bulbul
Pycnonotus luteollis (Lesson)

Size: Same as the last.

Field Characters: A sober coloured brownish olive-green,
uncrested bulbul, with pale underparts and conspicuous white
forehead and eyebrows. Sexes alike. Pairs in scrub and bush
jungle.

Distribution: ::'Ilore or less throughout Peninsular India south

of about 23° N. latitude-from Baroda on the west to Midnapiir
(Bengal) on the east, down to Cape Com orin and Ceylon. An
Indian (lutealus) and a Ceylonese (insulce) race arc recognised, the
latter being slightly smaller and darker.

Hahits: The White-browed Bulbul is an inhabitant of dry

open bush-and-scrub country and <1150 frequents shrubbery in
gardens and rambling compounds. It avoids heavy forest and
cultivation alike, but may be found on the outskirts of either.
It goes about in pairs and on account of its staid appearance and
retiring disposition is oftener heard than seen. The birds
ordinarily utter a subdued, throaty c!mrr, but every now' and
again the male explodes into loud, abrupt snatches of rattliug
song which arc quite unmistakat,le when once heard.

Its diet consists of Banyan and Pee pal figs and of fruits and
berries of various kinds-those of Ber (Zi2.V/>hus) and Lantana
being two of the commonest. Spiders and insects arc also caten.

All bulbuls, by nature of their food, play an important role

in the dispersal of seed and dissemination of plant-life over the
countryside.

Nesting: The sca30n is mainly from March to September.

Birds in Travancore and Ceylon breed somewhat earlier, "',c ..
between February and April. The nest is ~il1lijar to that of the
Red-vented Bulbul-a neat but flimsy and loosely put-together
affair of rootlets, etc., without extra lining. It is placed in some
thick bush or young date palm, as a rule under 5 feet from the
ground.

The eggs-two or three in number-are less richly marked but

otherwise oot unlike those of the Red-vented species.
The White ...browed Bulbul
39
The Pied Bush-Chat
Female
Male
 20. The Pied Bush.Chat
Saxicola caprata (Linnaeus)

Size: About that of the Sparrow.

Field Characters: A jet black bird with white patches on
rump, abdomen and wings, the last more conspicuous in flight. The
female is carth-brown with a pale rush' coloured rump. Pairs, on
bushtops, etc., in open country.
Distribution: More or less throughout the Indian Empire,
in the plains as well as hills, commonly up to 7,000 feet. To
north-western India and the Himiilayan foothills it is only a
breeding summer visitor. Three geographical races are recog-
nised on slight differences in size and the extent of white on the under·
parts of the male.

Habits: The Pied Bush-Chat loves stony open and sparsely

scrubbed country, in the neighbourhood of villages and cultivation.
It is seen singly, but usudlly has its mate somewhere close at hand.
The bird takes up a position on the top of a stake, tuft of grass or
some other exposed perch whence it makes frequent little darts to the
ground to pick up an unwary grasshopper or bug. Sometimes it
will spring up into the air or make short sallies after winged insects.

The note commonly uttered is a harsh cliell, ehek, ending in a

subdued /rwecl. In the breeding sea"'ion the male has a pretty
whistling song, beginning- with a double chick-chick and rescmbling
those of the Indian Hobin and the Crested Bunting. It is uttered
either from a perch Of as the bird indulges in short display
flights to and fro with slow 'delayed action' wing bmts above
his back as in a pigeon 'clapping.' Apart from courtship,
the song is abo uttered as a defiance to rivals. During this gesture
the wing,· are drooJled flaunting the white shoulder patches;
the tail is depressed and outsprcad, the white rump fluffed out
menacingly and the neck stimy craned forward.

Nesting: The season is between February and May varying

Wiel loc<\lity. The nest is a pad of grass, lined with hair or wool.
It is placed in hollows in an earth cutting, a depression in the
(;wulld under S0111e bush or in crevices or holes in a boundary
wall. The eggs-three to five in nllmbcr- are usually pale
bh,lsl:-whitc, speckled and blotched with reddish-brown. Incu-
bation takes 12 to 13 days. Only the female broods, but the male
helps to feed the young and also occasionally in buildillg.
41
 21. The Collared or Indian Bush-Chat
Sa:ricola torquata (Linnaeus)
Size: About that of the Sparrow.
Field Characters: A dapper little bird with black head, orange-
brown breast, and prominent white patches on sides of neck (the
• collar '), shoulders, and above the base of tail. The female resem-
bles the hen Pied Bush-Chat, but is streaked darker on the upper
parts. Singly or pairs in open country and cultivation.
Distribution: The race indica, which breeds in the Himalayas
and beyond, is common in winter throughout the Indian Empire,
excepting the part of the peninsula south of about Belgaum.
It is also absent in Ceylon. Three other races are recognised on
minor differences of size and colouration. One of these is resident
along a strip of country in the north, the other two being winter
visitors from beyond our northern borders.
Habits: The Indian Bush-Chat is only met with in the plains during
the cold weather. It begins to arrive in September and by April
the majority of birds have departed for their northern breeding grounds.
During its sojourn, it is seen singly or in pairs in open country and
cultivation. Along the sea coast it is partial to sparse mangrove and
sea-holly scrub about tidal creeks.' Like the Pied Bush-Chat it takes
most of its food from the ground using the tip of a bush, grass stem
or clod of earth for its observation post. From this perch it makes
short excursions in pursuit of prey, which is either devoured on
the ground or carried back to the base. It is of the same restless
disposition as the last, and constantly spreads and flicks its tail up
and down as it surveys the neighbourhood.
Its voice and notes arc similar to those of the Pied Bush-
Chat. The pretty little song, developed in the breeding season,
is seldom heard while the birds arc in their winter quarters.
Its food consists of gra<;shoppers, earwigs, beetles and other
small insects.
Nesting: Within Indian limits, this Bush-Chat breeds through-
out the Himalayas from east to west between 2 and 9,000 feet
elevation. Odd, birds may occasionally be found nesting in the
foothills and sub-Himiilayiin plains. The usual period is between
April and July. The nest does not differ from that of the Pied
Bush-Chat. It is well concealed in a hole in parapet walls of terraced
fields, or under a boulder on the stony, scrub-covered hillsides. The
eggs-four to six in number-do not differ appreciably from those
of the last species.
42
The Collared or Indian Bush..Chat
.11ale Female
43
The Redstart
Female
},faIr
44
 22. The Redstart
Phamicuyus och,'uyOS (S. G. Gmelin)

Size: About that of the Sparrow.

Field Characters: A slim black and orange-chestnut bird,

constantly shivering its tail and dipping low the forepart of its body.
Tile female is brown where the male is black and is also paler generally.
Seen singly in stony, sparsely scrubbed country and groves of trees.
Distribution: ln winter throughout Assam, Burma and the
Indian Peninsula as far south as, but not including, Travancore
or Ceylon. Two races arc recognised: (1) plzoclIiCIIl'Oides visiting
N-W India including the western United Province~, (2) rufiventris
the rest of the range. The latter race is slightly larger and has less
grey fringing to its upper plumage, especially crown.
Habits: The Redstart is a comI11.on and familiar bird about
villages, cultivation and gardens during the cold weather, from
September to April. It haunts shady nullahs and groves such as
mango orchards, and may frequently be seen perched on a roof-top
or wall dipping fonvard jerkily every little while and ceaselessly
flirting its tail. It is equally at home in bare broken country or
amongst boulder hillocks and ruins. It Hits about from perch to
perch shivering its irrepressible little tail as it goes.
Its food consists of small beetles, caterpillars, ants, spiders
and the like which are picked off the ground or from old walls, bushes
or trees, the bird working industriously from early dawn until well
after dusk. At times it will capture winged insects in the air in the
manner c f a fi yea tcher.
The notes commonly uttered arc a sharp mousy whit.. , .. whit,
... whit &c., reminiscent of the sqneaking of an ulloiled bicycle wheel.
The interval between one wlzit and the next, is just about the time
taken by one revolution of the wheel when ridden at an easy pace.
The pleasant little song, uttered at the breeding season, is seldom
heard while tile birds are ill their winter quarters.
Nesting: The Redstart breeds ill the mountains of l{ashmir
Nepal, Tibet and heyond-from Per5ia right across to Mongolia,-
between May and August. The nest is a loose cup of grass, moss
~nd leaves lined with hair, woo} or feathers. It is placed in a hole
In an earth bank, roadside cutting or piled-stone boundary wall.
F~ur to six eggs are laid. In colour they range from almost
W.ute to pale blue green, and have no markings.
45
 23. The Indian Robin
Saxicoloides fulicata (Linnaeus)

Size: Slightly larger than the Sparrow.

Field Characters: A sprightly little black bird with rusty-red
under the cocked tail. There is a white patch on each wing, con-
cealed or almost so at rest, but conspicuous in flight. The hen is
ashy-brown with pale chestnut under the tall. Pairs, in open
country.
Distribution: Resident throughout India aJ::td Ceylon up to
about 5,000 feet. Not in Assam or Burma. Four races are re-
cognised: the typical or Ceylonese, a Korth Indian (cambaiensis),
a South Indian (ptymatuya) and an intermediate (intermedia).
The last occ'.lpies a broad belt across the centre of the peninsula
north and south of Ahmadnagar. They arc separated on minor
differences of size and colouration of the back.
Habits: The Indian Robin is one of the mo~t familiar and
confiding birds of our countryside. It inhabits the drier and more
open parts and is a frequent visitor to gardens and compounds. It
loves the neighbourhood of villages where one may come across it
pt.-C).<r"C'J.7cxt OJ.'1 a: tJ.T8.tCL7 r6\Jl, C8ctu';S;' li't.:~ge 6'l"" stOU'e', swi·tclIinf{ its cocked
tail up and down expressively as it turns one way then another,
uttering its cheery notes. The tail is sometimes tossed so far forward
as almost to touch the head. This is the case (51)ecially when a rival
is being faced up to. The birds may be seen hopping alC:ng the ground,
now mounting a bush or termite-mound, now de~cending at the sight
of insect prey. They are by no me3.ns shy and will boldly enter
verandahs of dwelling houses and tents in search of food.
The Robin feeds exclusively on insects <lnd caterpillars. It
is partial to white-ants and is commonly in attendance on or near
ant-hills. It has a short pleasant 'song '-or rnore correctlv a few
cheery notes-uttered in courtship display. -
Nesting: The season over the greater part at its range is from
April to June; earlier in the south. The ne~t is a cup-shaped
affair of grass and rootlets, lined with feathl'fs or hair and often
adorned with snake sloughs. It is placed in a hole in a wall,
earth-cutting or rotten tree-stump. A derelict tin can or earthen
chatty lying about is frequently used. The eggs-two or three
-are white or cream coloured, sometimes with a greenish tinge,
and arc speckled and blotched with ruddy [,rown. Both sexes
share in building and care of the young, bu1: the female alone
incubates.
The Indian Robin
Female
.Male
47
The Magpie-Robin or Dhayal _
Mak
48
 24. The Magpie..Robin or Dhayal
Copsycltus saufaris (Linnaeus)
Size: About that of the Bulbul.
Field Characters: A trim black-and-white bird with cocked
tail as in the Robin. In the female the black portions are replaced
by brown and slaty-grey. Singly or pairs about human habitations.
Distribution: Resident practically throughout the Indian
Empire, up to about 4,000 fect elevation. It does not occur in
S,-W. Punjiib, Sind and \V. Riljp'ltiina, Four races are recognised
all ninor differences of size and colouration, vi2, ; Indian (salllaris) ,
Ceylonese (cey!ollcnsis), Andarnan (alldamanensis) and 'Malayan
(amICHlfs).
Habits: The :lIagpic-Robin is also amongst the more familiar
birds foune! auont the haunts of ]\fan. In the non-breeding
seaSO:1 it is shv and quiet, skulking about in undergrowth and
brushwood ami only uttering a plaintive swee-ee and harsh c1IY-Y.
ch-/' notes from t.ime to time. But it is one of our finest songsters.
\\,ith the approach of the hot wl';lthcr the cock recovers his voice.
and in his spruce pil'd Jivery he is a striking and happy figure as
fro III the topmost twigs of a Jeallcss tree, a gate-post or hedge he
gladclclb the short-li\'(~d cool of a :lIay morning with his continuous
torrent of far-reaching song. The melody is punctuated by a constant
spreading and upward jerks of his white-fringed tail. Singing
continues intermittently thronghout th~ day. He is an accom-
plished mimic besides, and imitates the calls of many other birds to
-perfection. .
:\lthough chiefly aroorc;ll, thc bird also feeds largely on the
ground, hopping about and picking up crickets, grasshoppers.
auts, caterpillars and a host of other insects. Occasionally one
will make ShOl·t sallies into the air after winged prey. Silk Cotton
and Corill bl05smns arc visited regularly for thc sake of the sugary
Ilcct"r. During the breeding season the males love to show off
]Jc[orc their mates and indulge in much spreading of tails and
lUdicrous pufiing-()ut, strllttlllg and nodding. The}' become
ycry ),u;;naciolls and re,cnt the intrusion of other cocks into their
territor\'.
Nesting-: The season over most of its range is between April
and jul,-; earlier in the south. The nest is a pad of grass,
l'0otlets and hair. It is placed in a hole in a wall, tree-trunk or
bran;:!l, between 5 and 2() fcet from the ground. The eggs-
three to five-arc SOllle shade of pale blue-green, blotched and
m()ttled with reddish-brown.

49
 25. The Shima
](ittacillcla malabarica (ScOP01i)

Size: That of the Bulbul, but with a relatively much longer

tail.

Field Characters: An unmistakable cousin of the familiar

Magpie-Robin. The head, back and breast in the male are gloS3y
black, the underparts rich chestnut. The white patch above the
base of the long, graduated black-and-white tail is diagnostic
even when only a flashing glimpse of the flying bird is obtained.
In the female the black is replaced by slaty-brown, the underparts
arc paler and duller and the tail shorter. Solitary, in deep forest.

Distrihution: Patchily through the whole of India (excepting

the dry portions in the N-W), Burma, Ceylon and the Andamans.
Three races are recognised on compamtiye lengths of bil, and
details of colouration.

Hahits: The Shama is essentially a bird of forest-clad foothills

and ghats, where it haunts the seclusion of den!)c secondary
undergrowth, be_ing particularly fond of bambo(J-covered ravines.
It is extremely shy.. and retiring as far as ?dall' is concerned, but
otherwise closely rcscmhlcs the Dhyal in habits. Its beautiful
song of several rich, c1<:ar. melodious notes is principally heard in the
early mornings and at dusk, often continuing till close on nightfall.
On account of its retiring disposition and th", remoteness of its
normal habitat, the Shiima is much more likely to be met with as
a cage-bird by most readers than in a wild state. It is popularly
acknowledged as the finC3t songster we have ,in India and is
accordingly much prized by fanciers. It thrives well, and even
breeds, in captivity. Besides its own vO<::al accomplishment",
it will readily learn to mimic the calls of other birds accurately.

Its diet is exclusively inscctivorollo, consisting of grasshoppers

and other insects and Jarwe, which arc taken either off the ground
or among bushes.

Nesting: The breeding season is mainly between April and

June. The nest-a shallow cup of rootlets, grass and bamboo
leaves-is placed at moderate heights in some hollow in a tree-trunk
or at the base of a tangled bamboo clump. The eggs-three or four
in number-closely resemble those of the Ivlagpie-Robin, being some
shade' of blue-green. densely blotched with brown or reddish-brown.
50
 ,
.... NW_o...~

Tbe Sbama
~l1ale
The Black..capped Blackbird
Male
52
 26. The Southern Blackbird
Turdus simillimus J erdon

Size: About that of the Myna.

Field Characters:* A plain grey-brown bird with a black cap,
orange-yellow eyelids, legs and bill. The female is more ashy above
and paler generally, with the cap brown. In ghat forests.
Distribution: Ghiits and hill country practically throughout
Peninsular India, roughly south of the Vindhyan Hills. Five
races are recognised on minor di:fferences of size, colouration
and comparative lengths of the second primary wing-quill.
Habits: The Blackbird is a resident of well-wooded hills
but wanders into the plains in winter. It may be met with
in open scrub jungle, groves of trees about villages and in gardens
and compounds. It goes about singly as well as in pairs or
small parties which feed both on the ground and in trees. But
it is Chiefly terrestrial in habits and more usually seen hopping
about, turning over and flicking aside dry leaves in search of
insects and ripe fmit lying on the ground. The bird is silent
in the cold weather, the only note then heard being a sharp
high-pitched kree-ee uttered from time to time and varied
occasionally by a. throaty, (Flick-repeated clmck-clmck-chuck.
During the breeding season it has a fine song resembling that of
the Magpie-Robin, but considerably louder and richer. Imitations of
the calls of other birds are frequently interwoven in its own vocal
effort. This is heard mostly in the mornings and evenings, often till
well after dusk. Its flight is swift ,~nd direct without pauses or gliding.
It lives on insects, snails and the like, but fruits and berries
also form a large proportion of its diet. Banyan figs, Jamiin fruit
(Ez'genia jambolana) and Lantana berries are invariably eaten. Silk
Cotton and Coral blossoms arc regularly visited for the sugary nectar
they supply.
N~;;ting : Blackbirds breed throughout the hilly portions of
their range between May and August. The nest, typical of this
group of birds, is a deep cup of moss, rootlets and grass into which
a good deal of wet mud is incorporated, lined with soft ferns and root
hairs. It is placed in a bush or small tree rarely above 10 feet from
the ground. The eggs-three to five in numher,,-are pale greenish-
white, blotched with ruddy brown, densely about the broad end.

*. These refer chiefly to the Black-capped Blackbird (T. s.

mahrattensis.)

53
 27. The Blue Rock..Thrush
Monticola solitaria (Linnaeus)

Size: That of the Bulbul.

Field Characters: Male bright indigo-blue; female grey-brown
above whitish. below cross-barred with dark brown, and with a pale
bar in the wings. Solitary, among boulders, ruins, stone-quarries,
etc.
Distribution: Four races are recognised of which three have
a -very restricted or occasional winter distribution in extreme
North--West India, and in Burma. The fourth pandoo, is found
practically all over India, Assam and Burma in the cold weather.
The races differ in details of size and colouration.
Habits: The Blue Rock-Thrush is a winter visitor to the Indian
plains and hill~, arriving about October and leaving by April. It
loves boulder-strewn hillsides, rock scarps and broken country,
but may also commonly be seen in and about towns and villages
perched bolt upright en a housetop or cornice, bowing jerkily
in the manner of a Redstart and flirting its taU. From this
vantage point it sallies down on any insect it can spot; morsels
too large to be devoured at once are carried off and whacked
against the perch before being swallowed. Occasionally it
will capture winged insects in the air like a flycatcher. It is of
sedentary habits and will often frequent a particular locality
day after day throughout the season. It is not shy and fre-
quently enters inhabited houses, quietly and unobtrusively,
to take refuge among the rafters or under eaves from the mid-day
heat. For the most part it is silent while with us, but thc male's
sweet whistling song may sometimes be heard just before the
birds depart for their nesting grounds. In silhouette-on the
wing and also whilc alighting-the bird looks extremely like the
Brown Rock-Chat (Cercomela jllsca) another familiar species of similar
habitat of North and Central India .
. Its food consists principally of insects, but fruits and berries
are also eaten. .
Nesting: The species as a whole breeds from Transca.~pia
right across to Japan. Our Indian race, pandoo, nests in Kashmir,
Simla States, Garhwal and Tibet, usually at between 6 and 9,000
feet elevation, froin April to June. The nest is a rough pad of
moss, grass and leaves placed in a hole in a cliff or ba.nk, or among
stones in terracing parapet walls. The eggs-three to five in number-
are pale blue speckled with brownish-red.
54
The Blue Rock..Thrush
.IIale
55
The Malabar Whistling Thrush
56
 28. The Malabar Whistling Thrush
Myophonus horsfieldii Vigors
Size: Between the ::\1yna and the Pigeon.
Field Characters: A blue-black thrush with patches of glistening
cobalt blue on forehead and shoulders. Sexes alike. Singly or pairs
by rocky hill-streams.
The closely related Himalayan species (,1,[. temminckii) occupies a
strip of country along the foot of the Himalayas extending into
Assiim and Burma. This has no cobalt patches, and a yellow bill
instead of black.
Distribution: lilt. Abu and practically down the entire length of
the \Vestern Ghiits. On the eastern side only recorded from
Pachmarhi (Central Provinces), Sambalpiir (Orissa) and the Shevaroy
Hills.
Habits: This handsome bird is a denizen of well-wooded rocky
n'lIlahs and torrential hill-streams, both near and away from
human habitations. In the cold weaiher mostly, the only note
heard is a slmrp kree-ee. vVith the approach of the breeding season
it develops a rich, remarkably human whistling song which rambles
aimlessly up and down the scale and has earned for the bird its popular
name of Idle or Whistling Schoolboy. it is heard chiefly in the early
morning-being one of the first bird voices to greet the incoming day
-and again shortly before dusk.
Aquatic insects, snails and crabs form the major part of its
diet. The bird hops about from stone to stone in the midst of· a
rushing stream and snatches the quarry as it floats past. The tail
is constantly jerked and spread fanwise in order to • stampede'
lurking prey from the crevices and hollows. Snails and crabs are
purposefully battered on the rock and their shells smashed before
s\':allowing.
The Whistling Thrush thrives in captivity and becomes
surprisingly tame if taken young. It is mueh prized as a songster,
Nesting: The breeding season ranges, according to locality,
between February and August. The nest is invariably in the
proximity of some nullah or torrent. It is a large, compact pad
of roots, moss and grass reinforced with a good deal of mud. It
is placed under a shelf of rock, on a precipitous ledge or among the
[Jots of a tree. It is sometimes built in houses, both deserted and
ln occupation. Three or four eggs are laid, pale buff or greyish-stone
ln colour blotched and speckled with reddish-brown and lavender.
Both sexes share in building, incubation and care of the young. The
Incubation period is 16-17 days.

57
 29. TickeD's Blue Flycatcher
l'vIuscicapula tickelliw (Blyth)

Size: About that of the Sparrow.

Field Characters: A blue bird with bright azure forehead.
eyebrows aud shoulder-patches. Breast pale rusty, fading to
white lower down. The female is duller and paler. Singly,
in secondary bush jungle.
Distribution: Resident for the most part-up to about 5,000
feet elevation-practically throughout the Indian Empire except
in Sind and the dry areas of the North-\Vest. Three races are
recognised: the Indian (tickellire) , the South Burma (sumatrensis)
and the Ceylon (mesma). They differ from each other mainly in
depth and details of colouration.
Habits: Tiekell's Blue Flycatcher is a resident of lightly
wooded country abounding in thorn scrub, and is also met with
in secondary growth in deciduous forest. Ii has a preference for
broken foothills country where it haunts cool shady glades and
bamboo-clad ravines. It also enters gardens and groves about
human habitations. From a favourite perch on some exposed twig
or twisted liana stem, where it sits bolt upright flicking its tail, it
launches short agile sallies after insects. While these are usually
captured on the wing, the bird will occasionally also seek for them
as it hovers before a sprig Or flower.
It has a pleasing little trilly, metallic song which is constantly
uttered and 'which is frequently the first indication of its presence
in a thicket.
The food of the Blue Flycatcher, like th.lt of its relations,
consists very largely of flies, gnats and other dipterous insects.
Nesting: The breeding season ranges between ]\Iarch and
August, varying with the locality. The nest is placed in a hollow
in a tree-stump or earth-bank, or it may be in a clump formed
by the branching on a bamboo stem. It is never at any great
height from the ground, and often as low as 3 or 4 feet. It is
composed of dead leaves, twigs, rootlets and moss untidily
put together. The whole thing is wedged into the site, and
in the last named situation usually assimilates so well with
its surroundings as to be difficult to locate. Three to five eggs
are laid, pale clay-brown or olive-brown in colour, sprayed all over
with very minute reddish-b:rown specks.
58
Tiekell's Blue Flycatcher
Jla,e
59
•

The Verditer Flycatcher

(>0
 30. The Verditer Flycatcher
Eumyias tlialassilla (Swainson)

Size: About that of the Sparrow.

Field Characters: The male (illustrated) is a striking little bird.
dressed in flashing blue-green. The female is duller and greyer
Singly, perched upright in exposed situations in wooded country,
cl;lasing- ,\ inged insects and returning to the perch.
An allied species, the Nilgiri Blue Flycatcher (Enmyias albicauiata),
is resident and common in the hills of South-west India. It is duller
in colouration, more indigo less green. The base of its tail as well
as the abdomen and undertail coverts are white or whitish.
Distribution: Throughout the Himalayas in summer, between 4
and 10 thousand feet elevation, east into the hills of Assam, Burma.
and beyond. In winter, morc or less over the entire peninsula to
extreme south, excepting Punjab, Sind and drier portions of Raj-
putiina.
Habits: The Verditer Flycatcher affects well-wooded country. The
outskirts of forest clearings, secondary jungle with large leafy trees
here and there, and groves of trees planted around villages are some
of its favourite haunts. It is also partial to shady cover by streams
and nullahs, and freely enters gardens-especially the more rambling
and jungly ones. It is bold and confiding and shows little fear of
man. The bird may sometimes be seen fluttering about the foliage
and making, every now and again, short aerial sallies after the winged
insects disturbed, in the typical flycatcher manner. Sometimes a
bird will soar upwards for a few feet and descend gracefully and
airily, warbling a few trilling notes. It has a s\"veet and pleasing
jin~ling song, rather like the White-eyc's but louder. It lasts fLam 5
to 10 seconds and is constantly littered from some exposed twig on
tbe top of a tree. Telephone wires are favourite singing and look-
O;lt posts. Its food consists of flies and other tiny winged insects.
Nesting: This handsome flycatcher breeds from April to July
throughout the residential portions of its habitat. The nest is a
somewhat massive, thick-sided cup of moss and root hairs, lined,
with flncr material. It may be placed under the eaves of an occupied
dwelling house, in a hole in a wall, or among the exposed rools of a.
tree in a roadside en~bank1lletit where people may be continually
.Hassing and repassing within a few feet of it.
The normal clutch is of 4 eggs, white to pale pink in ground colour
with a darker pink cap-like ring round the broader end. Both. sexes
share ill building and incubation.
61
 31. The Paradise Flycatcher
Tchitrea paradisi (Linnaeus)
Size: That of the Bulb'll, excluding the tail • ribbons' which are
between 10 and 15 inches long. ,
Field Characters: Adult male silvery white with hvo long·
ribbon-like feathers or streamers in tail, and metallic black·
crested head. Female and young male chestnut above, greyish-
white below-in general effect suggestive of a bulbul. The
young male has chestnut streamers in the tail; the female is
without. Singly or pairs, in wooded country.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Empire, in the Him:ilayas
(commonly up to 5,000 feet and occasionally higher), the plains and
the peninsular hill range5. Resident in many portions, scasollal
visitor in others. Three races concern us here. They are recognised
on minor differences of colouration and size.
Habits: This delightful creature-variously known as Rocket
Bird, \Vidow Bird or Ribbon Bird- is a frequenter of shady groves
and gardens, often in the neighbourhood of human habitations, and
of light deciduous jungle with bamuoo-clad nullahs. Pairs are
usually met with, either by themselves or in the mixed hunting
parties of small birds in forest. The lithe, fairy-like movements at
the male as, with streamers trailing ])chinrl, he makc8 short aerial
sallies amI contortions aft"T winged insects. or flits in graceful undulat-
ing flight from one tree to another, present a fascinating spectacle.
The notes commonly heard are a harsh and grating eile or chil-chwe,
During the breeding season they are supplemented by a number of
pleasant musical ones uttered by both sexes, but these can hardly be
called a song.
Their diet is entirely insectivorous consisting chi<:fly of flies
and moths. These are captured on the wing in the manner typical
of the fl yea tchers.
Nesting: The season ranges between February and July.
The nest is built in the crotch or dbow of a twig usually from 6 to I2
feet above the ground. It is a compactly woven cup of fine grasses
and fibres, plastered on the outside with cobwebs and spiders' egg
:ases (Plate 108). ":the normal clutch consists of three to [lve eggs,
pale creamy-pink in ground colour_ speckled and blotched with
reddish-brown.
Both sexes partake in building, incubation and care of
the young, though the hen does the lion's share of the work. In·
cubation takes 15-16 days and the young leave the nest about 12
days after hatching.
62
The Paradise Flycatcher
llfale
Female
The \Vhite-spotted Fantail Flycatcher
64
 32. The 'White-spotted Fantail Flycatcher
Leucocirca pectoralis J erdon

Size: About that of the Sparrow.

Field Characters: A cheery, restless smoke-brown bird with
conspicllous white eyebrows, white-spotted breast and flanks
and whitish abdomen. Its most striking feature is the tail,
cocked and spread out like a ian, with the wings drooping on either
side. Sexes alike. Pairs, in wooded country, garden", &c.
An allied species, the White-browed Fantail Flycatcher, (L.
aureola),-distinguished by its broad white forehead and white under-
parts -is found commonly more or less throughout India, Burma and
Ceylon.
Distribution: From north of Travancore through the Bombay
Presidency to Riijputana. Also the greater portion of peninsular
India in and south of the Central Provinces up to about 6,000
feet elevation. Two races are recognised on minor differences
of colouration.
Habits: This flycatcher is a bird of sparse secondary jungle
as well as gardens and groves, even in the midst of noisy towns.
It regards the proximity of ?Iran with indifference and is often
surprisingly tame. The birds arc usually seen in pairs which keep
morc or less to one circumscribed locality. They flit tirelessly about
the foliage or from tree to tree, waltzing and pironetting amongst
the lower branches or on a nearby wall or stone. The birds constant-
ly launch graceful looping-the-Ioop sallies after insects which are
snapped lip in the air with a little castanet-like snap of the mandibles.
The note usually uttered is a somewhat harsh chuck-chuck,
but it has also a delightful, clear whistiing song of several tinkling
notes, rising and falling ill scale, which is constantly warbled as the
bird prances about.
Its food consists of mosquitoes, flies and other small insects.
Nesting: The breeding season ranges between lIIarch and
August. The nest is a beautiful little cup of fine grasses and
fibres, neatly, draped. and plastered on the outside \I'ith cobwebs.
It is similar to the lora's with the consistent difference that it is not
rOllnded off at the bottom. "\n untidy bunch of grass, strips of bark
<.illl pith is left dangiing underneath. It is built in the crotch or
fork of a twig, seldom more than 8 feet off the ground. The normal
clutch is of 3 eggs, pinkish-cream in colour with a ring of tiny brown
specks round the broad end. Both sexes share ill building, incubation
<ind care of the young.
 33. The Grey Shrike
Lanius e:!(cubitor Linnaeus

Size': About that of the Myna, with a relatively longer tail.

Field Characters: A silver-grey bird with longish black and
white tail. The black wings are relieved by a white patch which
flashes conspicuously in flight. A broad black stripe from bill
backwards across the eye. Typical heavy hooked bill. Sexes alike.
Singly, in dry, open country.
Distribution: Sind, along the base of the HimiiJayas upto.
2,000 feet elevation, and throughout the drier portions of the Indian
plains south to Belgaum and east to Calcutta. Not Eastern Ghats,
Assam, Burma or Ceylon. Besides the Indian race (lalztora), 3 others
are recognised on minor differences. These live beyond our limits
and only occasionally straggle just across our N-W boundaries.
Habits: The Grey Shrike inhabits dry, open country and semi-
desert. Cultivation only attracts it where interspersed "lVith patches
of arid Ber- or Babool-covered waste land. From a perch on the
top of some thorn bush it keeps a sharp lookout for prey, descending
to the ground from time to time to seize and carry off the victims.
They are held under foot and torn to pieces with the sharp hooked
bill before being swallowed. I_ike- many of this genus-which on
account of the peculiar habit are known as Butcher Birds-the Grey
Shrike maintains a regular larder where surplus food is impaled on
thorns to be eaten at leisure. Except at the breeding season when
pairs is the rule, the birds are usually met with singly. Each in-
dividual has a recognised beat or feeding territory which it will
frequent day after day and jealously guard against interlopers. The
usual call notes are harsh and grating, but at the nesting period a very
pleasing little song is uttered. It is a good mimic of the calls of other
birds.
Its food consists of crickets, locusts and large insects as well
as lizards, mice and any young or sickly birds that can be over-
powered.
Nesting: The season ranges between January and October, but
Ma::ch and April are the principal months. The nest is a deep,
compact cup of thorny twigs .and grass, lined with rags, wool or
feathers. It is placed in a thorny bush or tree, between 4 and IZ
feet irom the ground. The eggs-three to six in number-vary
co~sidera?ly in colour and size. The commonest type is pale greenish
whlte, thIckly blotched and spotted with purplish-brown, especially
at the broad end.

.66
The Grey Shrike
67
The Bay-backed Shrike
68
 34. The Bay-backed Shrike
Lanius vittatus Valenciennes

Size: About that of the Bulbul.

Field Characters: Grey and white head with a broad black

stripe across forehead and backward through the eyes. Chestnut-
maroon back, white underparts. The white or whitish rump,
and the white patches on its black wings are very conspicuous in
flight. Long black-and-white graduated tail and typical stout,
hook-tipped bill. Sexes alike. Singly in dry country and about
cllltivation.

Distribution: Practically the whole of India from the Himalayas

(up to 6,000 ft. elevation) south to Cape Comorin. Across, it extends
from Afghanistan and Baluchistan to "\Vestern Bengal. Not in
Ass'lm, Burma or Ceylon. In parts of this range it is a seasonal
\'isitor only.

Habits: The Bay-back-the smallest of our Indian shrikes-

is a bird of dry open country abounding in Babool trees and
scrub. It is frequently met with also in the vicinity of culti-
vation and gardens. It avoids both desert areas and humid
forest. The terrain it prefers is in fact intermediate in character
bet.veen the semi-desert fa.voured by the Grey Shrike, and the wood-
ed, .vell-watered country beloved of the Rufous-backed Shrike. In
other respects, its habits do not differ appreciably from either of
tbese. The churring notes, most commonly heard, are harsh
and unmusical, but it also has a pleasant little warbling song in
which imitations of the calls of other l?irds are frcely intermingled.
A whimsical courtship display is indulged in by the male at the
breeding season. This consists mostly of craning his neck,
tocking his tail, sidling up to the hen on a perch and stiffly hopping
clo<;cr and closer to her. All this while his face is turned away from
her, but he is singing obviously' at ' her. \ \
Nesting: The season lasts from April to September, the
majority of eggs being laid in June and July. The nest is a neat,
compact cup of grass, rags, wool and feathers. Generally much
cobweb is used on the outside for binding the material. It is
placed at moderate l~eights in the fork of a small tree or in a. tall
roadside hedge. Three to five eggs arc laid, smaller than those
of tbe Grey Shrike, but, similar in colour and markings, and
presenting the same range of variations.
69
 35. The Rufous-backed Shrike
Lanius seMel! Linnaeus

Size: Between the Bulbul and the :\Iyna, with a relatiYely

longer tail.
Field Characters: Forehead and a baad through the eyes
black. Head grey. Lower back and rump bright rufous. Under-
parts washed rufous. Typical shrike bill. Sexes alike. Singly, in open
wooded, or scrub country.
Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Empire up
to about 8,000 feet in the Himalayas. Resident in many portions,
seasonal visitor in others. Four races are recognised on measure-
ments, and details of colouration.
Habits: The Rufous-backed Shrike inhabits open but wooded
and, on the whole, well-watered country. In general habits
it does not differ from the two foregoing species. Its usual
call notes are loud, harsh and scolding, but it has also ,t pretty
little rambling song uttered in the nature of a soliloquy, of con-
siderable duration. Besides its own notes, the song has a great many
imitations of other birds' calls interwoven in it.
This shrike is perhaps the finest and most convincing mimic
of the trio. Apart from the calls of birds, both resident along-
side and long after they have migrated from the locality, it
reproduces with amazing accuracy a large variety of other
familiar sounds of the countryside-for eKample, the harsh squeals
of a frog caught by a snake. In one instance an individual
commenced yelping like a very young puppy the day after ~
litter was born in a hOllse adjoining its feeding territory. In
another case it mimicked to perfection the call of a tame Gre)'
Partridge belonging to a grass-cutter working in its feeding
area.' The remarkable thing was that in every case the Shrike
prefaced the partridge's caH ,l"ith 2 or 3 human whistling notes,
exactly such as it was the oWll£:r's wont to utter when wishing
his bird to call !
Nesting: The season ranges between February and Iul)"
varying somewhat with local conditions. The nest is a deep
compact cup of twigs, roots, grass and sundry other material,
lined with soft grass. It is placed in the fork of a branch in
a moderate sized tree such as a Babool, usually under IS feet
from the ground. The eggs-three to six in number-are
somewhat smaller than those of the Grey Shrike, but more or less
identical with them in colour and markings.

70
The Rufous"backed Shrike
71
The Wood Shrike
 36. The Wood Shrike
Tephrodornis pondiceriantls (Gmelin)

Size: About that of the Bulbul.

Field Characters: A plain greyish-brown bird with a dark
stripe below the eye and a distinct whitish supercilium. Hook-tipped
shrike bill; short Equare tail. Sexes alike. Pairs or parties in thin
forest.
Distribution: Practically throughout India, Burma and Ceylon.
Three races are recognised, viz., the pale N-"\Y and Central Indian
pal/ida, the darker South Indian pondictrimws, and the ashy-
grey Ceylonese a/finis.
Habits: The vVood Shrike is an mhabitant 01 open scrub-
and-bush country and light deciduous forest. It avoids dense
evergreen jungle. It is commonly met with in gardens and
orchards as well as among roadside trees and groves of Babool, Keem.
Tamarind, Banyan and the like near cultivation and villages.
Family parties of 4 or 5, either by themselves or in the usual mixed
hunting parties of small birds, are not uncommOll. They hop or fiit
among the branches and follow one another from tree to tree calling
in rich liquid whistling notes-wect-wcct followed by a quick interro-
gative whi-whi-whi-whi? Unlike the true shrikes they seldom descend
to the ground, their food being procured mainly ~l1long the twigs
and branches or under the leaves and sprigs. "\Yinged insects are
occasionally captured in the air in the manner of a flycatcher.
The diet consists mainly of moths, bC'etles, grubs and
caterpillars.
Nesting: The season ranges betweeil February and September
i"arying with locality. ;\Iarch and April appear, on the whole,
to be the most generally favoured months. The nest is a neat
cup, abou t two inches across, composed of soft bark, fibres etc.
cemented with cobwebs. It is draped on the exterior with bits of
papery bark and spiders' egg-cases which render it inconspicuous
among the supporting twigs. The site is in the fork of some leafless
branch of a sapling or small tree, and mostly under 20 feet from the
ground. The eggs-usually three in number-are pale greenish-
grey, speCkled with some shade of pllrpie-brown, forming a ring round
the broad end.
Both sexes share in bUilding, incubation and care of the
young.

73
 37. The Scarlet Minivet
Pericracotus speciosus (Latham)

Size: About that of the Bulbul.

Field Characters: Adult male glossy jet black and deep
scarlet. Female and young male with pale yellow underparts and
no black on head or back. Flocks in forest.
An allied species, the Orange ?lIinivet (P. fiamme1!s) with
orange-red under-parts instead of scarlet, is found in the forested
portions of the 'Western Ghats from Khalldiila to the extreme south
and in Ceylon. A third species, the Short-billed lITinivet
(P.brevirostris) similar in general effect to the Scarlet ?lIinivet, but
slightly smaller and with a different colour pattern in the wings, is
found largely overlapping the range of that species.
Distribution: The Himiilay;ls up to 6,000 feet or more, from
about Kulu right across to the North-east frontier. Also Assam,
Burma, Andamans and Upper Eastern Ghilts. Six geographical
races are recognised on size, and details of colouration mainly of
the tail feathers and primary quills.
Habits: This gorgeous J\:Iinivet is a resident of well-wooded
country and evergreen jungle. It is exclusively arboreal. It
goes about in flocks, often of 20 or more birds, which keep mostly
to the leafy canopy oi the forest, flitting restlessly among the
foliage or follo,dng one another about from tree to tree in search
of food. This consists mostly of insects and their larvm and is
Eecured among the leaves and buds or on the moss-covered tree
trunks. Sometimes they are captured in the air in the manner of a
flycatcher.
The call notes, ire<luently uttered, arc a pleasant whistling
whee-tweet or whi-ri-ri, whi-;-i-ri, etc.
Nesting: The season over the greater part of its range is
between April and July. The nest is a neat compact cup of
rootlets and bast fibres wdi bound with cobwebs and copiously
bedecked on the outside with pieces of bark, green moss and lichens.
These serve to make the nest remarkably inconspicuous in its
surroundings. It is placed on the upper surface of a branch 10 to
40 feet from the ground, in humid forest. -
The eggs-two to four in number-are of a pale sea-green colour,
spotted and blotched with dark brown and lavender.
Both sexes share in buHding and care 01 the young.

74
The Scarlet Minivet
75
The Small Minivet
-'[ale
Female
76
 38. The Small Minivet
Pericrocotlls peregrinus (Linnaeus)

Size: Slightly smaller and slimmer than the Sparrow, with a

longish tail.

Field Characters: Adult male chiefly black, grey and 'orange-

crimson. Female and young male paler, with yellow largely
replacing the red. Flocks flitting amongst trees in gardens and
wooded country.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Empire mostly in the
plains, but also the lower hills. Five races are recognised chiefly
ou shades of colouration.
Habits: The Small l'.Iinivet is a frequenter of gardens, groves
and light deciduous jungle. It is exclusively arboreal. Flocks
of .) to 10 birds may be seen flitting amongst the leafy canopy of
large trees in their hunt for insects, or following one another from
tree-top to tree-top. They keep up a feeble musical swee-swee
both while searching for food and on the wing. In the cold
weather some flocks are composed entirely of males. 'With the
approach of the breeding season, the flocks break up. and until the
young are sufficiently fledged to accompany their parents, only pairs
arc met with.

Its food consists of 1110ths, caterpillars, flies and other small

insects. These are captured from the leaves or buds. Some-
times a bird will flutter lightly before a sprig to get at the quarry
within, at others launch short aerial sallies after winged prey.
The birds may commonly be scen 011 the large crimson
blossoms of the Silk Cotton tree, hunting insects attracted by
the nectar.

Nesting: The season is a very protracted one, ranging between

February and September-varying according to locality. The
nest is a beautiful little shallow cup of fibres-about 2 inches
across-coated on the outside with cobwebs and lichens. It is
attached to the upper surface of a braneh often high up iu a. big ,
tr"c, and is either invisible from below or looks exactly like a. small
hChen-covered knot or swelling on the branch. The normal clutch
consists of 3 eggs, pale greenish-white or creamy-buff stippled with
reddlsh-brown-often densely and forming a ring round the broad
end. Both sexes partake in building and care of the young,

77
 39. The Black..headed Cuckoo-Shrike
Lalage sykesii Strickland

Size: About that of the Bulbul.

Field Characters: n{ale ashy-grey with black head, Wings and tail
and whitish underparts. The female has the head lSrey and the
underparts barred black and white. Pairs, in open wOoded country.
Distribution: All India south and east of a line ir()m lilt. Abu
through Sarnbhar (in Riijpulana) to Bareilly. Also CeYlon and parts
of Assam.
Habits: The Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike is a dweller of light'
deciduous forest and open secondary evergreen jungle, in the plains
as well as bills up io about 4,000 feet elevation. The bird is resident
in many portions of its range, but only a seasonal visitor in others.
It goes about in pairs and may commonly be met with in association
with the usual mixed hunting parties of insectivorous species. It
is fond of mango orchards and groves of Neem, Tamarind and other
leafy trees in the neighbourhood of villages and cultivation. In its
purely arboreal habits and methods of procuring food, this Cuckoo-
Shrike closely resembles the mini vets. In the hot weather, and with
.t~N"' ~~T$t£lS~l'o $',..~ }ts &T"~.9&. .;~':\5' se~~~J .t..~ ..mal..!' ~,tt.!'..."'.r ..l? flre~ clear
whistling song of several notes ending in a quick-repeated pit-pit-pit.
The diet is chiefly insectivorous, but ripe berries such as those
of Lantana are a1so eaten.
Nesting: The season ranges between lIIarch and A.ugust, being
earlier in Ceylon and the south than in the Deccan <l.nd elsewhere.
The nest is a shallow cnp of thin twigs and rootlets Shongly bound
together with cobwebs. It is placed in the fork of a branch or on
the upper surface·of a bough, usually under 15 feet iroln the ground.
The eggs-two or three in number-are greenish whit:e, with longi-
tudinal blotches of brown.

1 ."
 1

The Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike

Jlale
Female
79
The Large Cuckoo-Shrike
Male
So
 40. The Large Cuckoo-Shrike
GrallCalliS favensis

Size: Slightly smalle-r and slimmer than the Pigeon.

Field Characters: A grey bird, whitish underneath with a broad

dark eye5treak. \Vings and tail black Heavy, slightly-hooked
bill. The eyestreak is le5<; conspicuous in the female and her under-
parts are barred grey and white. Pairs, in trees in wooded country.

Distribution: The whole of the Indian Empire from about 4,000

feet in the Himalayas. Not found west of Garhwiil nor in the Punjab,
Sind and Riijplitiina. Four races are recognised on differences in
size and details of colouratioll. The largest, nipalensis, occurs all
along the Himiilayas; the smallest layardi is confined to Ceylon.
The race macei occupies all continental India, while siamel1sis is
spread over East and South Assam, and Burma.

Habits: The Large Cuckoo-Shrike is found in deciduous forest

as well as secondary evergreen jungle, in plains and hills alike. It
is also partial to groves of trees about cultivation and villages, and
to orchards and forest plantations. The birds are mostly seen in
pairs or family parties of 3 or 4 which fly in irregular follow-my-Ieader
fashion above the tree-tops uttering their distinctive, shrill but pleasant
bisyllabic call tee-ccc from time to time. Their diet mainly consists
01 insects which they hunt among the foliage of trees, but berries
of many hinds and figs of the Banyan, Peepal and Gulair (Ficus indica,
F. 7'cligiosa and F. glomerala) are also largely eaten.

Nesting: The season ranges chiefly between May and October.

The nest is a shallo\\' cup-or a deep saucer-composed of fine twigs
bonnd together with cobwebs and oftE'n sparsely draped on the
outside with lichens and pieces of bark. It is placed i.n the fork of
an outhanging branch high up in a tall tree. The nonnal clutch
consists of three eggs, pale green in colour with scanty blotches of
dark brown and purple.

81
 41. The Ashy Swallow-Shrike
ArtallwS /IlSCIiS Vieillot

Size: Slightly larger than the Bulbul.

Field Characters: Rather a dumpy, dull slaty-grey bird with paler
underparts and a pale rump. .-'\t rest the closed wings reach the
end of the tail. Heavy bluish bill, son,ewhat sparrow-like. On
the wing very like a s\nllo\\· or crag-martin, but of heavier build.
Sexes alike. Parties perched on exposed bare branches &c. in open
country, or hawking winged insects. Graceful, sailing flight.
Distribution: Ceylon, and east of a line from Simla to Godhra (in
Gujerat). It is also found in Burma and Assam.
Habits: The Ashv Swallow-Shrike is a common bird, but rather
irregular and patchy· in :ts occurrences. It is resident in the plains and
foothills, but subject to marked local migrations. In summer it
ascer::ds the Himiilayas up to about 5,000 ft.
The birds affect open country particularly where there is a gener-
ous sprinkling of Palmyra palms. The leaf stems and snags of this
palm afford suitable perches and 11Ullting bases, as well as nest sites.
The birds are met with in scattered parties. A number may some-
times be seen huddlr;d together tightly along a branch. From time
to time all of them togethC:i", or one or more, launch into the air and
after sailing gracefully mund in a wide circle return to the perch
rather in the manner of bee·eaters. They may also be seen hawking
insects like swallo,,;s Ileaf the ground a,; well as at considerable
heights in the air. Occasionally a bird will swoop down like a hawk
and carry off an insect from the ground in its bill.
The Swallow-Shrike flies by a few rapid beats of its wings followed
by a glide. Both >'lhile perched and on the wing it constantly utters
a harsh, shrike-like clic!.-ch,;i,-chek. Its lood cUllsisis of insects. It is
one of the few birds that habitually capture and eat butterflies. They
are taken on the wing and carried back to the perch whete the wings
are pulled a_r:Jart and discarded. Often a bird will capture a butterfly
in iis bill and transfer it to its feet in mid-air so as to leave the bill
free for another. Then it returns to its perch to deal with both of
them together. The birds arc active chiefly in the mornings and
evenings, often hunting right into the dusk.
Nesting: The season is from April to J unc. The nest is a looocly
put tDgether cup of grass, ,roots and Jibres. It is placed on some
horizontal bough, or in the angle formed at the junction of a palm
leaf stalk with the main stem, often at a great height from the ground.
The eggs-:2 or 3-are white with a greenish tinge, and spottcd with
light brown chiefly at the broader cnd.
82
 .J

The Ashy Swallow-Shrike

,\fale
83
The Black Drongo or King-Crow
'>4
 .1.The Black Drongo or King..Crow
Dicrurus macrocerCl!S Yieillot

Size: About that qf the Bulbul, ,,'ith a relatively longer tail.

Field / Characters: A glossy black bird with long, deeply forked
taiL Sexes alike. Singly, on telegraph wires &c. about cultivation.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Empire, within which
four raceS are recognised on differences in size of wing, tail and
bill. The largest race, albirictus, is found ill the Himalayas
(up to about 7000 feet), the Indo-Gangetic Plain and Assam;
tC1e smallest, millor in Ceylon. PClIillSlIlaris occupies the whole
of continental and peninsular India, and cathoeCl!s Burma.

Habits: The Black Drongo is one of the most familiar birds

of our countryside. It frequents every type of country except
dense evergreen jungle and actual desert, though even in the
lattcr it is steadily penetrating wherever irrigation canals make
culth'ation possible. The birds, however, are most abundant
in open intensely cultivated areas, and may invariably be seen
perched upon stakes, telegraph wires anu the like in the proximity
of crops. From these look-out posts they swoop down from time
to time to carry off an unwary grasshopper. If too large to be
'is
s\';allowed entire, the victirn held Ullder foot and .torn to pieces
with the sharp hook-tipped bill. They also capture moths and
w;nged insects in the air like a flycatcher. Drongos may commonly
be secn in attendance on grazing cattle-often riding on the animals'
backo-snapping up the insects disturbed by their feet. Fer the
same reason, forest fires or fired grass patches never fail to attract
the birds. This species is highly beneficial to agriculture on account
<)f the large 11umbcr of injurious insects it destroys. They have a
number of harsh, scolding or challenging calls, some closely resem-
bling those of the Shikra hawk, and the birds becom.e particularly
nOisy at the breeding "cason.

Nesting: Over its wide range the Black Drongo breeds principally
between April and August. The nest is a llimsy-bottoll1cd cup of
fine twigs, grasses and fibres cemented together with cobwebs. It
IS placed in a fork, usually ncar the extremity of a branch, from IZ
to 30 feet from the ground. A large tree standing in open cultivation
IS Usually selected. The eggs-three to five \n number-show some
variation in colour and markings, but arc mostly whitish with
browniSh-red spots. Both sexes share in building, incubation and
care of the yonng, and display great boldness in the defence of their
nest.
 43. The White-bellied Drongo
Dictums cc£1'ltiescens (Linnaens)

Size: Same as the last.

Field Characters: Glossy indigo above v;itil white belly and under-
tail coverts. Long, deeply forked tail. Sexes alike. Singly, in
lightly wooded country.

Distribution: Ceylon and practically the whole 0i India south of

a line running roughly from Cutch to Garhwiil and as far east as
'Western Bengal and Bihar. It ascends the Himiilayas up to about
6000 feet in a restricted tract. Two races are recognised: the larger
Indian caeyulescens with more white on the underparts, and the
s:naller Ceylonese leucopygialis with the white restricted to the
undertail coverts. There is, however, some doubt as to whether
leucopygiali s can really be considerd a race of this species.

Habits: The White-bellied Drongo inhabits well-wooded decid-

uous tracts, hill and plain, and avoids cUltivation and treeless
country as well as heavy e\'ergrecn forest. It is particularly fond
of bamboo and thin tree jungle, and is usually to be met with about
sbady paths and small clearings in this. The birds keep singly or
in separated pairs and are frequently amongst the hunting parties
of insectivorous species that move about the forest. It makes grace-
ful, agile swoops aHer winged insects, turning and twisting in the air
in the pursuit, or snapping up the quarry off the trunk of a tree in
its stride. Its diet i~ mainly insectivorous, but it may invariagly
be seen probing into the blossoms of the Silk Cotton, Flame of the
Forest (Btltea) and Coral trees for the sugary nectar they exude.
In their efforts to reach it, the birds do great service to the tree by
conveymg the pollen on their throat and forehead feathers and
effecting cross-pollination.

It bas a pretty call of 3 or 4 musical whistling notes, and is an

excellent mimic besides.

Nesting: The season is principally between March and June.

The nest does not differ appreciably from that of the Black Drongo
except as regards the site which is usually in forest. The normal
clutch is of 2 or 3 eggs, also very similar in colouration and markings
to those of the foregoing 5pecies.
86
The White-bellied Drongo
1;)7
 44. The Racket-tailed Drongo
DissemUYHS paradiseHS (Linnaeus)

Size: About that of the l\Iyna but with outer tail feathers some
15 inches long.
Field Characters: A glossy jet black drongo with conspicllously
tufted forehead and two long, thin, spatula-tipped streamers ill the
tail. Sexes alike. Singly, pairs or loose parties in forest.
Distribution: The Himiilayas from ]\Iussooree (about 6000 ft.
cleyation) to E. Assam, and patchily throughout India south of
this, including Travancore and Ceylon. Also Burma, Andamans
and Nicobars. At present 7 geoljraphical races are recognised on
comparatiye lengths of wing, tail, crest and hill. In continental
India we are concerned with two: the northern, grandis--thc largest-
and the southern, maiabal'iclfs. Ceyloncllsis-the smallest race-is
endemic in Ceylon, while both the Andamans and the Nicobars have
races peculiar to those islands.
Habits: The Racket-tailed Drollgo whabits .forest, both purely
deciduous and where there is an intermingling of the humid
evergreen type. Teak and bamboo jungle in broken foothills
country is especially favoured. The birds are met with singly, in
scattered pairs or parties of ., or 5, mostly as members of the mi."\:ed
hunting parties and in unfailing association with tree-pies and
babblers. They are very noisy and have a large repertoire of loud,
metallic hut musical notes-some being a rich whistling lC'lzat-what-
dat-ioliat-\vhich arc constantly uttered as the birds fly about the
forest. It is moreover an accomplished and convincing mimic' and
imItates to perfection the calls of a great many birds. It makes an
amusing pet and is much sought after by fanciers.
The fooe! c~nsists of insects of various kinds and grubs,
which are either captured on the wing or picked off the branches
and tree-trunks in a gmccful SWOO);1.
Nesting: Over the bird's extensive distribution, the season varies
wiU: local conditions. The most general period, however, is between
March amI Junc. The nest is <1; fairly deep, but rather Himsy cup
of fine twigs, rootlets and bast fibres bound together and secured
to the site with cobwebs. It is placed in a fork near the end of an
ollthanging branch ill forest, between IS and 50 feet from the ground.
The eggs-three or (our in number-are mostly crc<tmy white in
colour, blotched and speckled with reddish-brown.
89
 45. The Tailor-Bird
Ortliotomus slltorius (Pennant)

Size: Smaller than the Sparrow.

Field Characters: A small restless olive-green bird with whitish

underparts, a rust coloured - crown, ami elongated middle feathers
of the tail which is habitually cocked. Sexes alike. Singly or pairs,
in shrubbery.

Distribution: Througbout the Indian Empire up to about 5,000 ft.

in the HimUlayiis. Fi\-e races are recognised on size and depth of
colouration. The three that concern us Chiefly are: the Ceylon race
sutorius, the Indian guzlIrata, and the Burma and Assiim patia.

Habits: This familiar little bird is equally at home in outlying

scrub jungle or in gardens in the heart of a town_ ~Vhi1e not found
in actual desert, it is nevertheless present in small numbers in the
arid tracts of N. "\V. India wherever thcre is any shrubbery, about
villages and in the compounds of Diik Bungalows. It is tame and
confiding and will fearlessly enter the verandahs of occupied houses,
hopping about on the ground with jauntily cocked tail, or among
the creepers and potted plants within a fev; feet of the inmates. Its
lOUd cheerful calls towit-, towit-Iou:it or pretty-pretty-pretty. etc., are
familiar sounds on the countryside.

Its food consists of sma 11 insects, their eggs and caterpillars,

but the birds are also fond of the nectar of Silk Cotton and Conti
flowers and resort to them unfailingly.

Nesting: The season ranges between April and September. The

nest is a remark;),ble structure. It is a rough cup of soft fibres,
cotton wool or vegetable down placed in a funnel formed by folding
over and stitching a broad leaf along its edges. Some times 2 or
more leaves are sewn together. The stitching material is cotton
or vegetable down cleverly knotted at the ends to prevent the sewing
getting undone. ThE: site is some large-leafed plant or creeper. the
nest being usually under 3 feet from the ground. Crotons, young
fig or mango-grafts and other plants growing in pots in a garden.
porch or verandah arc much favoured. The eggS-3 or 4 in number-
are reddish or bluish·wh;te, usually spotted with brownish-red. Both
sexes share in building and care of the young, but apparently the
female alone incubat~s.
go
The Tailor-Bird
91
 ,

The Streaked Fantail Warbler

92
 46. The Streaked Fantail Warbler
Cisticola jzmcidis (Rafinesque)

Size: Much smaller than the Sparrow.

Field Characters: A tiny bird, dark-streaked iulvous-brown above,

whitish below, with a white-tipped 'fan' tail. Singly or several
loosely together, in tall grass areas.

Distribution :-Europe, Africa, Asia. Throughout the Indian Em-

pin, in plains and hills up to about 5,000 ft. Within our limits three
races are recognised on size and depth of colouration, yiz., the paler
Indian race cUI'Sitalls, the richly coloured Travancore sdli1l1alii, and
the larger Ceylonese olJla{ura.

Habits: The Fantail 'Warbler inhabits open grassland and standing

paddy crops. It moves about to some extent seasonally under stress
of local conditions. It is usually met with singly or in loose parties
of up to 10 or 15 birds which skulk in the grass, making short flights
only when flushed and diving into the stems again. The curious,
mounting, zig-zag flight in which the fan-shaped tail is conspicuous,
and the sharp chip .. chip . . chiP uttered on the wing are usually the
first indications of its presence in any locality. During courtship
display the male rises in the air every now and again and flies about
over the nest site aimlessly, in irregular wav), zigzags. At each dip
in this undulating flight-every second or so-it utters a single chip
remarkably like the snip of a barber's scissors heard in the distance.
After two or three minutes of this, the bird descends to some perch in
the neighbourhood of its base. The manamvre is soon repeated.

Its food consists of small insects and caterpillars which arc hunted
on the g:ass stems as well as among the rootstocks, the bird hopping
about on the ground like a illunia.

Nesting: The season over most of its Indian range is coincident

;Jith the 5.\V. l\Ionsoon, ranging betwccn June and September.
~n Travancore It apparently breeds between August and I1Iarch, and
In Ceylon November to June or later. The nest is a deep oblong
pOuch with its mouth at the top, lined with vegetable down. It is
made of grasses woven around with cobwebs and incorporating several
of the supporting blades of the tussock in which it is concealed, mostly"
under 2 ft. from the grounel. The eggs-3 to 5-are pale bluish-
Irhite speckled with red and purple.

93
 47. The Ashy Wren-Warbler
Prinia socialis Sykes
Size: Smaller than the Sparrow.
Field Characters: Ashy-slate above, fulvous-white below with a
loose, longish, black-and-white-tipped tail. This is carried partially
erect a~d constantly shaken up and down, Sexes alike, but winter
plumage less slaty than summer. Pairs, in gardens and scrub country.
Distribution: Throughout India (excepting the N-W portions),
Assam and Ceylon. Not in Burma. Upto 4,000 ft. in the Hima-
layas and 7,000 ft. in the continental ranges. 4 races are recognised
on details of size and depth of colouration, viz., the N. Indian stewarti,
the S. Indian socialis, the Ceylonese brevicaudus and the Duars and
Khasia Hills race illglisi.
Habits: A pair or so of the Ashy Wren-Warbler is commonly found
in gardens of any size with shrubs and herbaceous borders. It also
inhabits the out'ikirts of cultivation and is fond of open grassland,
especially wet. Though not shy, it is of a reticent disposition and
hops about quietly among the bushe~ in search of insects, only
uttering a sharp tee-fee-tee from time to time. During the breeding
season, however, the male courts publicity_ He constantly climbs
up to some exposed situatipn on a grass stem or bush and pours forth
a torrent of feverish warbling. He flits about excitedly, jerks his
tail 'up and down and flutters his wings. His jerky undulating flight
gives the impression of his tail being too heavy for him to carry.
'When suddenly disturbed off its nest this warbler emits-as do several
others of its near relations--a peculiar lIit-kit-kit as of electric sparks,
presumably by snapping its bill.
Its diet consists mainly of insects and caterpillars.

Nesting: The season' ranges between :i\1arch and September, but is

chiefly after the S-VV ;.\lon500n has well set in. The nests are nor-
f mally either of the Tailor-Bird type-in a funnel of sewn leaves-or
an oblong purse of woven fibres into which some of the supporting
leaves are tacked and bound with cobwebs. They are mostly within
2 feet of the ground in some low bush. The eggs-3 or 4·-are a
beautiful glossy brick-red lin colour with a dark ring round the broad
end.
Both sexes share in building and care of the young. The in-
cubation period is I2 days.
94
The Ashy Wren-Warbler
95
•

The Indian Wren-Warbler

96
 48. The Indian Wren-Warbler
Prillia illomala Sy kes

Size: Smaller than the Sparrow. Same as of the Ashy Wren-

Warbler.

Field Characters: Like the last species but dull earthy-brown

above with a rufous tinge, and no white terminal spots to tail. The
winter plumage is more fulvous. Sexes alike. Pairs, in open scrub-
and·grass country.

Distribution: The whole of the Indian Empire south of the

Himalayas. Seven races are recognised on details of size and
comparative depths of colouration. Two of these races are
restricted to Burma and one to Ceylon. A fourth occupies the
Outer and sub-Himiilayiin belt from Nepal to Upper Assam. In
India proper we are concerned with the remaining three races, viz.,
the N'. Indian terrieolor, the Central Lldian and Deccan inomata,
and the Travancore and Nilgri Hills race frallklillii.

Habits: The Indian \Vren-\Varbler affects hedges or scrub near

cultivation, open grassland and standing paddy crops, in the plains
as well as up to about 4,000 ft. in the hills. It does not ordinarily
cntcr gardens, and on the whole prefers drier localities than socialis,
but the two may often be found together. In all other respects its
habits closely resemble those of the Ashy Wren-Warbler. The call
notes and warbling are also of the same calibre, yet distinct enough
to be easily differentiated.

Nesting: The season varies somewhat with locality, ranging

between March and September, but is most general during the rainy
months. The nest is a longish pear-shaped pouch woven out of fine
strips of grass, open or with a lateral entrance hole near the top. It
is slUng between a number of grass stems or upright weeds growing
in open scrub, grassland, standing crops, or on bands separating fields-
under three feet from the ground. The normal clutch consists of 3
to 5 eggs of a smooth and glossy texture. They are a lovely greenish-
blue in colour, speckled, blotched and pencilled with reddish-brown.

Both sexes share in building the nest and tending the young.
97
 SOME NESTS AND NESTING BEHAVIOUR
In the Introduction we said that • For the safety of their eggs
and young, birds build Dests which may range from a simple scrape
in the ground as of the Lapwing to such elaborate structures as the
compactly woven nest of the 'Weaver-Bird: To complete the pi-::ture,
it may be added that most birds incubate their eggs with the heat
of their bodies by brooding them, and show considerable solicitude
for their young until they are able to fend for themselves. In this
chapter we shall consider the main types of nests buiIt by Indian
birds and deal briefty with the nesting behaviour of some of the-
builders.

Nesting seasons

Broadly speaking,' the majority of our resident birds have more

or less well-marked seasons in which they lay their eggs and rear
their young. The periods favoured by different species vary some-
what in the different portions of their distribution, depending upon
geographical position and local climatic conditions. The season in'-
India as a whole is perhaps nowhere as dearcut as in the Temperate
and' Arctic zones. In the lower Himalayiis and the country about
their base, most species commence their nesting operations with the
advent of Spring, which may be put down as the beginning of March.
The farther south one moves towards the Equator the more equable
does the climate become, so that the most important seasonal change
in those parts is the one brought about by the monsoons, particularly
the South-west Monsoon. Birds that nest in tree-holes as well as
the ground-nesting species must be discharged of their parental
duties before the onset of the S-\V Monsoon in June. In North
India it is of vital importance for such birds as nest on the sandbanks
of the larger rivers to have finished their activities before the rivers
swell in summer due to melting of the Himalayan snows. Therefore,
March and April are the principal months in which to . look for the
eggs of river birds.

The S-W Monsooil-june/July to September/October-is the

time when the annual vegetation is at the height of its luxuriance
and insect life at its peak. In these respects the season corresponds
to Spring in the more northerly latitudes. A large section of Indian
birds of divers families and species find optimum conditions for
bringing up families durmg this period of plenty. By about mid-
October the majority of young birds of the monsoon-breeding species
have left their nests. The raptores or birds of prey commence their
nesting activities about this period and are busy throughout the
98
99
100
winter months up till about the end of February. It is often quite
late in March or even the middle of April before the young of some
of the larger raptores-vultnres and eagles-have launched into the
world. Young raptores have astonishingly healthy appetites. The
continuous supply of animal food the parents are obliged to procure
for them makes the choice of this season a happy one; young birds
are then plentiful and easily hunted. and their numbers are augmented
bi vast hordes of winter immigrants from beyond our borders.

Territory, courtship and song

Individual breeding pairs usually occupy a ' Territory ,

in the surroundings of their nest which is treated as their special
preserve and into which intrusion by other members of the same
species is regarded as an unfriendly act, to be actively resented.
The acquisition of breeding territories is a fairly geneml practice
among birds, but not universal. Their existeuce is particularly
noticeable in the !Il.9re aggressive species like the Black Drongo.
Territory is acquired by the male. In migrant species this
accounts in a measure for the fact that on Spring passage, when
journeying to their breeding grounds, the males usually precede
the females. Having arrived in the breeding locality, the ma.le
proceeds to stake out and establish possession of an area, usually
more or less definable and varying in extent according to speci~s
and to the density of its avian population. In the process it
may have to fight for ownership with another male already
in occupation, or in defence of its territory against an interloper.
Once in secure possession. the male awaits the arrival of the
body of females and advertises his presence and the availability
of a n~sting site by singing full-throatedly from' exposes situations.
The song serves not only to attract likely females. but also as a
warning to rival males to keep oil. Having secured a female, in the
process of which again there is often much active hostility between
nval males, courtship displays commence. These take numerous
fonns ; Hulling out of the ornamental plumage. fanning and erecting
the tail and dancing or posturing in front of the female, as in the
PeaCock and many pheasants, being some of the most spectacUlar.
The extravagant aerial r.ontQrtions of shooting skywards and
nose·diving to the accompaniment of raucous screams indulged in
by the Roller or 'Blue Jay' in love are a familiar sight at the
commencement of the hot weather. There is an infinite variety of
:ourtship behaviollr ranging from the sublime to the ridiclIlnlJc A ~-!,­
Song-which reacheR thp ~1;~--- .'" .
indulged in either by one partner or by both, and has for its ultimate
object the rousing of the necessary physiological response for success-
ful breeding.
In birds where the sexes are dissimilar in colouration it is
usually the male who is the more showily coloured and who takes
the initiative in the display and courtship ceremonials, the female
remaining mxe or less a passive spectator. In species where the
sexes are similar in appearance, such as larks and pipits, both male
and female take an active part in courtship; sometimes one sex
predominates sometimes the other according as one or the other is
the more physiologically mature.
Colouration of eggs j

The colour patterns of birds' eggs are almost as varied as the

birds themselves, or as the architecture of their nests. Egg-coloura-
tion suggests an advanced stage of evolution; the ancestors of
birds-the Reptiles-lay only white eggs. Birds that nest in tree-
holes or earth-tunnels also lay white eggs since, as in reptiles, the
required protection is afforded them by the situation. It cannot be
denied that in the main the colouration of eggs is a protective device
and in a general way bears a direct relation to the types of nests in
which they are laid. The eggs of the Yellow-wattled Lapwing
deposited on barren, open waste land, and of the Tern in a sandy
river bed are convincing examples. They match the soil and blend
with their surroundings to such perfection that they are quite invisible
at a few feet's distance even when diligently looked for. The
eggs of the Pheasant-tailed J agana, often laid directly upon floating
singiira (Trapa} leaves, resemble the surrounding olive-brown
vegetation so closely as to be completely obliterated from view.
Anomalies, however, are not wanting. Thus the eggs of the Rain-
Quail laid in grassland are obliter-ative whereas those of the Bush-
Quail, laid in not much more sheltered sites, are white!
Types of nests
The following are the main types of birds' nests found ill
India:
1. Simple scYapes in the ground sparsely lined with grass and
leaves, e.g., Quail, Jungle Fowl and other game birds, or with nO
semblance of lining, e.g., Tern and Lapwing (Plate p. 99). Protection
is secured by the eggs and young of such birds through their remark-
ably obliterative colouration.
2. Twig nests like platforms with a cup-like depression in the
centre usually lined with softer material-grass, tow, feathers, &c.
This type, built in trees or on buildings or cliffs, is common to a large
number of birds of different families: e.g., Crow, Kite, Dove, Vulture,
Cormorant, Stork, &c.
102
 .....o

103
Baya Weaver"Bird and Neat
 3. Nests in tree-holes either excavated in living or decayed
wood, or in natural hollows, and either with a sparse lining of soft
material or unlined, e.g., Tits, Yellow-throated Sparrow, \Vood-
peekers, Barbets, Hombills, Owls, some :Mynas and most of our
resident Ducks (Plate p. 107). The holes are in the first instance cut
by woodpeckers, parrots or barbets and subsequently appropriated
in rotation by many other species. Nesting in natural tree hollows
is a common habit among our resident ducks, all of whom breed
during the S-\V Monsoon. The raised situation gives immunity
against sudden rise of water-level in the jheels due to cloud-
bursts or the swelling of streams flowing into them. The ducklings
reach the water by being simply pushed out of the nest by the parents
and are not carried down by them as has sometimes been asserted.
4. Nests in excavated tIm-nels in earth banks or in clefts of
buildings, rock cliffs, &c., e.g., Bee-eaters, IGngllshers, Hoopoe.
The tunnels are driven horizontally into the side of an earth-
cutting or bank of a stream, the bird using its bill to dig and its feet
to kick back the loose earth. The tunnels are from a few inches to
several feet in length and usually bent near the extremity where they
widen into a bulbous egg chamber.
5· Nests built entirely of mud or in which mud predominates,
e.g., \Vhistling Thrush, Blackbird, Swallows, Martins. The wet
mud is commonly collected at rain puddles. It is mixed with a certain
amount of saliva in the case of Swallows. There is a marked increase
in the size of the salivary glands of these birds and swifts during the
breeding season. Swailows nests have perforce to be built very
gradually, pellet by pellet, so that not too much of the material is
daubed on at one time before the underlying layer is sufficiently
dry (Plate p, 103). .
6. Cup-shaped 1!ests of gl'ass and fibres in crotches or forks of
branches, usually well plastered over w,ith cobwebs, e.g., lora, Fantail
and other flycatchers, Orioles, White-eye, Minivets, Reed-'Warblers,
Cuckoo-Shrikes, &c. (Plate p. 108). Cobwebs are very extensively
employed as cement in bird architecture, for binding the material
compactly and neatly together. It is collected by being twisted
round and round the bill and is then unwound and attached on the
exterior of l the nest, or used in securing the nest into positon.
7. Domed or ball-shaped nests of twigs, grass or rootlets with a.
lateral entrance hole, e.g., Munias, Rufous-bellied Babbler.
8. Pendant lIest~, e.g., \Veaver-Birds (woven), Sunbirds, Flower-
peekers (Plate p. 104). The Sunbird's nest is a vertical oblong pouch
Suspended from the tip of a thin outhanging twig, usually not high
above the ground. It has an entrance hole at the side with a little
prOjecting porCh over it. The exterior is draped untidily with pieces
105
of bark, caterpillar droppings and spiders egg-cases which give it
an effective camouflage. The Flowerpecker's nest is a hanging
pouch of the same general pattern, but made entirely of seed- and
vegetable-down worked into a felt-like fabric.
I). Woven oblong puyse-]oofah-like-attached to stems of tall
grass or low bushes, e.g., \Vren-\Varblers (alternative to the next type).
to. Nest iii leaves stitched together in the form of a funnel, e.g.,
Tailor-Bird, Franklin's \Vren-\Varbler, Ashy \Vren-\Varbler.
There are yet other nests of less conventional design. The
Edible-nest Swiftlets which breed in vast colonies, attach their half-
saucer shaped nests made entirely of the birds' saliva or with
an admixture of straw and feathers, to the sides of the rock in dark
grottos and caves on islands in the sea. The Palm Swift makes a
rather similar nest but with more feathcrs reinforcing it, attached
to the leaves of the Palmyra palm and usually well-concealed among
the furrows. The Rufous ·Woodpecker makes its home in the carton-
nests of certain tree ants, and seems to live on terms of amity with
the insects.
A <1istinction must be made benveen birds that nest in individual
pairs in usually well-recognised territories, like the Black Drongo
for example, and those that nest in colonies. Some familiar
examples of the latter are the ,Vcaver-Birds, Cliff Swallows (Plate p. r03),
Common and Edible-nest Swifts, and water birds such as Storks,
Cormorants and Herons (Plate p. 100).
,Vhatevcr its pattern, the nest is always true to the type of the
species that builds it, and is primarily the outcome of instinct fixed
and inherited through countless generations of builders. That a
young Baya in its first season builds it nest exactly like the one in
which it was born is neither the result of training by its parents nor
of intelligence as we understand it. The architecture may be im-
proved and perfected with practice, bnt the design will remain
constant. Experiments have shown that birds hatched in an
incubator who can therefore have no idea of the sort of nest built
by their kind, will, at the appointed time, build nests after their own
specific pattern. A great deal of the other seemingly intelligent
behaviour of nesting birds, such as solicitude or love for their off-
spring, and the • broken wing' trick practised by many different
species ostensibly to draw off an intruder from the nest or young,
prove upon analysis to be largely, if not wholly, the working of a
blind and unreasoning instinct.
It would be a pity to close this chapter without mention of the
extraordinary nesting habits and behaviour of 4 of our Indian
birds.

r06
 E. H. N. LotoIkr
Nukta or Comb-Duck at Nest
Most of our resident dtu;ks nest in natural tree hollows
10 7
Male Paradise Flycatcher at Nest

108
'The Hornbills
The first of these is the Hornbill whose prodigious beak at once
proclaims him a Queer Customer. His nesting habits are in keeping
with his unusual get-up. All our Hornbills, as far as is known, share
this peculiar behaviour. We shall take the Grey Hornbill, their
commonest representative, as the type.
At the appointed season, after the courtship and marriage cere-
monials have been duly performed, the female hornbill betakes herself
to a natural hollow in some tree-trunk, the same perhaps as has
served as nursery to numerous previous hornbill generations. She
incarcerates herself within this hollow, using her droppings as plaster
and the flat sides of her enormous bill as trowel to wall up the entrance,
merely leaving a narrow slit for the tip of her bill to be thrust out to
receive the food brought in by the male. This walling-in process
occupies 2 or 3 davs and it is doubtful if the husband assists her at
all in the work ex~ept presumably in fetching the mud. 'For it is
now ascertained that besides the female's own excrement there is a
{;onsiderable proportion of mud or clay mixed in the cement. The
plaster sets so hard that no ordinary predatory animal can get at
the occupant within. From this self-imposed confinement the female
·does not free herself until after the young-3 to 5 in number-hat{;h
'Out aud are about a fortnight old. All the time she is within, the
male assiduously brings her food-banyan aud peepal figs varied
occasionally by a lizard or some other tit-bit. The heavy labour
of foraging for his spouse wears him do\VI1 to a skeleton, while she
thrives exceedingly on this life of ease and plenty and is said to grow
enormously plump. In the case of the closely related Great Indian
Hombill it is believed that during her incarceration the female moults
her flight quills, so that the imprisoning wall gives her protection from
predatory foes at a time when she is most helpless. This question
Df moult, however, and the manner of its taking place needs further
investigation. When the young are about a fortnight old the female
breaks down the wall by hammering away patiently at it, and releases
herself. After her exit, the wall is usually built up once more and
thenceforth father and mother slave to fill the hungry maws of the
voracious squabs until they are feathered enough to be let out and
fend for themselves.
The Baya
The Baya or. Common Weaver-Bird is a cunning polygamist,
but he has a system of his own. At the onset of the rainy season,
the male Bayas, now in their handsome breeding dress, commence
to build their wonderful retort-shaped pendant nests, chiefly on
Babul trees or date palms preferably standing in or over-hanging
10 9
water. The building parties which may consist of from 10 to 50-
birds comprise exclusively of cocks. A great deal of noisy, joyous
chirruping choruses and fluttering of wings accompany the j:lUilding
operations. After the strands of the initial attachment are wound
and twi~ted round and round the selected twig till a :firm support is
secured, the bird proceeds to work the loose strips dangling from it
into a transverse oblong loop. This is the skeleton of the structure.
Porches are built over the upper part on either side of this loop and.
continued down. one bulging out lower into the egg-chamber, the
other less bulgy being produced into the entrance tube. Now it
cornes to pass that when the nests are nearing completion, there
is suddenly one morning a visitation from a party of hen Bayas who
have been completely absent hitherto. They hop about from nest
to nest deliberately, entering to inspect the interior, seemingly in-
different to the excited prancing, strutting and chittering advances of
the cocks around them. If a hen is satisfied with a partiCUlar nest she
calmly , ildopts ' it and moves into possession. Thenceforth she and
the builder are wife and husband. He works assiduously to complett3"
the exterior while she busies herself mainly with interior decoration.
As soon as this nest is completed and the hen safely on eggs, the cock
commences to build another on a nearby twig. In course of time this,
too, if approved, is similarly adopted by a second prospecting female
who becomes Wife NO.2. The process may be repeated until the
cock finds himself the husband of 3 or even 4 wives and the happy
father of as many families all at once!

The Bustard-Quail
The normal condition in birds is that where the male and female
differ in colouration, it is the male who is the brighter coloured and
more showy. He displays his splendour before the female, courts
her and if need be fights furiously with rival males for her possession.
In the Bustard-Quail, however, the role of the sexes is reversed.
Here it is the female who is the larger and more brightly coloured
and who takes the initiative in affairs of the heart. She decoys
eligible males by a loud drumming call, courts them sedulously, dis-
playing all her charms before them, and engages in desperate battles
with rival Amazons for the ownership of the favoured one. As soon
as the husband is secured, the preliminaries over and the full comple-
ment of eggs laid, she leaves him to his own devices and wanders off
in search of fresh conquests. i The lucky husband is saddled with the
entire responsibility of incubating the eggs and tending the young
which, to his credit, he discharges admirably and with great solicitude.
By feminine artifice the roving hen manages to inveigle another un-
attached cock who is likewise • landed' with family cares. The
110
•
hen is once more in the market for a third husband! In this manner
each hen may lay several clntches of eggs during a single season which,
accordingly, is much prolonged. The Painted Snipe is another Indian
species in which the female is similarly polyandrous.
The Parasitic Cuckoos
A large section of the Cuckoo family are known as the Parasitic-
Cuckoos on account of their disreputable habit of building no nests-
of their own but utilising those of other birds for laying in, and
foisting their parental duties upon the shoulders of the dupes.
Familiar examples of parasitic cuckoos are the. Brain-fever Bird and
the Roe!. The former commonly lays in the nests of babblers, often
removing one of the rightful eggs to make room for its own. The·
Koel habitually parasitizes the House and Jungle Crows and leaves
to them the task of incubating its eggs and rearing its young. The
eggs of parasitic cuckoos usually bear a remarkably clo~e resemblance
to those of their hosts or fosterers. It is believed that this similiarity
has been gradually brought about by the discrimination exercised by
the fosterer, i.e., by its rej ecting, generation after generation, of such
eggs laid in its nest as differed glaringly in size or colouration from its
own. There is good evidence for believing that even among parasitic
cuckoos of the same species there are distinct 'strains' which are as·
a rule constant in the choice of their fosterers. Thus Plaintive Cuc:koos
in Hyderabiid City (Deccan) habitually lay in the nests of the Ashy
Wren-Warbler while those in the surrounding country favour those
of the Tailor-Bird. Now, the eggs of the "Vren-\Varbler and those
of the Tailor-Bird are markedly unlike, but those of the respective
'strains,' of the Plaintive Cuckoos have evolved through Selection
to match those of their usual fosterers in either area.
iVe have still a great deal to learn about the breeding biology
of even some of our commonest birds,,_ Egg-collecting alone is not
enough. Some of the points on which detailed information is desir-
able are (1) The share of the sexes in nest-building, incubation and
care of the young, (2) Periods of incubation, (3) Interval between
the laying of each egg in a clutch (this varies among species and
groups.) (4) Nature of food and quantity fed each day to the young.
(5) Behaviour of parents and young.
Those interested in the nesting habits of Indian birds should
read Birds at tke Nest by Douglas Dewar which contains some useful
indications of what still needs to be done in this country. For the
serious student ther~ is nothing more complete or authoritative than
the 4 recent volumes by Mr. E. C. Stuart Baker-Nidification of Indian
Birds. His recent Cuckoo Problems is a mine of information on ques-
tions relating to Parasitic Cuckoos.
III
 49. The Golden Oriole
Oriolus oriolus (Linnaeus).

Size: About that of the ?ilyna.

.Field Characters: A bright yellow bird with black in the wings

and tail, and a conspicuous black streak through the eye. The female
is usually duller and greener. Singly or pairs, among trees in wooded
country.

Distribution: The race kUlldoo occupies all India up to about 5,000

ft. in the Himalayas, from Kashmir to Cape Comorin and from Ba-
luchistan to Bengal. It is a resident in most localities but a local
migrant in others. For instance, to the Himiilayas and the country
about their base it is a breeding visitor only, from March to Septem-
ber.

Habits: The Golden Oriole, or :Mango-Bird as this species is popu·

larly known, is a dweller of open but well-wooded country and is
fond of orchards and groves of large trees such as Banyan, Mango,
, Tamarind and Toan. It is entirely arboreal, but while of a shy and
retiring disposition will commonly enter gardens even in the midst
of noisy towns. The bird is usually met with in pairs which fly about
from tree to tree, flashing through the foliage, with a peculiar strong
dipping flight. Their usual call notes-a harsh cheeah, and rich
mellow whistles something like pe-lo-lo-are among the more familiar
bird voices of our countryside.

Their food consists chiefly of fruits and berries, those of the

Banyan, Peepal and Lantana being some of the commonest. Insects
of various kinds are aiso eaten, as is the nectar of flowers like the
}:-oral and Silk Cotton whenever available.

Nesting: The season over most of its range is from April to july.
The nest is a beautifully woven deep cup of bast fibres with a good
deal of cobwebs used as binding material. It is suspended like a
hammock in a fork of twigs near the end of an outhanging branch
of some Jarge leafy tree, 12 to 30 feet from the ground. The egg3
- 2 or 3 in number-are white, spotted with black or reddish-brown.

Both sexes share in building the nest and tending the young.
H2
The Golden Oriole
113
The Black-headed Oriole
 SO. The Black.headed Oriole
Oriolus xanthornus (Linnaeus)

Size: About that of the Myna.

Field Characters: A brilliant golden yellow bird with jet black head.
throat and upper breast. Black in wings and tail. Sexes alike.
Singly or pairs, arboreal, in wooded country.

Distribution: The whole of the Indian Empire excepting the arid

portions west of a line from Kathiawar through Mt. Abu to the Sutlej
River. In the HimalayiiS up to about 4,000 ft. Three races are
recognised on differences of size and details of colouration, viz., the
largest Northern xant/zoY1!us, the intermediate Peninsular maderaspata-
liltS, and the smallest Ceylonese ceylonensis. It is resident over the
greater part of its range, but also moves about locally to some
extent.

Habits: This oriole, like the last, is a bird of well-wooded country

and groves of large trees, often in the neighbourhood of human ha-
bitations. It has a variety of loud melodious calls which in general
are very like those of the Indian Oriole. A harsh monosyllabic note
Commonly uttered is mistakable for one of the Tree-Pie's. Otherwise,
there is no appreciable difference between the habits of the two
species.

Nesting: The principal months in India are from April to July.

but in Ceylon it apparently breeds from October to May. The struc-
ture and site of the nest do not differ from those of the Indian Oriole
(Plate P. 198), but the eggs are somewhat smaller, pinker and less
glossYi

Orioles of both species, along with such other mild-mannered

birds as doves and babblers, often build in the same tree as holds,
a nest of Ithe Black Drongo. That this is by design rather than
accident can scarcely be doubted considering how frequent the oc-
cUrrence is. It is certain also that by this means the birds must enjoy
a degree of protection against marauders like crows and tree-pies.
T~e King Crow will tolerate the proximity of his harmless dependents
With complacence. but a crow has only to show himself in the precincts
0: the nest-tree to be furiously set upon and beaten off by the valiant
kotwal and his wife.

IIS
 51. The Grackle or Hill-Myna
Gracula religiosa Linnaeus

Size: Slightly larger than the Myna.

Field Characters: A glossy jet-black bird with yellow bill and legs,
and bright orange-yellow patches of naked skin and wattles on the
head. Sexes alike. Pairs or noisy flocks. in dense hill forest.

Distribution: Resident in 3 clearly defined areas in India proper;

(I) Himalayan foothills up to about 2,500 ft. from near Almora to
Assam, (2) an area south of Chota Nagpur including S-E Central
Provinces, (3) Ceylon, and upto about 5,000 ft. throughout the ';Vest-
em Ghats north to Kanara and rarely to Bombay. Three races
are recognised on differences of size and in the head wattles: the
northern race inlermedia, the central peninsulayis and the southern
indica. Besides these, two other races occur within our limits, one
in Tenasserim the other in the Andamans.

Habits: The PaMiri- or Hill-I11yna, as this bird is popularly known,

inhabits heavily forested hill tracts. In its south-western range,
cardamon and coffee plantations with their lofty natural evergreen
shade trees form an ideal habitat for this species. Pairs, or flocks
of upto 20 are commonly met with feeding on ripe figs of the various
Fici and other fruits, in company with hornbills, green pigeons and
other frugivorous birds. The nectar of Coral, Silk Cotton and Silver
Oak (GreviUea) flowers is also largely eaten and the birds do consider-
able service as pollinating agents. The forest resounds with their
loud, sharp, creaky shrieks, and in flight their wings produce the
same whirring sound as green pigeons'.

This Myna is much prized as a cage bird. It is a mimic of ex-

ceptional merit, becomes very tame, and soon learns to reproduce
the human voice and speech -\vith astonishing clarity.

,Nesting: The season is from March to October. The· nest-a.

collection of grass, leaves, feathers, etc.-is placed in natural hollows
30 to 40 ft. from the ground, in the boles of lofty trees, often standing
isolated in a forest clearing. The eggs-z or 3-are a beautiful
deep-blue, sparsely spotted and blotched with reddish-brown or
chocolate.
lJ6
The Grackle or Hill..Myna
II7
The Rosy Pastor or Rose-coloured Starling
lIS
 52. The Rosy Pastor or Rose-coloured
Starling
Pastor reselts (Linnaeus)
Size: About that of the l\Iyna.
Field Characters: A rose-pink and black Myna-like bird with a
prominent crest. Sexes alike, but young birds and adults in non-
breeding plumage, duller and browner. Flocks, about cultivation.
Distribution: In winter all India. Particularly abundant in the
North-'West, but diminishing markedly towards its eastern boundary
in Bengal. South of the Deccan also its numbers are small, and it
visits Ceylon only sparingly and irregularly.
Habits: This, the J owari Bird or Tilyer, is one of our earliest
immigrants, some individuals often arrivir~g as early as July or
August. The birds stay with us till April. Small parties and large
<'

flocks of upto 400 or more may be seen flying about in the vicinity
of cultivation, especially jowiiri, alighting from time to time to feed
on the ripening grain. The ryot may rattle his tin cans or shout
himself hoarse, but all to no avail. The hungry swarms rise from
one corner of his crops only to circle rOllnd in little 'clouds' and
settle in a farther corner, almost before the din has ceased. The
birds rest in nearby trees in the intervals between their intermittent
ravages, and spend their time in noisy chattering and warbling. The
damage they cause is often considerable, but to compensate for this
they do inestimable service in destroying locusts on an enormous
scale, both in times of ' invasions' and while in their common breeding
gnunds in Central Asia. They may commonly be seen in attendance
on cattle grazing on moist grassland, snapping up grasshoppers and
other insects disturbed by the animals. Their food also consists
largely of fruits and berries, those of the Banyan, Peepal and
Lalltana being largely patronised. The birds are invariably
present on Silk Cotton trees in blossom for the sugary nectar
exuded by the flowers, and are truculent towards other species
visiting the tree. They are important agents in the cross-pollination
of the5e flowers, and responsible for the dispersal of seeds of a great
variety of wild fruits.
Nesting: The Rosy Pastor breeds in large colonies in Eastero
Europe, Western and Central Asia, on stony hillsides and amongst
ruins, in May and' June. The selection of the breeding ground
varies from year to year being largely dependent upon the move-
ments of locust swarms which furnish the staple diet of the adult
bIrds and of the young from the time they hatch out.
II9
 53. The Grey..headed Myna
Sturnia malabarica (Gmelin)

Size: Smaller than the Common Myna.

Field Characters: A small trim Myna with blackish wing-quills.

Grey above, rusty-brown below. Sexes alike. Flocl\s, in thinly
wooded country.

Distribution: Throughout India east and south of <I. line from

Mt. Abu to Dehra Dun; Assam, Burma, but not Ce:l>lon. It iiS a
local migrant and shifts about considerably with the seasons.
Six races are recognised on differences of size anq details of
colouration. \Ve are chiefly concerned with three, viz., the grey-
headed India and Assam race malabarica, the white-headed
Travancore and Malab~ race blythii, and the white-Winged Burma
race nemoricola.

Habits: The Grey-headed Myna inhabits open, thinly forested

country and the neighbourhood of teak plantations and forest cultiva.
tion. In suitable localities, it is found both near humau habitations
ana ill outlymg part's. 11;' goes aDou,; 10 smail'rfocKs, eli:'fler by t.6.em-
selves or in association with other Mynas. The swift, direct flight
is typical of the Starling. While principally arboreal in habits, it
will often descend to feed in low bushes or even to the ground. Its
diet consists Chiefly of fruits and berries, those of ZizYPhus, Lantalla
and the various Fici being abundantly taken. Insects are also eaten.
The birds are unfailing visitors to Silk Cotton trees to feed on the
flower-nectar, hopping about from branch to branch in the quest
and keeping up the same incessant squabbling and cl1atter as the
Rosy Pastor does, varied by pleasant musical notes.. For no ap-
parent reason a feeding flock will suddenly dive into space helter-
skelter, as if to dodge .some imaginary hawk, and after Circling round
the tree once or twice wiII resettle and resume feeding.

I Nesting: The season varies somewhat according to locality,

ranging between March and June. The nest is a colleci:ion of twigs,
rootlets and grass placed in a barbet- or woodpecker-hole in the steJll
of a tree, 10 to 40 feet fliom the ground. The eggs-three to :five--
are pale-blue in colour without markings.

,Both sexes share in building the nest and care Of the young,
but the female alone is said to incubate.
I20
The Gre), ...headed Myna
I2J
The Brahminy or Black-beaded Myna
11%
 54. The Brahminy or Black..headed Myna
Temenuchus pagodarum (Gme1in)

Size: Smaller than the Common :Myna.

Field Characters: A typical Myna, grey above reddish-fawn

below, with glossy black head and long crest; black wing-quills
and brown tail, the latter with whitish edging at tip wbich is
conspicuous when the bird spreads it before alighting. Sexes alike.
In the young the head is sooty brown and crestless, and the general
colouration dulL Small flocks, in thinly wooded country.

Distribution: Ceylon and the whole of continental India east

to Bengal. In the Himalayas commonly upto 4,000 ft. in summer,
and occasionally up to 8,000 ft. Absent or patchy in the arid portions
of the N-\V, as also in evergreen forest. Mainly resident, but also
local migrant.

Habits: This Myna is a dweller of open, lightly wooded country

and often associates with the Grey-headed and Common species.
It freely enters gardens, and makes itself at home on and about
houses in towns and villages. It is neither so overwhelmingly
arboreal as the former nor so terrestrial as the latter. Flocks of
6 to 12 birds may usually be met with feeding on Banyan, Peepal.
Ber, Lantana and other fruits and berries in the usual mixed
frugivorous company. It is partial to moist grassland such as on
the edge of village tanks, where it hops or stalks along amongst the
feet of grazing cattle h.unting the grasshoppers and other insects
they disturb. It is likewise very fond of the nectar of flowers like
those of the Silk Cotton, and also feeds largely on the fleshy blossoms
of the :1IIhowa (Bassia).

The bird has several merry creaking or chattering notes and,

at the breeding season, a pleasing little song in the nature of a
SOliloquy. When uttering this, the crest is partially erected and
the whole plumage frowzled.

Nesting: The principal breeding months are from :May to July.

!he nest is a pad of grass, rags, feathers, etc .• placed in some hollow
~n a tree, ruined walls or even in those of inhabited houses, frequently
In the midst of noisy bazaars. The eggs-3 or 4-are pale-blue.
unmarked. Both sexes share in building the nest, incubation and
care of the young.
123
 55. The Common Myna
A cridotheres tristis (Linnaeus)

Size: Between the Bulbul and the Pigeon. (9").

Field Characters: A familiar, perky, well-groomed dark-brown
bird with bright yellow bill, legs and bare skin around the eyes. A
large white patch on the wing is prominent in flight. Sexes alike.
CDmmon in to\\'1lS as well as on the cDuntryside.
Distribution: ThroughDut the Indian Empire, in summer up to
abDut 9,0.0.0. feet in the Himalayas. Two. races are recDgnised, viz.,
the Indian tristis, and the darker Ceylonese melanosternus.
Habits: AIDng with the Crow, the Kite and the SparrD\V, the Myna
is our commDnest and mDst familiar bird abDut human habitations-
whether in the heart o.f a bustling city Dr far Dut Dn the cDuntryside.
It is sociable in disPDsitiDn and DmnivDro.us in diet, two. cDnditions
which fit it admirably for a life of commensalism with Man. A pair or
twO. usually adopt a house Dr compound fDr their o.wn and guard it
jealously against intrusio.n fro.m o.thers o.f their kind. Large numbers,
ho.wever, will co.llect to. feed, whether Dn earthworms o.n a freshy
watered lawn, a swarm Df winged termites Dr o.':l a Peepal Dr Banyan
tree in fruit. They may commDnly be seen hunting grassho.ppers Dn
the heels o.f grazing cattle, or fDllowing the plo.ugh, stalking alDngside
it, side-hDpping jauntily, and springing in the air nDw· and again to
secure the fleeing quarry. The birds have co.mmunal roosts in
favourite gro.ves o.f trees at which large numbers forgather every
evening. These are Dften shared by parakeets, crDWS and other
species who. contribute to' the din that prevails befDre the birds finally
retire fDr the night .
..-::
This Myna has a varied assDrtment Df sharp calls and chatter.
A IDUd, scolding riidio-riidio-riidio is commDnly heard, while during
the mid-day heat when a pair are resting in a shady spo.t, the male
will frequently go. through an amazing gamut of heek-heek-heek,
kok-kok-hok, chur-chur, etc., with plumage fro.wzled and a ludicroUS
bo.bbing Df his head before his mate.
'Nesting: The seasDn is principally from April to' August. Often
two' successive brDDds are raised. The nest is collection Df a twigs
roots, paper and.~bbish, placed in holes in trees and walls, or between
the ceiling and rDaf o.f a hDuse. The same site is used year after year.
The eggs-fDur or five-are a beautiful glDSSy blue.
BDth sex,es, build, incubate and tend the young.
124
The Common Myna
125
The Bank Myna
126
 56. The Bank Myna
A cridotheres ginginianus (Latham)

Size: Slightly smaller than the Common Myna.

Field Characters: Very like the last, but general colouration pale
bluish-grey. Another distinguishing feature is the naked skin around
the eyes which is brick-red instead of yelJow. Sexes alike. Flocks,
in open country.
Another species, the Jungle Myna (lEtlziopsar jltSCUS) , is not
uncommon in lightly wooded country in many parts of India, and
often found side by side with the Common Myna. In size and ap-
pearance it is rather similar to the latter, but lacks the bare yellow
skin around the eyes and has an upstanding brush-like tuft of feathers
at the forehead.

Distribution: The greater part of Northern India from Sind to

Eastern Bengal, and south to about the latitude of Bombay. In
portions of the Himalayas, up to about 3,000 feet. It is a' resident,
but also moves about a good deal locally.

H"bits: 'The Bank 11yna is found in open cultivated country in

'lhe neighbourhood of towns and villages. Railway stations are a
{aYourite resort and large numbers may often be seen sauntering
about on the platforms picking up bits of food dropped by the passen.
gers. The bird may also be confidently looked for about municipal
refuse dumps and amongst grazing cattle. Its antics of clinging to
thc cars of the animals to pick off ti,cks, and holding on firmly but
precariously as these are flapped, are amusing to watch. Its voice
is somewhat soiter than that of the Common IIIyna, but otherwise
thcre is little appreciable difference between-the habits of the two.

Ne,ting: The sc~on is between IIIay and August. The birds breed
III coloni~s,often of considerable size. The nest is a rough pad of
grass, leaves and rubbish placed in tunnels excavated by the birds
in earth banks, or in those in the revetment of bridges, etc. 'Vhen
dug by the birds, these tunnels are frequently up to 5 feet deep and
often coalesce with adjacent ones. They terminate in a bulbous
nest-chamber.

, The normal clutch consists of three to five eggs, glossy pale blue;
Without markings.
12 7
 57. The Pied Myna
Sturnopastor contya (Linnaeus)

Size: Slightly smaller t]la.n the Common Myna.

Field Characters: An o])vious myna of pied-black and white-
plumage, with a bright orange-red and yellow bill. Sexes alike_
Flocks about open cultivlition.

Distribution: India east of a line from Ambala to Hyderabad (Dec-

can) and Masulipatam; Assam and Burma. Four races are recog-
nised oil depth and othef details of colouration, viz., the India-Assam
race contra, the doubtful dehraJ, the Burma race superciliaris and
the Siamese ftoweri. The last may just cross over into our boundary
in South Tenasserim.

Habits: This species in]labits cultivated country and is rarely met

with away from humatt habitations. Unlike the Common Myna
however; it does not appropriate dwelling houses though often enter-
ing gardens and compotl:nds to hunt grasshoppers or dig up earth-
worms on a flooded laWJ1, or to roost amongst groves of large trees.
It is essentially a ground feeder and much more insectivorous in its
diet than the mynas already described. It keeps in :flocks-often
associated with other mynas-in the neighbourhood of villages and
towns, feeding at the refuse dumps on their outskirts or attending
on grazing cattle on the moist grassy margins of village tanks. In
Calcutta, particularly large flocks may be seen about the brackish
lakes and in the sewage outflow locality.

It has a number of pleasant musical notes, some 6f them rather

like snatches from tpe flight-song of the Finch-Larks.

Nesting: The season ranges between March and September and often
two successive broods are raised. The nest is very different from
that of the other mynas, being a large untidy globular structure of
'twigs, leaves, grass and rubbish. It is placed on an outhanging
branch of a mango, or similar large tree near cultivation, 15 to 30
feet from the ground. The birds do not nest in colonies as such,
but it is not unusual to find 3 or 4 nests on the same tree. The eggs-
four or five in number-are a glossy, blue without markings.

Both sex~$ share in building and care of the young.

128
The Pied Myna
I29
The Baya or Common Weaver..Bird
Male tn ltrudtn 1 plumage
130
 58. -The Baya or Common Weaver-Bird
Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus)
Size: That of the Sparrow.
Field Characters: Female, and male in non-breeding plumage,
very like the female House-Sparrow but with a thicker bill and
shorter tail. Flocks, about open cultivation.
Distribution: Ceylon and all India, Assam and Burma. Mostly
plains, but also sub-Himalayan foothills upto about 3,000 feet.
Three races are recognised on size and details of colouration, viz.,
the Indian pkilippinus, the Assam-Upper Burma race burmanicus,
and the Lower Burma-Malaya race injortunatus. Resident, but also
local migrant.
Habits: The Baya is essentially a bird of open culiivated country.
It goes about in flocks, often of considerable size, gleaning . paddy,
10wiiri and other seeds on the ground, or invading ripening crops to
which it causes a certain· amount of damage. Paddy cultivation
largely governs the seasonal movements of this bird. Enormous
numbers gather to roost in favourite patches of reeds and bulrushes,
usually on the swampy margins of tanks. Their call notes are a
sparrow-like chit-cMt-chit followed by a long-drawn chee-ee uttered
in chorus, while the birds are working on their nests.
Nesting: The Baya is noted chiefly for its wonderful retort shaped
hanging nests and for its remarkable breeding biology. The season
coincides with the SoW Monsoon-chiefly between May and
September-and the consequent availability of paddy plants and
Coarse saw-edged grasses for building material. The birds build in
colonies, occasionally of over 100 nests, on babool or ber trees and
?ate or palmyra palms standing amidst cultivation. The nest with
Its long entrance tube is commonly suspended over water at heights
of between 5 and 40 feet. It is compactly.-woven with strips of grass
or paddy leaf and has a small quantjty' 'of mud stuck inside near the
egg-chamber, the significance of which is not understood. The male
does most of the building. When a nest is nearing completion a
female ariives and takes possession of it, and thenceforth the two
become husband and wife, she assisting to finish off the interior. As
~oon as eggs are laid, the male commences ano~her nest close by which
In ,due course is ~imilarly appropriated by a second female. Thus
a smgle cock may have two, three or more nests and wives.
The eggs-two to four-are pure white and unmarked. The
female alone incubates and is mainly resp'onsible for tending the
YOung.

131
 59. The Striated Weaver-Bird
Plocells manyar (Horsfield)

Size: That of the Sparrow.

Field Characters: Differs from the Baya in having the breast

fulvous boldly streaked with black in both sexes and in the breeding
as v;ell as non-breeding plumage of the male. Flocks, in swampy
tall grass areas.

Distrihution: Patchily more or less throughout the Indian Empire

in humid or swampy tracts covered with tall grass and bulrushes,
as in the Him5.layan Terai. ~\vithin our limits, three races are
recognised on details of colouration, viz., the N-\V Indian race
striatus, the Xorth India-.\ss:im·Burma race pegueJZsis, and the South
Indian ft aviceps.

Habits: Except that it is more confined to the vast seas of

elephant-and other tall coarse grass, and to bulrushes, &c., about
tanks, this weaver does not differ appreciably in habits from the
Baya. Both species, but especially the last, arc largely kept as
pets. They are apt at learning and can be readily trained to
perform a number of tricks such as muzzle-loading and firing off a
toy cannon, retrieving a ring dropped into a well before it reaches
the water, stringing beads, and others requiring a bigh degree of
skill.

Nesting: The season ranges, according to local conditions of

humidity and rainfall, between February and September. The
nests, built in smaller colonies, arc similar to those of the Bava, but
have shorter entrance tubes and on the whole are more loos~ly and
, roughly woven. They are suspended from bulrushes, giant grass,
&c., usually on swampy ground. The nest is not attached by a long
,slender suspension as is the Baya's, but directly to a number of
grass-blades which makes its upper end brOitder than in that speciCS.
Pellets of mud are stucl~ ncar the egg-chamber in these nests also,
and the breeding biology of the two spccies is very similar in all other
respects.

The full clutch consists of two to four eggs, white in colour,

unmarked.
132
The Striated Weaver-Bird
\f l" O
n ·f -;i nt 1> lwtage
(33
1. The White.backed MUnia
2. The White-throated MUnia
134
 60. The White-backed Miinia
Uroloncha striata (Linnaeus) ,
Size: Smaller than the Sparrow.
Field Characters: A small black and white finch with heavy bluish
conical bill and wedge-shaped tail. Sexes alike. Parties, about open
cultivation.
Distribution: Ceylon and a large part of peninsular India.; a sub-
Himalayan belt from Garhwal eastwards; Assam, Burma, Andamans,
Nicobars. Six races are recognised chiefly on details of colouration.,
Habits: This Munia goeS about in small flocks which feed on grass
seeds &c., on the ground near cultivation, and utter feeble chirruping
calls.
Nesting: There is no well defined season, the· principal months
varying from locality to locality. The nest is an untidy globular
structure of grasses with a lateral entrance hole-sometimes like a
short tube: It is placed in low bushes or trees, 5 to 10 feet from the
ground. The normal clutch is of five or six eggs, pure white in colour.
Both sexes share in building, incubation (?) and care of the young.
The incubation period is 13-14 days.

61. The White-throated Miinia

Urolollcha malabarica (Linnaeus)
Size: Same as above.
Field Characters: A plain earthy-brown, thick-billed little bird
with pointed black tail, whitish underparts and white rump. Parties
in dry open scrub country. ,
Distribution: The drier parts of Ceylon and 'Of all India (up to
about 6,000 feet in the Himalayas) east to, but excluding Assam.
Habits: The White-throated Munia inhabits dry, open" cultivated
as well as sparse scrub-and-bush country, and avoids humid foreSt.
It is usually met with in flocks gleaning grass seeds on the ground
or taking fhem off the ears. The feeble chirruping notes differ little,
from those of other munias.
Nesting: Breeds throughout the greater part of the year.
bUilding the usual globular munia nest of grass in some low bush. In
cotton-growing tracts these are often largely composed of cotton wool
filChed from the fields. It also habitually utilises old weaver-bird
nests for laying in. The normal clutch is of four to six white,
unmarked, eggs. The nests are used 'as dormitories by the entire
family long after the young have flown.
135
 62. The Spotted Miinia
Uroloncha punctulata (Linnaeus)
Size: Same as the last two species.
Field Characters: In breeding plumage upper parts chocolate-brown;
lower, white speckled with black. In non-breeding and young
plumage more or less plain brown. Sexes alike. Flocks, about
open cultivation.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Empire excepting Sind,
Punjab plains, portions of Rajpiitana and the N-W F. Province. In
the Himalayas up to about 6,000 feet. Three races are recognised
on details of colouration, viz., the India-Assam race lineoventer, the
Burma race subundulata, and the Shan States-Chinese topela. Resi-
dent. but also local migrant.
Habits: Typical Miinia. Flocks-sometimes of up to 200 individuals
-feed on the ground on grass seeds, &c. When disturbed the birds
fly up into trees and bushes uttering feeble chirrups. They occasion-
ally devour winged termites emerging from the ground.
Nesting: The season is mainly between July and October. The nest
is a ball of grass about 8 inches across, with a lateral entrance hole
near the top. It is built in some low, thorny tree or bush-sometimes
several nests together. The eggs-four to seven-are glossless white,
unmarked. Both sexes partake in building and tending the young.
'63. The Red Mania or Waxbill
Amandava amalldava (Linnaeus)
Size: Smaller than the last.
Field Characters: Male in non-breeding dress, and female, brownish
sparsely spotted with White, with red bill and crimson 'rump. Tail
rounded. Flocks, in tall grassland and among reeds, often on wet
ground.
Distribution: Throughout India from Sind to Assiim and from
about 2,000 ft. in the Himalayas to Ceylon; Burma. Upto 6,000 ft.
in the peninsular hills. The Burmese race flavidiventris differs from
the Indian amandava, in having the abdomen orange-yellow in the
breeding male. Resident species.
I Habits: Typical Munia. The feeble call notes are more musical
than those of the species described, and during the breeding seasou
the male keeps up a low, continuous twittering song. It is a popular
Cage bird and large numbers are always for sale in bird markets.
Nesting: The season is not sharply defined, but breeding is perhaps
most general in the rains,' from June to October. The nest is a slll3!1
globular structure of grass, lined with finet grasses and feathers. It IS
normally placed under 2 feet from the ground, in a tussock of coarse
grass or bracken bush. The eggs-four to seven in number-are
glossless white, unmarked.
Both sexes share in building; incubation and care of the young,
136
3. The Spotted Munia
Bleedtll~ plu1llQ{!.e
4. The Red Munia or Waxbill
lIale w breedl1lg plumage
137
The Common Indian or Hodgson's Rose-Finch
~ll
Female
13S
 64. The Com.m.on Indian or Hodgson's
Rose-Finch

Carpodacus erytMinus (Pallas)

Size: A trifle larger than the House-Sparrow.

Field Characters: Both in the rose-coloured male and the brownish

female, the heavy conical finch bill and the slightly forked taU are
always conspicuous features. Flocks, in wooded country and about
cultivation.

Distribution: The Indian race roseatus breeds in the Himiilayas

at 10,000 feet and higher, from Kiimaon and Garhwal to East Tibet,
down through Yiinnan to the Soon States and eastward beyond our
borders. In winter it spreads out over the whole of India and Burma.
The Eastern European race erythrinus also occurs in N -'vV and Central
India in winter, while the Caucasus race kubanensis enters the extreme
North-West. The races differ from each other mainly in depth of
colouration.

Habits: The Rose-Finch is found in continental India chiefly

between September and May. It is met with in small flocks in
wooded country and on the outskirts of cultivation, feeding in
bushes, scrub and standing crops. Its diet consists of flower buds of
Lantana and other berries, Banyan figs, bamboo seeds, as well as
jowiiri, linseed and other grains. The nectar of Butea, Erythrina
and a large vllriety of other wild flowers is habitually eaten, and the
birds doubtless playa considerable part in cross-pollinating them.

The ordinary call note is a musical whistling, interrogative

tooee?-tooee?, but just before the birds depart for their breeding
grounds the beginnings of a loud pleasant song may often be heard. '

Nesting: The season is from June to August. The nest is a cup

of grass lined with fine roots and hair. It is placed between 2 and 6
feet from the ground in wild rose and similar bushes. The eggs-three
°l,r four-are blue in colour, spotted and speckled with blackish and
19ht red.

Both sexes share in building the' nest and tending the young.
139
 65. The Yellow-throated Sparrow

Gymflorllis xanthocollis (Burton)

Size: That of the House-Sparrow.

Field Characters: An unmistakable sparrow with a conspicuous

chestnut shoulder-patch, two whitish bars in the wing and a lemon
yellow 'thumb impression' on the throat. The female lacks the
last, and the chestnut on her shoulders is paler. Flocks, in open
lightly wooded country.

Distrihution: Practically all India from about 4,000 feet in the

Himalayas to Ceylon and from Sind to Bengal; also Shan States
(Burma). Not Assam. Two races are recognised, viz., the paler
transfuga of Sind and the N-\V Frontier, and the darker xanthocollis
of the rest of its Indian range. Resident and marked local migrant.

Habits: Vlhile often found in the neighbourhood of human habi-

tations, the Yellow-throated Sparrow does not establish itself in
dwellings in the impudent matter-of-fact way the House-Sparrow
does. It keeps more to open scrub country and light deciduous
forest. Flocks of upto 30 are usually met with gleaning paddy
grains, or grass seeds in stubble £elds and on the outskirts of cul-
tivation. It also feeds largely on berries, e.g., Lantana, moths and
other insects, and :flower nectar. The chirpy c"ll notes are similar
to those of the House-Sparrow but pleasanter. During the heat of
the day the flocks retire into the centre of some leafy tree and spend
the hours in noisy chirruping and chatter.

Nesting: The season is from April to June. The nest is a collec-

tion of grass, wool, feathers and rubbish placed in a hole in a tree
,at any height between 8 and 25 feet Woodpecker- and barbet-holes
are often appropriated, and nest boxes put up in a garden are freely
nsed. Old street lamps, offer favourite nest sites, and sometimes a
hole on the outside of a building is occupied. Often the same hole
is used year after year. The eggs-three or four-are whitish or paJe
greenish-white, profusely spotted, blotched and streaked with dingy
brown.

Both sexes share in building the nest and tending the young.
140
The Yellow-throated Sparrow
Male
The House-Sparrow
Male
 66. The House-Sparrow
Passer domesticus (Linnaeus)
Size: Well known. Smaller than the Bulbul. (6").
Field Characters: Female earthy-brown' streaked with black and
rufous above, whitish below. An unfailing commensal of Man.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Empire excepting Andamans,
Nicobars and extreme South Tenasserim. Ordinarily up to about
7,000 feet in the HimliJayas, Divided into several races over Europe.
Asia and Africa. \Ve are concerned with two, viz" the Indian race
indieus, and the larger Kashmir and N-W Frontier race parkini
(=baetriantls. )
Habits: The House-Sparrow is a confirmed hanger-on of Man in
hills and -plains alike, whether in bustling, noisy city or outlying
forest village. \Vhen fresh areas are colonised, the Sparrow is
- amongst the foremost to profit, and quick to adapt itself to the new
surroundings. In spite of this, however, its complete absence in
certain apparently suitable localities-as for example in the Travan-
core hills-seems curious and inexplicable. In winter, House-Spar-
rows collect in flocks-often of considerable size-to feed in the
neighbourhood of cultivation. At this season, too, large numbers
roost together in favourite trees or hedges, and indulge in a' great
deal of noise and bickering before settling down for the night. Their
food consists mostly of grains and seeds gleaned on the. ground, or
picked out of horse-and cattle-droppings. Indeed, the presence or
absence of horses at a hill-station. for example. has a marked influence
on the local sparrow population. Insects and flower buds are also-
eaten.
The vulgar, irritating call notes of the Sparrow are too well
known to need description. BreedL'Ig males have, besides, a loud
monotonous, and still more aggravating 'song '-Tsi, tsi, tsi or
cheer, elieer, e/teer, &c., uttered, sometimes for fully 10 minutes on
end, as the bird fluffs out its plumage, arches its rump, droops ~ts
wings and struts about arrogantly, twitching its slightly cocked tail.
Ne.sting: I-Practically throughout the year. Several. broods ~e
raised in quick succession. The nest is a collection of straw and
rUbbish placed in a hole in wall or ceiling, niche, gargoyle, inverted
lamp shade, and in every conceivable situation within or on the outside
of a tenanted building. Rarely, in some small bushy tree or creeper.
T~e eggs-three to five- are whitish or pale greenish-white, marked.
With various shades of brown.
Both sexes build and tend the young,- but the female alone. in-
cubates. The incubation period is 14 days.
143
 67. The Black-headed Bunting
Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli

68. The Red-headed Bunting

Emberiza brunnicep~ Brandt
Size: Slightly larger than the House-Sparrow.
Field Characters: Yellow sparrow-like birds with a longer and no-
ticeably forked tail. The female of the Black-headed species is pale
fulvous-brown above; that of the Red-headed Bunting ashy-brown.
Lower plumage of both pale fulvous washed with yellow. Large
flocks--often of both species mixed-about open cultivation.
Another bird of the same size but less gregarious habits, with
a wide residential distribution in the Lower HimiUayiis, Central and
peninsular India is the Crested Bunting (JWeloplms lathami). The
male is black and chestnut, of the same colour scheme as the Crow-
Pheasant, with a prominent pointed crest. The female-also crested-
is dark brown with some cinnamon in her wings.
Distribution: In winter over the greater part of continental and
peninsular India. The Black-headed Bunting is confined chiefly
to the western side south to Belgaum, but the other extends east to
Chota-Nagpur and south to Coimbatore.
Habits: These Buntings arrive in India in September/October
and depart again in MarchiApril. They spread themselves out
over the country in enormous flocks, which keep to open cultivation
interspersed with bush and babool jungle. The birds descend in
~ clouds' to feed upon ripening crops--jowar, wheat, biijra and others
-and cause considerable damage. The masses present a remarkable
spectacle when settled in the surrounding trees and hedges, the yellOW
plumage of the males glistening in the sun against the dark green
background.
The birds are mostly silent whilst with us-the only note heard
being a sparrow-like, but musical tweet as they fly about. Just before
they depart for their breeding grounds, however, the beginnings of
a loud, pleasant whistling song may sometimes be heard ..
, Nesting: The Black-headed Bunting breeds in W. Asia and .E.
Europe. Within our limits, the Red-headed species breeds only in
British Baluchistan, in May and June. Its nest is cup-shaped, made
of weed-stalks and fibres and lined with goat's hair. It is well con-
cealed in garden hedges, rose bushes, vines, and not uncommonly
2 to 4 feet up in the fork of peach trees growing in wheat fields. The
normal clutch is of five eggs-pale greenish-white, speckled and spotted
with dark brown; Javendar and grey.
The Black..headed Bunting
Jlale
The Red..headed Bunting
\faZe
14.5
The Dusky Crag-Martin
'46
 69. The Dusky <;:rag-Martin
Riparia con color Sykes

Size: Slightly smaller than the House-Sparrow.

Field Characters: A uniformly sooty-brown bird with a short square

tail, and swallow-like wings and flight. Sexes alike. Small numbers
about cliffs, &c., in company with swallows.

The closely allied Crag Martin Riparia rupestris, breeding in

the HimiUayas and beyond, is often found associating with the present
species during winter. It is slightly larger and paler, and has whitish
underparts.

Distribution: Resident throughout India (excepting Sind and the

Punjab) from the Himiilayas to Cape Comorin and from Riijputi'ina.
to Western Bengal. Patchy locally.

Habits: ' The Dusky Crag Martin ' is an exceptionally happy name
for this .bird which it describes admirably. It is a close relation of
the swallows and inseparable from crags and rock-scarps, being found
wherever these occur. It is also very fond of old stone buildings-
even in the midst of populated, noisy cities-hili-forts and ancient
ruins, and may usually be met with either flying about in twos and
threes in their neighbourhood, hawking winged insects, or perched
on some ledge or cornice. Rock-cut caves, such as at Ellora and
Ajanta in the Deccan, and others elsewhere within its range, invariably
have their small resident population of these Crag Martins. The
birds utter a soft, cheerful chit-chit as,. they fly about.

Nesting: The principal months vary according to locality, but it

breeds more or less throughout the year, commonly rearing two broo,ds
In Succession. The nest is a deepish oval saucer attached like a bracket,
to a perpendicular wall or rock face, under an archway or projecting
ledge, often leaving just a narrow slit between the top of the mist and'
the ceiling. It is composed of plastered mud-pellets collected at a
puddle while wet. The depression is lined with fine grass, tow and
feathers. The nests are solitary as a rule, but may occasionally be
fou~d in a small scattered colony. They are built under ea.ves a.nd
agalUst rafters in inhabited bungalows, old mosques, tombs and caves
as well as on natural cliffs. The normal clutch consists of two or
thr~e eggs, white in. colour, minutely speckled and spotted with
~anous shades of reddish-brown. Both sexes share in building.
meUbation and tending the young.
147
 70. The Common Swallow'
Hirzmdo rustica Linnaeus

Size: About that of the House-Sparrow.

Field Characters: Glossy steel-blue upper plumage, chestnut

forehead and throat, white underparts and deeply forked tail. Sexes
alike. Gregariously, in open country and by water.
Distribution: In winter throughout the Indian Empire. The
visitors are mainly comprised of two races differing from each other
in size and details of colouration, viz.; the European-vVest
Himalayan race rustica, and the East Asiatic-East Himalayan
gutturalis. A third race-the N-E Siberian tytleri-With chestnut
underparts, is restricted in winter to E. Bengal, Assam and Burma.
Habits: The vast majority of swallows that visit the plains of
India-except in the N-\V where the European race predominates-
belong to the Eastern gutturalis. The birds arrive in August/Sep·
tember and return to their breeding grounds in April/;,vlay. They
are met with grcgariously, perched on telegraph wires or beating
back and forth over reeds and grass on marshes or shallow }heels,
hawking insects in the air 'or scooping them up from the surface or
the water. They are also common about cultivation. Large COD'
gregations collect every evening to roost amongst reed- and tamarisk-
beds standing in water. The flight consisting of a few rapid wing
strokes followed by long glides, is swift and graceful, the forked
tail greatly enhancing the agility of their movements. ' Prior to
emigration, these swallows collect in enormous swarms often covering
long stretches of telegraph wire and overflowing on to adjacent tree-
tops and even the ground. .
Their food consists of winged insects which are captured in the
air. They have a number of pleasant twittering notes uttered both
on the wing and while at rest.
Nesting: Within our limits the European race breeds in Balil-
chistan and the Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal. The Eastern
race breeds hom Sikkint to N-E Assam, at between 4 and 7 thousand
feet. Often two successive broods are reared between April and
July. The nest is similar to that of the Crag Martin, but the mud
is reinforced with grass and straw. It is fixed in the corner of a
v~randah near the ceiling, under eaves or aginst rafters in buildings,
both inhabited and disused. The eggs-four or five-are similar
in colo~r and m'arkings to those of the last speCies.
14 8
The Common Swallow
149
The Indian Wire~tailed SWallow
[50
 71., The Indian Wire~tailed Swallow
Hirundo smithii Leach
Size: Same as the last.
Field Characters: Glossy steel-blue above, with a chestnut cap;
white below. Distinguishable from a,ll other swallows by its
glistening white underparts and two long, fine 'wires' in the tail.
In the female these are shorter. Pairs or parties in open cultivation,
ilear water.
Another common swallow is the Red-rumped or Striated species
H. dallyica. This may be recognised by a chestnut half collar on
the nape, a chestnut rump, and finely dark-striated underparts whicli
aTe white with a fulvous tinge. It is usually pl"f'sent about old·
mosq'lCs and buildings.
Distribution: The Indian race filifcra is found from about 5,000
feet in the Himalayas south to l'IIysore and the Nilgiris, and from
the N-I," Frontier and Sind east to Bengal. Also in Pegu and
Tenasserim. l'IIainly resident, but local migrant in parts.
ihblts: The habits of the Wire-tailed Swallow do not differ
appreciabl): from those of the foregoing species. It is, however,
evcn more devoted to the neighbourhood of water and is hardly ever
met with away from it. Several birds may be seen loosely together
skimming over the surface of a jhccl or village tank, or hawking
insccts a few feet above it or over ploughed fields around its margin.
It utters a pleasant chit-chit while fiying about. In the br;;C"diOg
season the male has a pretty little twittering song. IVhen agitated, as
for cX8.lnple when the nest is threatened bv a covetous sparrow, the
birds launch a series of furious mock attaci,s snapping their bills at
the intruder every time they shoot past him. The' war cries' then
uttered are very like the chi-chip, chi-chiJ; of a wagtail in flight.
Nesting: The season extends practically over the whole year,
but th~ principal months are l'IIareh to September. Two broods
are frequently raised in succession. The nest does not differ from
that of the Crag :i\Iartin. It is attached under arches of bridges and
CUlverts, to cliffs flanking streams, and frequently to rafters in the
Vcrandalls of bungalows: In situations as the last, the House-
Sparrow often ousts the rightful owners, usurping the nest for its own
purposes. The nest is usually solitary, but occasionally several are
bUllt close together. The normal clutch is of three to five eggs, in
~ppcarance like those of the Common Swallow. Both sexes share
In building and care .of the young.

151
 72. The Eastern Grey Wagtail
M otacilla cinerea Tunstall

Size: About that of the House-Sparr0w, but with a long tail.

Field Characters: In non-breeding plumage blue-grey above with
greenish-yellow rump, and yellowish-white underparts, brighter
yellow towards the tail. A slim, sparrow-like bird with slender bill
and long tail (even for a wagtail) which is constantly wagged up and
down. Sexes alike. Singly on the ground by streams, etc.

Several other species of grey and yellow wagtails also visit the
Indian plains during winter. In winter plumage their identification
in the field is difficult except with much practice.

Distribution: The Eastern race caspica, which breeds from the

Ural Mountains to Kamschatka and south to Afghanistan and the
Himalayas, is found in winter throughout the Indian Empire.

Habits: The Grey Wagtail is almost invariably met with as a

solitary bird near streams or rocky pools in well-wooded country
both hill and plain, and also along forest paths. It runs about
briskly chasing insects, turning and twisting with agility in their
pursuit and often springing up into the air fiutteringly after them.
Sometimes it makes regular sallies after winged insects from a
stone amid stream, snapping up the quarry in the air and returning
to its base. The tail is constantly wagged up and down. Its flight,
like that of other wagtails, is a series of long undulating curves caused
by alternate quick flapping and closing o~ the wings It is accom-
panied by a sharp chi-cheep, chi-cheep, etc. These are the only call
notes heard whilst the birds are with us in their winter quarters. In
the breeding season a pretty little' song' is uttered by the male.

Its food consists entirely of small insects and molluscs.

Nesting: Within our limits, this Wagtail breeds only in the

Himalayas between 6 and 12 thousand feet elevation, from May to
July. The nest is cup-shaped, made of grass, rootlets and wool.
It is placed under a stone, amongst the roots of a fallen tree or under
a thick bush near a stream, preferably on a miniature islet in the
middle of it. The eggs-four to six in number-are yellowish-grey
or greenish, freckled with reddish-brown, more densely about the
broad e~d. Both parents tend the young.
152
[54
 73. The Large Pied Wagtail
j11"otacilla madeyaspatellsis Gmelin

Size: About that of the BUlbul.

Field Characters: Plate on p. 153. A typical wagtail of black and

white plumage resembling in pattern that of the familiat- Magpie-
Robin. Sexes alike. Pairs, on river banks or near water.

Distribution: Resident throughout the whole of India from about

3,000 feet in the HimiiJayas to Ceylon, and from Sind and. Kashmir
to W. Bengal. Not found in Assam or Burma.

Habits: The Large Pied \VagtaU is usually met with i1), pairs in
the neighbourhood of jlzeels and village tanks, but above all it loves
clear, shingly. smooth-running streams with Tocks here l1.nd there
and diminutive cypress-grass covered islets standing in their beds.
The birds are not shy and often frequent human habitations, perching
upon roof-tops and the like, or running about and feeding within a.
few fect of the dhabi battering his clothes. They have a ll.umber of
loud, pleasant whistling calls and during the breeding so,ason the
.m..'\lr. S~\?6"s SN'i,,"'t..r.tL1~ .l. . .<Ss.w c2 ~k &- lx}'ssetq? 'I'he S<7i?g .is L'{OC unlike
L ...

some snatches of the :Magpie-Rabin's. Otherwise, in general habits,

this species does not differ from other wagtails.

Nesting: The season is elastic and continues almost tltroughout

the year. March to September ate, however, the most '''idely fa-
voured months. The nest is a cup-shaped pad of rootlets, hair, wool,
and dry alg~, placed in a hole in a wall. beneath a projecl:ing rock,
among the rafters of an inhabited house or under the girders of a
bridge spanning a river. ,Vhatcver the situation, the nest is always
m the neighbourhood of water. The normal clutch consists of three
O~ four ~gg5. They are greyish-, brownish-, or greenish-white in colour.
blotched and streaked with various shades of brown.

Both sexes share in building the nest and feeding the young_

155
 74. The White Wagtail

]vIolacilla alba Linnaeus

Size: Same as the Grey WagtaiL

Field Charavte.... : In wjnter or non-breedjng plumage tlw bJade

, bib' is much reduced or wanting, the chin and throat being, pure
white like the underparts. Sexes alike. Loose flocks, running about
on open grassland.

Distribution: The two races which have the widest range within
our limits are: the Indian dulihunensis and the Masked personata,
They are very similar in general appearance but the former has white
ear coverts at all sea~ons as against black in personata. Both arc
winter visitors to the greater part of India and Assiim. Dulilzune1lsis
also extends sparingly into Ceylon, but the other has not been re-
corded thence. Dnk/tunensis breeds entirely outside our limits;
personata in Central \\'estern Asia as far south as Kashmir, Ladakh
and the N-\V F. A third race, the N-E Siberian oCl<laris-dis-
tinguished by a streak running through the eye-visits Assam and
Burma in \Villter.

Habits: The first tWQ races of the \Vhite \Vagtail are familiar birds
throughout the cold weather, though dukll1f11e1!sis is by far the com-
moner. They arrive in September/October and depart for their breeding
grounds in J\Iarch/April. Parties-often large flocks-are usually
met with running about, constantly movinG their tails up and down
and picking up insects, in ploughed fields, on fallow land, the grassy
margins of tanks or on golf links, maidans and lawns freq ncntly in
the midst of populated towns. All wagtails roost at night in large
mixed gatherings preferably amongst reed - and tamarisk-beds stand·
ing in =:,vater. In flight, notes, fcea and ether- particulars this spe-cies
does not differ markedly from the Grey or other wagtails.

Nesting: The race personata breeds in J{ashmir and the N -W F

bctwecn 6,000 and 1'l,OOO feet elevation, from May to July. T3e
nest is a pad of rootlets, moss, hair and wool placed in a hole in a,
ruined wall, bank or beap of stones. The normal clutch consists of
four to six eggs, white in colour, freckled and spotted with reddish-
brown.
 75. The Indian Pipit
Anthus yufulus Vieillot
Size: About that of the Sparrow.
Field Characters: Plate on p. 157. Like the female House-Sparrow
in colouration, but slimmer, with a slenderer bill and longer tail.
Sexes alike. Pairs or loose parties on the· ground in open country.
Several other species of pipits visit our area during winter.
Some of these are easy enough to recognise by their size, colouration
and habits, others are so alike superficially that considerable practice
is needed to differentiate them in the field.
Distribution: Resident throughout the Indian Empire. Three
races are recognised mainly on depth of colouration, viz., the palest
N-W Indian waitei, the intermediate peninsular and Burma race
rufulus, and the richly coloured Travancore-Ceylon-Malaya malay-
ensis.
Habits: The Indian Pipit affects open country, in the plains as
well as up to about 6,000 feet in the hills. Pairs or scattered parties
are met with in ploughed and stubble fields, fallow land, under groves
of shady trees or on open grass-covered stony hill-sides. They feed
on the ground, running about briskly and moving their tail up and
down in the manner of wagtails. They have the same gently undulat-
ing flight as wagtails, and the notes uttered on the wing-a feeble
PiPit-Pipit or tseep-tseep, etc.-arc also similar to, yet easily dis-
tinguishable from theirs. Their food consists of weevils and other
small insects.
During the breeding season the ni.ale indulges in a song flight-an
exceedingly cheap imitation of the Skylark's. It soars and flutters
a few feet up in the air uttering a fe·eble cheeping' song' and descends
to ea.rth in a couple of minutes. 'Vhen the nest young are threatened,
the parents express concern by repeatedly flying up 15 or 20 feet in
the air with an agitated tsip-tsip-tsip, and hovering fluttering overhead
for a while, and thE'n sailing down obliquely to the ground some
distance ,away. wings depressed at the sides and tail tilted upwards ..
Nesting: The season ranges between February and October, but is
most general from March to June. The nest is a shallow cup of fine
grass, rootlets and hair':_sometimes partially domed-placed on the
ground in an old hoof-print of cattle or under shelter of a clod or
diminutive bush. The eggs, three or four in number. are yellowish-
or greyisfi-white irregularly blotched and spotted with brown, more
densely at the broader end. Both sexes share in building the nest
and tending the young.
159
 76. The Small Skylark
Alauda gulgula FranklIn
Size : About that of the Sparrow.
Field Characters: A hen-sparrow-like bird with dark streaks in
the brown upper plumage and on the fulvous breast. Differs from
the pipit in its rather squat build and shorter tail. Sexes alike. Pairs
or parties, in open country and cultivation.
Distribution: The three races of this skylark which mainly concern
us are: the pale N-"\V Indian punjaubi, the darker conti,nental
India-Assam-Burma race gulgula, and the larger Nilgiri-Travancore-
Ceylon race australis. Four other races occur in restricted areas
within our limits. Resident, but also local migrant.
Habits: The Skylark is essentially a bird of grassy meadows and
open cultivated country-both plain and hill-being particularly
fond of damp grassland in the environs of jheels. It is met with in
pairs, family parties and loose scattered flocks-often quite large
ones in the cold weather. It feeds on the ground on insects as well
as seeds. It has a peculiar fluttering flight.
Inspite of its insignificant appearance. the Skylark is a songster
of exceptional merit and well-deserved reputation. As the breeding
season draws nigh, males indulge in their soaring and singing di~lays.
From time to time-mostly in the early mornings and evenings., but
also throughout the day-the bird springs up from its perch on-a.,c1od
or stone and soars almost vertically upwards on fluttering wings-
often legs dangling-singing as it rises, higher and higher, until almost
out of sight even with binoculars. There it remains more or less
stationary, hovering on vibrating wings, and continues to pour forth
an unbroken stream of spirited loud, clear and melodious warbling.
The performance often lasts for over 5 miuutes at a stretch. When
it is over, the bird closes his wings and drops like a ·stone for some
distance opens them out, flutters a little and drops again and so on
by steps, until when within a few feet of the ground he shoots off
at a tangent and comes to rest near the starting point. Several
males may be thus soaring and singing in rivalry at the same time
over a meadow or wheatfield, and the air resounds with their full-
throated melody.
Nesting: The season oyer most of its range is February to July,
but in Travancore and 'Ceylon they apparently breed most months
of the year. The nest is a cup-like depression in the ground-or a
hoof-print-lined with grass, and under shelter of a clod or grass
tussock. The eggs-two to four-are usually pale brownish·grey
or whitish, spotted and streaked with brown.
I60
The Small SkyJark.
161
The Crested Lark
 77. The Crested Lark
Galerida cristata (Linnaeus)

Size: Slightly larger than the Sparrow.

Field Characters: Larger size and prominent, pointed crest (usually

upstanding) distinguishes it from most other larks. Sexes alike.
Singly or pairs in dry, open country.

Two allied but considerably smaller species, Sykes's Crested

Lark (GaleYida deva) and the Malabar Crested Lark (G.malabarica)
between them occupy the greater part of India.

Distribution: A widely distributed species with numerous races

in Europe, Asia and North Africa. Only two of these concern
us in India, viz., : the larger Baliichistan-N-W Frontier race magna.
and the smaller North Indian chendoola which extends south to Central
India and east to Bihar.

Habits: The Crested Lark inhabits dry, open, sandy or stony

semi-desert country covered with scanty grass. It is not found on
lush meadows or moist grass land. 'Where the two types of country
are contiguous, its predilection for the drier facies is at once noticeable.
Pairs or small parties are usually met with running about on the
ground in search of food. From time to time the bird mounts a clod
or stone to utter its liquid whistling notes. Its food consists largely
of grain and grass seeds, but small beetles and other insects are also
eaten. During the breeding season the male indulges in a modest
song-flight which consists of soaring a few feet up in the air, flying
about wanderingly over a circumscribed area on leisurely fluttering
wings, singing its short pleasant song, and then sailing down on stiffly
outspread and slightly quavering wings to perch on a stone or clod.
The song is also uttered from the ground or a bU5htop. It not only
lacks the spirit and liveliness of the Skylark's melody, but is not so
unbrokenly uttered, and is of course very much shorter. The
C~ested Lark is a favourite cage bird and thrives well in captivity.

Nesting: The season is. principally between March and June.

The nest is a shallow cup of grass, lined with finer material or hair,
placed in a slight hollow in open country, under shelter of a grass-
tuft or clod. The normal clutch consists of three or four eggs,
dUll yellowish-white in colour, blotched with brown and purple.
Both sexes share in building the nest and tending the young. The
female alone is said to incubate.
 78. The Ashy.crowned Finch..Lark
Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli)

Size: Smaller than the House-Sparrow.

Field Characters: A squat finch-like bird seen in pairs or small
flocks on the ground in open country. The male has black under-
parts, ashy crown and sandy upper plumage; the female is sandy
hen-sparrow-like all over.
Distribution: All India from the Himalayas to Ceylon and from
Sind to about Calcutta. Three races are recognised, viz: the pale
N-W Indian siccata, the darker continental and peninsular Indian
grisea, and the large-billed Ceylonese ceylonensis. It moves about
a good deal locally with the seasons.,
Habits: This little lark affects flat, open cultivated country and
semi-barren waste land. It is usually met with in widely scattered
pairs or parties which run along the ground, body held low, in short
zig-zag spurts, facing this way and that, in search of food. Its
colouration is remarkably obliterative and matches the ground to
perfection. Its food consists chiefly of seeds and grain, but insects
are also eaten. The flight is a series of rapid wing beats as in
hovering, followed by short pauses. The males have a very pleasant
little song-a combination of sweet warbling and drawn-out ' wlieech·
ing' notes-which is uttered both on the ground and while indulging
in their spectacular aerobatic displays. The bird shoots upwards
vertically on quivering wings for a hundred feet or so. Then nose'
diving for a distance with wings pulled in at the sides, he suddenly
turns himself round to face skywards, and using the momentum 01
the dive-still with wings closed-shoots up a few feet once more.
On the crest of the' wave' he again nose-dives a step lower, and so,
on until just when perilously near to dashing himself t~ pulp on the
ground, the wings are opened out and he alights safely on a clod or
stone. The grace and ease attending the entire performance make
it delightful to watch.
Nesting: Breeding is irregular and continues more or less through'
out the year. The nest is a tiny neatly-made saucer-like depression
in the ground-or merely a hoof-print-under shelter of a clod or
small bush in open country. It is lined with fine grasses, hair or
feathers and frequentlY. rimmed with gravel or small stones. The
eggs-two or three-are pale yellowish or greyish.white, blotched
and speckled with brown and lavender. Apparently the female
alone builds the nest, but the male assists in incubation and care
of the young.
The Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark.
Female
lIlale
165
The White"eye.
16(>
 79. The White-eye
Zosterops palpebrosa (Temm. & Schlegel)

Size: Smaller than the Sparrow. About that of the Red Miinia.

Field Characters: A. tiny, square-tailed greenish-yellow and bright

yellow bird with a conspicuous white ring round the eyes and a
slender, pointed, slightly curved bill. Sexes alike. Gregariously, in
gardens and wooded country. .

Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Empire excepting

actual desert. Resident but also local migrant. Seven geographical
races are recognised within our limits, on details of size and depths
of colouration.

Habits: The White-eye inhabits well-wooded country, gardens

and groves of trees. It is also found in humid evergreen forest.
In the' non-breeding season the birds keep in flocks of 5 to 20, but
occasionally as many as a hundred may be seen together. They
are entirely arboreal and spend their time hunting for food amongst
the foliage of tall trees as well as bushes, working with energy and
method, often clinging upside down to peer into sprigs and buds
for lurking insects. The birds constantly utter their feeble 'jingling
or twittering notes as they move or flit about. The flocks break
up into pairs during the breeding season and the male then develops
a pretty little tinkling song. rather reminiscent of the Verditer Fly-
catCher's. It begins almost inaudibly, grows .louder and soon fades
out as it began. Their food consists of small insects as well as fruits
and berries. Nectar of a large variety of flowers likewise fomis a
substantial part of their diet, and the birds do considerable service is
crosa-pollinating the species they visit.

Nesting: The principal months are between April ~nd July. The
nest is a tiny cup of fibres, neatly bound with cobwebs-a small
facsimil~ of the Oriole's nest-and similarly slung hammock-wise, in
~he, fork of a thin twig at the extremely of an out hanging branch. It
IS sItuated in a bush or tree normally between 5 and 10 feet from the
ground, but occasionally higher. The eggs-2 or 3 in number-are
a beautiful unmarked pale blue in colour. sometimes with a cap of
deeper blue at the broad end.

Both sexes share in building, incubation and tending the young.

In~u'bation occupies lOin days. and the young leave the nest in
a like period.
 80. The Purple Sunbird
Cinnyris asiatica (Latham)
Size: Smaller than the Sparrow. About that of the White·eye.
Field Characters: In non-breeding plumage the male is like the
female-brown to olive-brown above. pale dull yellow below-but
with darker wings and a broad black streak running down middle
of breast. Pairs. in open lightly wooded country.
Distribution: Throughout India. Burma and Ceylon. Mostly resident.
but also local migrant. Three races are recognised on details
of size and depth of colouration, viz: The N-W Indian brevircstris.
the continental and peninsular Indian-Ceylonese asiatica, and the
Assam-Burma race intermedia.
Habits: The Purple Sunbird is a common and familiar species all
over its range. It affects gardens, groves, cultivated and scrub
country as well as light deciduous forest. It is also met with in semi·
desert wastes with a scanty growth of Babul trees, young date palms
and Ak (Calotropis) bushes, but it avoids humid evergreen jungle.
The bird goes about in pairs flitting restlessly from flower to
flower' and often clinging to them upside down to probe with its
slender curved bill for the nectar, which forms its staple diet. It
will sometimes hover in front of a flower like a hawk-moth, and.
poised on rapidly vibrating wings, insert its long extensile tubular
tongue to suck in the sugary fluid. A very large variety of flowers
is visited in its assiduous search for nectar, and all sunbirds play an
important role as cross-pollinating agents. Small spiders and insects
are also eaten to a lesser extent. It utters a sharp monosyllabic wich-
wich as it flits amongst the foliage and blossoms. Breeding males
habitually perch on the topmost branches of a tree. a telegraph wire
or in some other exposed situation and • sing' excitedly cheewit-
cheewit-cheewit repeated quickly from 2 to 6 times. While doing so.
the bird pivots from side to side and nervously raises and lowers his
wings. ,
Nesting: Nests may be found practically all the year. but the most
general breeding months are March to May. The nest is typical
of the sunbirds--an oblong pouch of soft grasses, rubbish and cob-
webs draped with pieces of bark and woody refuse, with a porched
lateral entrance near the top. It is suspended at the tip of a branch
in a bush or small tree between 3 and 6 feet from the ground. rarely
higher. Commonly it ~ay be in a creeper climbing on the trelliS
work of inhabited bungalows. The eggs-2 or 3-are greyish- or
greenish-white marked with various shades of brown and grey. Only
the female builds and incubates. but the male assists in tending the
young.
r63
The Purple Sunbird.
Male
Female
169
The Purple-rumped Sunbird.
~fak
Female
170
 81. The Purple..rumped Sunbird
Cinnyris zeylonica (Linnaeus)
'Size: Same as the Purple Sunbird.
Field Charaeters: Head, upper parts and breast mostly metallic
_green, crimson and purple. Rump metallic bluish-purple. Lower
parts yellow. Female very similar to that of the last but with
greyish-white chin and throat, and remaining lower plumage a
brighter yellow. Breeding and non-breeding plumages alike. PairS,
in open lightly wooded country.
Distribution: Ceylon and peninsular India north to Bombay; east
through the Central Provinces to Chota Nagpiir and Bengal to Cal.
'cutta where it is common. In the Madras Presidency not recorded
north of the Godavari Valley. Resident.
Habits: Very similar to those of the Purple Sunbird except that
it is perhaps even commoner in gardens and about villages and human
habitations in the plains. Pairs are invariably present on the white
blossoms of the Drumstick tree (l'vloringa oleifera) grown so
plentifully in every village in peninsular India, and the pods of which
make such delicious curries. The birds hop from one flower cluster
to another or dart from tree to tree, hanging upside down and clinging
to the branchlets in all manner of acrobatic positions to get at the
nectar. A very large variety of other flowers is also visited in this
9.uest and similarly cross-pollinated, the birds thus doing a vital
Service to the trees. The perniCious tree-parasite, Lorantllfts, which is
such a curse to mango orchards and forest plantations in India, is
dependent for the fertilisation of its flowers almost exclusively on
Sunbirds, Flower-peekers and White-eyes. The birds dance unfailing
attendance on Lorantflus clumps in bloom, and the economic loss
suffered by the growers on account of this parasite can largely be
attributed to them.
The feeble call notes of this Sun bird are not unlike those of the
Purple species, but easily distinguishable from them.
~esting: The season is not well-defined and nests may be found
In p,actically every month. In structure and situation they do' not
~iffer from the Purple Sunbird's, and the eggs of the two are also
Similar. The female alone builds, but the male accompanies her
e~ch time she brings material to the nest, encouraging her from a
~lS~nce by little snatches of lively song. The male does not share
In lU~ubating either, but he helps to tend the young. Incubation
OcCUPies 14-15 days and the young leave the nest when about 15
<lays old.

171
 82. TickeD's Flower-peeker
Dicaeum erythrorhynchos (Latham)

Size: Smaller than tbe Sunbirds described.

Field Characters: A restless olive-brown bird with greyish-white

underparts-rather like a female sunbird in general effect-and with
short, slender, slightly curved, flesh-coloured bill. Singly. in mango
orchards, etc.
Another common species of rather similar appearance and habits
is the Thick-billed Flower-pecker (Piprisoma agile). Its thick,
bluish-horny finch-like bill is diagnostic. (Plate p. 317).

Distribution: Ceylon, Assam and all India excepting the dry areas
of the N-W i.e., Sind, Punjab, W_ Rjpuiitana, N-W. F. P. and
Baluchistan. Also sparingly in Burma. The Ceylon race ceylonel1sis
is darker than the Indian erythrorhynchos.
. "'-.
Habits: This Flower-pecker inhabits orchards, groves )"nd light
forest. Its existence and distribution is closely bound ~ith that
of Loranthus and Viscum tree-parasites, commonly knOW:lI""lll India
as Biindha and belonging to the Mistletoe family. ,Where one
partner is present the other is sure to be. The bird's 'food consists
almost exclusively of the flower nectar and berries of these
parasites. In its efforts to reach the Loranthus nectar is fertilises
the flowers. The ripe berries are swallowed entire and the sticky,
slimy, seeds soon excreted on to a neighbouring branch of the host-
tree, where they adhere and sprout within a few days. Complicity
in the propagation of these harmful parasites constitutes a serious
indictment against the bird. Flower-peekers have regular 'beats'
or feeding territories within which they fly about from one infested
tree to another. In flight, as well as while the bird hops restlessly .
amongst the bunches of Loranthus berries, it utters an almost incessant
sharp chick-chick-chick. This is occasionally varied by a series of
twittering notes which might be called its 'song:

Nesting: The season over the greater part of its range is from Feb-
ruary to June. The nest is a hanging oval pouch like the sunbird's,
but somewhat smaller and much neater. It is made of soft fibres
and vegetable down, usually pinkish-brown in colour. with the texture
of felt, and is not draped with rubbish. It is suspended on a twig.
between 10 and 40 feet from the ground. The eggs-usually two-are
unmarked white. Both sexeS build the nest and feed the young.
172
Tickell's Flower.pecker
l /j
The Indian Pitta.
174
 83. The Indian Pitta

Pitta brachyura (Linnaeus)

Size: That of the Mynah, but with a stub tail.

Field Characters: A gaudily coloured, thrush-like bird mostly seen

singly on the ground amongst undergrowth. In flight, which is slow
and feeble, the round white spot near the tip of the extended wings
is conspicuous. Sexes alike.

Distribution: Practically all India-excepting the dry N-W portions

-Assam and Ceylon. It is resident in North and Central India.
but a winter visitor to South India 'and Ceylon.

Habits: The Pitta is a bird of well-wooded and scrubby country.

It is fond of nullahs and ravines with plenty of' undergrowth, deci-
duos as well as evergreen, and is met with both near and away from
human habitations. It is mainly terrestrial in habits, but roosts at
night in low trees. It hops along the ground like a thrush, turning
over dead leaves and digging with its bill into the damp earth for
insects and grubs which comprise its food. The stumpy tail is cons-
tantly wagged, slowly and deliberately, up and down. 'When dis-
turbed, it flies up into some low branch, but soon descends again
to resume its hunt. The most common call· note is a loud, clear double
Whistle wheet.tew, heard mostly in the Ipomings and evenings and
also on cloudy overcast days. It is uttered from the ground as well
as from a branch, at the rate of 3 or 4 in 10 seconds, and is
sometimes kept up for over 5 minutes at a stretch. ,The birds reply
to one another, often 3 or 4 calling from different directions simul-
~aneously. Each time the bird calls it pulls itself upright and jerks
Its head well back as when swallowing water.

Nesting: The season is between May and August. The nest is a

large gobular structure about a foot in diameter, composed of fine
twigs, grass, roots, dry leaves. etc., with a circular entrance hole at
the side. Sometimes it is placed on the ground in scrub jungle under
shelter of a bush, but more commonly up in the fork of a low tree.
r~e eggS-four to six in number-are a beautiful glossy china-white,
WIth spots, specks and fine hair lines of dull or dark purple.
175
 84. The Yellow-fronted Pied or Mahratta
Woodpecker
Dryobates mahraltensis (Latham)

Size: About that of the Bulbul.

Field Characters: A typical woodpecker with long, stout, pointed
bill and stiff, wed~haped ta~. Spotted black and white plumage
with brownish-yellow crown an scarlet patch on abdomen and vent.
The female lack.q the scarlet in the occipital crest. Singly _or pairs,
in orchards and wooded country.
Distribution: Resident practically throughout India from about
2,500 feet in the Himalayas to North Ceylon-plains as well as hill,
at moderate elevations. Also Assam and Upper Burma. Two races
are recognised viz., the darker South India-Ceylon race mahrattensis,
and the paler North India-Burma aurocyistatus.
Habits: This little woodpecker frequents open scrub country, light
deciduous forest, mango orchards and groves of trees. It avoids
heavy evergreen jungle. It is usually met with in pairs--commonly
in association with the mixed avian hunting parties. The birds fly
from tree-trunk to tree-trunk alighting low down and scuttling up-
wards jerkily, direct or in spirals, halting at intervals to tap on the
bark or peer into crevices for lurking insects. The tail is pressed
against the stem to form a supporting tripod. Their diet consists
of ants and grubs which are captured by means of the long, extensile,
barb-tipped tongue. The call notes commonly uttered are a sharp
.cliJJi... ruck or click-r-r-r/ The flight is swift and undulating attained
by a series of rapid wing beats followed by short pauses.
Nesting: The season is principally from J.<m_'!_ar:y~to" __ ]'v~~y. The
eggs are laid in a hole excavated by the birds in the decaying stem
or branch of a tree, at moderate heights. When in a horizontal
branch, the entrance hole-abou_Lri: in_di~me.ter-is situated on the
underside. No lining is employed. The eggs-3" in numb~r-are
glossy white, unmarked. Both sexes share in excavating the nest-
hole, incubation and care of the young.
The YeUow-fronted Pied or Mahratta Woodpecker
Male
177
The Golden-backed Woodpecker
['ema[e
178
 8S. The Golden...backed Woodpecker
Brachypternus benghaie;lsis (Linnaeus)

Size: Slightly larger than the Myna.

Field Characters: The male differs from the female (illustrated)
in having the entire crown and crest crimson. Singly or pairs, on
tree-trunks in wooded country, orchards, etc.
Distribution: Resident practically throughout the Indian Empire
excepting Burma, from the Himalayan foot hills down. Five races
are recognised on details of size and colouration. The pale form
diilltus is confined to Sind and the dry portions of the N-\Y, the
richly coloured lehminae to the heavy rainfall area of.....s::l1i[_India.
The typical race benghalensis occurs in North and Central India and
Assiim; pUllcticol/is occupies peninsular India (excluding the S-\V)
south of Godi"tvari River. Ceylon has a smail pale endemic race
intermedius.
Habits: The Golden-backed. \Yoodrecker affects open scrub-and-
tree jungle and is also partial to IlliIngo__J:opes, groves of ancient trees
and _;:ocoanuLplantations. It is not shy and freely enters gardens
and compounds in the proximity of human habitations. The birds
go about in pairs, following each other from tree to tree. They cling
to the trunks low down and work upwards systematically, direct or
in spirals, in short jerky spurts, tapping on the bark at intervals to
dislodge insects and to discover the hidden galleries and grubs of
boring beetles. OccasionallY a bird will slide a few feet down-in
• reverse gear '-to investig;te some promising crevice. The dipping
flight, typical of the woodpeckers, is noisy and consists of several
rapid wing strokes followed by a pause. The call, uttered principally
on the wing but also while at rest, is a loud,. harsh, chattering
·.!~ugh.' Black ants form a considerable "'pr~portion of its food.
They arc captured ()!] the trees, as well as on the ground. I have
observed one clinging to a half-ripe mango, digging into it and
swallowng the pulp_ Occasionally it also feeds on the uectar~of
Cor;].} flO\yeEl.~
Nesting: The season is between March and August, and two
sUccessive broods are commonly raised. The eggs arc laid in a
hollow in a stom' or branch excavated by the birds, 8 to 30 feet from
the ground. The round entrance hole is about 3 inches across. The
shaft Gr tunnel cnds in a widencd egg chamber. The norlllal clutch
consists of three eggs, glossy china white, unmarked. Both sexes
share in excavating the hollow, incubation and tending tlu) young.
 86. The Crimson-breasted Barbet or
Coppersmith
X anlholoema haemacephala (11i.iller)

Size: Slightly larger and more dumpy than the House-Sparrow.

Field Characters: A heavy-billed grass-green bird with crimson
breast and forehead, and green-streaked yellowish underparts.
Short square-cut tail, distinctly triangular in Q\'erhead flight. Sexes
alike. Singly or loose parties, on Banyan and Peepal trees in fruit.
Distribution: Resident throughout the greater part of the Indian
Empire from about 2,500 feet in the Himiilayiis, down. Rare in the
arid portions of the N-vV, and replaced by the allied Crimson-throated
species (X. malabarica) in the humid forest tracts of S-\V India.
Habits: The Crimson-breasted Barbet is a common bird through-
out its range. Its loud, monotonous ringing call tllk .... W.k, etc.,
as of a distant coppersmith hammering on his metal, every 2 seconds
or so throughout the hotter parts of the day, with no variation and
seldom a pause-are amongst the more familiar bird voices of the
countryside. It is found wherever there are trees-especially Banyan,
Peepal and the various other Fici-be it in outlying forest or in the
heart of a noisy city. When calling the head is bobbed from side
to side producing a curious ventriloquistic effect. This, combined with
the assimilative colouration of the bird, makes it difficult to locate
amongst the foliage. The Coppersmith is entirely arboreal and never
descends to the ground. Its food consists almost exclusively of fruits
and berries of which Ficus figs form an overwhelming proportioTl.
The birds collect in large numbers to feed on trees laden with these
figs, in company with mynas, bulbuls, green pigeons and a host of
other frugivorous species. It occasionally captures moths and winged
termites, launching ungainly and ludicrous aerial sallies from a branch
in their pursuit.
Nesting: The season ranges between January and June and some-
times two broods are reared in succession. The eggs are laid in hollows
6 to 8 inches deep excavated by the birds in branches or decaying
poles and tree stumps, at moderate heights. The shafts are
lengthened and used year after ·year and may in time become several
feet deep. Softwood trees such as Coral and DruPlstick arc com-
monly selected, As in woodpeckers, the entrance holc-about 2
inches in diameter-is placed on the underside when a horizontal
branch is used. The eggs--usuaUy three-are glassless white, un-
marked. Both sexes share in exca.vating the nest hole, incubation
and feeding the young.
180
The Crimson-breasted Barbet or Coppersmith
l ~h
The Common Hawk.Cuckoo or Brain·fever Bird
182
 87. The Common Hawk.Cuckoo or
Brain.fever Bird
Hierococcyx varius (Vahl)

Size: About that of the Pigeon. Slenderer and with long tail.
Field Characters: Above ashy-grey, below whitish cross-barred
with brown. Broadly barred tail. General coloration, flight and
movements very like the Shikra's. Sexes alike. Singly, in wooded
country.
Distribution: Ceylon and India north to the Outer Himalayan
foothills and including Eastern Bengal and \Vestern Assam. Res-
ident, but also partly local migrant.
Hahits: The Hawk-Cuckoo inhabits scrub jungle and deciduous
forest. It is also partial to gardens, groves of trees, mango topes
and the like, in the neighbourhood of cultivation and human habita-
tions. It is mostly silent during the winter months, but with the
approach of the hot weather its all-too-familiar calls are again 'on
the air.' As the season advances the bird becomes aggravatingly
obstreperous. The loud screaming call has been aptly rendered as
'Brailz1ever '. In Hindustiini it is rendered as ' Pee-kahiin ? ' (Where
is my love ?), and in Mahratti as ' Piios-iiZa' (Rain's coming 1). This
is repeated with monotonous persistency 5 or 6 times in succession,
rising in crescendo to feverisli pitch and breaking off abruptly. The
bird soon commences it all over again. These vocal exhtIarations are
kept up throughout the day and far into the night-usuaIIy all through
under a bright moon.
The flight' of this cuckoo-fairly close to the ground, rapid
wing. strokes followed by a littl~ sailing-and its habit of shooting
up into the branches of a tree before alighting, are sufficiently like
the Shikra's to cause a flutter amongst small birds each time it is on
the move. Its food consists mainly of hairy caterpillars and soft-
bOdied insects, but berries and wild figs are also eaten on occasion.
Nesting: The season ranges between March and June. The Brain-
fever Bird belongs to the group of arboreal parasitic cuckoos which
foist their eggs and family cares upon other birds. It is habitually
parasitic on babblers, noteably of the genera Tllrdoides and Argya.
Its eggs are blue and closely resemble those of the dupes in colour.
shape and size. The young cuckoo usually manages to eject his
rIghtful nest-fellows soon after hatching. It thus monopolises the
attention of its foster-parents and grows apace.
[83
 88. The Pied Crested Cuckoo
Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert)

Size: About that of the Myna, but with a much longer t;til.
Field Characters: Black above-including prominent crest-white
below. A white roundish patch on wings, and white tips of tail
feathers conspicuous in flight. Sexes alike. Singly or pairs. in
wooded country.

Distribution: Practically the whole of the Indian Empire up to

about 8,000 feet in the Himalayas. Two races are recognised entirely
on differences of size. The smaller iacobinus is resident in Ceylon
and South India, the larger pica being a rains (breeding) visitor to
the rest of our area, presumably from' Africa.

Habits: The Pied Crested Cuckoo frequents open, well-wooded

country in the neighbourhood- of cultivation. It.is commonly met
with in gardens, compounds or groves of trees within the limits of
towns and Villages, and occasiorially even in evergreen forest. The
arrival in our midst of the larger migrant race coincides with the
onset of the S-W :Monsoon. The birds proclaim their presence by
chasing one another about, flying from tree to tree and calling noisily
-a rather, plaintive, metallic piu . . piu . . pee-pee-piu ..• . pee-pee-pill,
etc. Often only the tinkling monosyllabic piu is heard. The call is
uttered on the wing or from an exposed perch near the top of a tree
or bush. It may also be heard during moonlit nights. In courtship
flight the tail is partly spread out, the wing-strokes are slow and deli·
berate (' delayed action 'j as in a pigeon 'clapping,'. and the bird
calls the while. This is an entirely arboreal species and though
normally descending into low bushes in search 'of food, it never
actually sets foot, on ground. , Its diet consists of grasshoppers and
hairy caterpillars to which berries are sometimes added.

Nesting; The :princi:pallaying months are during the S-W Monsoon,

from June to August, and coincide locally with the breeding season
of its accustomed fosterers. It is :parasitic mainly on babblers of
the genera Turdoides and Argya. Its blue eggs approximate closely
to those of the babble~s, and at the same time they are indistinguishable
from the eggs of the Brain-fever Bird. Often more than one cuckoo
egg are found in a babbler's nest, but whether these are the product
of the same or different females is uncertain. As in other cuckoos of
. this group, the you~g interloper disposes of its rightful nest·fell ows
soon after hatching.
The Pied Crested Cu.ckoo
1Si5
The Koel
J I:male
Male
Ibb
 89. The KoeI
Eudynamis scolopaceus (Linnaeus)

Size: About that of the House-Crow, but of slenderer build and

with a longer tail.
Field Characters: Male glistening black with yellowish-green bill;
female brown, spotted and barred with white. Singly or pairs, in
groves of trees, etc.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Empire except the N-W F.
Province. Two races are recognised, viz., the smaller scolopaceus
occupying India and Ceylon, the larger malayana in which the female
is more rufescent-Assam and Burma. Resident, but also local
migrant. .
Habits: The Koel is one of our most familiar birds, its call being
perhaps even better known than its appearance. It frequents gardens,
groves and open country abounding in large leafy trees. It is
entirely arboreal and never descends to the ground. During winter
the bird is silent, but with the approach of the hot weather and its
coincident breeding season, it waxes extremely vociferous. All
through that season its loud, shrill, shrieking notes resound on the
countryside throughout the day and often far into the night. The
I
call begins with a low ku-Oo, but rises in scale with each successive
I
ku·oo until at the seventh or eighth it reaches feverish pitch and breaks
off abruptly. The bird soon commences it all over again. Another
common note is a sharp quick-repeated kik-kik-kik uttered by the
female as she dashes from tree to tree or hops amongst the branches.
Its food consists chiefly of Banyan and Peepal figs and berries of
~arious kinds, but insects and caterpillars are also eaten. Its flight
IS swift and straight, and a Koel freeing before the vindictive onslaught
of a pair of irate crows is a common sight.
Nesting: The laying season is mainly from April to August and
corresponds with that of its most usual host, the House-Crow.' Oc-
casionally the Jungle-Crow, which nests somewhat earlier, is victimised.
Its eggs are rather smaller, but very like the craw's in appear·
ance, pale greyish-green or stone colour speckled and blotched with
reddish-brown. As many as 11 have been found in a. single crow's
nest. It appears that the female Koel seizes the opportunity to.
deposit her egg in a crow's nest while the male deliberately draws-
the owners away by leading them a chase. It is also evid~nt that
~e young Koel usually succeeds in disposing of his rightful foster-
rothers at an early age.
 90. The Crow..Pheasant or Coucal
Centropus sinensis (Stephens)
Size: That of the Jungle-Crow.
Field Characters: A clumsy, glossy black bird with conspicuous
chestnut wings and long, broad black tail. Sexes alike. Singly
or pairs, stalking along the ground in undergrowth.
Distribution: Resident throughout the Indian Empire from about
6,000 feet in the Himalayas. Three races are recognised on size and
details of colouration, viz., the N. India-N. Assam race sinensis, the
peninsular India and Ceylon parroti, and the S. Assam-Burma inter-
medius.
Habits: The Crow-Pheasant is a dweller of open country, both hill
and plain, which abounds in bushes and small tree growth, prefer.
ably interspersed with patches of tall grassland. It is commonly
found about cultivation and human habitations. It is met with
singly or in pairs skulking its way through undergrowth in search
of food, head lowered and tail almost trailing the ground, frequently
opened and shut. The wings are short and rounded and its flight
weak and laboured in consequence. In trees it hops from branch
to branch with agility, but it is essentially a ground loving species.
The call is a deep, resonant Oijk repeated at slow but regular intervals,
especially during the hot weather, and can be heard a long way off.
Besides this, it has a variety of harsh croaks and gurgling chuckles-
some distinctly weird-uttered chiefly in the breeding season or when
the bird is annoyed. When calling, the tail is partially raised and
jerked from side to side, the head is lowered, the throat puffed out,
and the whole body quivers with each successive ook. In the breeding
season the cock goes through a fantastic display before his mate,
, fanning' and cocking his tail over the back and' strutting in fron~
of her with drooping wings. Its food consists of grasshoppers, bee~les
caterpillars, field mice, lizards and snakes. It is highly destructive
to the eggs and young of other birds. Its flesh is much esteemed
by quacks as a cure for bronchial ailments.
Nesting: The season ranges between February and September,
varying with local conditions. The Crow-Pheasant belongs to the
group of terrestrial pon-parasitic cuckoos which shoulder their own
domestic responsibility. The nest is a large untidy globular mass
of leaves and twigs, with a lateral entrance hole. It is placed in the
centre of a bush, or in the branch of a tree fairly low down. The
eggs-three or four-are white, chalky, glossless and unmarked. Both
sexes share in building the nest, incubation and care of the young.
188
The Crow-Pheasant or Coucal
1 8Q
 91. The Alexandrine or Large Indian
Parakeet
Psittacula eupatria Linnaeus

Size: About that of the Pigeon, but slenderer and with a long pointed
tail.
Field Characters: A large gra_ss-green parakeet with the typical
~hort, massive, deeply hooked red bill, and a conspicuous maroon
patch on each shoulder. The rose-pink and black collar of the male
(illustrated) is absent in the female. Noisy parties, in cultivation
and wooded country.
Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Empire. Four
races are recognised on minor difference of size and details of coloura-
tiou viz: the N. India-Assam race nipalensis, the peninsular India-
Ceylcn eupatria, the Burmese avensis, and the Andamans magni-
1ostris. Mainly resident, but some seasonal local movement is also
perceptible.
Habits: The Large Parakeet affects wooded country, orchards and
CUltivation. It is usually met with in parties of 3 or 4 birds, but
where food is plentiful many such parties coalesce. The birds have
communal roosts amongst groves of trees and cocoanut palms where
enormous numbers collect every evening, party after party arriving
from long distances and all quarters, and settling in for the night to -
~he accompaniment of a great deal of noise and chatter. The flight
15 graceful and swift inspite of the apparently leisurely wing beats.
The voice is deeper and more powerful than that of the commoner
Rose-ringed Parakeet. Its food consists of fruits, berries and grain.
Along with its relatives, the other parakeets, it causes considerable
damage to orchard fruit and ripening crops. It also feeds regularly
ou the nectar of such flowers as Erytlzrina, Bomba;>; and Butea, but
Owing to its clumsy and destructl.ve methods its visits are ~ of, nQ·
~?nsequence in cross-fertilisation. Thus, from the economic point of
Yle:v, the parakeets appear to be wholly harmful to Man's interests.
ThIS, and the 2 species that follow, are favourite pets in India and as
Such must be familiar to every townsman from behind the uninspiring
bTars o~ the diminutive hoop iron cage so commonly seen in bazaars.
hey learn to repeat a few words rather indistinctly.
~esting: The season over the greater part of its range is between
ecember and April. . The nest is an unlined hollow in a tree-trunk
~xcavated by the birds, at moderate heights and up to about 100 feet.
h c~a~lonally natural hollows are used, and even holes in walls of
Ulldmgs. The eggs-two to four in number-are white, unmarked.
!hey are rather oval in shape, blunt at both ends. Both sex~ share
In ex~avating the nest-hole, incubation and tending the young. In-
cUbatlOn is said to occupy about 21 days.
191
 92. The Rose-ringed Parakeet
Psittacula krameri Scopoli

Size: Slightly larger than the Myna, and with a long pointed tail.
Field Characters: A smaller replica of the Alexandrine Parakeet,
but lacking the maroon shoulder patches. In the female the black
and rose-pink collar of the male (illustrated) is absent. Noisy flocks,
in cultivated and lightly wooded country.
Distribution: Resident practically throughout the Indian Empire
from the Himalayan foothills south. Plains, and sparingly up to
about 5,000 feet in the hills. Two races are recognised on size, and
colour of lower mandible, viz., the larger N. India-Assii.m-Burma.
race borealis, and the smaller S. India-Ceylon manillensis which occurs
roughly south of lat. 20° N.
Habits: The Rose-ringed Parakeet ranks with the Crow, Sparrow
and Myna amongst our commonest and most familiar birds. It
·is as much at home on the countryside as within the preeints of a
bustling city. It goes about in small parties which band themselves
into huge noisy flocks where food is plentiful, and do considerable
damage to ripening grain crops and orchard fruit. The birds. clamber
about the twigs and gnaw at the ripe and semi-ripe fruit, destroying
much more than they eat. It is a common sight at wayside railway
stations to see numbers of Rose·ringed Parakeets clinging to the
sacks of grain awaiting entrainment, biting into them and helping
themselves to the contents. Their well-known loud, sharp, screaming
calls kee-ak •. kee-ak . • kee-ak, etc., are uttered both while at rest and
on the wing. They have common roosts in groves . of trees and
cocoanut palms where large numbers assemble every evening fron:
over wide stretches of the surrounding country. These parakeets
are commonly caged and taught to repeat a few words and to perform
tricks such as firing off a toy cannon.
Nesting: The season over the greater part m. its ra e is between
February and April. The eggs are laid in a h~ in tree-trunk,
usually but not always excavated by the birds them,.selv It also
nests freely in holes in rock scarps and walls of buildings~th . ruins
and occupied. frequently in the midst of the noisiest and 'Btost 'cen-
gested parts of a town. The eggs-four to six-are pure white-.and
the usual roundish ovals. Both sexes share in excavating the hole,
incubation and care of the young. When the nest is threatened, the
owners summon assistance and the neighbourhood is soon seething
with a noisy rabble of parakeets intent on shouting aggression down
jf nothing else!

192
 E. H . N . lMrlMr.
Large Parakeet at Nest-hole
Parakeets usually cut the holes themselves
193
The Blossom-headed Parakeet
Male
194
 93. The Blossom-headed Parakeet
Psittacula cyanocephala Linnaeus

Size: About that of the Myna; slenderer and with a long,

pointed tail.

Field Characters: Distinguishable £rom the Rose-ringed species

by its smaller size, bluish-red head and !p.aroon shoulder-patches.
In the female the head is bluish-grey and tIie maroon shoulder-patches
are absent or obsolete. Flocks, in wooded country and about forest
cultivation. ,.

Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Empire-ex-

eluding the dry areas of the N-W-£rom about 6,000 feet in the
Himalayas. Three races are recognised on details of colouration,
viz.: the S. India-Ceylon cyanocephalus, the N. India-Assam
bengalmsis, and the Burma rosea. Resident, but also seasonal local
migrant.

Habits: On the whole, the Blossom-headed Parakeet 'prefers

better wooded country than its Rose-ringed cousin. It is usually
seen in small parties, but the birds will sometimes collect in immense
flocks and commit seriolls depredations on ripening crops, especially
in cultivation in forest clearings about outlying hamlets. Their
flight is very swift. Flocks on the wing turn and twist their way
through the stems of forest trees with astonishing celerity and order-
liness, uttering a shrill, interrogative tooi or tooi-tooi ;> as they dash
along. This distinctive call, coupled witH the yellow tail-tip which
is conspicuous in flight, makes 'their identity unmistakable. Besides
grain and fruit, they eat a large quantity of flower nectar whenever
available, but are destructive in their methods of. obtaining it and
Consequently of no service in cross-fertilisation. .

N!!sting: The season ranges between January and May.' The

nest-hole is generally excavated by the birds themselves in a rotten
tree-stem or branch at moderate heights from the ground. Several
pairs often nest together in the same or adjoining trees in a loose,
Colony. As'with the other parakeets, there is no lining to the nest,
the eggs being laid on the bare wood or on the chips and debris that
h.ave tumbled in during excavation. l!.. normal clutch is of four to
SIX eggs-pure white, smooth roundish ovals. Both sexes share in
excavating the nest-hole, incubation and care of the young.
195
 BIRD MIGRATION
No resident in India who is even moderately observant can
fail to notice the great influx of birds that takes place into this
country annually between September and November, or to remark
upon their abundance during winter in places where none were to
be seen a couple of months before. The species eagerly sought after
by the man with the gun-the snipe, duck, geese, cranes and others
-together with the hosts of smaller fry that interest him less or not
at all-the sandpipers, tree-warblers, larks, wagtails and pipits-all
seem to pop up suddenly from nowhere. \Vhile this transformation
is magical enough to obtrude itself on the least observant, it is
doubtful if five persons in a hundred ever stop to ask themselves what
brings it about and how. To the man in the street the birds come
at this season simply because it is in the nature of things that they
should. \\'hence they come is not his concern, while why or how they
do it is clearly the birds' own affair !
Yet, the subject of Migration is one of the most enthralling
branches of the study of bird-life. The magnitude of the movements
and the regularity and orderliness of their occurrence are no whit
less than the cyeIe of the seasons; they have aroused the wonderment
of Man through the ages. The Red Indians of the Fur Countries
actually named their calendar months after the arrival of migrant
birds. A hard-headed scientific outlook is now helping to dispel
some of the fanciful notions entertained by our forebears, but it must
be admitted that many of the phenomena involved continue to remain
a mystery and can never emerge from the realm of speculation.
Until not so long ago there was a widely prevalent belief that
small birds such as the swallow, nightingale and cuckoo hibernated
like mammals and reptiles to get over unfavourable weather con·
ditions. This notion had held ground since the days of Aristotle
and even that excellent naturalist. Gilbert White of Selbourne was
not immune from the belief that swallows passed the winter buried
in mud at the bottom of ponds, in a torpid condition, whence they
emerged with the first signs of favourable weather in spring.

What is bird migration?

Landsborough Thomson, an eminent authority, describes Bird
Migration as 'Changes of habitat periodically recurring and
alternating in d~rectibn, which tend to secure optimum environmental
conditions at all times.' The italics are important since it is just
this back and forth movement that is the crucial feature of the migra-
tion of birds. The periodic movements of locust swarms for example,
loosely referred to' as migrations are really overfiow movements
196
 ..to
...g
til

...)1

197
The Hammock Nest of the Black-headed Oriole

198
 and do not entail a return of the starting point. Thus they differ
markedly from the seasonal return traffic of birds. The' pendulum-
swing' movement is noticeable in some other groups-Draniillals as---
-,velC but'lt has reached its rhythmical climax among birds.
Its extent and advantages

On account of their special attributes-warm-bloodedness,

feather covering and unparalleled powers of flight-the phenomenon
of migration finds its highest development in birds. Although directly
they are the least affected oi all animals by extremes of heat and
cold, it is the difficulties connected with food-getting under adverse
winter conditions that compel them to change their quarters or perish.
~ligration enables birds to inhabit two different areas at the respective
seasons most favourable in each. It involves a swing from a
breeding or nesting place-the bird's home-to a feeding or resting
place-its winter quarters. It is an a.xiom of nature that birds
always nest in the colder portion of their migratory range. Thus, in
the Northern Hemisphere their breeding grounds lie nearer the
Arctic or Temperate Zone and their winter quarters nearer the
Equator. In the Southern Hemisphere the case is reversed.
Although some migration takes place from east to west, its general
direction as a whole may be considered as North to South. The
movement may vary from no more than a few miles-such as from
the. __ North Indian plains to a couple of thousand feet up in the
Himalayan foothills-to several thousand miles either way as is the
case with many of our wintering wildfowl. The longest known
migratory journey is performed twice every year by the Arctic Tern
(Stema maCYHYa) which from the Arctic winter travels sonth, right
across the world to the Antarctic summer and back again-a distance
of over II,OOO miles each way!

J\ consideration of the various theories to explain the origin

of this . Racial Custom' of migration among birds would here be
out of place. \Ve shall proceed at once to take stock of some of the
more obvious as well as the more bewildering facts concerning it.
The .resultant advantages of migration to birds is self·evident.
Absence from high latitudes during the winter enables: (a) Avoid-
ance of cold and stormy weather. (b) Avoidance of short daylight
hours available for searc.h of food, and (c} Avoidance of those con-
ditions that. bring about a scarcity of food supply, such as freezing
of water and snow enshrouding the ground.

The advantages of a return to high latitudes in summer are:

(a) Availability of suitable and uncongested nesting territories,
(b) EXistence of long hours of daylight for search of food when
199
food is most required for the young. "and (c) The presence of an
abundant food supply following on the luxuriant growth of spring
vegetation.

What stimulates a bird to migrate?

The urge to migrate a.t the appropriate seasons is evoked by

both external and internal stimuli. Experiments point to the
assumption that the primary e~_~l~imu~~~_~he variations in
~a..Y..}~"~!t. The internal stimwus seems 'EO-be provided by the state
of the reproductive organs whica, in the laboratory, can be brought
to known stages of maturity by manipulating the duration of day
length. The non-existence of the migratory instinct in sterile birds
is consistent with this view. Readers interested in the details of
Prof. W. Rowan's Original and ingenious experiments on the causative
aspects of bird migration should read his remarkable book The Riddle
of Migration (1931).
What determines the goal of a migratory joarney?
How do birds find the way to this goal?
These are two of the many problems to which satisfactory
answers are difficult to find. The great mass of experimental and
observational data that has accumulated within recent years does
not advance our knowledge much beyond the stage of conjecture.

In the spring the adult males are the first to arrive on their
breeding grounds. They are followed by the adult females while
immature birds that will not breed till the following year bring up
the rear. In autumn the order of precedence is reversed; the southward
journey is performed more leisurely with many stop-overs on the
way. The young birds, in many cases not more than a couple of
months old lead the vanguard, the adults following later. No'W
comes the 1Dystery. The young birds have had no previouS experience
either of the route or the destination, often tholtBands of miles away.
yet" they accomplish the journey without undue mortality through
accidents and misadventure and with amazing accuracy. Of th~
various explanations suggested the most acceptable seems to b.e that
this prescience of the goal and route is the expression of an .wborn
racial custom ~nherited through countless generations of mlgra~ts
journeying back and forth year after year, between their breed.!Ug
grounds and their winter quarters. It is ,on a par with other ~ltal
urges such as building at the apPOinted season, without previOUS
experience or training. of nests in accordance with the constant pattern
of the species, howsoev!lr complicated their architecture..
200
 ASIA

(Io·Slo~'lUN' IFJiIIllt IIYJI"'!l)

'W~ld,..t1"'l->rI' '
(f!R..lomtlt<lr't>fhltoll~"'''''''!
&lr""blrrJlII!l.ID8IIII(~'~ol!'r'lw)
IJwh~pdr,o:h,rd(Ii'f"'1..,..t!,

I'OUU
"". . U
X·OtU
 Many specUlations are also offered as to how birds find their" way-
'sensitivity to terrestrial magnetism, visual recognition of landmarks
and so on-but the mystery of the initial determination by a young
.and inexperienced bird of the goal and route of its long migratory
journey still remains.

Accuracy and regularity of returns

Birds not only return to the same general locality for breeding
Tear after year, but often also to the identical nesting site. <Dnce
the goal is roughly reached there seems every likelihood that land-,
marks, enregistered on the senses in someway as the result of previous
experience and association may play their part in guiding old birds
to their former haunts with the precision that is well known. The
ringing or banding method has now established the fact that in Europe
swallows often return not only to the same locality but even to the
same building for nesting purposes year after year; covering distances
of 6,000 miles or more each way during the interval. This is the case
with many other true migrants as well.
The'great regularity and punctuality, almost to the day, with
which migrant birds arrive in a given locality is seen even from the
few published records kept over several years by observers residing
in different parts of this country. This is all the more amazing, when
the enormous distances over which many of the species have to travel
are taken into account.

Varying status of winter visitors

The status of every winter visitor to India varies in the different
portions of its winter habitat. Take any locality-say Bhopal in
Central India. A large number of spe'cies coming in from across
our Northern and N.-W. frontiers in autumn touch Bhopal on the
southbound journey to their winter quarters in peninsular India and
Ceylon. Some of these stay behind and may, be seen in Bhopal
throughout the cold weather. These will be classed here as true
winter visitors. Other species make their appearance for a few
days at the commencement of the season and then perhaps are not
Seen again till they are returning northwards at the beginning Qf the hot
weather. These' are the autumn and spring passage migrants res-
~ectively. Others again may be seen on their southward journey
10 autumn but not on the return, since some species habitually travel
to and from their winter quarters by different routes. Thus, while
t~ese are autumn passage migrants in Bhopal, they are spring passage
mIgrants in another part of the country. ~irnilarly some species
may pass over Bhopal only on their northward journey, in spring
201
and have the status of autumn passage migrants elsewhere. Again
there are birds who though true winter visitors may yet have their
numbers vastly augmented by waves of passage migrants from the
north or south at the appropriate seasons. The status of these species
will therefore be a combination of winter visitor and pa.ssage migrant.

Local migration
In addition to these very extensive movements of immigrant
birds from beyond our frontiers, there are movements of a similar
but perhaps less spectacular kind ceaselessly going on amongst our
resident bird population. The periodical appearances and disappear-
ances of the Paradise Flycatcher, Golden Oriole, and Pitta
must be obvious to anyone with an eye for birds. In Northern India
and along the base of the Himalayan foothills where the changes of
the seasons are more pronounced than nearer the Equator, these
local migratory movements are especially noticeable. The seasonal
arrivals and departures of local migrants are no less regular in their
cycle than those of the true migratory birds. In some portions of the
country one species may be a summer visitor, in another a rains visitor
while in a third locality it may be found only during the winter months.
Apart from these regular seasonal shiftings, other movements of an
even more parochial character are constantly taking place. They
are governed by local conditions of heat, drought, or floods and by
their resultant effect upon the available food supply: the flowering
season of certain plants and the ripening of certain fruits.

Abnormal local migration

Under stress of abnormal' natural conditions birds are frequently
driven out of their accustomed habitats in search of a living and are
then me~ with as stragglers far out of their normal range.
Thus, practically no square mile of the Indian continent is static
for any length of time as regards its bird population, and there is an
unending chain of comings and goings of species and individuals.

Altitudinal migration
Lastly, mention must be made of altitudinal migration which is
p'articularly marked among species living in the Himalayas. In
winter, high elevation birds are forced to descend to lower levels by
exigencies of the weather and the descending snow-line. With the
return of spring, when the snow melts and the snow-line recedes up-
wards they re-ascend to breed in the higher hills. These altitudinal
movements are not confined to high-elevation birds only, but are
indulged in. also by species resident at lower altitudes.,
202
20 3
A Ringed Sparrow"Hawk ready to be: released
Bird ringing

Apart from the purely observational method of bird migration

study, which to be of real scientific value entails an unbroken continuity
of careful records over prolonged periods, the method of 'ringing'
birds has in recent years been very extensively and profitably em-
ployed in Europe and America for collecting factual data. Bird-
ringing-or' banding' as it is called in America-consists of fasten-
ing a light aluminium ring of appropriate size, stamped wi~h a number
and address, to the instep region or tarsus of a trapped or n~ed
bird, or of a young bird before it leaves the nest. A detailed record,
is kept in a special register, and the bird is then released. A small'
percentage of these ringed birds are subsequently shot or recaptured
in distant lands, and the rings returned or their inscription communi-
cated to the marking station with data as to the exact locality where
recovered, date and other particulars. When a large number of such
recovery records have been obtained, it is possible gradually to build
up positive knowledge of the routes followed on migration by different
species, and a number of other important facts impossible to ascertain
in any other way. Thus, the ringing of 'White Storks in Western
Germany and East Prussia has established beyond a possibility of
doubt that the East Prussian birds migrate to Africa by a south-
eastern route through the Balkans, while the \Vest German storks
travel by a south-western route through Spain. It was by means of
a German-ringed stork recovered in Bikaner that we are riow able to
state definitely that some at least of the \Vhite Storks that visit us
in winter are' Made in Germany'. Very little ringing work has so
far been done in India, but the results such as they are, are of great value
and interest. The map on page 206 shows some of the most important
recoveries of ringed birds so far obtained. They furnish the only
positive confirmation of the hitherto conjectured origin of some of
OUr winter visitors.

Velocity and altitude of migratory flight

Modern devices such as the aeroplane, speed indicators, altimeters

and other instruments used in aviation and anti-aircraft gunnery have
made it possible to discard the almost fabulous notions formerly held
and to arrive at fairly accurate estimates of the speed and height at
;hlCh migrating birds fly. Velocities naturally vary with species of
lrd and prevailing meteorologica! conditions. The average cruising
speed of ducks and geese, for instance, has been found to be between
0
4 and 50 miles per hour: Under favourable weather conditions it
rr: ay reach 55-60 m.p.h. or slightly morc. A bird's flying day (or
~lght) ranges from 6 to I I hours, and the following figures are of
Interest as showing the average mileage known to be covered in a
205
• hop' : Coot 160 miles; Stork 125 miles (6 hrs.); 'Woodcock 250-300;
Plover 550 (II hrs.).
Non-stop flights of at least 2,000 miles across open sea are under-
taken by the Eastern Golden Plover (Charadrius domi;zieus julvlIs)-
which is also a winter visitor to India. This bird breeds in 'Western
Alaska and N-E Siberia and is a regular visitor on the' Hawaiian
Islands. Also the Snipe Capella hardwiekii, which breeds only in
Japan and spends the winter in E. Australia and Tasmania, must
habitually fly 3,000 miles non-stop over the sea since it has never
been met anywhere in between. There are others, especially among
the shore birds or waders, that cover enormous stretches without
halting for rest or food. A probable example of such a long-distance
ilyer in India is tbe Woodcock (Seolopax rztstieola) whose nearest
breeding place is in the Himalayas. It winters in some numbers in
the Nilgiri and other hills of S. India, but is found nowhere in between
except as the rarest accidental straggler. The least distance it must
normally cover in a single hop, therefore, is about 1,500 miles. The
Pied Ground Thrush (Geokiehla wardii) travelling by the Eastern
Ghiits route from the Himalayas to the Nilgiris and on to Ceylon
probably covers equally long distances non-stop.
It has been believed in the past that migrating birds flew at
stupendous heights and that in fact it was of some particular advan-
tage for them to do so-for locating landmarks, minimising air
resistance and in other ways. In actual practice, however, it is now
found that except where lofty mountain barriers have to be crossed,
migrating birds chiefly fiy under 1,300 feet and only very ra.rely over
3,000 feet above the ground. Some species indeed habitually fly
much lower, especially over the surface of the sea where they have
DO trees and similar obstacles to avoid.

On their bi-annual journeys to and from the plains of India birds

do not appear, ordinarily, to use the valleys of the larger rivers as
highways, as has often been suggested and long believed. There is
ample evidence to show that they fly directly across the HimfLlayiin
ranges thereby shortening their journeys very considerably. The
celebrated explorer Sven Hedin observed large numbers of migrati~g
ducks at great heights in Tibet at the source of the Indus ri\'cr 10
autumn. One of the Everest Expeditions met several immigrating
birds in September at J7,000 ft. among them being Temminck's StlIlt,
'Painted Snipe' (?), Pintail Snipe, House Ma.rtin and se.veral
Pipits. "'lore than once migrating waders were heard at this altitude
passing overhead, Curlew being unmistakable. 1I1einertzhagen cal~e
across various species of duck in Ladakh on passage to India
over the highest parts of the Himalayas. More recently (J937)
the mountaineer Eric Shipton in his expedition to the KiiriikoraluS
206
found large numbers of dead frozen ducks and 'a big bird
with legs longer than my arm' (Crane?) at 15-16,000 ft. strewn
over the face of the Crevasse -Glacier and in the upper basins of most
of the big glaciers he visited. These high glaciers, therefore, must
lie on the line of light between their breeding grounds in Central Asia
and their winter habitat in India. There are many lower passes
over which the birds could fly across the main range, but they do not
appear to use them.
Donald has observed large numbers of migrating geese crossing
the Himalayas at between 10 and 16,000 ft. elevation, and cranes
(or storks 1) flying at about 20,000 ft. over the range.
That birds can fly at immense heights if necessary with little
inconvenience from the rarified air is evident from the fact that one
of the Everest Expeditions met Crows and :Mountain Finches about
their camp at 23,000 ft. and Griffon Vultures and Lammergeier between
20 and 23 thousand, while Choughs followed the climbers, quite
effortlessly and with capacity for flight undiminished, even up to
27,000 ft., an altitude at which the atmosphere is reduced to only
one-third its supporting power!
Considering the immense scale on which bird migration takes
place in India the meagrcness of om knowledge in every branch of
it is deplorable. A co-ordinated effort by observers and students
resident in the different parts of the country and large·scale ringing
are the only ways in which the problem can be satisfactorily tackled.
Those who would like to pursue the study of bird migration
!ilerature further, will find the following books in English useful and
lnteresting :
I. The Migrations of Biras. By Alexander Wetmore (Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. 1927 S 2' 50).
Bird Migl'ation. By A. Landsborough Thomson (H. F.
& G. Witherby, London, 1936, 5/-).

3· Problems of Bird MigraliOiI. By A. Landsborough Thomson

(H. F. &; G. Witherby, London, 1926, IS -) which has been
brought up to date by the author in a paper published in
the IBIS for July 1936 (pp. 472-530) entitled 'Recent
Progress in the Study of Bird Migration; A Review of
the Literature 1926-I936:
There is a good deal of excellent literature in German, including
tuc qUarterly magazine Dey VogelzlIg started in 1930, which is-or
was, siuce it is beyond the pale for the time being-solely devoted
to the subject.

20 7
 94. The Loriquet
Coryllis vernalis (Sparrman)

Size: About that of the House-Sparrow.

Field Characters: A bright grass-green dainty little parrot, with
short square tail and rich crimson-red rump. A small blue throat-
patch in the male, absent in the female. Singly or small parties, in
orchards and wooded country.
An allied species C. beryilillus, with red crown, is confined to
Ceylon.
Distribution: Himalayas from Sikkim eastwards, Assam, Burma,
Andamans. S.-W. India from Cape Com orin to Bombay, including
Nilgiri and adjoining hills. The Eastern Ghats near Vizagapatam.
On a critical examination it now appears that this specie:; has no
races within this range. Resident, but also marked seasonal local
migrant.
Habits: The Loriquet inhabits well-wooded country both hill and
plain, and is fond of orchards and plantations, such as those of rubber
and coffee. It is a marked seasonal migrant, its local movements
depending essentially upon the availability of a food supply, that is,
on the flowering of certain trees and the ripening of the fruit of otlleIS.
Its diet consists mainly of fruits and berries, but at certain times of
the year the birds subsist almost exclusively on flower nectar, that
of various species of the Coral tree (Erythrina) being especially
favoured. On account of their small size and the wonderfully
obliterative effect of their colouration when clambering about
amongst the foliage of tall trees, the birds are seldom seen except
when flying across from one tree to another. The flight is swift,
consisting of several rapid wing-strokes followed by a short pause
and a consequent slight dip. It is invariably accompanied by a
pleasant, sharp trisyllabiC chee-chee-chee, repeated every couple of
seconds or so. This note is also uttered whilst the bird climbs about
the twigs. They roost at night hanging head downwards from their
perch in the manner of bats. Loriquets make engaging pets and
thrive in captivity on a diet of boiled rice and soft pulpy fruits.
Nesting: The season ranges between January and April. The ncst-
hole is excavated by the birds in some rotten branch or tree-stump,
fairly low do,';"!). "-s a rule. Sometimes a natU!al hollow i..,. utilised.
The eggs-usuallY three-are small white roundish ovals. The
female is a close sitter and will often allow herself to be taken rather
than forsake her eggS.
208
The Lonquet

209
The Roller or Blue Jay
2 10
 95. The Roller or Blue' Jay
Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus)

ue: About that of the Pigeon.

Field Characters: A striking Oxford-and-Cambridge-blue bird with

biggish head, heavy bill, rufous-brown breast, and blue abdomen and
undertail. The dark and pale blue portions of the wings show up
as brilliant bands in flight. Sexes alike. Singly, perched on tele-,
graph wires, &c., in open c.ountry.

Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Empire from the

Himalayan foothills south. Three races are recognised on size and
details of colouration, viz., the N. Indian benghalensis, the South
Indian-Ceylonese indiclts, and the Assam-Burma race affinis. The
boundary between I and 2 has been arbitrarily fixed as the 20th N.
lat. Resident, but to some extent also local migrant.

Habits: The Roller is essentially a bird of open cultivated country

and light deciduous forest. It avoids heavy jungle. It is of a tame
and fearless disposition and affects the outskirts of towns and villages,
also freely entering gardens and compounds. The birds are met
with singly or in pairs perched on tree-stumps, stakes, hedges or tele-
graph wires near cultivated fields, whence the surrounding country
can be surveyed to best advantage. From here they swoop down to
the ground now and again to pick up an insect, returning with the
morsel to the same perch or flying leisurely across to another nearby
where the victim is battered and swallowed. Their food consists
of crickets, grasshoppers, beetles and other insect pests by the
destruction of which the birds do great sen'ice to agricnlture. They
also cat mice, lizards and frogs. They havc a variety of loud, raucous
calls and arc particularly noisy and demonstrative during their court-
ship displays. In the course of this the male indulges in a series of
fantastic aerobatics, rocketing into the air, somersaulting and nose-
diving to the accompaniment of harsh grating screams and with his
brilliant plumage flashing in the snll.

Nesting: The season over the grcater part of its range' is between
jlarch and July. The nest is an untidy collection of grass, straw,
rags anel rubbish in a natural hollow in a rotten tree-trunk or branch,
at moderate heights. Sometimes a hole in the wall of a building is
lltilised. Thc normal clutch consists of four or five eggs-pure
White, glossy and rather roundish ovals.
21I
 96. The Common or Green Bee-eater
Mel'ops orientalis Latham
Size: About that of t_he Sparrow.
Field Characters: A slender bright green bird, tinged with reddish-
brown on head and neck, with the central pair of tail feathers prolonged
into blunt pins. Slender, long, slightly curved bilI. Conspicuous
black 'necklace.' Sexes alike. Pairs or parties, on telegraph wires
&c., in open country.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Empire from about 5,000 feet
in the HirnilJayas. Three races are recognised mainly on depth of
colouration, viz., the paler Sind-Baliichistan race biludschiclts, the
darker India-Ceylon orientalis, and the more ferruginous-headed
Assam-Burma birmanus. Resident, but also seasonal local migrant.
Habits: The Green Bee-eater affects open country in the neigh·
bourhood of cultivation. It is commonly found in forest clearings
and about villages and towns where it is partial to fallow land, lawns
and maidans. It has a marked liking for the zone immediately above
the sandy beach along the sea-coast. Small loose parties may usually
be met with launching aerial sallies after winged insects from a
perch on some telegraph wire, fence or dry branch of a tree. The
quarry is snapped up in mid-air as the bird swoops at it gracefully
and circles back on out-stretched motionless wings to its perch, where
it is battered and swallowed. The notes constantly uttered are a
pleasant tit, tit or trilly tree-tree-tree like the jingling of tiny hawk-
bells. Large numbers assemble to roost every evening in selected
bushy trees. Great noise and bustle prevails before the birds finally
settle in for the night. Every now and again the entire concourse
suddenly flies out in a confused rabble, circling round the tree to
the accompaniment of much excited trilling, and gradually re-settles.
They are late risers and may frequently be seen huddled together in
little groups along the branches, heads tUcked away under their
wings and fast asleep, till after the sun is well up. Their food consists
of dragonflies, dipterous and hymenopterous insects, and the birds
are destructive to honey bees.
Nesting: The principal breeding months are from February to
May. The birds usually nest in colonies, excavating horizont~l
tunnels about Ii" in diameter, and from a foot to six feet long, 10
the sides of earth banks, mounds, dry nuUahs, borrow-pits and the
like. In sandy soil the tunnels are often driven obliquely into more
or less fiat ground. They expand at their extremity into an unlined
nest-chamber about 5 inches across. The eggS-4 to 7-are pure
white, roundish ovals. Both sexes share in excavating the nest-
tunnels and feeding the young.
212
The Common or Green Bee-eater
The Blue-tailed Bee-eater
2[4
 97. The Blue-tailed Bee-eatel
cWerops. supeJ'ciliosus Linnaeus

Size: About that of the Bulbul.

Field Characters: Similar in general effect to the Common Bee-
eater. Distinguishable by its larger size, greenish-blue tail incll?ding
the pin feathers, black stripe through. the eyes, yellow throat and
chestnut upper breast. Sexes alike. Small flocks, in open and
lightly wooded country.

Distribution: General but local throughout India, Burma and Ceylon

from about 3,000 feet in the Himalayan foothills. Two races occur
within our limits, and beyond, differentiated on details of colouration.
viz" the Sind-Punjab-Rajputiina race persicus, and the all-India-
Burma-Ceylon javaniC1ts. Resident, but partially also local migrant.

Habits: The Blue-tailed Bee-eater inhabits more or less. the same

type of open cultivated country as the foregoing species, but it
definitely prefers better wooded tracts and the neighbourhood of
jheels and rivers. Its flight is swifter and the swoops after winged
insects more graceful; its call notes le-Iew/ Ie-lew? are deeper and
easily distinguishable from those of the Green Bee-eater. Otherwise,
in food and habits, t4ere is no appreciable difference between the
two species.

Nesting: The season ranges between March and June. The birds
nest in colonies-occasionally in association with Bank Mynas-.
driving horizontal tunnels into the earthy or sandy banks of rivers
and streams. These are about 2 inches in diameter and seldom under
4 feet Jpng. The tunnel terminates in a rounded nest-chamber which is
sometimes sparsely lined with grass and feathers. The eggs-four to
~even in number-are pure white, roundish ovals. Both sexes share
In excavating the nest-tunnel, incubation (?) and feeding the young.

215
 98. The Chestnut ..headed Bee... eater
111erops lescltenaulti Vieillot

Size: About that of the Bulbul. Midway between the Common

Bee-eater and the Blue tailed Bee-eater.

Field Characters: Similar in general effect to the Blue-tailed

Bee-eater but lacking the pin feathers in the tail. Head and upper
back bright chestnut; chin and throat yellow. Sexes alike. Small
flocks on dry branches of trees in wooded country.

Distribution: Ceylon, South-west India (north to about Belgaum)

Himiilayan Teriii from Dema Dun to Eastern Assam; Eastern Bengal,
Orissa, Burma and eastwards to Annam and Yunnan. Rare in the
centre and on the eastern side of peninsular India.

Habits: \Vhile the Chestuut-headed Bee-eater cannot claim to be a

common bird of India as a whole, it is perhaps sufficiently common
in the large areas it inhabits to deserve a place in this book. It is
restricted to the fairly well wooded intermediate country between
the moist evergreen and the dry deCiduous, and has a preference for
foothills with an elevation of up to about 4,000 feet.

It.is usually met with iu parties of 4 to I2 birds, though lr.rger

gatherings collect for roosting at night in some favourite tree.

In its food, methods of procuring it and general habits it does

not differ from the bee-eaters already dealt with. Its voice and notes
closely resemble those of the Blue-tailed Bee·eater.

Nesting: The season in the south is February /lvIarch, elsewhere

chiefly March to May. The nest-tunnels are dng in the banks of
nnUahs and streams in forested country sometimes obliquely in almost
flat sandy soil. They are from a few inches to several feet in length,
depending upon the nature of the soil, and terminate in an expanded
chamber. The cggs-S or 6-are pure white roundish ovals with a
glossy texture.

2I6
The Chestnut-beaded Bee-eater
21j
The Pied Kingfisher
211)
 99. The Pied Kingfisher
Ceryle rudis (Linnaeus)
Size: Between the Myna and the Pigeon.
Field Characters: A speckled' and barred, black-and-white King-
fisher with the typical stout dagger-shaped bill. The female differs
in details, but is on the whole like the male. Singly or pairs, by
streams and tanks, perched on rocks or poised hovering above the
water.
Distribution: Throughout the plains of India, Burma and Ceylon
the race leucomelamera occurs, except in Travancore to which is
confined the much darker race travancorensis.
The Himalayan Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle Iugubris), a larger species
with a prominent crest, replaces it above about 2,500 feet in the
Himiilayas.
Habits: The Pied Kingfisher frequents rivers, jlleels, backwaters
tidal creeks and rarely even the seashore. It goes about singly,
or in pairs and family parties of 4 or 5. The bird may commonly
be seen perched on a favourite rock Of fishing-stake near the water,
flicking up its tail and bobbing its head now and again. Its sharp
Cheery notes cllirruk, chirruk, uttered on the wing, are unmistakable
when once heard. The most characteristic thing about the Pied
Kingfisher, however, is its spectacular mode of hunting. Flying over
the water, its attention is unceasingly directed downward for any fish
that may venture near the surface. Immediately a shoal is sighted
the bird halts dead in its flight and remains poised over the spot on
hovering wings. The stance now assumed by the body is as though
the bird were standing on its tail, with the long, compressed, bill
painting intently below. As soon an some unwary fish strays within
striking depth, the bird. clo~~s its wings and from a height of IS to
30 feet hurls itself like a bolt upon it with unerring aim, often becoming
completely submerged in the water. It presently reappears, however,
~th the quarry in its bill, and flies off to a neighbouring perch where
It is battered to death and swallowed entire. Its food consists mainly
of fish, but tadpoles, frogs and aquatic insects are also eaten.
Nesting: The season is between October and May and frequently
two successive broods are reared. Horizontal tunnels from 3 to 6
feet long are excavated in the precipitous mud banks of streams and
riVers. They are about 3 inches in diameter and termina.te in a
~dened nest-cha.mber which is usually unlined, but almost invariably
littered with. cast-up fish bones. The normal clutch consists of five
or six eggs, pure white roundish ovals of a glossy texture. Both sexes
share in excavating the nest-tunnel, incubation (?) and feeding the
YOung.

ZI9
 100. The Common Kingfisher
Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus)
Size: About that of the House-Sparrow.
Field Characters: A dapper blue and green little kingfisher, with
deep rust coloured underparts, short stumpy tail and a long, straight
pointed bill. Sexes alike. Singly by stream, tank or puddle; perched
on an overhanging branch or ilying swiftly near the surface.
Distribution: Throughout India, Burma and Ceylon-and extending
beyond. Three races occur within our limits, differentiated on size
and details of colouration, viz., the largest and palest Baluchistan·
Sind-Punjab-Kashmir race pallasii, the intermediate N. India-Assam·
Burma bengalensis, and the smallest and darkest S. India·Ceylon
race taprobana.
Habits: This little kingfisher is commonly found by streams,
village tanks, roadside puddles, kutcha wells, brackish backwaters
and even at pools left by the receding tide on the rocky seashore.
It avoids forest and torrential hill streams. The bird is nonnally
seen singly, perched on some favourite stake or stone standing in
water, or on an overhanging branch or reed-stem, keeping a look·
out for prey sailing past or rising near the surface. From time
to time it bobs its head, turning it from side to side, and jerks its
stub tail to the accompaniment of little subdued clicks. It darts
swiftly over the water from one part of the stream or tank to
another, uttering a sharp ehi-chee, chi-ehee. Now and again it will
suddenly drop from its perch, bill foremost, and disappear below the
surface, with a splash presently to emerge with a small :fish held
crosswise in its bill. 'Vith this, it usually dashes off at top speed
to another perch some distance away where the quarry is battered
to pulp and swallowed, head first. Occasionally it also hovers over
the water and plunges in after prey in the manner of the Pied King·
fisher.
Its diet consists of small fish, tadpoles, water beetles and their
larvw and other aquatic insects.
Nesting: The usual months are from March to June. Favourite
sites are the banks of streams, tanks and ditches into which are
burrowed horizontal tunnels about 2 inches in diameter and from a
foot to 4 feet in length, terminating in a widened nest-chamber 5 or
6 inches across. An evil stench invariably pervades the above, caused
by the indiscriminate litter of fish bones and the remains of hard·
shelled insects disgorged by the birds. The normal clutch consists
of five to seven eggs-pure white, roundish ovals with a high glOSS.
Both Sexes share in excavating the nest-tunnel, incubation and
feeding the young.
220
The Common Kingfisher
221
The White-breasted Kingfisher
 101. The White-breasted Kingfisher
Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus)

Size: Between the Myna and the Pigeon.

Field Characters; A brilliant turquoise-blue kingfisher with deep

chocolate-brown head, neck and underparts, a conspicuous white
'shirt front' and long, heavy, pointed red bill. A white wing-p~tch
noticeable in flight. Sexes alike. Singly, in cultivated and wooded
country both near and away from water.

Distribution: Plains and lower hills throughout the Indian Empire

-and extending beyond, east and west. Three races concern us,
differentiated on details of size and colourati0n, viz., fusca which occu-
pies Ceylon and the heavy rainfall zone of S-,\V. India, smyrnensis
inhabiting the rest of India and Burma, and salamtioy confined to
the Andamans.

Habits: This is perhaps the most familiar of our kingfishers. It is

usually met with singly in the neighbourhood of inundated paddy-
fields, ponds, puddles, klttella wells and on the sandy seashore, both
near and away from human habitations. But it is by no means so
closely dependent on the presence of water for its sustenance as its
other relatives are. Frequently it may be found considerable distances
away from it, right in the midst of forest where it feeds on earthworms,
lizards, grasshoppers and other insects-occasionally even capturing
micB and young birds. From a favourite perch on some bare branch
or telegraph wire, which it occupies day after day and whence it can
survey the country around, the bird hurls itself down on creeping
prey and flies off with it to" another perch nearby where the victim is
battered and swallowed. Its call or ' song' is a loud, not unmusical,
chattering scream uttered from the top of a tall tree or some other
exposed situation. It ends in a detached harsh undertone like the
pencil of a snipe, audible only at short range. Besides this it has a
hud cackling call usually uttered in flight.

Nesting; The season ranges principally between March and July.

The nest-tunnel, as with other kingfishers, is dug horizontally into
the side of an earth cutting or bank. It is about 2! inches in diameter
and oftGn up to 6 or 7 feet long. terminating in a spacious egg-chamber
I> or 9 inches across. The normal clutch consists of four to seven
eggs-white and spherical. Both sexes share in excavating the nest·
tUnnel, incubation (?) and feeding the young.
223
 102. The Brown-headed Stork..billed
Kingfisher
Ramphalcy_on capensis {Linn.)
Size: Slightly smaller than the Pigeon.
F~eld Characters.: Easily ~istinguished from all other btightly coloured
kingfishers by its lru;ge size an~ eno~ous sharp pointed, com-
pressed, blood-red bill. Sexes alike. Smgly or sepa~ated pairs, by
forest streams.
Another kingfisher likely to be seen along our sea'coast and tidal
rivers is the Black-capped (Halcyon pileata). It is about the size
of the White-breasted species, deep blue above buffy white below.
The velvety black cap on its head, the broad white cOllar on its hind
neck and the coral red bill make its recognition easy.
Distribution: Ceylon and practically the whole of India and Assam
(excluding the dry portions viz., Sind, Rajputana, N.W.F.P. &c.)
are occupied by the race gurial. The race burmanicq. with a much
paler brown head, occurs in Burma. '
Habits: The Stork-billed Kingfisher inhabits welkwatered well-
wooded country throughout its extensive range. It keeps to'shady
forest streams, jungle pools and water holes, and even swamps. It is
also found on tidal creeks near the sea coast, provideq there is suffi·
cient jungle or mangroves and Pandanus brakes at hand. It goes
about in pairs, but the birds are usually widely separated from each
other. Except when coursing up and down a forest stream from one
rocky pool to another, this kingfisher is oftener heard than seen. It
wiIT sit tor flours on a [eaty 6rancfl near or overflang{ng a poor ana'
drop on any fish that shows up near the surface, sometimes disappear-
ing below for an instant and emerging with the quarry in its hill.
At times it is excessively shy, but at others shows littl~ fear and does
not resent being watched. When disturbed, the bird !lies off among
the trees uttel·.fig loud, harsh cacyling\s<jl'eams which are continued
fqr some time fter the bird has.,...l'ese~tlM at a distanc~.· The hoarse
explosive cha ring call~'r' flgh;/Jle-ke-ke-ke-ke-ne, (ilccent on first
he) repeated every little' ile//gears a general resen\blance to the
White-breasted! Kingfis s, 4s louder and more raucous. It has
also a pleasant solilo pee r-pur uttered from some shady branch
overhanging a fore she
The flight is. . ai, ~nd strong, like that of the White-breasted
Kingfisher, but,...s'w); ;,Ilr.,
The~tw19:iep: fish, is supplemented whenevet possible· by
reptiles, C \IDlYany other living thing thlt~ can b~ conveniently
tackled. i:vlr:tfown to take eggs and young brrds frOftt their nest.
Nesting;-' TI<{ usual breeding months are from ]anll. ary to July
during Yi~h sometimes two broods are brought up .. The nest-
chamber, as usual with kingfishers, is at the end of ~ tunnel bored
into the steep outscoured bank of a forest stream.. It is about <}
inches in diameter and frequently 2 or 3 feet long. The eggs-4
or 5-are roundish ovals, pure white and with a glossy texture.
224
The Common Grl'Y Hornhill
 103. The Common Grey Bornhill
Tockus biyostris (Scopoli)
Size: That of the Pariah Kite.
Field Charasters: A clumsy, slaty-grey bird with an enormous black-
and-white curved bill surmounted by a peculiar protuberance or
casque. Tail long and graduated. Sexes alike. Small pa'rties, in
lightly wooded country and groves of ancient trees.
In the heavy rainfall area of the :Malabar Coast (Western Ghats)
north to Bombay, it is replaced by an allied species the Malabar Grey
Hornbill (T. griSelts) which lacks the casque above the bill.
Distribution: Throughout India e..xcepting the N.-W.F. Province,
Sind, Punjab and parts of Riijpiitiina. Absent in Assam, Burma
and Ceylon.
Habits: The Grey Hornbill inhabits open, wooded plains country
and deciduous forest. It is commonly found in groves of ancient
:.rango, Banyan and Peepal trees in the vicinity or towns and villages,
and freely enters well-wooded gardens and compounds. It is exclu-
sively arboreal and met with in pairs or family parties of 5 or 6 birds
which fly across from one fig-laden Peepal or Banyan tree to another
in follow-my-leader fashion. \Yhere food is plentiful, large numbers
often collect, associating with green pigeons, mynas, bulbuls and other
frugivorous birds. The flight, typical of the hornbiIls, is laboured,
Undulating and noisy, consisting of a few rapid wing-strokes followed
by an interval of gliding. It has a loud cac!ding cry K-k-k-kiie, and
a variety of squt'aling and chattering conversational notes. A shrill
alarm whistle wlreee is uttered to apprise the company of suspected
danger. Its diet consists mainly of figs of Banyan, Peepal and the
various other species of FiCl£S, but large insects and lizards are also
eaten.

Nesting: The season is principally between Marcb and June. The

nornbills as a group are remarkable for their curious nesting habits.
~ natural hollow is selected in some old tree-trunk, usually fairly
hIgh up. 'Within this the female imprisons herself, using the flat
sld~s of her bill as trowel to plastpr up the entrance with her droppings
WhIch harden to the consistency of cement. Only a narrow slit is
left through which the cock assiduously feeds her throughout the
Incubation period. After the young are hatched out, the hen emerges
from her self-imposed confinement, the wall is built up again, and
thenceforward she assists her mate in feeding the young. The same
nest·site is used for several successive seasons. The eggs-two or
three in number-are dull, glossless white.
227,
 104. The Hoopoe
Upupa cpops Linnaeus
Size: About that of the Myna.
Field Characters: A fawn coloured bird with blac~-and-white
zebra markings on back, wings and tail; a conspicuous fan-shapped
crest and long, slender, slightly curved bill. 'Sexes alike. Singly or
pairs, usually on the ground in lightly wooded country.
Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Empire-and
beyond, both east and west. Three races chiefly concern us, differing
in details of size and colouration, viz.; the Ceylon and all-India
ceylonensis, the Punjab-N.-\V.F. orientalis, and the Assam-Burma
longirostris. A fourth race-the typical, European epops-visits
N. India during winter. Orientalis also spreads out considerably at
that season so that we then have rather a confused jumble of races in
the peninsula.
Habits: The Hoopoe is a bird of open country, plains as well as hills
upto about 5,000 feet. It is fond of lawns, gardens and groves in
and about towns and villages. Scattered pairs and family parties of
four or five birds are usually met with, feeding exclusively on the
ground, probing into the soil and amongst the fallen leaves with bill
partly open like forceps. It walks and runs on its short legs with _a
quail-like but somewhat waddling gait. 'When digging, the crest 15
depressed and projects in a point behind the head suggestive oi a
miniature pickaxe. \Vhen the bird is alarmed or excited, the crest,
is quickly erected and opened fanwise. It flies off in an undulating
undecided sort of way to resettle at some distance whereupon the
crest is again raised. The call is a soft and musical, but pene:rating,
hoo-po, or hoo-po-po repeated several times and often intermittently
for over 10 minutes at a stretch. When calling from a braach the
bird lowers and bobs its head so that the bill lies almost flat against
the breast, the tail at the same time being depressed and turned in
under the perch as if in an effort to make both ends meet! At other
times the head is jerked forward at each successive call as if barkin~,
and the crest raised and lowered from time to time. Besides thIS
call, it has a variety of harsh subdued caws and wheeLy chuckles. Its
diet consists of insects, grubs and pupae. It is beneficial to agriculture
by virtue of the vast numbers of insect pests it destroys.
Nesting: The season ranges between February and April. A hole
in a wall, roof, under caves or in a rotten branch or stump is selected
and lined untidily with rags, hair, wool, straw and rubbish. ~he
normal clutch consists of 5 or 6 eggs, white when fresh but beconung
discoloured as incubation progresses. The female is a close sitter and
seldom leaves the nest, being zealously fed by her mate all through
this period. The nest is notorious for the mass of filth that a>;CU-
mulates there, and for the abominable stench it emits. Both sexes
share ip. feeding the young.
228
The Hoopoe
1. The Palm-Swift
/JesCYlptwll on next page.}
2. The House-Swift
230
 105. The House-Swift
Micropus affinis (Gray)

Size: Smaller than the Sparrow.

Field Characters: A smo1.-y-black little bird with white throat,
white rump, short square tail, and long narrow wings. Sexes alike.
Flying about gregariously near human habitations.
Distribution: Inexplicably patchy, but practically throughout
the Indian Empire from about 6,000 feet in the Himalayas. Two
races may be definitely recognised,on details of size and colouration,
Yiz., the square-tailed Indian affinis, and the slightly fork-tailed
AS3iim-Burma race subjuycaius. Ceylon and Travancore birds are
very dark.

Habits: The House-Swift is commonly found in the neighbour-

hood of human habitations both occupied and deserted, in the
plains as well as hills. Ancient forts, and ruined mosques and
buildings seldom fail to attract the birds. They are seen flying about
gregariously, hawking tiny winged insects and uttering their merry ,
twittering screams. The capture of prey on the wing is facilitated
by their extraordinarily widened gapes. Although resembling the
swallows in general effect and feeding habits, swifts differ from them
markedly in structure, especially in the arrangement of their toes all
four of which are forwardly directed and preclude the possibility of
the birds perching in the normal way. Hence, a swift will never be
seen perched on a telegraph wire. Their wings are long and narrow
enabling the birds to fly almost incessantly and at great speed.
When clinging to some rough surface, as a wall or rock, the tips of the
folded wings cross each other and project far beyond the tail. Large
disorderly gatherings of House-Swifts may commonly be seen in the
evenings wheeling around or ' balling' high up in the air, uttering
shrill joyous twittering screams and obviously disporting themselves.'
Nesting: The season is between February and September; two
successive broods are frequently reared. The birds build in colonies,
plastering the nests helter-skelter along the angle of the wall and
cellmg in buildings and porches, even in the midst of noisy bazaars.
The nests are round untidy cups made entirely of feathers, straw,
etc., cemented together with the birds' saliva. The entrance hole is
often merely a slit between the wall and the nest. The same site and
nests-repaired if necessary-are used for many years in succession
If the birds are left unmolested. The normal clutch consists of 2 to 4
eggs, pure white longish ovals. Both sexes share in building the
nest and feeding the young.
 106. The Palm-Swift
Cypsiurus parvus (Licht;)

Size: Plate on previous page. Smaller than the Sparro;;;; <con-

siderably slenderer and with long narrow wings.
Field Characters: A slim plain sooty-grey bird, with thin deeply
forked tail. In flight the long narrow wings look like a miniature bow
with the slender body set in it for an arrow. Sexes alike. Flying
about gregariously over open country dotted with Palmyra palms.
Distribution: All India except the Punjab and Sind; Ceylon,
Assam, Burma, and beyond-wherever the Tad or Palmyra palm
(Borassus jlabellijormis) occurs, with which species its range is
coincident. Two races are recognised on details of size and coloura·
tion, viz., the India-Ceylon batassiensis, and the Assam-Burma
injumatus.
Habits: The Palm-Swift is typically a bird of open plains country
and is inseparable from the Tad palm. The precise factors that
determine this symbiosis or partnership have not as yet been ascer-
tained, but the rigid folds and furrows of the palm leaf certainly
provide it with eminently suitable roosting and nesting sites. The
birds spend their time gregariously hawking tiny winged insects in
the vicinity of the palms, often flying quite low, turning and twisting
in the air adroitly to the constant accompaniment of their shrill,
joyous triple note li-ti-tee. The deep cleft or fork in the tail is parti'
cularly noticeable when the bird wheels in its flight.
Neating: The season varies in the different parts of its range to
cover the entire year. The nest is a tiny half-saucer, about 2 inches
from side to side, of feathers and vegetable down agglutinated with
the bird's saliva and attached in a fold or furrow on the underside of
a palmyra leaf. Owing to its situation and diminutive size, it is
usually invisible from the ground. The eggs-two or three in number
-are pure white, long, pointed ovals.
The Assam-Burma race (C. p. infumatus) sometimes attaches
its nest to the palm leaf thatching of huts in the Garo and Naga
Hills.

232
233
The Common Indian Nightjar
 107. The Common Indian Nightjar
Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham
Size: About that of the Myna.
Field Characters: A soft-plumaged grey, brown, buff and fulvous
bird tuottled and black-streaked above, forming a complicated
camouflaging pattern. 'White patches on wing conspicuous in flight.
Sexes alike. Singly, in scrub country, crouching on ground by day,
hawking insects at dusk.
Several other species of Nightjars are found within our limits,
superficially resembling one another and difficult to differentiate in
the field exsept by a study of their call notes. They all have very
short legs, large owl-like head with large shiny eyes and enormously
widened gapes fringed with coarse, strong bristles.
Distribution: Practically throughout India, Assam, Burma and
Ceylon. Ceylon birds are smaller in size than the Indian asiaticus,
and recognised as the insular race minor. Resident, but partly also
local migrant.
Habits: The Common Indian - Nightjar frequents scrub and stony
Country, dry nuliahs, compounds and groves in the neighbourhood
of cultivation, and commonly about towns and villages. 'It is entirely
crepuscular and nocturnal in habits resting during daytime on the
ground under shelter of some bush, and emerging at dusk to feed.
Occasionally it also 'squats on the low bough of a tree, not perching-
crosswise as most birds do, but along its length. It is active all
through the night hawking winged insects. The flight is peculiarly
moth-like, noiseless and wandering, but the bird can turn and twist
in the air to avoid obstacles with amazing dexterity-now circling,
now flapping, now sailing. Its familiar call chuk-chuk-chuk-chuk-r-r-r'
has been well likened to the sound' of a stone gliding over a frozen
pond. It is uttered from the ground or from the top of a stump
or stone. Two birds some distance apart, will frequently engage in
a duet, answering each other for considerable periods. A low chuk",
chuk is sometimes heard on the wing. These birds are fond of squat-
ting on country roads after dusk-their eyes gleaming red in the beam
of the headlights of an oncoming car-and adept at dodging clear
when within an ace of being run over. Their food consists of beetles.
moths and otl;ler insects captured on the wing.
Nesting: The season is not well defined anywhere, but most eggs
are fOund between February and September. No nest is made, the
eggs-usually two-being laid on the bare ground in thin bamboo
forest or open country with bush cover, even in large jungly com-
pOunds in cities. They are long, cylindrical ovals, pale pink to deep
~lmon in colour spotted and blotched with reddish-brown and
mky-purple.

235
 108. The Bam- or Screech-Owl
Tyto alba (Scopoli)

Size: About that of the Jungle-Crow.

Field Characters: A typical owl with large round head and a cons-
picuous ruff of stiff feathers surrounding a white monkey-like facial
disc. Golden-buff above, silky white below. Sexes alike. Singly,
-on and about buildings, especially ruined and deserted. Nocturnal.
Distribution: Ceylon and the whole of India, Assam and Burma.
The precise status of the two races occurring within our continental
limits, viz., javanica and stertens, has not been determined. The
Andamans race deroepstorffi, is darker and smaller than Indian birds.
The Barn-Owl has an almost world-wide geographical range.
Habits: The Barn- or Screech-Owl is inseparable from the haunts
{)f Man. Ruins on the site of ancient cities, old tombs, forts and
-other buildings invariably have their resident population of these
brrds. It is purely nocturnal in habits and greatly inconvenienced
by sunlight. It retires during the day to the seclusion of some dark
hole or niche, where it spends the time standing upright and dozing.
Favourite daytime retreats are occupied from year's end to year's
end, and if one occupant is killed his place is soon taken up by another.
At dusk the bird issues forth, and it may then be seen flying in its
£haracteristic gb,ost-like manner from one roof or building to another.
·often over busy thoroughfares and above the full blaze of a city's
illumination.' Its voice, heard after dark, is a mixture of harsh dis-
cordant screams, and weird snoring and hissing notes. It is eerie
.and unpleasant, and no doubt responsible for many of the supersti'
tions prevalent in India which brand the owl as a bird of ill omen.
Inspite of this, however, the Barn-Owl is a highly desirable species
to have about farm buildings and grain stores. It feeds almost
exclusively on rats and mice, and acts as an important check upon 1
the increase of these destructive vermin. It is also of the greatest
benefit to agricultUre in keeping field mice under control. The
indigestible portions of the rodents such as hair and bones, are cast
up from the mouth in the form of pellets. The flesh and bones of
the Barn-Owl are highly prized by quacks and medicine-men as
.charms, and as a cure for rheumatism and paralysis.
Nesting: Practically all the year. Holes and niches in ruined walls
or the space between the ceiling and roof of a dwelling house, spars~Iy
lined with straw, twigs and rags, serve as nest. The same ~Ite
is used in'successive seasons. Eggs-four to seven-smooth, white,
roundish.
The Barn or Screech Owl
237
The Brown Fish-Owl
238
 109. The Brown Fish.Owl
Kttupa zt:ylo1le1lsis (Gmelin)
Size: About that of the Pariah Kite.
Field Characters: A large heavy brown owl, the paler underparts
with dark vertical streaks, especially about the breast. Feather-
tufts, looking like long ears, projecting above the head. Large,
round, yellow fonvardly directed eyes. Un/ealhered legs. Sexes
alike. Singly, at dusk in wooded country near water.
Distribution: Throughout India, Burma and Ceylon-and beyond,
both east and west. The race leschenaulti occupies the whole of our
area except Ceylon where the small and dark typical zeylonens-is is
the representative fonn.
Habits: The Brown Fish-Owl is an inhabitant of well-wooded
tracts abounding in rocky ravines, and broken ground in the neigh-
bourhood of jheels, streams and nullahs. It is commonly found on
tree-girt outskirts of villages. During the day it retires to the shelter
of some favourite bamboo clump or large leafy tree, emerging soon'
after sundown heralded by its distinctive deep and hollow moaning
call boom-a-boom which resounds at intervals through the stillness
of the forest with a peculiar ventriloquistic quality. This weird and
ghoulish boom heard suddenly in the gloaming for the first time, pro-
duces an undescribably eerie effect. At dusk the bird takes up a
perch on some branch or rock near or overhanging water, sitting
bolt upright, and keeps a sharp look-out for fish rising near the surface.
It may then also be seen flying up and down, often almost skimming
the water. It delights in regular baths, wading into the shallows and
shuffling itself in the usual manner of birds, drying and carefully preen-
ing itself afterwards. Its food consists mainly of fish and crabs,
but small mammals, birds and reptiles ;ue also devoured, and a pair
have even been observed feeding on the putrefying carcase of a
crocodile.
Nesting: The season varies according to locality, but is principally
between December and March. The nest, which is sometimes com-
posed of a few twigs and at others has no extraneous material, is in
a nat-nal hollow in the stump or bough of an ancient mango or peepal
tree, 0:1 a ledge or in the cleft of a rocky bank, at varying heights
from the ground, but never far from water. Occasionally an old eagle's
nest is used: The eggs-one or two in number-are white, roundish
and with a slightly glossed though pitted texture. The vicinity of
t~e nest is invariably bestrewn with cast-up pellets and remains of
bUds and other small animals. The female is a close sitter and when
approached on her nest, snaps her mandibles and hisses in a forbidding
manner.

239
 110. The Indian Great Horned.. Owl
Bubo bubo (Linnaeus)
Size: About that of the Pariah Kite.
Field Characters: A large dark brown owl, streaked and mottled
with buff and black, with two conspicuous black aigrettes or
, horns' above the head. Rather like the Fish-Owl in general effect,
but with the legs fully covered with fulvous feathers. Sexes alike.
Singly or pairs, in wooded rocky ravines and ancient groves. Mainly
nocturnal.
Distribution: The race bengalensis ranges throughout India, Assam
and Burma, but not Ceylon. There is considerable variation in the
size and colouration of the birds from north to south. This genus
of Horned-Owls has practically a world-wide distribution.
Habits: The Great Horned-Owl is a fairly common species in the
Indian plains, and in portions of Kashmir it is found up to about
6,000 feet elevation. It inhabits well-wooded, but open and culti-
. vated country and avoids heavy forest. Its favourite haunts are
low bush-covered rocky hills and ravines and the cliff banks of rivers
and streams. Here it rests during the day on the ground under the
shelter of a bush or on some rocky projection_ Where these con-
ditions are lacking-and especially in the neighbourhood of villages-
it affects groves of ancient thickly foliaged trees. It is by no means
so completely nocturnal as the Fish-Owl and may frequently be seen
on the move till after the sun is well up, with little apparent dis·
comfort. The birds emerge from their daytime retreats soon after
sunset with their deep, solemn, resounding call bu-bo (2nd syllable
much prolonged) which, while not really loud, has a curious penetrating
quality. They may then be seen perched on the top of some boulder,
whence they glide off effortlessly on outstretched wings over great
distances to their accustomed feeding grounds. Besides these calis,
they have a variety of growls and hisses expressive of excitement or
emotion. Their food consists of small mammals, birds, lizards and
other reptiles-also large insects, and occasionally fish and crab.s.
Field rats and mice form a considerable proportion of their diet III
agricultural areas. The Horned-Owls act as a constant check upor.
these fecund and destructive rodents, and are therefore of great
economic value.
Nesting: The season is from about November to April. No nest
is made, the eggs being usually laid on the bare soil . in natural
recesses in earth banks, on ledges of cliffs overhanging water, or
even on level ground under the shelter of some bush. The norn: al
clutch consists of three or four eggs, white in colour with a faint
creamy tinge. They are broad roundish ovals of a fine and glossY
texture.

24 0
The Indian Great Homed ..OwI
The Spotted Owlet
 111. The Spotted Owlet
Athene brama (Temminck)
Size: About that of the Myna.
Field Characters: A squat, white-spotted greish-brown little owl,
with typical large round head and forwardly directed, staring yellow
eyes. Sexes alike. Pairs or family parties, about villages, ruins,
and in groves of large trees. Chiefly crepuscular and nocturnal.
Distribution: Resident throughout India, Assam and Burma.
but not Ceylon. Three races are recognised on size and depths of
colouration, viz., the South Indian brama, the North India-Assam
race indica, and the Burmese pHlchra. The boundary between I
and 2 has been arbitrarily fixed as the 20th N. latitude.
Habits: This little bird is the commonest and most familiar of
our owls. It affects every type of country in the plains and foot-
hills except heavy forest, and is particularly abundant in the
neighbourhood of human habitations. It is fearless and confiding
and regards lVlan with complete unconcern. In many localities
almost every ancient tamarind, banyan or mango tree holds its
resident pair or two of these owlets, and one has but to tap on the
trunk to bring forth an enquiring little face to the entrance of a
hollow, or to dislodge a pair sitting huddled together on some secluded
branch. The birds often fl.y out fussily to a neighbouring branch
when the tree is approached, whence they bob and stare at the in-
truder in clownish fashion. It is largely of crepuscular and nocturnal
habits, perhaps not so much because of intolerance to sunlight-
since it is often abroad and even hunting at mid-day-but on account
of the persecution and chivvying it is invariably subjected to by other
birds immediately it shows itself. At dusk these owlets may be seen
perched on fence-posts, telegraph wires and the like, pouncing from
time to time upon some unwary insects on the ground, or flying across
noiselessly from one percll to another. Occasionally it launches
ungainly aerial sallies after winged termites capturing them in its
claws, and it will sometimes even hover clumsily like a kestrel to
espy creeping prey. Its food consists mainly of beetles and other
insects. but small mice, birds and lizards are also taken. They are
noisy birds and have a large variety of harsh chattering, squabbling
and chuckling notes, two individuals frequently combining in a
duet.
Nesting: The season ranges between November and April. The
eggs are laid in hollows in trees, or in holes ill walls, or between the
ceiling and roof of deserted as well as occupied dwellings. The
hollows are sometimes sparsely lined with grass, tow and feathers.
The eggs-three or four·-are white roundish ovals. Both sexes share
in lining the nest, incubation and care of the young.
 112~ The Osprey
Pandion kaliaetus (Linn.)
Size: About that of the Pariah Kite.
Field Characters: A dark brown bird of prey with a white-and-
brown head. Breast and underparts white. A conspicuous broad
band or 'necklace' across upper breast provides a good dis·
tinguishing mark, both when at rest and on the wing. Sexes alike.
Singly, fishing at irrigation tanks, jheels and occasionally tidal back-
waters near the sea-coast.
Distribution: Found practically throughout the world, Winter
visitor to India, Burma and Ceylon.
Habits: While with us, in winter, the Osprey is commonly found
on many of our larger rivers, and on irrigation tanks and duck·
shooting jheels where :fish can be procured. It also frequents tidal
backwaters and off-shore islets in the sea. Its food consists more
or less exclusively of :fish. The bird may be seen perched on fishing
stakes, on dead trees standing in or near water, or on overhanging
rocks. From this base it launches in the air now and again to re-
connoitre the water for any :fish that may show itself near the surface.
It flies up and dovrn in the quest with slow deliberate wing beats
punctuated with pauses of gliding. Occasionally, it will stop dead
in its progress and hover for a moment like a Kestrel, with legs dangling
in readiness, to scan the water more thoroughly. \Vhen a fish is
within striking range, the bird half closes its wings, and from a height
of 40 or 50 feet it hurls itself headlong into the water with a mighty
splash, often going completely under. It emerges presently with the
slippery quarry gripped firmly in its talons. Shaking the water off
its plumage with a little shrug, the bird makes for a favourite perch
which may be recognised at a great distance by the white droppings
splashed upon it by the Osprey in the course of months of occupation
and meals innumerable. Here the fish is torn to pieces, using bill
and claws, and devoured. Occasionally very large fish are caught
which give the bird considerable difficulty in landing. Instances
are on record where an Osprey, unable to extricate its claws from
a particularly large and lively fish it has struck, has been pulled under
and drowned in its struggle with the quarry. Its call notes" seldom
heard, in India have been described as a clear kai, kai, kai.
Nesting: April, :\Iay and early June is the time when the Osprey
breeds in Europe. It is also said to nest in the Himalayas occasionally,
but this is not confirmed. The huge nest, built of sticks and
twigs and lined with leaves, sea-weed &c., is repaired, added to and
used for several years in succession. It is placed on a cliff or in some
lofty tree. The eggs-2 or 3 in number-are white or yellowish-
white, spotted and blotched with dull red.
244
The Osprey

245
The Black, Pondicherry or King Vulture
246
 113. The Black, Pondicherry or
King Vulture
Sarcogyps calvus (Scopoli).
Size: About that of the Peacock, minus the train.
Field Characters: The black plumage and conspicuous white patches
near the crop and on upper thighs serve to distinguish this vulture
at a glance, even in high overhead flight when, moreover, a whitish
band across the underside of ,the wings is prominent. The deep
yellowish-red head, neck and legs further confirm its identity. Sexes
alike.
Distribution: Throughout India (from about 5,000 feet in the
Himalayas) and Burma, but not Ceylon.
Habits: The King Vulture is a bird of open lightly wooded and
cultivated country and as a rule avoids both dense forest and barren
desert tracts. Unlike most of its congeners it is not strictly gregarious,
and though generally distributed, is nmyhere particularly abundant.
Only solitary birds or pairs are ordinarily seen, perched on an exposed
tree-top or soaring high up in the air. Even at carcases, seldom
more than a couple are present amongst the seething rabble of 'iVhite-
backs and other species that collect to feast. Very rarely, however.
gatherings of 20 or 30 birds may be met with. The King Vulture
is so named on the strength of a reputation for being pugnacious,
bold and overbearing, of inspiring awe amongst its confreres and thus
monopolising a carcase until it has had its fill of the choicest tit-bits.
This reputation is, however, ill-deserved for usually-at any rate-it
may be marked out as the timidest member of the vulture gatherings
at a carcase. It keeps itself aloof of the scrimmage, surreptitiously
venturing forward now and again in obvious fear and trembling to
tug at a gobbet, and withdrawing hurriedly when overwhelmed by
the press. It is a powerful bird and able to lift itself off the ground
by a iew strokes of its wings. Even when fully gorged, it is not olr
liged to hop along before taking off as the other vultures do. In
sailing flight the outstretched wings are held well above the plane
of the boely in a wide V. -
Nesting: The season is principally from December to April. The
nest is a massive platform of twigs placed on the top of some large
tree, 30 to 40 feet from the ground, often near a village. \Vhere suit-
able trees are scarce, it builds on bushes, 6 to 10 feet high, on stony
~illsides. The same nest or site is used year after year. It is untidily
hned with straw and leaves. Only a single egg is laid, white in colour.
but becoming considerably stained and discoloured during incubation,
It is roundish oval in shape, strong shelled and of a fine texture.
InCUbation takes about 45 days. Both sexes share in building the
nest, incubation and feeding the young.
247
 114. The White-hacked or Bengal Vulture
Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin)

Size: About that of the Peacock minus the train.

Field Characters: A heavy, dirty blackish·brown vulture with naked
head and neck. At rest the white back is conspicuous. In overhead
flight a whitish band stretching along the underside of the wings,
usually serves as recognition mark. Sexes alike.
Distribution: Throughout India, Assam and Burma. Not found in
Ceylon.
Habits: The White-back is the commonest vulture of the Indian
plains and is met with everywhere regardless of the nature of the
country, except in dense humid forest. Small partIes are seen perched
on bare tree-tops or palms, or saiImg majestically in wide circles,
quartering the heavens for hours on end and scanning the ground
below for food. The leaves and ground beneath favourite perches
and roosts soon become besmirched with the birds' droppings; and
present a bedraggled whitewashed appearance. Though a positiv,~ly
repulsive creature at close quarters, a vulture gliding effortless in the
sky is the very embodiment of graceful motion.
As scavengers, vultures are of the greatest usefulness to 211an.
Their eyesight is remarkably keen, and large numbers wiII gather
at a carcase from nowhere within an incredibly short time. The
speed and thoroughness with which a company wiII dispose of a
bullock or other large animal dumped in the precincts of a village-
which would otherwise befoul the air and breed pestilence-is astound-
ing. These gruesome obsequies are attended by an incessant jostling
and bickering among the birds and by much harsh, unplesant screech·
ing and hissing as one bird tries to oust another from a coveted vantage
point at the feast or to deprive it of a gobbet of flesh. The cOlubat·
ants spread their wings and prance around ludicrously, tugging and
pulling at the morsel from either end. They sometimes gorge them·
selves to such an extent that they become incapable of flight and are
compelled to pass the night on the ground.
Nesting: The season is principally from October to 1Iarch. The n~st
is a large untidy platform of twigs lined with green leaves, on the top
of a Banyan, Peepal or similar tree, near a village or along the road-
side. Several nests arc often built on the same tree or on adjacent
ones. A single egg is laid, white in colour, occasionally speckled
and spotted with reddish-brown, It is thick-shelled and glassless,
Both sexes share in building the nest, incubation and care of th"
young which are fed on regurgitated gobbets of flesh. Incubation
takes about 45 days,
The White-backed or Bengal Vulture
249
 ..

The White Scavenger Vulture or Pharaoh's Chicken

250
 115. The White Scavenger Vulture or
Pharaoh's Chicken
Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus)
I
Size : That of the Paria.h Kite.
Field Characters: A dirty-white kitelike bird with black wing-quills
.and naked yellow head and bill. Immature differs from adult ~illus­
trated) in being brown, rather like the Kite. In flight the wedge-
shaped tail distinguishes it from Kites, Eagles and other Vultures.
Sexes alike. Singly or twos and threes, in open country about human
habitations.
Distribution: Throughout India and rarely in Ceylon, but not in
Assam or Burma. Two races are recognised on size and details of
eolouration, viz., the larger Egyptian (typical) percnopterus which
extends into N.-W. India, Sind and the Punjab, and the smaller Indian
race ginginianus occupying the rest of the country.
Habits: The White Scavenger Vulture is a common and abundant
~pecies affecting open country (except the wettest areas) invariably
10 the neighbourhood of the haunts of Man whether town, village,
detached rural homestead or shifting encampment of nomadic herds-
roen. Here it is seen soaring gracefully overhead or perched on
m?unds, ruined buildings and the like, or stalking about on the ground
WIth a ludicrous high-stepping, waddling gait rather like the German
, goose-step.' The body is carried more or less horizontally like a
duck's. It,is not gregarious, but numbers collect where prospects of
food are promising, often associating with, kites. crows and other
vu~tures. Inspite of its shabby and repulsive appearance and. the
u~versal disgust in which it is held, this vulture is a useful and effi.-
_c~ent scavenger. It does invaluable service in cleaning up the pre-
~cts of villages where sanitation is unknown, where refuse and garbage
lItters the outskirts and where the entire population is obliged to troop
out. to attend to the calls of nature, often at no great distance from
th~1f hovels. "For. apart from offal and refuse of every- description.
this vulture feeds largely on human excrement. At ce.rtain Hindu
teroples in South India the birds are regularly fed by the priests.
Large numbers from the surrounding country converge at these places
at the appointed hour with clockwork precision.
Nestil_1g: The .season is principally from February to April. The
nest IS a large filthy and shabby mass of twigs, lined with rags; hair
and ,rubbiSh, placed on some comice or niche in a ruined mosque,
tom.b?r fort, the ledge of a cliff or in the fork of a large Banyan, Peepal
or SImilar tree. The eggs-two in number and handsome in appeara.nce
b vary from white to pale brick-red in colour, blotched with reddish-
rown. or blackish, rather thickly round the broad end. Both sexes
h
S are In building the nest, incubation and feeding the young.

251
 ·116. The Laggar Falcon
Falco jugger Gray
Size: About that of the House-Crow.
Field Characters: An ashy-brown falcon with brown-streaked
white under parts and narrow brown cheek or moustachial-stripes
running down from infront and below the eyes. Sexes alike, but
female .much larger than male. In flight the white breast, dark and
. white pattern on the underside of the long, 'pointed wings and the ·fact
. that generally pairs are seen together, are features suggestive of its
identity. Young birds are brown below.
Distribution: Resident practically throughout India from about
25 00 feet in the Himalayas, (rare in the south) and Assam. Not
found in Burma or Ceylon.
Habits: The Laggar is one of our 'commonest falcons. It frequents
dry, open scrup country, the outskirts, of thin jungle, and the
neighbourhood of cultivation, but avoids humid forest tracts. It i;
almost invariably met with in pairs which work in co-ordinaHon,
usually stooping on and chasing down winged prey, since it is capable.
of long-sustained flight at great speed. They are, however, less
courageous and swift than the Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrill1!!J
which can be distinguished by its slaty grey upper plumage. A ~atr
frequently take up their quarters within the limits of a town, uswg
a tower or church-spire as foraging base, whence they take toll of the
urban pigeon ·population. They are commonly chivvied by croWS,
drongos and other birds. Occasionally a party of 5 or 6 roay be seen
disporting themselves high up in the air, stooping playfully at o~e
another with incredible velocity. In addition to small birds, J:!leIr
diet consist of field rats, lizards, locusts, dragonflies and the bke.
Their call note is a shrill prolonged whi-ee-ee.
The Laggar used to be commonly employed for hunting bj~ds
like patridges, pon~ herons, crows and floricans, but with the dechne
in the vogue of falconry is now seldom trained.
Nesting: The season is principally between J anua,ry and April,
The nest is the usual structure of twigs, lined with straw, leaves, etc.,
placed high up in a tree, on the ledge of a cliff or in the ,turret or
cornice of a ruined building. Old nests cif crows, kites and eagles
are frequently appropriated. It is a curious fact that the nests of
these falcons are often situated in the same tree or in the close
proximity of the nests of rollers, doves and other birds Y{hich normally
comprise their prey: These co-tenants are left unmolested, an~ on
their part seem completely unperturbed by the comings and goWgs
of the predators. The eggs-three to :live in number-are of a
beautiful pale stone or pinkish-cream colour, densely blotched and
smudged with briCk-red or reddish-brown. Both sexes share in build-
ing the nest, incubation and feeding the young.
252
 1

The Laggar Falcon

::)'3
The Red-headed Merlin
 117. The Red-headed Merlin
Falco chiqueYa (Daudin)

Size: About that of the Pigeon.

Field Characters: An elegant little falcon, bluish-grey above white
below, closely batted with blackish on the abdomen and flanks. The
colour scheme of its upper parts is an exact reversal of that of the
Kestrel in which the head is bluish-grey and the back brick-reel. The
conspicuous chestnut head in this falcon is an unmistakable feature.
On the wing, the narrow white edging to end of tail preceded by a
broad black band are other points to look for. Sexes alike, but female
larger. Singly or pairs, in open scrub country.
Distribution: Resident in the drier parts throughout the length and
breadth of India. Absent in eastern Assam, Burma and Ceylon.
Habits: The Red-headed Merlin is an inhabitant of open plains
and scrub country interspersed with cultivation, villages, and groves
of trees. It avoids heavy forest. It is commonly seen in pairs perched
singly on a rock, mound or other eminence, or flying in search of prey
over scrub and bushes. Its food consists of small birds, rats, mice,
lizards and insects. It is also said to capture bats as they come out
at dusk, stooping on them with incredible speed. Male and female
sometimes make a co-ordinated effort in pursuit of their quarry,
one bird driving and rounding it off while the other pursues and strikes
it down and the two then share the spoils. The female, known to
falconers as tuyumti, is sometimes employed for sport and can be
trained to take such birds as Rollers, Hoopocs and even Partridges.
When in pursuit its flight is very straight and swift, being attained
by rapid and regular wi,ng beats as in the Sparrow-Hawk. Its cry is a
high-pitched squeal.
Nesting: The breeding season is principally bet\~ein January and
March, though eggs may be found up to May. The nest is a fairly
well made cup or platform of sticks and t\vigs lined with grass and
roots. It is usually well concealed up in the branches of some densely
fOliaged tree such as a mango or peepal standing in open country.
Old nests of kites and crows are sometimes used. The eggs-three
Or four-are rather long and regular ovals, pale reddish-white in ground
colour, thickly speckled with reddish brown, Both sexes feed the
young.
During the breeding season these falcons become exceedingly
bold and truculent, chivvying and beating off large birds like kites
and crows which have blundered into the vicinity of the nest-tree,;
255
 118. The Kestrel
Falco tinnunGulres Linnaeus
Size: About that of the Pigeon.
Field Characters: A small slender falcon with pointed wings and
longish rounded grey tail, the latter with a broad black band across
tip. Brick-red above, with black wing quills and grey head. Light
buff below, with brown spear-head spots. Female rufous above
including head, cross-barred with blackish. Singly, in open country,
often hovering. '
'Distribution: Practically throughout the Palrearctic Region. Three
races concern us differing slightly in size and colouration, often
separable with difficulty. They are: objrergatus, resident and breeding
in S. India; tinnunculus, the typical European form, which breeds
in W. Himalayas between 2500 and 7000 feet and spreads all over
India and Ceylon in winter; and interstinetus ('=japanensis Ticeh.)
the E. Asiatic race-a winter visitor to E. Himalayas, Assam, Burma,
,E. & S. India and Ceylon.
Habits: This little falcon affects open country and grasslan~. It
is partial to the neighbourhood of cultivation and to rocky or grass·
covered hillsides. It is usually met with singly perched day after
day on some favourite mound, bush or telegraph post keeping a sharp
look-out for creeping prey, pouncing down to the ground every noW
and again and returning with it to its base. But it is the Kestrel's
other method of hunting-the hovering-that is most characteristic,
As it beats over its feeding ground, a hundred feet or more above, the
bird suddenly checks itself every little while, and with head to wind
remains poised in mid-air-sometimes with rapidly quivering wing·
tips and tail fanned out, at others almost motionless for a few seconds
-while it intently surveys the ground beneath. At the suspicion of a
movement ill the grass, the bird drops a few feet lower to investigate
more closely. If the quarry is sighted it drops silently upon it and
bears it away in its claws. If not, it flies on to repeat the manceuvre
some distance farther. The birds stake out feeding territories, a~d
encroachment by other individuals is actively resisted. Vv'hile
occasional examples may sometimes turn habitual offenders and take
to lifting young chickens of poultry or game, Kestrels as a rule feed
chiefly on field )nice, lizards, crickets, locusts and other insects and are
thus beneficial from the economic point of view. The usual notes .are
a sharp, clear hi-hi-hi uttered in flight and sometimes while hovenng,
and softer ones described as kiddrik-hiddrik.
Nesting: The season in the Himalayas is April-June, in S. India
February to April. The nest is a sketchy affair of twigs, roots, rags
and rubbish. It is placed in a hole or crevice, or on the ledge of a
cliff; occasionally on trees and ruined buildings. The eggs-thre3
to six-are oval, pale pinkish, or yellowish stone-colour profusely
speckled and blotched with various shades of red. Both sexes share
in. building the nest, incubation and feeding the young. '
256
The Tawny Eagle
258
 119. The Tawny Eagle
Aquila rap ax (Temm. & Laug.)
Size: Larger and heavier than the Pariah Kite.
Field Characters: An umber-brown bird of prey, sometimes very pale
and almost dirty buff, sometimes almost blackish. The head is flat,
the bill hooked and powerful and the legs feathered down to the
toes. Tail rounded like the vulture's, but relatively longer., \Vings
long, reaching almost to tip of tail when at rest. Female larger
than male. Singly or pairs, on trees or soaring-in open country.

Distribution: Resident throughout India (from about 4,000 feet

in the Himalayas) except in the heavy rain fall tracts, i.e., Travancore
and ~Ialabar. It is found in the dry zone of Upper Burma but i~
absent in Ceylon. The only race within our limits is vindhiana,
the typical rapax being African.
Habits: The Tawny, our commonest and most widely distributed
eagle, is a bird of semi-desert, dry open plains and scrub-country,
and cultivated land dotted with trees. It is commonly met with
On the outskirts of villages, scavenging in association with kites,
VUltures and crows by the last of whom it is much chivvied. It
Spends its time, perched on some dry tree or other exposed situation.
or circling high up in the air or sailing in search of food. Its flight
is strong and graceful; when soaring or sailing the wings are held in
a line with the body. It is an inveterate pirate and habitually robs
falcons, kites and crows of any prize they have secured, chasing them
with speed and determination and forcing them to give it up. Rarely
it also catches hares, rats and sick or disabled birds, but it prefers
to live on carrion and., by piracy rather than kill for itself. It is a
great marauder of the poultry yard and becomes especially destruc-
hve to chickens when it has nest-young to feed. It has a variety
?f loud, raucous cackles, and utters a distinctive guttural Krii as
war cry' while in pursuit of prey.

Nesting: The season lasts from November to :LYlarch or April, The

nest is a large platform of sticks and twigs, sometimes lined thinly
~1th grass and leaves. It is mostly situated on the very top of an
lsolated tree-a Babool (Acm;ia arabica) for preference -often in
the Vicinity of a village. The eggs-two or three in number-are
White in colour, with a few reddish-brown spots and specks. Both
Sexes share in building the nest and feeding the young, but evidently
th,.! female alone incubates. She is a close sitter, permitting a near
approach, but inspite of her fierce appearance shows no fight in
defence of the eggs or young before finally capitulating.
259
 120. The Short-toed Eagle
Circaijtus ferox (Gmelin)
Size: Rather larger than the Pariah Kite.
Field Charactets: A brown, thick-set eagle with the underparts below
the breast white, broadly barred with dark brown. The head is
large and OWl-like. Sexes alike but female larger_ Birds not fully
adult have a confusing variety of plumages. In overhead flight the
general aspect is silvery-grey; the dark bars across tail (usually 3
visible) being conspicuous. At close range the unfeathered legs and
upwardly directed bristly feathers on the face are suggestive clues.
Singly, perched on trees or rocks, or sailing, in open country.
The Crested Honey Buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus) is another
common hawk, frequenting light forest and foothills country. Size
about the Kite's. Greyish-brown above, pale brown below, narrowly
cross-barred with white. A blackish crest at back of head. In flight,
rather like Short-toed Eagle, but slenderer, longer in the neck and
. smaller in the head. Silvery-grey undersi.de with more dark markings.
Usually 2 broad blackish bands across tail. Call, a high pitched
screaming whistle whee-ee-ew.
Distribution: Central and Southern Europe; North Africa; Central
and South-west Asia. Within our limits it is found practically through-
out India, but not in Assam, Burma or Ceylon_
Habits: The Short-toed Eagle affects open country, both dry plaiJ15
and foothills as well as cultivated land. It may be seen circling h1gb
up in the air, or beating gracefully on outstretched motionless wings
over scrub jungle and fields in quest of prey, like a harrier. Fre-
quently it also hovers in mid-air to investigate a likely spot on the
ground below. Another mode of hunting is to sit on the branch of
a tree, or on a post, and swoop down and carry off any prey that
comes in view. Its food consists principally of snakes and lizards.
But it also eats crabs, frogs and large insects, and will occasionally
seize fish, and any srnall bir~ or mammal that happens to be sickly
or wounded.
The loud, screaming plaintive cry is uttered chiefly in the breeding
season, when also a pair will indulge in remarkable tumbling 'lnd
darting displays in the air.
Nesting: The usual breeding months are between December an~
May. The season varies somewhat in the different portions of. lts
range, being earlier in the plains than in the Himalayan foot~llld
The nest is a rough and untidy platform of twigs, sometimes hne
with grass and green leaves. It is placed in a mediurn-size~ tree,
preferably one standing by itself in open country or thin scrub Jungleci
Only a single egg is laid. It is pure white or with a bluish tinge, an
broad oval in shape.
260
The Short-toed Eagle
26 1
The Crested Serpent-Eagle
262
 121. The Creste'd Serpent-Eagle
Htlimatornis cheela (Latham)

:Size: Rather larger than the Pariah Kite.

Field Characters: A dark brown raptore with a prominent black-

and-white crest at back of head, very full when erected. The paler,
fulvous-brown underparts are ocellated and finely barred with black
and white. In soaring flight, a white bar across the tail-which is
seldom spread-and two similar bars on each of the broad and rounded
wings, are suggestive clues. Sexes alike. Singly or pairS, soaring
over wooded country with a peculiar shrill screaming call.

Distribution: Resident, but wandering locally, throughout the

better wooded parts of the Indian Empire-up to about 7,000 feet in
the Himalayas-and beyond eastwards. \Ve are chiefly concerned
with 4 geographical races differing in size and details of colouration,
viz., the Himalayan-N. India-Assam race cheela, the peninsular In-
dian melanotis, the Ceylonese spilogaster, and the Burmese burmanicus.
The Andamans and Nicobars possess endemic races.

Habits: This handsome eagle is an inhabitant -of well-watered

country, and affects forested tracts in the plains as well as hills. Its
favourite haunts are jungle-clad ravines, wooded streams and the
edge of forest clearings and cultivation. Here an individual, or a
pair may be met with perched in a lofty tree often partly concealed 'by
the foliage, but from where it can command a clear view of its sur-
~oundings. It is also commonly seen soaring in wide circles high up
In the heavens. Its .call is a penetrating high-pitched, screaming
whi5tle of 3 or 4 notes Kek-kek-kek-kee., Chiefly uttered when soaring
and clearly audible even when the bird itself is a mere speck in the
sky. They are particularly noisy during the breeding season. .

The food of the Serpent-Eagle consists mainly of frogs, lizards,

rats, and snakes, including poisonous ones, sometimes of large size.
Rarely game birds are also taken, it being swift and powerful and
i:apable of striking down large species such as jungle-and peafowl.

~esting : The season varies somewhat in the different portions of

~ts vast range, but is principally from December to March. The nest
~. a large. structure of sticks, sometimes lined with green leaves placed
19h . up 10 the fork of a lofty forest tree, growing near a stream or
cbllear mg . One egg is laid, creamy or yellowish-white in colour, boldly
otched with reddish-brown.
 122. The White-eyed Buzzard..Eagle
Butastur teesa (Franklin)

Size: About that of the Jungle-Crow.

Field Characters: A small greyish-brown hawk with white throat,
two cheek stripes, brown and white underparts and or<J.nge-yellow
cere. The eyes, white or pale yellow, are conspicuous at close quarters,
A tiny white or whitish patch on the back of the head is further con-
firmation of its identity. Sexes alike. Singly, in open scrub country.
Distribution: Throughout the drier parts of India and Burma up
to about 3,000 feet in the Himalayas. It is scarce south of Central
India and absent in Ceylon. Resident, but also local migrant.
Habits: The White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle is an inhabitant of more
or less the same type of dry open scrub, thin deciduous forest and
cultivated country as the Tawny Eagle, and like it, also avoids the
wetter and densely wooded tracts. It is usually seen singly, perched
on a favourite stump. bush or telegraph pole whence it swoops down
on any small animal of manageable size that shows itself on the
ground. It occasionally alights on the ground, walking about and
picking up any small fry it may chance upon. Its diet consists of
locusts, grasshoppers, crickets and other insects as well as small ro-
dents, lizards and frogs. Although frequently charged with game
destroying propensities, it is in fact an important conserver, since it
rids the countryside of vast numbers of field rats, mice and lizard&
which are wellknown enemies of the eggs and young of ground game.
It does, however, occasionally take a sick or wounded bird. Whill)"
of somewhat sluggish movements its :flight is swift and direct, accom-
plished by rapid strokes of the rounded wings, and rather resembling
that of the Sparrow-Hawk. In the breeding season the birds are
noisy, and their plaintive but not unpleasant mewing calls may
frequently be heard as they soar in circles high up in the air. ofte~
along with bigger birds of prey.
Nesting: The season is mostly between February and May. I ';~e
nest is a loose, unlined structure of twigs, much like a crow·s. It IS
placed fairly high up in the fork of a thickly foliaged tree such as
mango, preferably one of a clump. The normal clutch consists of
tb:ree eggs-unspotted greenish-white in colour, of a fairly smooth
texture, and broad ovals in shape. The female keeps uttering;j.
curious mewing cry intermittently throughout the day after the eggs
are laid, which generally gives away the location of the nest. Both
sexes share in building and in feeding the young. The female aloJle
does the incubating which occupies about 19 days.
264
Pallas's or the Ring~tailed Fishing-Eagle
266
 123. Pallas's or the Ring..tailed Fishing..
Eagle
HaliaiJtus leucoryphus (Pallas)
Size: Considerably larger and heavier than the Pariah Kite.
Field Characters: A large dark brown eagle' with ,pale golden-
brown head and a broad white bar across,. the tail: particularly
conspicuous in flight. Sexes alike, but female larger. pa:rrs, about
inland jheels and rivers.
Distribution: North India, Assam and North Burma. Beyond
our limits it is found about the Caspian and Black Seas, and the
Persian Gulf.
Habits: This magnificent eagle is common in the plains of Northern
India and Burma, invariably haunting the neighbourhood of rivers,
jheels and marshy ground in: pairs--occasionally also tidal creeks and
brackish lakes. It is, however, more confined to fresh water and
not met with on the sea-coast. The birds are seen either perched on
the top of some tree or mound near the water, or sailing aloft \ in
graceful circles, giving vent to their peculiar loud, raucous screams.
curiously like the creaking of an unoiled wooden pulley of a village
well. They are particularly noisy during the breeding season. Its.
food consists of fish, snakes, rats, crabs and the like and carrion is
~eldom despised. Fish are caught by the bird hurling itself from.
~he air ~lll one near the surface and carrying it off in its talons. It
IS a powerful creature and on one occasion a fish weighing 13 Ibs.
has been rescued from its clutches. When negotiating fish of such.
proportions, the bird is unable to rise clear of the water and obliged
to drag its quarry along the sUrface to the nearest land, where it is
torn to pieces and 'devoured. Its favourite mode of obtaining a
d!nner, however, is to attack Ospreys, Marsh Harriers and such other
hiids and deprive them of any prize they have secured. Pairs u\lually
hunt egrets and other large birds by co-ordinated effort, and take
turns at chasing and harrying the quarry until it is exhausted and
tan be overcome. I t has been known to attack a flock of Demoiselle
Cranes and strike down a bird. This eagle is often a great nuisance
to sportsmen on account of its aggravating habit of swooping down. \'
On wildfowl falling to a gun, even as large as a Bar-headed Goose,
. and carrying them off with the utmost audacity from alniost under
the gunner's nose I
Nesting: November to March. Nest a massive stick platform
!n some large isolated tree' standing in or near water, often used
In successive seasons. Eggs-usually three-white, broa.d oval.
Both sexes share domestic duties. Incubation period about 30 days.
26 7
 124. The Brahminy Kite
Haliastur indus (Boddaert)

Size: About that of the Pariah Kite.

Field Characters: A rusty-red bird of prey, with a white head and
breast down to the abdomen. Immature birds are chocolate-brown
and resemble the Pariah Kite from which however, as also from the
immature Scavenger Vulture, they are distinguished (especially on
the wing) by their rounded instead of forked or wedge-shaped tail.
Sexes alike. Usually found near water-river, jheel, sea-coast, &c.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Empire (excepting Balii-
.chistan and N-W. F. Province) up to about 6,000 feet in the
Himalayas. Only the typical race indus occurs within our limits,
but the species extends eastwards to Australia. Resident, but also
locally migratory.
Habits: The Brahminy Kite affects well watered open country
.and avoids both semi-desert tracts and dense forest. It invariably
frequents the neighbourhood of water and may be seen on all the
larger rivers and jheels inland, as well as along the sea-coast where
it is abundant around fishing villages and harbours. It freely enters
the precincts of towns and villages to scavenge in company with
Pariah Kites and crows. Its diet consists of any offal or garbage
that can be come by, but it prefers to pick this off the surface of water.
Accordingly sea-ports and docks are admirably suited to the birds'
requirements, for here they get a constant supply of food floating
about in the form of rubbish of every description thrown overboard the
ships. During the monsoon, land crabs in inundated country provide a
welcome change of fare and are much sought after, while winged
termites emerging from the rain-sodden ground are ".1so hawked.
Lizards, fish, frogs and small snakes are likewise eaten, This kite
shifts about a good deal with the seasons. Local movements are
particularly in evidence during the monsoon when the birds move
inland owing to the prospects of food afforded by the water-logging
.of low-lying areas. Its call is a rather harsh, wheezy squeal-like
that of a Pariah Kite suffering from acute sore throat!
Nesting: The season is mainly from December to April. The
nest is a loose structure of sticks and twigs, occasionally lined with
a few leaves, placed in a large tree such as a banyan, peepal or mango,
preferably growing near water. Along the coast, cocoanut palms
and the lofty Casuarina trees afford favourite sites. The eggs,
usually two in number, are greyish white, feebly speckled and blotched
with pale dingy reddish-brown. Both sexes share in building the
nest incubation and feeding the young. The female does most of the
incubation, however, which occupies about 26 or '27 days.
268
The Brabminy Ktie
269
The Common Pariah Kite
2jO
 125. The Common Pariah Kite
Milvus migrans (Boddaert)
Size: Smaller tlian the v-ulture (about 24 inches).
Field Characters: A large brown raptore, distinguishable from
all similar birds by its forked tail, pai:ticularly conspicuous in :flight.
Sexes alike. Singly or gregariously, scavenging in towns and villages.
Distribution: The race govillda is found throughout the Indian
Empire--and beyond eastwards-ascending the Himiilayas commonly
up to 8,000 feet. A second race lineatus, differentiated by a white
patch on the underside of the wings, is resident in Kashmir: and
spreads out over N. India in winter.
Habits: This common and familiar bird is a confirmed commensal
of Man, invariably keeping to the neighbourhood of his haunts
whether in outlying village or populated town, and profiting by
his concerns. It is usually seen perched on a rooftop, pole or tree,
or sailing in circles overhead, eyes fixed on the ground for any scraps
that can be lifted. It is one of our most useful scavengers. Large
numbers are always present about slaughter houses, bazaars and
refuse dumps, and about the docks in seaport towns. The ease,
swiftness and grace with which a kite will swoop down and carry off
a dead rat or some similar tit-bit from a narrow. congested lane with
all its din and trafiic. twisting and turning masterfully to avoid the
buildings and the tangle of overhead telephone and electric wires,
is a lesson in aeronautics and exhilarating to watch. The bird is
thoroughly omnivorous and, in addition to the usual offal and garbage,
will eat practically everything it can come by from earthworms on
a freshly watered lawn or maidall, and winged termites emerging
from the rain-sodden ground, to chickens robbed from the poultry
yard. Indeed, the kite often becomes a serious menace to the
poultry-keeper, especially when it has nest-young to feed. Outside
!he breeding season the birds roost at night in large congregations
In favourite clumps of trees, and much wrangling, hustling, flapping
of wings and wheeling in the air usually precedes slumber. Its call
note is a shrill, almost musical, whistle ewe-wir-wir-wir-wir uttered
both from a perch and on the wing. ,
Nesting: The season is much prolonged, commencing in September
and lasting till March or April. . The nest is an untidy platform of
tWigs, iron 'wire, rags, tow and rubbish of every description. It is
placed in the head of a cocoanut palm where available, otherwise in
:he forked branch of a large tree or on the roof or cornice of a build-
lng. The eggs-two to four in number-are a dirty or pinkish-white,
more or less spotted and blotched with reddish-brown. or blood red.
Both sexes share in building the nest, incubation and feeding the
YOung.
 126. The Black-winged Kite
Elanus caeruleus (Desfontaines)
Size: About that of the Jungle-Crow, but somewhat slenderer.
Field Characters: A 3m all ashy-grey and white bird of prey, with
a black line above the eyes and black patches on the shoulders, es-
pecially prominent on the closed wings which extend beyond the
square tail. Sexes alike. Singly or pairs, in scrub country or grass-
land.
Distribution: The Indi\ln race vocijerus occurs patchily practically
throughout the Indian Empire, from the base of the Himalayas.
Resident, but also a marked local migrant. The genus Elmws is
represented in America, Africa and Asia to Australia.
Habits: The Black-winged Kite inhabits well-wooded country
and cultivation. It is met with, singly or in pairs, also in thin deci-
duous forest, scrub country and grassland, but avoids dense jungle
and barren plains alike. Although somewhat crepuscular and more
active in the early mornings and just before dusk, the bird may
nevertheless be seen hunting sluggishly throughout the day. It
keeps to a favoured locality and may be seen perched on the same
pole or tree-top day after day, cocking its tail from time to time and
jerking it up and down between the drooping wings. From here it
pounces upon any prey that shows itself on the ground. It beats
over the ground flying low, and hovers cumbrously every now and
again. When some movement in the grass is detected, the bird.
with wings open and often raised above the back till almost touching
each other-only the tips quivering-slowly parachutes down a short
distance to investigate, extending its legs gradually at the same time.
The hovering is resumed and presently it descends a step lower to
investigate more closely. In this manner, when within a few feet
of its quarry it closes its wings. drops upon the victim and bears It
away in its claws .. Its food consists of locusts, crickets and other
insects, lizards, rats and mice. Sickly or wounded birds are also
taken. The ordinary flight is sluggish, accomplished by slow de-
liberate wing strokes as of the Roller, and alternated with short spurts
of sailing. The call, seldom heard, is a shrill squeal, described in the
typical African race as a monotonous, oft-repeated gree-cr, gree-cr.
Nesting: The season is an extended one and covers practically
the entire year. The two principal periods, however, are December
to MaI;ch and July to October. The nest is a loose, untidy crow-lIke
structure of twigs, sometimes lined with roots and grass, at others
unlined. It is placed in a small tree, seldom more than 30 feet fro111
the ground. The eggs-three or four in number-are a pretty yelloW-
ish-white, usually densely blotched with brownish-red. Both sexes
share in building the nest, incubation, and feeding the young. Th~
. female does the major part of the incubation, the male of the faa
getting.
The Black-winged Kit~

273
 .i

The Pale Harrier

 127. The Pale Harrier
Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin)
Size: Slightly smaller than the Pariah Kite and much more lightly
b]ilt.
Field Characters: A slender, pale ashy-grey hawk "ith black tips to its
long, narrow, pointed wings, especially conspicuous in flight. Fe-
male umber-brown with a buff-coloured, rather owl-like ruff all round
the neck-behind the earcoverts and across the throat. Singly,
skimming over standing crops and grassland.
Easily confused with male Montague's Harrier (0. pygargus)
which is just a shade darker grey. The male Hen-Harrier (0. cyaneus)
is also very similar to both, but has a broad pure white rump patch.
With the exception of males in adult plumage-and then seldom
with certainty-it is almost. impossible in the field to tell one species
from another of the harriers that visit us in winter. An unmistakable
oue however, is the Marsh Harrier (Oircus lX1"uginosu,'j) found
about jlzeels and swampy ground, and well known to the sportsman for
its annoying habit of making off with the wounded snipe or teal that
has dropped to his gun. The adult male has silvery grey wings ,and
tail. The female and immatnre male are rather like the Pariah Rite,
but slimmer, with a rounded tail and usually a creamy-buff cap.
Habits: The Pale Harrier is a generally distributed winter visitor
practically throughout the Indian Empire, arriving about the middle
of September and leaving mostly by the end of :March. . It loves
CUltivated and scrub country, rolling grassland and open grass-and-
Scrub covered hillsides. Single birds are usually seen, indefatigably
quartering the ground on outspread motionless wings, gliding grace-
fully a few feet a]Jove the surface and skimming over the standing
crops or grass. Every now and again as the bird-in EHA's inimit-
able words-' skims along the grass and skirts the bush, dips to the
hollow and rises to the mound as if it knew some charm to cancel
the laws of gravitation,' it pounces upon some unsuspecting lizard
frog, mouse, grasshopper' or small bird and settles down to dispose
of it on the spot before continuing its beat. It perches on the ground
or on clods of earth in preference to a bush or tree. The bird is silent
While with us in its winter quarters.
Breeding Range and Nesting: The Pale Harrier breeds througho~t
Eastern Europe and eastwards to Central Asia, from April to June.
Its nest is a bed of leaves and grass placed on the ground in a natural
hOllow, in cornfields and meadows. Four or five roundish oval eggs
are laid, white in colour and usually spotted and blotched with red-
diSh-brown.

275
 128. The Shikra
Astu, badius (Gmelin)
Size: About that of the Pigeon.
"Field Characters: A small familiar hawk ashy blue-grey above,
white below, cross-barred with rusty brown. Female browner above,
and larger. Immature, brown and rufous above, broadly streaked
with brown below. Tail with broad blackish bands. Usually pairs
in wooded country and by villages .and cultivation. Sometimes'
soaring in circles high up, when the small size, long tail and short
rounded wings are suggestive of its identity.
Distribution: Resident throughout the Indian 'Empire, up to about
5,000 feet in the HiIbiilayas, and beyond from Central Asia to S.
China. Several races are recognised on size and depth of colouration.
Three of these chiefly concern us, viz., the continental Indian dus·
sumieri, the Ceylon-Travancore badius, and the Assam-Burma poiiop.
sis. Birds from N.-·W. India are nearer the larger and paler Central
Asian race cenchroides.
Habits: The Shikra is a dweller of open wooded country and avoids
heavy iorest. It is fond of light deciduous jungle and groves of
large trees about villages and cultivation. The tactics it employs
in capturing prey are mainly those of Surprise. From its perch in
the concealment of some leafy tree, whence it keeps a sharp look-out
for lizards, rats, frogs, locusts and other small animals, it swoops
upon and bears away its victims before they are aware of danger. It
also kills small birds like bush-quaiIs, doves and babblers, swooping
on them without warning and chasing them down with speed and
determination. It is bold and fierce and will often tackle birds much
larger than itself.
The flight is swift consisting of several rapid wing strokes follow'
ed by a glide. Except when soaring in circles high up in the heavens,
the Shikra usually flies close to the ground, shooting upwards into the
branches of a tree when alighting. Its progress is invariably heralded
by the' Ware Hawk!' alarm notes of squirrels and every specie~ of
small bird in the vicinity. It is an inveterate robber of young crock·
ens, especially while it has nest-young to feed, and often becomes. a
serious nuisance about villages. Its usual call notes are exactly like
those of the Black Drongo, only louder. During the breeding season
pairs indulge in curious aerobatics and are very noisy, constantly
uttering a sharp double note ii-lui.
Nesting: The season ranges prinCipally between March and J~ne.
The nest is an untidy, loosely put-together structure of twigs lmed
with fine grass and roots. It is placed near the top in a leafy mango
or similar tree, preferably one of a grove. Three or four eggs orm t
the normal clutch. They are pale bluish-white, sometimes fa1l1tly
speckled and spotted with grey. Both sexes share in building the
nest and feeding the young, but apparently the female alone incubates.
The incubation period is about IS to 21 days.
,
The Shikra
l hc Omtnon Green Pigeon

78
 129. The Common Green Pigeon
CrocopU$ phamicopteru$ (Latham)

Size: That of the Pigeon.

Field Characters: A stout, yellowish, olive-green and ashy-grey
pigeon with a lilac patch on the shoulders and a conspicuous yellow
bar in the blackish wings. Sexes alike. Differentiated from all
other Indian gret;n pigeons by its yellow, not red, legs. Flocks in
wooded country, chiefly on banyan and peepal trees in fruit.
Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Empire (and beyond
eastwards to Indo-China) except Sind, Baluchistan and the desert
tracts of the N.-\V. Three races are recognised on size and details of
colouration, viz.: the grey-bellied (typical) N. India-Assam race phreni-
copterus, the yellow-bellied S. India-Ceylon chlorigaster, and the
Burmese viridifrons with yellow forehead. Resident, but moving
about locally with fruiting seasons.
Habits: This Green Pigeon-as well as the numerous other species
that inhabit our area-is exclusively arboreal and seldom,descends
to the ground. It affects open well-wooded country as well
as forest, and is frequently found in the vicinity of towns and
villages, even entering gardens. The birds deftly climb about the
twigs of fruit-bearing trees, oiten clinging upside down to get at some
fig or berry. They keep in flocks of from 10 to 50 birds, and some-
times collect in enormous numbers on banyan or peepal trees to gorge
themselves on the ripe figs, in association with mynas, horn bills,
bul~uls and other frugivorous species. \Vhen a tree is approached,
the green pigeons become immobile. Their plumage blends so per-
fectly with the surrounding leaves that in spite of their large size
the birds become completely obliterated until an inadvertent move-.
ment here and another there gives their presence away. The unsus-
pected numbers that will flutter out of a fig-laden banyan when a
gun is fired is often quite amazing. When thus disturbed the :flock
will settle in another tree not far off, returning to the feast as soon as
theIr SUSpicion is allayed, in twos and threes and small parties until
the foliage is once again a jostling mass of green pigeons all eager to
ma~~ up for lost time. The birds spend the day doing the rounds of
fruItmg trees, ,resting at intervals on the topmost branches of a dry
or leafless one. Their food consists entirely of fruit and berries-wild
figs pnidominatingly-but buds and shoots are also eaten. 'They haye
ple~sant, soft and mellow whistling calls which usually give the first
Indication of their presence in a locality. The flight is noisy, swift,
strong, and direct. ' '
Nesting: Mainly March to June. Flimsy twig nest, like dove's, in
moderate sized trees, concealed in foliage. Occasionally several
tad g:ther. Eggs-two-white, glossy. Both sexes share domestic
uhes.

279
 130. The Blue Rock..Pigeon
Columba livia Gmelin
Size: Somewhat smalleI"than the House-Crow, (I3 inches),
Field Characters: A familiar slaty-grey bird with glistening metallic
green and purple or magenta sheen on upper breast and around neck,
Two dark bars on wings. Sexes alike. Flocks and colonies about
cliffs and buildings.
Distrihution: A widely distributed species in Europe, Asia and
N. Africa with many geographical races. Throughout the Indian
Empire (except S. Burma) 2 races concern us, differentiated on size,
depth and other details of colouration. These are (r) the larger and
paler N,-'V. Indian neglecta found up to 13,000 it. in the Himiilayiis,
and (2) the smaller and darker inlermedia. Resident, but moving
locally somewhat with food supply-especially neglecta.
Habits: The Blue Rpck-Pigeon ranks with the House-Crow and
Sparrow as one of our most familiar birds. In the wild state it affects
open country with cliffs and rockY'hills, ano. avoids heavy forest
In most localities, however, the bird has degenerated more or less
into a semi-domesticated commensal of Man. It keeps to human
habitations, and almost every town of any size has its resident pigWll
population. Here it freely interbreeds with fancy domestic stock
causing no little impurity in the race, 50 that it is often impossible
to tell the Aryan from the Jew! The birds become thoroughly
inured to the din and bustle of the most congested bazaars and l~ad
a life of ease and plenty, roosting and nesting in the neighbourmg
buildings. Warehouse sheds, factory buildings and railway statio!)S
are particularly favoured resorts. Here they occupy rafters and
cornices and become an unmitigated nuisance on account of the
. mess they make. In the wild state these pigeons are commonly found
living in colonies in and about old crumbling buildings, hill forts and
rock scarps, where they occupy ledges, :fissures, and holes. In the
mornings and evenings the flocks regularly :flight back and forth !O
feed in the nearby fields. They obtaio their food by gleaning. w
stubble fields, but arc sometimes destructive to newly sown Illal~e,
pulse, ground-nuts and the like which mainly comprise their diet.
Their flight is swift and strong. Their call notes are well+known;, a
deep goatr-gao, goalr-gaa, etC.
Nesting: Breeding continues throughout the .year but iJ; ratller sl~ck
in ~he rainiest months, July to September, Two or more SUCCCSSl'le
broods are raised. On cliffs, etc., these pigeons breed in vast colom es
building scanty pads of a few twigs, rubbish and feathers; often !lud-
dled close to one another. In towns and villages, holes and nlche~
in masonry wells, buildings and mosques are utilised. The !lOnna
clutch is invariably of :2 eggs, white and eliptical. Both sexes sh~re
in building the nest, incubation and feeding the young. IncubabO!l
takes about .6 days.
280
The Blue Rock-Pigeon
281
1. The Red Turtle-Dove
Uale
2. The Spotted Dove
 131. The Red Turtle-Dove
CEnopopelia tranquebayica (Hermann)
Size: About that of the Myna.
Field Characters: The· female differs in having the mantle pale
brownish-grey instead of pinkish brick-red as in male (illustrated).
Small numbers in open cultivated country, gleaning in stubble
fields, etc. .
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Empire. Tw6 races are re-
cognised on depth .of c.olourati.on, viz: the Indian tranquebarica and
the Burmese humilis. Marked local migrant in many areas.
Habits: Perhaps the least abundant of the d.oves dealt with in this
book. It is a dweller of open cultivated country, and seldom found
in the immediate pr.oximity of Man. Met with singly .or in pairs-
sometimes large flocks- in ass.ociation with other doves. Gleans
grain, seeds and vegetable matter on the gr.ound. Call, a s.omewhat
harsh r.olling groo-gurr-goo, groo-gurr-goo repeated several times quickly.
Nesting: Practically thr.oughout the year. Nest; a sparse flimsy
platform .of a few twigs, s.ometimes lined with wisps .of grass, placed
near the end .of a branch 1.0 t.o 2.0 feet above gr.ound. The usual
2 white eggs. Both sexes share in building the nest.

132. The Spotted Dove

Streptopelia chinensis (Sc.oPoli)
Size: Between the Myna and the Pige.on.
Field Characters: C.onspicu.ous white-spotted pinkish-brown and grey
upper parts with a white-sP.otted black' chessboard' .on hind neck.
Sexes alike. Pairs or parties in .open w.ooded c.ountry, gleaning in
stubble fields, on paths, etc.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Empire except Sind and the
dry portions of the N.W. Three races mainly concern us, differentiated
on size and details of colouration viz.: the all-India suratensis, the
Burmese.tigrina and the Ceylonese ceylonensis.
Habits: Familiar everywhere in open well-wooded and cultivated
COuntry. It avoids desert and barren tracts and is never found far
from water. Pairs may commonly be seen gleaning in stubble fields
and fallow land, and along village roads and cart tracks. If unmolested
the birds become very tame and confiding, freely entering gardens
and verandans. The flight, as of the other doves, is swift and strong
accomplished by vigorous wing-strokes. The call is an oft-repeated
pleasant, though mournful, kroo-kruk-kruk-kYoo . .. kroo-kroo-kroo, the
number .of final kroos varying from 3 to 6.
~~ting : Breeds throughout the year building the customary flimsy
mg nest low down in trees and bushes-also under eaves and on
COrnices and beams in verandahs of inhabited bungalows. The usual
~ White eggs form the clutch. Both sexes share in building, incuba-
on and, feeding the young.
 133. The Ring Dove
Streptopelia decaocto {Frivalszky)
Size: Slightly smaller than the Pigeon.
Field Cbat'acters: A pale vinous-grey and brown pigeon-like bird
with a prominent narrow black half-collar on the hind-neck. Sexes
alike. Pairs or parties in open cultivated country_
Another common dove which needs mention is the Little Browll
Dove (Streptopelia senegalensis)-about the size of the Myna,' earthy
brown above with pinkish brown underparts and a miniaturfr
, chessboard' in red and black on either side of the neck. It is
abundant in dry open scrub country throughout India-tame and
confiding, freely entering and nesting in bungalows.
Distribution: Throughout the drier portions of the Indian Empire,
ascending seasonally and locally up to 10,000 ft. in the Himalayas.
Two races are recognised viz.,: the India-Assam-Ceylon decaocto,
and the Burma race xanthocyla. The latter has the bare skin around
eyes bright yellow instead of pale grey or pinkish. Resident, but also
local migrant.
Habits: This is one of the commonest doves of the plains, yer),
plentiful in certain areas and rather inexplicably scarce in others.
It loves open, cultivated-though essentially dry-countJ.'Y, abound·
ing in groves of trees within which to retire during the heat of the
day. Thorny scrub, babul and dhak jungle make favourite roosting
places. It is found abundantly in the neighbourhood of human
habitations and fearlessly enters villages and compounds. Pairs
or small parties may be met with gleaning on the ground, often in
company with other doves. Occasionally they co!lect in large flocks
as when preparing for one of their local migrations, or to feed in a
patch of paddy-stubble or newly sown jowiir field where the supply
is particularly plentiful. Their diet consists almost exclusively of
seeds and grain. The flight is characteristically pigeon-like, swift
and strong, and attained by rapid, vigorous wing-strokes. Breeding
males indulge in a pretty aerial courtship display, rising vertically
into the air on noisily flapping wings and fanned-out tail for about
50 ft. and descending in a graceful spiral glide uttering an aggressive-
sounding, prolonged koon-koon-koon. These same notes are com-
monly heard when a rival is being chased off. At other times t~e
bird just flies out from a tree-top flapping noisily, rises in the aJ.l'
to describe an arc, and coasts down on outspread motionless wings
and tail to another perch. The usual call notes are a deep aCId
pleasant trisyllabic huh-hoo-kook repeated several times.
Nesting: Practically all the year. Scanty twig nest in bush of
small tree; very rarely in houses. Eggs-two-white, glossy. Both
sexes share domestic duties.
ThE' Common Sandgrouse
Male
286
 134. The Common SandgJ'ouse
,I

Pteyocles exustus Temm. & Laug

Size: Somewhat smaller than the Pigeon.
Field Characters: };. yellowish-sandy coloured squat. pigeon-like
bird with short feathered legs and long pin-pointed tail. The female
differs nom the male (illustrated) in being streaked. and barred with
black all over except on the chin. She has a 'black I?and across'lower
breast. Flocks, in open. arid country: entirely grounfl feeding.
Distribution: Resident over a wide range in Africa ind Western
Asia. };.]so in the dry plains throughout the Indian peninsula. Not
in Assam, Burma or Ceylon. Only the one race ellioti is found within
our limits.
Habits: Common Sandgrouse-along with the several other
species inhabiting or wintering in our area-affect open barren plains,
stubble fields and fallow land where they live, feed, sleep and breed.
Their colouration is remarkably obliterative, and blends so perfectly
with this environment that when squatting motionless even large
flocks are entirely invisible at short range. Thus "a wounded bird
crouching only a couple of feet away can often give endless trouble
locating. \The Common Sandgrouse is usually met with in! :flocks
of 10 or 12 birds feeding together, but congregations of 200 or more
are not rare. Though often keeping at great distances from water,
they drink regularly a couple of hours after sunrise and again shortly
before dusk. Flock after flock repairs from every quarter to a
favourite jheel or tank at the appointed hour. and excellent sport
can be had as the birds fly to and from their drinking ground. Their
:ood consists of seeds, grain and vegetable shoots, and along with
It a great deal of grit is swallowed; Their :flight is strong and very
s"wift. The call, is a peculiar, penetrating double note like kut-ro:
ltis not particularly loud, but capable of carrying enormous distances
and may be clearly heard as the birds pass overhead often long before
they come into view.
Nesting: There is no well-defined breeding ~eason, but ~ost eggs
are found between January and May. They are laid in shallow
Unlined depressions scraped by the birds on the bare soil in open
wastes and desert country, unsheltered by bush or clod. The
Donnal, clutch is of 3 eggs, oval in shape, equally rounded at Goth
ends. In colour they are pale greyish- or yellowish-stone with
numerous specks and spots of brown scattered over the surface.
Both sexes share in inCUbation. The young are covered with richly
marked down and able to run about and feed themselves from the
moment of hatching out." The male apparently conveys water to
the chicks by soaking the feathers of his breast and abdomen while
Wading in'to drink, which is subsequently sucked in by the chicks.
287
 135. The Common Peafowl
Pavo cristatus Linnaeus
Size: About that of the Vulture, excluding the train of the cock
which is 3 or 4 feet long.
Field Characters: The gorgeous ocellated train of the adult cock
is in reality not his tail but abnormally lengthened upper tail-coverts.
The hen is smaller, lacks the train and is a sober mottled brown with
some metallic green on her lower neck. She is crested like the cock.
Droves, in deciduous forest chiefly plains and foothills. Also semi·
wild about villages and cultivation.
Distribution: Resident throughout Ceylon and India, locally up
to 5,000 ft. in the Himalayas, but absent in W. Sind, the extreme
N.-W.F.P. and also in N.E. Assam. Replaced in Burma by the
species muticus with a pointed 'top-knot' crest.
Habits: In the wild state, Peafowl inhabit dense scrub and deciduous
jungle abounding in rivers and streams. They keep in small flocks
usually composed of a cock and 4 or 5 hens but sometimes all of one
sex, and emerge into forest clearings, firelines, and fields in the
mornings and evenings to scratch the ground for food. After the
sun is fairly high up and also in the late afternoons, the flocks troop
down to the water, tripping gingerly and with the utmost circum·
spection. They are possessed of phenomenally keen sight and hearing,
are excessively wary and will slink away through the 'undergrowth
on the least suspicion. The birds are loath to leave the ground,
but when suddenly come upon they rise with laborious, noisy flapping.
The flight, slow and heavy at first, develops considerable speed once
the birds are well under way. At night they roost in lofty trees and
at early dawn the jungle resounds with the loud, screaming may·awe
calls of the cock which are such an anti-climax to his gorgeoUS
appearance. He is the first to detect the presence of the larger cats
on the prowl, and follows their progress through the jungle with his
ugly may-aweing, a warning well understood by the other denizens.
In many parts of India peafowl are protected by religion or sentiment.
Here the birds have become very abundant and semi-domesticated,
freely entering the precincts of villages and roosting in the' nei~hboudng
trees. Their food consists mainly of grain and vegetable shoots,
but they are omnivorous, and insects, lizards and small snakes seldom
go past.
Nesting: January to October. Nest. usually a shallow scrape
in dense undergrowth lined with sticks and leaves. Eggs--thre e
to five-glossy, broad oval, pale cream or 'white coffee' colour. Incu-
bapon (hen only) 26 to 28 days. Cock polygamous. Displays before
his bevy of hens by erecting and fanning out his train and strutting
about with peculiar paroxysms of violent quivering.
288
The Common PeafowJ
.Hale
'289
The Red Jungle-fowl
Male
290
 136. The Red Jungle-fowl
Gallus gallus (Linnaeus)

Size: That of the village hen or murghi.

Field Characters: The hen differs from the cock (illustrated) in
being a plain streaked brown bird, with rufous-brown underparts.
Both sexes closely resemble the • Game Bantam' breed of domestic
fowls. Small parties in scrub and SiiJ jungle.
Distribution: The Indian race murghi is resident in N. India and
Assam chiefly in the belt of HimiUayan Teriii, Bhiibar and foothills
country-upto 5,000 ft. elevation-and south through the eastern
Central Provinces to the Godavari River. Its distribution is almost
exactly coincident with that of the Sal tree (Shorea robltsta). Burma
and the adjoining eastern countries are occupied by the race 1'(lbinsoni
which differs in minor colour and other details.
Habits: The Red Jungle-Fowl-ancestor of all our domestic breeds
-is a resident of forest country, preferably Sal forest interspersed
with patches of scrub jungle, cultivation and clearings. The birds keep
in small parties comprising usually of a cock and 4 or 5 hens, feeding
in the open in the mornings, retiring during the heat of the day into
the surrounding undergrowth and emerging into the fields again in the
afternoons. They are very shy and wild, and skulk away through
the thickets on the least suspicion. When suddenly come upon they
rise with a good deal of fluttering and cackling, much like their domestic
Cousins. They are fast fliers when well under way and give good sport
Over dogs, and when driven. V,'here roads, cart tracks or :fire-lines
run through the forest, Jungle-fowl will invariably be met witb. along
these in the momings and evenings, picking at the droppings of bul-
lOcks and other animals or any grain that has fallen from a passing
cart, or scratching the ground for food. Their diet consists mainly
of grain and vegetable shoots but insects, worni.s and lizards <)Ie also
eaten. Bamboo seeds are highly prized, and large numbers will
Collect to feed in a patch where these are available. The croW' of the
Cock resembles that of the Bantam, but it is somewhat shriller and
ends more abruptly. It is uttered principally in the early morning,
and also just before and while the birds are preparing to roost for
the night in some tree or bamboo clump. It is usually preceded by
a nOisy flapping of the wings against the sides and promptly answered
by another cock in the vicinity.
Nesting: Principally Ivlarch to May. Cock apparently monogamous.
Nest, a shallow scrape in dense undergrowth lined with dry leaves.
EggS-'-five or six-like domestic fowl's. Incubation (hen only) about
20 days.

291
 137. The Grey Jungle..fowl
Gallus sonneratii Temminck
Size: That of the village hen or murghi. .
• grey, with a
FIeld Characters: General effect of the cock streaked at a glance
metallic black sickle-shaped tail. Hen distinguishableufous_brown)
from that of the Red Jungle-fowl by her white (not I:ties in forest
breast with blackish streaks. Singly, pairs or small pal
and scrub jungle. -
south of the
Distribution: The forested portions of Central India 1 the west to
range of the last, roughly from Baroda and Mt. Aboo 0bdia to about
the mouth of the Godavari on the east, and through S. lent.
Cape Comorin. Not in Ceylon, Burma or Assiim. Resid,
,t, both deci·
Habits: The Grey Jungle-fowl is also a denizen of fore:v- partial to
duous and evergreen, hill and plain. It is especiall;thick tangles
broken foothills country with bamboo jungle, and to the g up on old
of Lantana and secondary scrub that invariably sprin usually met
toungya clearings and abandoned plantations. It is lionally large
with singly or in pairs or small parties, though occa~: Strobilallthes
numbers collect to feed in areas such as where bamboos 0iilar but this
are seeding. The habits of the two species are very sin:.fo~l. When
is perhaps even shier and more timid than the Red Jungle',ngs it seldom
emerging into the open to feed in the mornings and eveni outstretched
...~'\... -\.-u_ ~""~ ':--"""''''-'', ."""'~~"<:s:.~ \,._"'~~"""-~ ~"-",, ~ ",<\~\;:y t) unmolest'eQ,
neck and droopmg tail on the least suspIcIon. Whet't Man feeding
however, the birds become quite inured to the presence (J I1gh. 'Its diet
in the proximity of villages and in fields under the pl~ Lantana and
co.mprises of grain, shoots, and berries such as those O,j;es and other
Z;zyPhus, gleaned on the ground. It also eats term~l_described as
insects. The crow of this Jungle-fowl has been wev!lun repeated
Kilck-kaya-kaya-kuck ending with a low kyukun-kyP-(s heard prin'
slowly and softly and audible only at short range, Itjjl.ybreak-and
cipaUy in the early mornings-often long before V uttered from
evenings, sometimes continuing into the dark. It i~ nightly roost
the top of an ant-hill, stone or fallen log, or from the£Illy preceded
up in a -tree or bamboo clump. The crowing is usvanswered one'
by a loud flapping of wings against the sides, and is
by one by all the other cocks in the neighbourhood.
monogamOUS
It is not definitely known whether this species i&
or otherwise. t
0\ J throughoU
Nesting: Eggs and young may be found practicaIllj:uary to May.
the year, but the principal laying months are from FeV d Jungle-fow!,
,The nest and its situation are similar to those of the Rtlpuff in colour,
Tl,le normal clutch is of 4 to 7 eggs, pale fawn to warm1'he hen alone
very like those of the domestic fowl in appearance,
incubates.
The Red Spur-fowl
Mate
 138. The Red Spur-fowl
Galloperdix spadicea Gmelin
Size: About that of a t grown village murghi.
Field Characters: The hen differs from the cock (illustrated) in
being rufous-brown or chestnut above with fine black bars and freckles.
Her breast is pale chestnut-rufous with black spots. The cock has
from 2 to 4- pointed spurs on each leg; the hen usually one on one leg
and two on the other. Both sexes have a naked brick-red patch
around the eye. Pairs, occasionally family parties, on ground in
stony, overgrown nullahs, &c.
The Painted Spur-fowl (G. lun1l1ata) is found over a large portion
Df central and peninsular India, overlapping the range of the Red in
many areas. The male has a buff coloured breast with black spots.
The Ceylon Spur-fowl (G. bicalcarata), restricted to the island,
has the breast chiefly white in male, plain chestnut in female.
Distribution: Rather irregular. The Himalayan Terai, Central
and Peninsular India are inhabited by the typical race. Travancore
has the richly coloured race stewarti. The pale race callrina is 'confined
to the Aravalli Hills. It does not occur in Assam or Burma.
Habits: The Red Spur-fowl lives in deciduous forest country.
especially where hilly and stony, and broken up by ravines and llullahs.
It is fond of scrub undergrowth and bamboo patches. and may here
be seen scratching amongst the mulch and dry leaves for food. It is
a great skulker, and scuttles away on the least alarm. dodging from
cover to cover and generally running uphill whenever it has the choice.
It is reluctant to fly unless hard pressed or suddenly come upon. When
flUShed. it often takes refuge up in the branches of a nearby tree.
But it usually ·trusts to its legs for a speedy escape. Spur-fowl are
addicted to favourite spots. or rather beats, where they may be found
day after day. Overgrown ruins are particularly favoured haunts.
and the birds love to rummage among the fallen leaves under the
thickets and brushwood there. They seldom venture out into the
open. The food consists of seeds. berries and insects. The cock
has a peculiar chuckle-like crow,-a quick-repeated rattling k-r-r-r-
~wek, kr-r-kwek. kr-r-kwek &c.-hard to describe but reminding, one
In a way of the guinea fowl. The alarm notes or cackle of the hen,
kuk-kuk-kuk-kukiik, are very like those of the domestic murghi.
Nesting: The principal breeding months are from January to June
varying with locality. but eggs may be found practically all the year.
The nest is a shallow depression scraped in the ground in dense bam-
boo or scrub jungle. sometimes sparsely lined with grass and leaves.
The eggs-3 to 5-are buff-coloured and very like small eggs of the
domestic fowl.
 ·139. The Common or Grey Quail
Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus)
Size: About that of a dove without the tail, or a fortnight-old
domestic chicken.
Field Characters; A plump and squat pale brovro partridge-like
bird, practically tailless, with conspicuous buff spear-shaped streaks
and irregular blotches and bars of reddish-brown and black abovt.
The male has a black anchor mark on the throat. outer webs of
primaries barred with buff. Pairs or gregariously, on the ground,
in cultivation and grassland.
Distribution: The typical race is resident over N. Aftica; W. and
Central Asia and sparingly over the greater part of N. and Central
India east to Manipiir. In winter immigrants from across our borders
spread abundantly over most of continental India, but not to Ceylon.
The Eastern race japonica, visits Assam and Burma in winter.
Habits; The Grey Quail is partly resident in India and partly
migratory, i.e., though the species is found in our midst throughout
the year its numbers are augmented by millions UpOIl millions of
fresh arrivals from beyond our northern and north-western frontiers
between August and October. These immigrants depGlrt again by
about the end of April. It is a bird of open country frequenting
standing crops and grassland. It usually keeps in pairs, but numbers
may concentrate in a spot where food is plentiful or shelter good.
Thus in the Himalayas and Kashmir, particularly on spring emigra-
ti{}~, 'Wbe~ IDI)':>t 01 tbe c:mps b",'Ve been banre':>teu a~d ",nly a kvt
standing, hundreds may be put up in a single field. When fiush~d,
the bird rises with a characteristic low wMrr of wings-accomparued
by a squeaky' whistling note-almost vertically upwards for SGn;te
distance and flies off at a height of six feet or so, to plunge aga.!ll
into the crops a couple of hundred yards further .. The flight, s'yift
and direct, is attained by rapid, vibrating wing strokes, a.nd is typIcal
of game birds of this class. Its call is a loud whistling !lOte foll?W~
rapidly by two short ones. It has been described as a ' ycry hqUld
Wet-mi-lips '. Its diet consists almost entirly of grain and grass
seeds, but termites and other insects are also eaten. Vast numberS
of quail are netted annually all along their migration routes, b~tll
autumn and spring, and were it not for the fact that they ~re proJifi(;
breeders, the species would have become extinct long Glgo. On the
spring passage to their breeding grounds, the birds are very fat and
considered a great delicacy for the table. Males are largely kept
as fighting birds. Considerable sums change hands over the bouts,
and victorious birds often fetch prices ranging upto Rs. 100 or more.
Nesting: Our resident birds normally breed between March and
May, but occasional nests may be found from February to OC1:ober.
The nest is a shallow scrape sparsely lined with grass, usually well
concealed in standing crops or grass. 6 to 1:4 eggs comprise a clutch.
In colour the eggs are reddish or yellowish-buff. speckled and blotched
with dark brown.
The Common or Grey Quail
Female
297
The Black-breasted or Rain-Quail
.Male
 140. The Black-breasted or Rain-Quail
. Coturnix coromalldelicus (Gmelin)

Size: Slightly smaller than the Grey Quail.

Field Characters: Similar to the Grey Quail. except! that the uPI
breast and frequently also the centre of the abdomen is blae
Female very like that of the previous species, but in the hand botn
sexes can be told from the Grey Quail by the absence of the buff and
brown cross-bars on the primary wing quills. Pairs or small parties,
on the ground, in cultivatio~ and grassland. .

Distribution: Throughout India (up to about 6,000 ft. in the

Himiilayas) Assiim and North Burma. Rare in Ceylon. Resident
but also local migrant.

Habits: This handsome quail affects tall grassland and 'standing

crops. In general habits it differs little from the last species, and
the two are frequently found in association. In up-country
stations it commonly enters gardens and compounds wherever any
clumps of grass afford cover, and also haunts open semi-cultivated
~ountry around villages. "Vet grassland and paddy-fields attract
It hkewise. The Rain-Quail, though a more or less resident species-.
throughout its range, moves about a great deal locally with the
seasons. This is particularly the case in the monsoons and due
doubtless to· the conversion of otherwise bare tracts into suitable
grassland at this period, ~nd the consequent availability of food and
cover. Its movements, however, are little understood as yet .

. The call is a disyllabic musical' whistle which-which .• which-

WhICh, etc., constantly repeated, chiefly in the mornings and evenings.
In the breeding season indeed it may be heard most of the day and
e~en during the night. It is quite distinct from and unmistakable
With the caJl of the Grey Quail.

N~sting: The season is from March to October, but most eggs are
lald aiter the break of the S-W. Monsoon in June. The nest is a.
~crape lined with grass, like that of the Grey Quail, and usually alsc>
m similar situations. Sometimes it is in the open under shelter of
a cactus or other bush. The eggs-6 to 8 in number-are slightly
glOSsed pale creamy-buff or stone colour, blotched with varying
shades of brown. They resemble those of the last species, but are
Illuch smaller. The female alone incubates.
299
 141. The Jungle Bush.. Quail
Perdicula asiatica (Latham)
Size: That of the Rain-Quail.-
Field Characters: The female 'differs from the male (illustrated)
in the absence of the black barring on the underparts. In her case
-the underparts are dull vinous brown. She also has the chestnut
'<:hin and throat. Coveys in dry scrub country.
A very similar and confusing species. the Rock Bush-Quail
P. argaondah is often found side by side with this. In the male the
chin and throat-patch are dull brick-red as against chestn~t in asiatica.
The hen has a whitish chin. and no throat-patch.
Distribution: Resident locally throughout India (froQl the Hima-
layan foothills to Cape Comorin) and Ceylon. in the plaip.s and up to
about 4,000 ft. in the hills. Absent in Sind, parts o{ Riijputiina,
Eastern Bengal, Assam and Burma. Four races are r~cognised on
details of colouration. viz.: the dark Ceylonese ceylonensis. the red
Konkan-Malabar vidali. the pale N-W. Indian punjaubi. and the
.typical asiatica which occupies the remaining portions.
Habits: The Jungle Bush-Quail affects fairly open deciduous forest
as well as dry stony country with grass-and-scrub j\lngle. It is
iound in stubble fields and stony grassland. but seldoll) in standing
.crops. The birds live in coveys of 5 to 20 and have a habit of forming
themselves into' squares' when resting--crouching bun()hed together
.under a bush or in the open. all facing outwards-and, of suddenly
exploding' or rising with a whirr of wings when almo~t trod upon,
.and dispersing in all directions. These' explosions' are apt to be
Iather embarrassing when one is stalking big game. Tl~e birds drop
after a short flight. and the covey soon re-unites by Ipeans of 50ft
-whistling calls. whi-whi-whi-whi, etc.• uttered by its meIjlbers. They
also roost at night in the manner described and are eailily captured
by fowlers who. having marked down a retiring covey. return under
.cover of darkness and throw a net around the sheltering bush. The
birds troop down in single file to drink in the mornings <~nd evenings,
and shift from one feeding ground to another in like rr~anner, using
the same little paths or tunnels formed in the matted a(ld bent-over
'grass. day after day. Their food consists mainly of graiJ). 'grass seeds
and tender shoots. Breeding males are pugnacious av.d challenge
rivals by harsh grating calls as of the Black Drongos ' art;uing' at the
·()nset of their breeding season.
Nesting: Males are apparently monogamous. but 1;his has not'
been ascertained. The season is not well-defined. and ra(lges betvl':e n
August and April. The nest is a scrape in the grounG. lined vnth
grass, under shelter of a bush or grass-tussock. usually in scrub
jungle. The eggS-4 to 8 in number-are creamy-white in col?U r
:and fairly glossed. Incubation. which takes about 16 da,ys. is camed
.oD by the hen alone.
300
The Jungle Bush-Quail
.11ale
30 1
The Black Partridge
Male
 142. The Black Partridge
Francolillus fra1lColinus (Linnaeus)
Size: About that of a half-grown village murghi.
Field Characters: A plump, stub-tailed game bird chiefly black,
spotted and barred with white. The female is considerably paler,
mottled and speckled black and white. Singlx or pairs, in well-
watered and cultivated country.
Distribution: Resident throughout N. India (commonly up to 5,000
ft. in the W. HimiiJayas) east to Manipiir in -Assam. Its southern
boundary is roughly a curve from Cutch through GwiUior to Chilka
Lake in Orissa. Westward, beyond our limits, it extends to Asia
Minor. VIe are concerned with 3 races differing in details of colour-
ation, viz.: the pale Sind Baluchistan-Persia henri&i, the dark Sikkim-
Assam melanotus, and the intermediate asire.
Habits: This handsome partridge loves well-watered scrub-, tamarisk-
and tall grass-jungle. Riverain country, intersected by irrigation
canals and tributaries, such as is now typical of many portions of
N. India and Sind, overgrown with dense tamarisk scrub and inter-
spersed with millet, sugarcane and other crops are eminently suited
to its requirements. It thrives equally well, however, in the drier
portions of .its habitat, ascending the Himalayan foothills where
among other facies it is partial to tea plantations and their environs.
They keep in pairs, though 3 or 4 birds may frequently be found
together, while a good patch of scrub on being beaten may produce
te_n, twelve or even more birds. They afford excellent sport rising
WIth a whirr of wings singly or in twos and threes and flying swiftly
and strongly. Often the birds will run ahead of the line of beaters
and rise suddenly and unexpectedly a good many together, near
t~e edge of the beat, putting the sportsman off completely. The
blIds enter the crops to feed chiefly in the mornings and evenings.
They are exceedingly swift runners and will usually trust to their
legs for escape' unless driven or suddenly come upon. \Vhile walking
along the ground the stub-tail is often held slightly cocked as in the
mom-hen, a peculiarity not seen in the Grey Partridge. Their food
conSlsts of grain, grass seeds and tender shoots, but white ants and
?ther insects are also eaten. The cheerful call of the Black Partridge
IS .a curious mixture of the musical and the harsh-a high-pitched
clllck ..•. cheek-cheek-keraykek-svllabified by the Emperor Babur as
Shir-diircm-shallrak (' I have miik and a little sugar '). It is uttered
at short intervals, chiefly in the mornings after sunrise and iIi the
eveI'ings far into the dusk, the birds answering one another from all
quarters. The call has a peculiar ventriloquistic and far-reaching
~uahty. These partridges are extensively netted, and their numbers
In many localities have dwindled considerably within recent years.
Nesting: The season lasts from April to July. The nest is a shallow
depression scraped in the ground and lined with grass. It is situated
amongst the roots of grass clumps and bushes, in tamarisk scrub,
Fsland or millet fields. The I).ormal clutch is of 6 to 8 eggs, varying
rom pale olive-brown to almost chocolate-brown ..
 143. The Painted Partridge
Francolinus pietlts (Jardine & Selby)

Size: That of the Grey Partridge.

Field Characters: Closely resembling the female Black Partridge in
size, shape and general colouration. Black, profusely spotted and
barred with white, with some rufous in the head and wings. When
flying away from the observer, the blackish undertail coverts showing
on either side of tai1, and the chestnut in the wings, are conspicuous.
The female is only slightly different. Singly or pairs, about cultiva'
tion, grassland and in' grass-and-scrub country, never very far from
water.
Distribution: The typical race pictus occupies peninsu'lar India south
of the range of the Black Partridge, but is absent on the Malabar
coast. The darker race watsoni occupies Ceylon. It is not found in
Burma.
Habits: The Painted Partridge is in all respects closely akin to the
Black, though on the whole it frequents somewhat drier country
and keeps nearer cultivation. It is also perhaps more arboreal, not
only roosting in trees at night but als6 mounting into them in daytime.
It may be heard calling in the mornings and evenings, as well as on
cloudy days. It is particularly vocal during the breeding season
and may then be commonly heard all over the countryside. The
call is the same high-pitched chik .. cheek-cheek-kel'ay and almost
indistinguishable from that of the Black Partridge. It is uttered
from a tree standing atllidfields or from some natural eminence such
as a boulder or an ant-hill whence the bird can survey the surrounding
country.
The female is also said to call, but this needs confirmation.
Painted Partridge rnove about in widely separated pairs and are
not met with in coveys like the Grey. But aiter the breeding season
it is not uncommon to flush a family party consisting of parents and
four or five young birds almost together. As regards food and other
habits it does not differ appreciably from the Black Partridge.
Nesting: The breeding season commences with the rains, about the
middle of June, and lasts till September. The nest is a scrape or
. slight hollow on the ground, sparsely lined with grass and leaves.
It is usually in standing crops, particularly sugarcane, or under a
bush on grassy bands separating fields. The egg&-4 to 8-are very
like those of the Black Partridge, only much paler, being various
shades of cream. The female is a. close sitter, which makes the nest
rather difficult to locate.
The Painted Partridge
30 5
The Grey Partridge
30b
 144. The Grey Partridge
J;rancolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin)
Size: A!bout that of a hali-grown village chicken (13#).
Field Characters: A plump, stub-tailed greyish-brown game bird
with fine wavy black and buff vermiculations, all over, and some
chestnut in the tail. Sexes alike. Pairs or coveys, in dry scrub
country and cultivation. 1!

Distribution: Resident in the drier portions-mostly plains-

throughout India up to about 1,500 ft. in the Himiilayas, east to
~engal and south to (including) Ceylon. Westward, beyond our
limits, to Persia. Three races concern us, differing in details of size
and colouration, viz.: the palest Persia-Baluchistan mecranensis. the
darker Sind-No India interpositus and the darkest S. India-Ceylon
pondji/cerianus.
Habits: The Grey Partridge inhabits dry, open grass-and-thorn
scrub country interspersed with cultivation. and avoids heavy forest
and humid tracts. It is commonly found on the outskirts of villages.
Except when paired off for breeding. the birds go about in coveys ,
of 4 to 6, scratching the ground and cattle dung for food, and, running
about with a jaunty, upright carriage. On alarm the covey scuttles
a~y swiftly, the birds finally taking surreptitious refuge in some
thIcket, and are loath to fly unless hard pressed. When :flushed,
they rise with a loud whirr, scattering in different directions with
rapid strokes of their short rounded wings, alternated with pauses
of gliding. After a short flight the bird resettles on the ground but
continues to run on immediately. so that on approaching a bush
wherein one has apparently taken cover it is fonnd to have yanished
and will be seen running on swiftly a long way ahead. They roost
~t night up ,in thorny trees and bushes, and will often take shelter
Into these when harried \ in daytime. Tb,e call of the cock Grey
Partridge is one of the most familiar and exhilarating sounds on the
countryside. It commences with two or three rather subdued chuckles.
rising in scale and intensity, followed by a ringing high-pitched and
mUsical kateetur-kateetur or pateela.-pateela, quickly repeated. The
call of the female is a less challenging pela-pela,-pela, etc. The birds
are easily snared and· netted by means of trained decoys and find a
large and ready demand as food. Indiscriminate netting has caused
a serious diminution of their numbers in many areas. Young birds
are hand-teared and trained for fighting purposes. They become
exceedingly tame, following their master about like a dog, calling
to his order and coming long distances when summoned. Its food
consists of seeds, grain, shoots and berries such as Lantana. It also
eats maggots. white-ants and other insects.
festing: The season extends practically throughout the year, the
aVOured months varying according to locality. The nest is a simple
grasS-lined scrape in the ground in grassland, ploughed fields, standing
crops or ~crub jungle. The eggs-4 to S-are cream coloured or
caftl-au-Iait. Apparently only the hen incubates though both parents
Usually accompany the chicks.
 145. The Bustard-Quail
TU1'ni~
suscitatoy (Gmelin)
Size: Somewhat smaller than the Rain-Quail.
Field Characters: An unmistakable quail with the breast cross-
barred with black and buff. Contrary to the normal condition in
birds the female (illustrated) besides being larger, is more richly
coloured than the male, his chin, throat and breast being whitish-
buff_ Bustard-Quails are distinguishable in the hand from true
quails by the absence of the hind-toe. Pairs or small parties, in
scrub and grassland.
Distribution: Resident-except in Sind, the Punjab and the NAV.-
practically throughout India, Assam, Burma and Ceylon, up to about
8,000 ft. in the Himalayas. Seven geographical races are recognised
on details of colouration, of which the three most vridely ranging are:
plumbipes (N. Burma, Assam, N. India west to Nepal), taijoor (all-
India south of above) and leggei (Ceylon). .
Habits: Excepting dense forests and deserts, the Bustard-Quail
is found in every type of country. It is partial to open scrub and
light deciduous forest and is frequently met with feeding in small
clearings and on footpaths and firelines through these. It also hau~ts
the neighbourhood of cultivation. The birds usually keep in pam
or 3 or 4 together, and while generally distributed they are nowhere
abundant. They are great skulkers and flushed with difficulty only
when almost trampled upon, fiying low and dropping again into the
undergrowth after a few yards. In flight the pale buff shoulder-
patches on the wings are conspicuous and suggestive of their identity.
Their food consists of grass-seeds, shoots, grain and small insects.
The caU uttered by the hen, who is highly pugnacious, is a loud
drumming drr-r-r-r-r-r often continued for IS seconds at a stretch
and sometimes heard even on a pitch dark night. It serves bot~ to
announce her whereaboubt to a cock and as a challenge to nval
females. For, in the Bustard-Quails (and their likewise three-toed cou'
sins the Button-Quails) the normal role of the sexes is reversed. The
female is polyandrous; she does all the courting. and fights furiously
with rival hens for the possession of a cock_ As soon as a mate )5
secured and the eggs laid, her part of the contract is over. ~he
consigns the cock to incubate them and rear the family, and forthWIth
busies herself with making fresh conquests. Thus a single hen may.
almost simultaneously, have several clutches of eggs or broods of
chicks under the respective charge of her various husb<l;uds.
Another call, a. subdued booming hoon-hoon-hoon-hoon, sometlme~
for 5 seconds or more, is also heard, but it is uncertain as to what sex
or conditions produce this.
Nesting: Practically throughout the year, presumably as long ~
the female can provide herself with gullible suitors I The nest Id
a grass-lined depression on the ground--sometimes arched over an
'canopied by the surrounding grasses-in scrub jungle or crops. ,!,~e
eggs--3 or 4-are greyish-white, profusely speckled with reddls •
brown or blackish-purple. They are broad. obtuse ovals in sha.pe and
of, a glossy texture.
308
3 10
 THE USEFULNESS OF BIRDS
It has been Said that Birds could exist without Man but that
Man wo~ld perish without birds. This observation has been further
amplified by the remark that' But for the trees the insects would
perish, but for the insects the birds would perish, but for the birds
the trees would perish, and to follow the inexorabhi' laws of Nature
to the conclusion of their awful vengeance, but for the trees the world
would perish.' An impartial scrutiny of the facts, shows that there
1S indeed little extravagance in either of these statements ....
-i

As destroyers of insect pests

The variety, fecundity and voracity of insects are unbelievable.
Over 30,000 forms have been described from the Indian Empire'
a1one--or more than ten times the number of bird species and
races--and probably many more still remain -to be added to the'
list. Practically all living animals as well as J?lants furnish food
for these incomputable hordes. Many estimates have been made'
of what ,a single pair of insects would increase to if allowed unchecked
multiplication, and astounding figures have been reached rivalling
in their stupendousness those which we associate with astronomical
c~lculations. A Canadian entomologist has estimated that a single-
pair of Colorado Beetles or Potato Bugs (Leptinotarsa decemlin-eata-
helonging to the prolific "family Chrysomelidm of which over 20,000
species are known throughout the world, and which is well represented
m India) WOUld, without check, increase in one season to sb::ty
millions. Riley computed that the Hop Aphis or Chinch Bug (Blisslts
ieucoptcrus), very destructive to grasses and cereals in America, which
develops 13 generations in a single year would, if unchecked, reach
ten sextillion individuals at the end of thc 12th genera,tion. It
is calculated that if this brood were marshalled in line end to end at
the rate of 10 pe~ inch, the procession would be so long that light,
travelling at the rate of 184.000 miles per second, would take 2,500
years to reach from one end to the other t ,;.
A yaterpillar is said to eat twice its own weight in leaves per
d.ay. Certain flesh-feeding larv::e will consume within 24 hours 200
tin:es their original weight. It is affirmed that the food taken by
a s~ngle silkworm in 56 days equals in weight 86,000 tirnes its original
~'elght at hatching. Locusts are as notorious for their p:rolific re-
production as for their prodigious appetites. Their swarms are
SOmetimes so thick as to obscure the sun, and such a visitation will
In the Course of a few short hours convert green and smiliIlg areas
;nto a des~late tract with nothing but bare stems. The female
OCust lays Its eggs in capsules underground, each capsule containing-
3II
 Flower-nectar is rich in carbo-hydrates and provides exc:ellent nutri·
ment, so much so that many of the most highly orgarlised flower·
birds subsist. more or less exclusively on this diet. In trying to readl
the nectar, the forehead or throat of the bid comes into c:ontact with
the anthers. The ripe golden pollen dust adheres to the feathers
and is transported to the mature stigma of the next flower visited,
which it thus fertilises. It is little realised how largely responsible
birds are for the success of the present-day :Match Industry in India.
Of all the indigenous woods that have been tried in the }llanufacture
of matches, that of the Silk Cotton tree has been found to be the most
satisfactory as regards quality, abundance and accessibility. The
large showy crimson flowers of this tree serve as a sign-post to attract
the attention of the passing bird. They contain a plentiful supply
of sugary nectar, which is eagerly sought after by bir;ls of many
kinds-over 60 different species have been noted-and are mainly
cross-pollinated through their agency. Birds thus contribute to the
production of fertile seed and the continuance of healthy generations
of the tree, and incidentally to the supply of raw material for your
box of matches. A careful scrutiny will doubtless rev~al that we
are ultimately dependent upon birds in this House-that-]ack-built
sort of way for many more of our every-day requirerPents. The
Coral tree (Erythrina), wh;ch is largely grown for shade in the tea
"''!\~ \:'01'1"" 'P\'dTl\"'\~()n.'" ,,). Sm,\u. )_""'''"'', "'" "'\,,'0 '0Tl" ~u.'0"" ~mv,P.;:,," U~
fertilised chiefly, if not exclusively, by birds of many species.

As seed dispersers I

In the dissemination of seed and the distribution of plant life,

birds playa predominant part in this country. Their avtivities u~­
fortunately are not always of a beneficial character from t)le econoJllIC
point of view. No better instance of tlle extent of thOir seed-dl~­
persing activities can be cited than that of the Lantana. This perm-
cious plant of Mexican domicile was first imported into Ceylon for
ornamental purposes just over a century ago. It has sijlce overrun
• thousands of square miles of the Indian continent, and pecome the
despair alike of agriculturist and forester. Its phenomenal spreud
within this comparatively short period would have been impossible
without the agency of birds, numerous species of which greedily devour
the berries which the plant everywhere produces in such over w~el­
ming profusion. A Black-headed Oriole has been observed swaJlOwlug
77 berries in the course of 3 minutes. The seeds pass thro~gh the
birds intestine unaffected by the digestive juices, and o~t WIth the
waste matter in due course. They germinate rapidly under favourable
conditions and establish themselves.
 Another noxious plant that is entirely bird propagated is the
Loranthlls tree-parasite. It belongs to the Mistletoe family, well
represented in this country, almost all of whose Indian members
are more or less wholly symbiotic with Sun birds, Flowerpeckers and
other bird species, which both fertilise its flo\\ ers and disperse its
seeds. Bulbuls and Barbets are largely responsible for the dissemina-
tion of the seeds of the Sandalwood tree in South India and are wel-
come in Sandalwood plantations. In the newly colonised canal
2.reas of the Punjab, the Mulberry owes its abundance mainly to
propagation by birds. Experiments have even shown that the seeds
of such plants as grow on richly manured soil, after passing unin-
jured through a bird's intestine, produced stronger seedlings than those
which were cultivated without such advantages.
As food for man
A feature of the larger dhands or jheels in Sind and other places
in Northern India during the cold weather is the magnitude of the
netting operations that go on throughout this season for supplying
the markets of the larger towns, both near and distant, with wildfowl
of every description for the table. The population of the neighbour-
hood of these jheels subsists during these months more or less exclu-
sively on the flesh of water birds or on the traffic in them. Round
every village near a dTzal1d of any size in Sind may be seen little
mounds of coot feathers which furnish an indication of the esteem
the bird enjoys as an article of diet. The wildfowl netting operations
on the Manchar Lake alolle involve a turnover of several thousand
rupees annually, besides providing the inhabitants of the neighbour-
hood \vith free or almost free sustenance for several months in the year.
Quails, Partridges and other game birds are also netted or shot
for eating purposes, and innumerable other species of every descrip-
tion are caught and sold in the bazaars to fanciers, yielding substantial
returns to those engaged in the trade.
Egret feathers
Until a few years ago Egret-farming for the sake of the valuable
plumes was a profitable cottage industry and largely practised on the
various dhands or j/leels in Sind. The dainty' decomposed' breeding
plumes of the white egrets,-aigrettes as they are known to the trade-
were largely exported to Europe for ladies' head-dresses, tippets,
boas, muffs and for other ornamental purposes. They were almost
W,)rth their weight in gold, and brought in handsome profit to the
farmers. With the change in ladies' fashions, the demand has
dwindled considerably, and with it the prices. The working of the
Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act has put a further check upon
exports, and most of the egret farms have gradually disappeared.
31 5
Birds' nests
There are other minor products of birds which, if properly hus.
banded, could be made to yield considerable revenue in India. The
saliva nests of the so-called Edible-nest Swiftlets (Collocalia), which
breed in vast colonies off the Burma coast and that of the Konkan
0N. India), are even now a source of conc;iderable income to those
engaged in the trade and of royalty to Government. The nests are
collected and exported to China as an epicurean delicacy, the better
qualities fetching from Rs. 7 to 14 per lb. The value of nests imported
into China during 1923, 1924 and 1925 exceeded Rs. 25 lakhs; a fair
proportion of these came from the Indian Empire.
Guano
Guano which is really the excrement of sea birds such as gannets,
cormorants and pelicans is another product of great commercial
value. The fertilising properties of the phosphoric acid and nitrogen
contained in fish were not recognised until guano became a stimulUS
to intensive agriculture. The real guano is found in vast stratified
accumulations on islands off the coast of Peru, and although no
deposits of like magnitude or value exist within our limits, yet the
possibilities of the ' guano' of colonial nesting water birds have not
been seriously exploited in India~
From all that has been said it must not be assumed that birds
are' a wholly unmixed blessing. They are injurious to ?llan's interests
in a number of ways. They destroy his crops, and damage his or-
chards, flower beds and vegetables gardens; they devour certain bene-
ficial insects and prey upon fish and other animals useful to Man
as food; they act as intermediate hosts of parasites that spread
diseases among his livestock and disperse them far and wide in the
course of their migrations; they fertilise the flowers and disseminate
the seeds of noxious plants and weeds. Yet with all there can be no
doubt that the good they do far outweighs the harm, which must
therefore be looked upon as no more than the labourer's hire.
The case for the protection and conservation of birds in a country
like ours-so largely agricultural and forested and therefore at their
mercy-is clear, and needs no eloquent advocacy. Quite apart from
the purely materialistic aspect, however, it must not be forgotten
that Man cannot live by bread alone. By the gorgeousness of their
plumages and the loveliness of their forms, by the vivaciousness of
their movements and the sweetness of their songs, birds typify Life
and Beauty. They rank beyond a doubt among those important
trifles tha.t supplement bread in the sustena.nce of Man and make IllS
living worthwhile.
 ·ck-billed Flowerpecker eating Loranthus berries.
This bird is largely responsible for the dissemination of
the tree-parasite
3 17
 \
)

The White-breasted Water-Hen

318
 146. The White-breasted Water-Hen
Amaurornis phamicurus (Pennant)
Size: About that of the Partridge.
Field Characters: A common slaty-grey, stub-tailed, long-legged
marsh bird with prominent white face and breast and bright rusty-
red under the tail. Singly, or pairs, skulking about in reeds and
thickets on water-logged land. Sexes alike.
Distribution: Resident throughout the Indian Empire to the base
of the Himiiiayas--and beyond eastward to Celebes and Formosa.
Two races are recognised, viz., the paler and smaller all India-Ceylon-
Burma-Formosa race phamiclIYZls, and the darker and larger Anda-
mans insularis.
Habits: Swampy ground overgrown with reeds, and tangles of bushes
and bamboo on the margins of jlzeels and ponds constitutes the favour-
ite haunts of the 'White-breasted \Vater-Hen. In the rainy season
it wanders. afield and is then commonly seen about water-logged
borrow-pits and roadside cuttings. At this season, too, it is partial
to floodeli rice fields. As the bird"circumspectly stalks along the
ground or skulks its way througfio the hedges and undergrowth its
stumpy tail, carried--er~1;" is constanily twitched up displaying pro-
minently the red underneath. It is usually shy and resents observa-
tion, betaking itself to cover on the least suspicion and then peering
inquisitively through an opening at the intruder. Its food cons'ists
of insects, molluses, seeds and vegetable matter.
This waterhen is silent except during the rains when it breeds.
At that season males indulge in fierce though rather innocuous battles
for mates, and become exceedingly obstreperous. 'Vhen calling
the bird usually clambers to the top of a bush whence it can command
an open view of its surroundings. The calls begin with loud raucous
grunts, croaks and chuckles suggestive of a bear in agony and settle
down to a monotonous metallic ku-wak . . kfi-wiik .. MI.-wak or kook .•
kooll • .1lOok somewh~t like the Coppersmith's but louder, in a higher
key, and repeated more quickly. On cloudy, overcast days this is
often kept up for 15 minutes at a stretch, and calling continues more
or less throughout the night.
Nesting: The season mainly coincides with the South-west Monsoon,
lasting from June to October. The nest is a shallow cup-shaped
pad of twigs, creeper stems and flags of bulrushes. It is placed either
on the ground in some tangled growth near the water, or in the interior
of a bush or small tree 6 to 10 ft, up on the margin of a tank or water-
logged paddy-field. The eggs-6 or 7 in number-are rather long,
smooth ovals, cream or pinkish-white in colour streaked and blotched
with some shade of reddish-brown.
319
 147. The Indian Moorhen
Gallinula chZaropus (Linnaeus)
Size: Same as the 'Vhite-breasted 'Vaterhen; about that of the
Partridge.
Field Characters: General effect on land that of a waterhen, on water
that of a smaIl duck. A slaty-grey and brown marsh bird with white
border to wing and conspicuous white undertail coverts. Longish
green legs and large ungainly feet. Pairs or gregariously, amongst
partially submerged rushes, swimming or skulking about.
Distribution: Very extensive-in Europe, Asia, Africa and America.
Throughout the Indian Empire, plains and hills up to about 6,000 ft.
Our entire area is occupied by the race indicus. Resident, but also
local migrant.
Habits: The I1100rhen inhabits thick reedbeds and vegetation bor·
dering tanks and jheels. It lives in pairs or gregariously and is, as
a rule, shy and retiring. However, a pair or two sometimes take
up their residence on a village tank where, if unmolested, they become
surprisingly tame. The birds walk with an upright carriage and a
peculiar bobbing of the head at every step, accompanied by an upward
flick of the stumpy little erect tail, displaying the white underneath
prominently. If disturbed it runs swiftly to cover and disappears,
making its way through the reeds and tangled vegetation, or clambering
up the stems, with ease. It swims well inspite of its unwebbed feet,
with the fore part of the body depressed and the hind quarters raised
showing up the white undertail coverts to advantage. Its progress
on water is also attended by the same characteristic jerky bobbing
of the head and flicking of the tail. It is an adept at diving when
danger threatens, and can remain under water for considerable periods,
poking its beak out stealthily for breath from time to time. vVhen
rising off the water the birds patter along the surface for a good dis·
tance, half running half flying, before they get undcr way. They fly
with laboured rapid ,vjng-strokes a few feet above the surface, legs and
neck extended, but once fairly launched are capable of long and sus-
tained flights. The call is a sharp loud hirrili-crek-rek-rek heard mostly
in the mornings and evenings, especially during the breeding season
when the birds are very noisy. In addition to this abrupt call, a vari?ty
of chuckling and softer notes are also uttered. Their diet consIsts
of grass shoots, seeds, water weeds, insects, etc.
Nesting: Like most of our waterbirds, the Moorhen commences
to breed in June immediately the rains have set in, and continu~
till August, sometimes rearing two successive broods. The nest IS
a bulky structure of sedges and weeds placed amongst aquatic herb-
age, or rarely even in a tree overhanging or near water. The eggs-5
to Iz....,.in number are pale yellowish to warm buff-stone in colour,
blotched with dark reddish-brown. Incubation is said to last about
2 I days and to be shared by both sexes.

320
The Indian Moorhen
32 t
The Purple Moorhen
32 2
 .148. The Purple Moorhen
Porphyrio poliocephalus (Latham)

Size: About that of the village hen.

Field Characters: A handsome leggy, purplish-blue rail, with long
red legs and toes. A conspicuous white patch under the tail and
the bald, red forehead contiguous with the h,eavy bill, confirm
its identity. Sexes alike. Gregariously, in swampy reed-beds.
Distribution: Practically throughout the plains of India, Burma
and Ceylon. 'Vest to Persia and east to Siam. The typical race
polioceplzalus is resident in our limits.
Habits: The Purple Moorhen frequents reed-covered swamps,
and edges of jheels and tanks overgrown with rushes affording plenty
of cover. The birds keep in parties and spend their time in search
of food stalking or skulking through the reed-beds or awkwardly
clambering up amongst and clinging to the stems. They saunter
abont over the partially SUbmerged weeds and floating lotus leaves,
constantly flicking their tails in the typical waterhen or rail manner
and displaying the white patch underneath. Except when harried,
the birds are not particularly shy or secretive. They run to cover
when disturbed and are averse to flying unless compelled. The
flight, attained with laboured wing beats appears feeble, but the
birds can travel quite fast once they get going. The neck is extended
and the long red legs and ungainly feet trail behind. Their diet is .
mainly shoots-they are destructive to young paddy crops-and
other vegetable matter, but insects and molluscs are also eaten.
They have a variety of hooting, cackling and hoarse notes which may
constantly be heard from within reed-beds and bulrushes bordering
a tank, at all hours of the day. During the breeding season the birds
arc particularly noisy The male goes through an elaborate but
ludicrous courtship display, holding up water weeds in his bill, facing
the female and bowing and showing off before her, to the accompani-
ment of loud chuckles.
The Purple Moorhen is generally prized as a delicacy and much
persecuted by local shikaries.
Nesting: The season coincides with the S-'V. 1Ionsoon, ranging
between June and September. The nest is a large pad of rush-,
paddy- or grass-stems firmly interwoven, sometimes placed on a
floating islet formed by matted water weeds, at others from I to 3 feet
above water level in rushes and reeds standing in water. The
normal clutch consists of 3 to 7 eggs, varying from pale yellowish-
stone to reddish-buff in ground colour, blotched and spotted wIth
reddish-brown. The birds guard their young vigilantly and are
often bold in defending them against predators.
32 3
 149. The Coot
Fulica atl'a Linnaeus
Size: About that of the village hen, or ! grown duckling.
Field Characters: A slaty-black, dumpy, practically tailless water
bird,-rather duck-like on water in the distance-with ivory-white
pointed bill and a white horny shield covering forehead. Peculiar
lobed or scalloped toes. Sexes alike. Gregariously, on tanks and j heels.
Distribution: Europe, N. Africa, Asia, America. Practically through-
out India, Assam and Burma (but not Ceylon) up to about 8,000 ft.
in the Outer Himalayas. Resident, but also a numerous winter visitor.
Habits: As a resident the _Common Coot is found sparingly on
all rush-bordered jheels and tanks of any size, but its numbers are
vastly increased in winter by immigrants from beyond our borders.
At that season, the birds collect in immense' herds: and on the larger
jheels of N. India great patches of water are often literally black with
their multitudes. The birds are reluctant to fly, and when alarmed
prefer to get out of the way by skittering along the water, half running
half flying. and flopping down again to swim away gracefully, the
head and neck gently bobbing with each stroke of the legs. The
pattering noise set up by the birds on a gun being fired near a packed
herd is at times positively bewildering. -They are expert divers and
capable of remaining submerged for a considerable time by holding
on to water weeds below, with only the bill breaking the S)lrface.
Their gait on land is awkward, the backwardly situated legs necessita-
ting a very erect posture. Although reluctant to fly and taking
oft with much pattering and apparent labour, the birds, once under
way. are capable of strong and sustained flight. It is attained by
, distressingly' rapid wing strokes. neck out-stretched and legs
trailing behind the blunt barrel-shaped body. A coot ringed in
Indore was shot in Russia after it had done a migratory journey of
about 1.500 miles, presumably over the Himalayas. The longest
known distance covered by a coot in a day is 164 miles which is con-
siderably beyond what one would suppose possible for apparently so
feeble a flier. Their call. often heard at night, is a clear and loud
trumpet-like cry. The diet consists mainly of aquatic insects,
molluscs. shoots of water-weeds and paddy, and other vegetation.
The birds are rank and fishy to the taste and seldom shot b.Y
sportsmen. It is remarkable how confident they become of thelr
saiety, and how little perturbed by the constant gun fire duri.D;g a
shoot which promptly sends all the duck higher and higher or r~ght
oft to another jheel. They are, however, largely captured and kllled
by the local fishermen who esteem their flesh highly.
Nesting: The season is chiefly July-August. The nest is a! large
compact mass of rushes and flags placed amongst reeds. slightly above
water level. The eggs--6 to 10 are fine-textured. and of a bu~y­
stone colour stippled and spotted with reddish-brown or purphshi
black. ~oots are pugnacious and quarrelsome, and intolerant 0
other species nesting,on the same water as themselves.
 1

Thf: Coot
The Bronze-winged Jasana
3 26
 150. The Bronze..winged Jacana
Metopidius indicus (Latham)
Size: About that of the Partridge.
Field Characters: A leggy water-bird somewhat like the Moorhen"
with glossy black head, neck and breast, metallic greenish-bronze·
back and wings, and chestnut-red stub tail. The outstanding
peculiarity of the Ja~anas-this and the next species-is their
enormously elongated spider-like toes. Sexes alike but the immature
is chiefly whitish, rufous and brown. Singly or gregariously, on ponds.
and tanks.
Distribution: Resident throughout India (except Sind, the N-W.,.
and W. Rajpiitiina), Assam and Burma; not Ceylon, Beyond.
eastwards, it extends to the Celebes.
Hahits: The Bronze-winged Ja\,ana inhabits jheels and tanks-
abounding in surface vegetation of floating 'water-lily, singara
(Trapa) and other aquatic plants. Over these, its specialised,
enormously elongat.ed slender toes enable it to trot along with ease.
The birds are somewhat crepuscular and most active in the eady
mornings and late evenings, but they are also about at other times·
of the day. \Vhere unmolested they become tame, and on village
tanks may commonly be seen in close proximity of the chattering
women folk trooping down with their pots for water, or of the dhobi
noisily banging his clothes upon the accustomed stone. \Vhen
alarmed it sneaks off into the reeds, if easily accessible, tripping
gingerly over the tangles of floating vegetation. If in the open and
far from cover it lies low amongst the floating stalks often partially
submerging itself for better concealment. If persistently harried,
the birds take refuge up on dry gronnd in amongst standing crops·
and the like, whence they flush like Painted Snipe on being walked
up to. It is a good diver and can also swim creditably when occasion
demands, with the carriage of a ]\Iaorhen,-but it is a poor flyer. The
fhght, attained by rapid. rather laboured wing strokes is slow, with
the neck extended and the cumbersome ft!et dangling behind under
tbe tail. After a few yards thus, low above the surface, the bird
ie-alights on the )natted vegetation and resumes its progress on
foot. It has a peculiar short, harsh cry, and like most of its re-
lations becomes noisy during the breeding season. Its diet consists
of vegetable matter-seeds, roots, etc.-but insects and molluscs·
are also eaten.
Nesting: Breeding commences as soon as the rains have properly'
set in, and lasts from June till September. The nest is a circular
~ass of roughly put-together and twisted weeds, placed on :floating.
.eave~-often partially submerged-or amongst the rushes on the
D1arglll. The normal clutch consists of 4 eggs, very glossy and
handsome, bronze-brown in colour with an irregular network of black
or dark-brown scrawls.
 151. The Pheasant-tailed Jacana
Hyarophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli)
.Size: Excluding the tail plumes, that of the Partridge.
Field Characters: A striking white and chocolate-brown rail-like
water bird with enormous feet and a distinctive, long, pointed sickle-
:shaped tail. Sexes alike. In non-breeding plumage chiefly pale
brown and white, with a black necklace on upper breast, and minus
the long tail. Gregariously-in non-breeding season often large flocks
-on vegetation-choked tanks.
Distribution: Resident throughout the Indian Empire, up to about
.6,000 feet in Kashmir. Beyond, eastwards, to S. China, Philippines
.and Java. '
Habits: This ha:gdsome J a9ana is common oil every lotus or singdra-
·covered jheel, tank or swamp of any size. In general habits it closely
resembles its Bronze-winged cousin, except perhaps that it keeps
more to the open and is less skulking. While strictly resident, the
birds are forced to' move about a good deal locally; as the waters they
inhabit gradually!ir"Y up in summer.. Its enormous toes are admirably
adapted for a life on floating aquatic vegetation. They help to dis·
tribute the weight of the bird.. over a large area, so that it can run over
-the most lightly floating leaf without producing a ripple. In the
non-breeding season these Ja9anas collect in flocks of as many as
50 to IOO birds, and their: peculiar' nasal mewing calls-tewn, leW/I,
-etc.-uttered as the birds rise in the air with a flash of their white
wings and make off on' alarm; is a familiar sound to every one whO
'has shot duck on an Indian jhe~l in winter. At rest their colouration
at this season is obliterative in their native environment of dry floating
water-lily stems and leaves. Its diet consists of vegetable matter
.as well as insects and molluscs.
This species possesses a strong sharp spur at the bend of the
wing which is used as a weapon of offence. During the breeding
'season, the birds indulge in a great deal of mostly innocuous scrapping.
'Nesting: The se~on is during the S-W. Monsoon, principally June
to September. The nest is a pad of rushes, etc., as of the Bronze-
winged Ja9ana, placed on floating vegetation. Sometimes floating
rafts of dry weeds and herbage are made, while occasionally the eggs
are even laid on bare lotus or singara leaves, partially submerged in
water. The normal clutch consists of 4 peg-top shaped eggs, glossy
greenish-bronze or rufous-brown in colour, unmarked. Apparently
the female alone incubates. When disturbed or suspicious the bird
tra~sfers the clutch bodily from one spot to another a few yards away,
pressing each egg with the bill against her breast, crouching. walking
backwards and almost dragging it over the floating leaves.
328
The Pheasant ..tailed }acana
breedmg Plumage
The Painted Snipe
Fallaie
330
 152. The Painted Snipe
Rostratula bmghalensis (Linnaeus)
Si;z:e : Slightly larger than the Quail.
Field Characters: A leggy, typical rail with long, straight and slender
snipe-like bill slightly decurved at tip. Above chiefly metallic olive-
green with buff and blackish streaks and markings; below chiefly
brown and white. Pale coloured 'spectacles' and a pale band along
centre of crown distinctive. The male is less Showy than the female
(illustrated) and lacks the chestnut and black on neck and breast.
Singly, or in wisps in rush-covered swamps.
Distribution: "Vide-in Africa, Asia, Australia and Tasmania:
The race benghalensis occurs in Africa and throughout the Indian
Empire up to about 5,000 feet in the Himalayas. Resident, but
also local migrant.
Habits: The Painted Snipe affects reed-covered swamps, the edges
of jlzeels and tanks and also inundated paddy fields. It loves patches
with little open squelchy puddles interspersed amongst the cover.
It is a resident species but also moves about a good deal locally with
conditions affecting its habitat, such as the drying up of tanks or
inundation of suitable low lying country. It is largely crepuscular
and much more active in the early mornings and evenings-possibly
even at night-than in daytime. It usually keeps singly or iJ;l small
wisps and can be flushed only by beating the rush beds or walking
up to. The flight is laboured and rail-like with the long legs dangling
behind and below the tail, and the bird alights in the reeds after
topping them for a few yards. It is strong and swift on its legs and
usually runs a good distance through the rushes upon a1ighting, often
soon working its way back to where it was disturbed. It can also
swim well when occasion demands.
Its food consists of insects and molluscs as well as paddy grains
and vegetable matter. The birds call repeatedly in the mornings and
evenings. The female has a rather deep mellow note compared by
Hume to the nois~ produced by blowing softly into a bottle, just falling
short of a whistle. It contrasts with the squeaky note of the male.
Nesting: The Painted Snipe breeds practically throughout the
year. The female, as in the Bustard Quail, is polyandrous. She
d?8S all the courting and fights desperately with rivals for the posses-
SIOn of a male. As soon as eggs are laid she leaves him to incubate
them and tend the young when hatched, going off herself in search
of another unattached male who is similarly landed wi.th fami.ly res-
ponsibilities. The nest is a pad of grass or rushes with a slight dep-
rcssicm in the centre. It is placed on the ground in grass on the edge
of a marsh or on bands separating inundated fields. The eggs-3
Or 4-are some shade of yellowiSh stone colour, blotched and streaked
with brown.
331
 153. The Sarus Crane
A ntigone antigone (Linnaeus)
. Size: Larger than the Vulture. Standing the height of a man.
Field Characters: A large grey stork-like bird with long bare red
legs and naked red head and neck. Sexes alike. Usually pairs-
stalking about cultivation and marsh land.
Distribution: The typical race antigone is resident in Northern
and Central India, Giijerat and W. Assam. Eastern Assam and
Burma are occupied by the race sharpei which differs in being darker,
and in other details.
Hahits: The Sarus-the largest of our Indian cranes-is esser,tially
a bird of open well-watered plains. It is most often met with in and
about cultivation, but it also frequents shallow marsh-bordered jlzeels
and river banks. The birds almost invariably keep in pairs, perio-
dically accompanied by one or two young, and flocks are rare. They
pair for life and their devotion to each other has earned them a degree
of popular sentiment amounting to sanctity. If one bird is killed
the survivor of the pair will haunt the scene of the outrage for weeks
calling distractedly, and has even been known to pine away and die
of grief. They are zealously protected by the inhabitants in many
parts with the result that the birds become tame and confiding and
will stalk about and feed unconcernedly within a few yards of the
cultivators working in their fields.
They rise off the ground with some difficulty, but when once
fairly launched, the flight-attained by slow rhythmical strokes of
their great wings, neck extended, legs trailing behind-is swift and
powerful though seldom more than a few yards above the ground.
They have loud, sonorous, far-reaching trumpet-like calls which are
uttered both from the ground and in flight. During the breeding
season the pair indulges in peculiar ludicrous dancing displays and
caperings, spreading their wings and prancing and leaping in the air
round each other.
. Their diet consists of grain, shoots and other vegetable matter
as well as insects, molluscs and reptiles.
Nesting: . The season ranges principally between July and Decemb~r.
The nest is a huge mass of reeds, rushes and straw-about 3 ieetln
diameter at the top-built on the ground in the midst of flooded
paddy fields, swamps or shallow jheels. Usually 2 eggs are laid, pale
greenish- or pinkish-white in colour, sometimes spotted and blotched
with brown or purple.
fncubation is apparently carried on mainly by the female, but
the male takes occasional turns at brooding. He guards the nest
vigilantly throughout the period, and assists in tending the young.

33 2
The Suus Crane
333
The Demoiselle Crane
334
 154. The Demoiselle Crane
Anthropoides virgo (Linnaeus)
Size: Considerably smaller than the Sarus, standing about 3 feet
high.
Field Characters: A long-legged grey bird with the sides of the,
head and neck black, the feathers of the lower neck long and
lanceolate and falling over the breast. Conspicuous pure white
ear-tufts behind the eyes. Sexes alike, Large flocks in young crops
-gram, wheat, etc. \Vinter visitor.
The Common Crane (Gn~s g. iilfordi)-the Milam of sportsmen-
somewhat larger and with a distinctive red patch on the nape, also
visits India in enormous numbers during winter commonly associating
with the present species.
Distribution: \Vithin Our limits the Demoiselle ranges in winter
commonly throughout Northern India and down to :;.\I),sore. South
of the Deccan, it is rare. It also visits Assam and the greater part
of Burma.
Habits: The Demoiselle Crane-koonj as it is known to shikaris
-arrives in the plains of India in vast hordes in about October and
departs again by the end of lIarc11. The birds frequent open cul-
ti\'ated country to feed on the tender shoots of wheat, gram and
other cold weather crops in flocks which often number hundreds.
During the middle of the day they usually retire to the fiat shelving
shores and sandbanks of the larger rivers and jhce7s to rest, and often
spend hours flying and circling in the air at great heights. They
are excessively shy and wary birds. '''hile feeding or resting they
post sentinels around who sound the alarm on the slightest suspicion.
The din of a great congregation taking off the ground accompanied
by their high-pitched kun, kmT, hun' uttered in varying keys has
been aptly likened to the distant roaring of the sea. Both as a sporting
bird and as an item on the menu, the koonj ranks very high. Its
uncanny vigilance combined with its habit of keeping to the open with
no cover at hand to aid the sportsman, calls for all his cunning and
patience in circtimventing the quarry and makes it a difficult bird
to bag. Cranes fiy in broad V-fonnatioll, neck and legs extended,
with a leader at the apex whose place is immediately filled by the
next bird should he happen to be shot. Their call is a loud, musical.
h1gh-pitched trumpet which carries enormous distances. It can be
heard with amazing clarity even when the birds are ascending in
sp1 rals, as in their wont. so high up in the heavens as to look like
midges. Their diet consists almost entirely of shoots, grain and
yOU.1g crops., but insects and small reptiles are seldom passed by.
Nesting ': The Demoiselle breeds in Southern Europe and on the
h1gh plateaux of Algeria and Central and Northern Asia as far east
as Mongolia. Its nest is similar to that of the Sarus. Two eggs
are laid, greenish or yellowish-grey in colour sparingly blotched witll
reddiSh-brown and grey.

335
 155. The Great Indian Bustard
Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors)
Size: Larger than the Vulture; standing about 4 ft. to- top of
crown, and weighing up to 40 lbs.
Field Characters: A heavy ground bird, reminiscent of a young
ostrich, with a characteristic horizontal carriage of the body at right
angles to the stout, bare legs. Deep buff above finely vermiculated
with black; white below with a broad black gorget on lower breast.
Conspicuous black-crested crown. Sexes alike, but female smaller.
Pairs or parties, in semi-desert and about cultivation.
Distribution: Punjab, portions of Sind, Cutch, Kathiawar, Raj·
piitana Giijerat, the greater part of Central India, Central Provinces
and the Deeccan, and parts of Mysore. Absent in Bengal, Assam,
Burma and Ceylon. Resident, but also local migrant.
Habits: This magnificent bustard affects bare, open semi-desert
plains and sparse grass-covered country interspersed with low scrub
and bushes or with cultivation. It often enters standing crops which
hide it completely from view. The birds are generally met with singly
or in pairs or parties of 5 or 6, but droves of as many as 25 or 30 are
not unknown. They are usually excessively shy and wary and can
seldom be approached within gunshot except by subterfuge in the
shape of a harmless-looking bullock cart or camel to which the birds
have become inured on the countryside. They run at great speed
when disturbed and though rather heavy and slow in taking off, are
no mean fliers once well launched. The flight, rather like a vulture's,
is attained by deliberate rhythmical strokes of the huge wings. It
is often sustained over several miles before the bird re-alights, but
never at any great height from the ground. Though a permanent
resident in India, this bustard is subject to marked seasonal local
migrations under stress of natural conditions affecting its food-supply.
Its diet consists principally of locusts, grasshoppers, beetles and other
insects. Grain and the tender shoots of various crop plants are also
eaten, as well as lizards, small_snakes and centipedes.
The usual alarm call of the Great Indian Bustard has been likened.
to a bark or bellow, something like hook. In the breeding season
the cock, who is apparently polygamous, makes a great display before
his bevy of admiring hens. He struts about with neck and throat
inflated and the feathers puffed out. The tail is raised andl fanned out
like a turkey cock's the wings are drooped and ruffled while he utters
a low, deep moaning call audible a considerable way off.
NllStiDg : Breeds practically throughout the year but chiefly between
March and September. The egg-usually a single-is laid in a shalloW'
depression in the ground, sometimes sparsely lined with grass, at. the
base of some bush. In colour it is drab or pale olive-brown, famtly
blotched with deep brown. The female alone is said to incubate.

33 6
The Great Indian Bustard
337
The Lesser Florican
338
 156. The Lesser Florican
Sypheotides indica (Miller)
Size: About that of the domestic hen. Longer neck and legs.
Field Characters: The illustration opposite is of a cock in breeding:
plumage. In wint\)r he is like the hen-sandy buff, mottled and
streaked with blackish-but retains a good deal of white in his wings.
The 6 characteristic upwardly curled plumes springing from the
sides of his head, 3 on either side, are then lost. Singly Or widely sepa..
rated pairs, in tall grassland.
Distribution: Plains of Northern India excepting the desert parts.
Peninsular India east of the western Ghats and south of the Godavari
River. Also Gujerat, Cutch and portions of Central India. It
moves about a great deal locally with seasonal conditions, but its
wanderings are as yet little understood.
Habits: This Florican inhabits areas covered with tall grass, and
is often met with also in fields of cotton, millet and other crops.
Though a number of birds may sometimes be found frequenting the
same patch of ground, the individuals remain singly some distance
apart, and' do not collect in flocks. When feeding, principally in
the mornings and {'venings, the bird can easily be flushed by walking
into the field with a line of beaters, but during the heat o~ the day
it lies very close and is reluctant to rise. So much so that an instance
is on recbrd of one being killed by a horse stepping on it. Its flight
is much like that of the bustards, but the wing strokes are more rapid,
which gives the bird a peculiar resemblance to a lapwing. The diet
of the Florican consists of grasshopp~rs and other insects. It also
eats seeds and the tender shoots of grasses and various food crops.
Florican are good eating and keenly sought by shikaris.
Perhaps the most characteristic and well-known habit of the
FlOrican is that of constantly jumping, or springing up, above the
long grass or c,rops during the breeding season. This is supposed
to be a form of' courtship display intended to notify the presence of
a bird to a rival or to attract a mate. As a rule it is indulged in by
the male, but occasionally females have also been observed going
through the performance. The jump is accompanied by a short
guttural croak, and the bird descends with its tail spread out, remind-
ing one vaguely of the male lora in display.
Nesting: The breeding season is during the rains, between July and
Oc~ober. The eggs-3 or 4 in number-are laid on the bare grbund
often without any depression, in a small bare patch or field of short
grass. In colour they are some shade of olive-brown, variously
mottled and streaked with brown.
Incubation and care of the young are said to be entirely the
female's business.

339
 157. The Stone-Curlew
Burhinu$ cedicnemus (Linnaeus)
Size: Slightly larger than the Partridge. More leggy.
Field Characters: A brown-streaked plover-like ground bird with
thick head, long bare yelIow thick-kneed l.~gs, and enormous round
_goggle eyes. In fliglit a white patch on wings conspicuous. Sexes
alike. Pairs or parties, in dry, open, stony country.
Distribution: Wide-in Europe, Africa, Asia. Resident practically
throughout the Indian Empire up to about 3.000 feet in the Himiilayas.
"Two races concern ns, viz., the larger and paler Persia-Sind-Baluchistan
ashetus, and the smaller and darker all-India-Burma-Ceylon illdicus.
Habits: The Stone-Curlew, also known as the Thick-knee or Goggle-
eyed Plover, is a bird of much the same type of country as the bustards
-open plains and hummocks, dry and stony, and dotted here and
there with scanty bushes and scrub. It is also found on ploughed
.and fallow land and on the shingly beds of dry streams. Occasionally
it frequents-especially in daytime-light deciduous jungle and
mango topes, etc., near villages. The birds keep in pairs or parties
of up to 6 or ro. They are strictly ground-living and run swiftly
with short quick steps, neck outstretched and held almost m line with
the horizontal body. They are largely crepuscular and nocturnal in
their habits and sluggish during daytime when they may be met with
resting in the shade of bushes or under a grove of trees. \Vhen sus-
picious or alarmed, the bird, after scuttling a short distance, squats
low with body pressed to the ground, head and neck extended in front.
Its colouration thus affords perfect camouflage and makes it look
.exactly like a diminutive mound of earth, even at close range. The
wing-action in flight-which is strong, and usually close to the ground
-is something between that of the bustard and the plover. Its
food consists principally of insects, worms, slugs and small reptiles
with which a quantity of grit is commonly swallowed. It is considered
an excellent bird for the table.
The call of the Stone-Curlew, mostly heard during the night-
more particularly on moonlit nights-is a series of sharp, clear whistling
, screams' pick . ... pick . ... pick . ... pick . ... pick-wick . .. _pick-wick
... . pick-wick and so on, with accent on the second sylable. Very
often duets are indulged in.
Nesting: The season ranges principally between February and
August. The eggs-usually 2-are laid in a scrape at the base of a
bvsh or tuft of grass on stony ground, in a dry river bed, mango grove
or open country. They are pale buff to olive-green in colour, boldly
blotched with brownish or purplish, and remarkably obliterative iII
their surroundings. Both sexes share in incubation and tending the
young.
 The Stone-Curlew
, 3·41
The Indian Courser
342
 158. The Indian Courser
Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin)
Size: About that of the Partridge.
Field Characters: k_~-brown. lapwing-like bird with chestnut
:and black underpaifS. ~~ rufous crown; a black and a white stripe
through and ab6v:e_ eyes..; ~g bare china-white legs. Sexes alike.
Singly. scattered pairs or parties. running about on fallow land and
semi-desert.
-Distribution: Throughout the drier portions of India and in North
Ceylon. Absent in Assam and Burma. Largely replaced in N. Sind
and N-W. Punjab by the Pala;arctic cream coloured species Cllrsorius
cursor without the chestnut and black underparts. Resident. but
also local migrant.
Habits: The Indian Courser inhabits bare stony plains, fallow and
waste land adjoining cultivation, and ploughed fields. It avoids
iorest. It is met with in scattered pairs or parties of up to 10 or 12
individuals which spend their time running about swiftly. and dipping
fODyard obliquely now and again in a characteristic manner to pick
up some insect. ,Vhen alarmed or suspicious the bird spurts forward
a few yards with short rapid steps, halts abruptly and erects itself
to survey the intruder, makes another spurt, and so on, quickly in-
creasing the distance between itself and the object of its suspicion.
If pressed, it rises with a peculiar note and flies fairly low along the
ground for fifty or a hundred yards, commencing to run again im-
mediately on alighting. \Vhen thoroughly disturbed. however, it
rises higher in the air with deliberate and rapid wing-strokes and is
then capable of a considerable turn of speed. Its action and appear-
ance in flight high overhead is strongly reminiscent of the Pratincole
or Swallow-Plower. Its food consists of insects and their larva;, princi-
pally beetles, crickets and grasshoppers. The birds move about lOCally
to some extent under pressure of natural conditions governing their
food supply. -
The Courser is another good example of the effectiveness of
obliterative colouration in animals living in bare open country. It is
remarkable how invisible this bird can become in its native environ-
ment until betrayed by movement.
Nestin~ : The season is mainly between :March and August. The
eggs-z or 3-are deposited either in a shallow scrape or on the bare
ground, with no semblance of a nest, in arid open plains. They are
broad. stone-coloured ovals thickly spotted and blotched with black.
Both the eggs and the newly hatched young are beautifully colour-
{;amouflaged and are extremely difficult to locate except by a careful
watching of the parents' behaviour and movements.
34-3
 159. The Black-headed or Laughing Gull
Larus ridibundus Linnaeus

Size: About that of the Jungle-Crow.

Field Characters: A typical gull. grey above white beldw • with a.
dark coffee-coloured head in summer. In winter-the seflSon when
the birds are mostly in our midst-the head is greyish-w]fite w!th a
vertical crescent-shaped black mark behind the ear. Tile pomted
. bill and duck-like webbed feet are red (wrongly coloured on plate).
Sexes alike. Distinguishable from the equally common Brown:headed
Gull (L. brunnicephalus) with which it often associates. J:'Y Its fi~t
primary wing-quill being white with black edges and tip. ,.vhereas 10
that species it is blcu;k with a white subterminal band. Greganously,
along the sea-coasts and about large jheels and rivers inlt nd .
Distribution: Breeding in Temperate Europe and vVeStem and
Central Asia. "Winter visitors to India south to.Travancore,
Habits: The Black-headed or Laughing Gull begins to arriv~ in
India in August or September and by the middle of April fll~st bu~~
have again left for their breeding grounds. They are found III sma
numbers on large inland jllcels and rivers. but more abundant~y alan!
the seaboard. Here they commonly frequent harbours. jlYlDg an
circling about the ships riding at anchor. following in th,e wake. of
outgoing vessels for considerable distances out to sea. and escortmg
'->;!"<:"Q.~'{, Q.>;!,."-.'>. Q.~<:..l;;_ j;,(). ~Q.tt.. 1:.b.."-.\!:. (Q.Q.<!. l;!.."",-,,- <:"().'$.i,._'>.~ %.~i9I~ of a~y
refuse or garbage cast overboard and floating on the SUI{ace whIch
they swoop upon and pick up with their bills. often aligbj;mg on the
water and riding buoyantly like a duck. For these scraps they h~ve
usually to compete with Brahminy and Pariah Kites whioh ar~ . 3: so
present about the docks in numbers. Gulls likewise affect tP~ vIcImty
of fishing villages along the coast. They follow the fispmg boats
retuming with the catch. eagerly scanning the water for an)' worthlc~
fry that may be thrown overboard. The birds reap a rich harves
of such fare where the fishermen clean and dry their nets on the beac~.
In inland localities they also eat insects. grubs. snails. slugs and t e
shoots of various crops. They never dive for their food a~ the terns
do.
This Gull has a number of loud raucous calls. The ones mas:
commonly heard have been described as a querulous scretlm kree-a
and a loud wailing ka-yek. ka-yek.
Nesting: In Europe from April onwards in large coioriiCS runD;ing
into hundreds. on sandhills, marshes and heather-covered d1 hllls.
The nests. built on the ground close to one another. vaiY om a
lWarsely-lined scrape to a well-made massive structUre of wceds. gra~.
etc. Three. eggs form the normal clutch. They are ligV ston~ ~
t
dark brown m ground colour. spotted and blotched with dee? blackISh
brown and purplish.
344
The Black-headed or Laughing Gull
:'l1l11l11er plwl1 I
345
The River Tern
3~6
 160. The River Tern
Sterna aurantia Gray
Size: About that of the Pigeon, but much slimmer. ,
Field Characters: A slender, graceful grey and white water bird
with long, pointed, wings deeply forked swallow-tail, very short red
legs and pointed yellow bill. The black cap of the summer plumage
(illustrated) is replaced in winter by greyish-white flecked and streaked
with black at nape. Sexes alike. Gregariously, on rivers and jhcels.
usually :flying up and down.
The Black-bellied Tern (Sterna. mela.noga.ster) is another common
species on inland rivers and tanks, while the Gull-billed Tern (Gelo-
chelidon nilotica) is found commonly both inland. and on the sea-coast.
It is distinguishable from most other terns by its blac~ bill, legs and feet.
Distribution: Throughout India and Burma-and beyond, in Ma-
laya-on all large rivers.
Habits: The River Tern, as its name implies, is found chiefly on
inland rivers and to some extent also on jlteels. It is rare on tidal
estuaries and never met with on the sea-coast. Here it is replaced
by several other species, all differing in details but bearing the un-'
mistakable'stamp on the tribe. The birds are found singly, in small
loose parties, and gregariously rather than in flocks. They fly to and
fro a few yards above the surface with deliberate beats of their long,
slender and pointed wings. The bill and eyes are directed below and
intently scanning the water for' any fish venturing within striking
depth. From time to time as the quarry comes into vi_ew the bird
closes its wings and hurls itself headlong into the water becoming
completely submerged for a second or so, then reappearing with a
small fish held across the bill. As it resumes its flight, the victim is
jerked up in the air and swallowed head foremost. It is pretty to
watch a party or terns following a shoal of fish, plunging into the
water one after another with a spash, swallowing their victims hurriedly,
wheeling and Circling masterfully in the air to keep up with the es-
caping shoal and repeating the attack again and again. 'While their
staple diet is fish they also eat small crustacea, tadpoles and aquatic
insects. When satiated, the birds may be seen resting on mudbanks
on their ridiculously shori legs. A peculiar habit of the terns is that
When one bud drops to a shot, 2 or 3 others will promptly follow suit
and dive down almost instinctively along with him. At the same time
~arge numbers will gather at the spot, flying and circling overhead to
mvestigate. This is doubtless because the unwounded birds think their
companion has discovered some food and are anxious to share the spoils.
Nesting: The season is chiefly between March and May. River
Tems nest in colonies on sandspits and islets in the larger rivers, in
mixed association with Pratincoles, various plovers and terns of other
species. The eggs-normally 3-are laid on the bare sand in. a slight
depression. They vary in ground colour from greenish·grey to buffy-
stone and are spotted, blotched and streaked with brown and inky
purple. The restless Hying about of the birds over the observer's
head, and their obvious concern, usually gives away the presence of
Dests on a particular islet. .
347
 161. The Indian Whiskered Tern
Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas)
Size: About that of the Pigeon, but much slimmer.
Field Characters: The bird illustrated is in summer (breeding)
plumage. In winter, rather like the River Tern in general appear-
ance, but distinguishable from it by its much shorter and only slightly
forked (almost square) tail, and red instead of yellow bill. At rest
tips of the closed wings project beyond tail. Sexes alike. Usually
small numbers beating gracefully up and down over jheels and
flooded paddy-fields.
Distribution: The race indica is found throughout India and Ceylon.
but it is evidently only a winter visitor south of Central India. In
Assam and Burma occurs the Javan race javanica which has a very
dark breeding plumage.
Habits: The Whiskered Tern is common more or less throughout
the length and breadth of India, and may be seen at most jheels and
marshes. It seldom frequents the larger rivers, but may be commonly
met with by the sea-coast and on the tidal mudflats. In the brackish
backwaters of S-\V. India they follow the fishing boats returning
with the catch for any small fishes that may be cast overboard. The
birds are often seen fiying back and forth elegantly over inundated
paddy fields, bill and eye directed intently downwards, and swooping
down now and again to carry off in their stride grasshoppers, dragonfly
larvae or tadpoles which seem to comprise their food as much as tiny
fishes do.
A spectacular mode of hunting, often described, is for a flock
to fly methodically up and down a jheel or tank, wheeling round at
the end to repeat the beat. With a strong wind blowing one may
observe how the birds labour up-wind with deliberate wing-beats
taking full advantage of their slow progress in order to scan the water
below. When the end of the jheel is reached the birds wheel and shoot
down-wind back to the starting point, and resume the hunt. Though
capable of swimming, terns very rarely alight on the water as gulls do.
Nesting: The Whiskered Tern breeds plentifully in Northern India
and Kashmir from June to September. Several pairs nest together.
often in large colonies. The nest is a. rough circular platform of reeds
and rushes. It is placed on half-submerged water plants in shallow
lakes and swamps. Two or 3 eggs form the normal clutch. They
vary a great deal in ground colour. Usually it is some shade of green
but sometimes brownish or bluish. It is spotted, blotched and streak-
ed with various shades of dark brown and purplish-brown. Both sexes
share in building and evidently also in incubation.
34 8
The Indian Whiskered Tern
3t9
The Little Ringed Plover
350
 162. The Little Ringed Plover
Charaarius aubius Scopoli
Size : Slightly smaller than the Quail.
Field Characters: A typical little plover with thick head, bare longish
legs and short stout bill. Sandy-brown above, white below. White
forehead; black fore-crown, earcoverts and around eyes; a black
collar around the white neck. Sexes alike. Pairs or small scattered
flocks, on tank margins, shingle banks in rivers, etc.
Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Empire up to
about 4,000 feet in the Himalayas-and beyond, east and west. Vle
are concerned with two races whose validity inter se is, however,
rather doubtful, viz., the larger, European, winter visitor c1tYoniclls,
and the smaller, resident jeraolzi.
Habits: The Little Ringed Plover is essentially a bird of damp,
open mudflats on the margins ofjheels and estuaries, the beds of drying
up tanks and the shingle banks and sandspits of rivers. It keeps in
scattered pairs or parties of 5 to 12. The birds run along the ground
with short mincing steps, halting after every little spurt to pick up
some insect or other tit-bit with the peculiar dipping movement
characteristic of the plovers. They have a curious habit, when feeding
on soft wet mud, of drumming with their toes in a rapid vibratory
motion in order to dislodge insects, sand-hoppers and tiny crabs
lurking in their burrows. In their accustomed environment their
calouration is remarkably obliterative, and it is often with the greatest
difficulty that a bird can be located as long as it remains motionless.
Although the individuals l{eep scattered and feed independently
of one another, yet as soon as one bird takes alarm and rises, the rest
follow suit and they all fly off together, twisting and wheeling in the
air in unison and constantly uttering a short rather plaintive whistle
pMzt as they go. The flight, attained by rapid strokes of the pointed
wings is swift, but seldom more than a few feet above the ground.
The courtship display of the Litte Ringed Plover is a long and
varied afiai,-. At one stage, it consists, in the male determinedly
chasing the female round and round in the air for several minutes at
a ~ill1e. A later development, just before mating takes place, COill-
pflses of his fanning out and rapidly vibrating his tail up and down
while his bill almost caresses the female, and he prances lightly and
quickly from one foot to the other.
~esting: The season ranges between :tI-Iarch and :IIlay. The eggs-4
m number-are laid among the shingle and on sandbanks in a dry
nver bed. They harmonise so perfectly with their surroundings that
tJcy are often difficult to locate even when near enough to be trampled
on I They arE! of the typical shape of plover eggs, broad at one end
and abruptly pointed at the other. The colour varies from buffish-
stone to greenish-grey with hieroglyphic-like scrawls and spots of dark
~rown, and phantom purple markings. Both sexes share in the
Incubation.

351
 163. The Red-wattled Lapwing
Lobivanellus indicus (Boddaert)
Size: Slightly larger than the Partridge; more leggy and with a
longer neck.
Field Characters: A familiar plover, bronze-brown above, white
below, with black face, breast and crown and a crimson wattle 'or
fleshy projection above and in front of each eye. Sexes alike. Producer
of the well-known Did-he-do-it? calls. Pairs or small parties, in open
country near water.
Distribution: Resident practically throughout the Indian Empire
up to about 6,000 ft. in the Himalayas and peninsular hills. Three
races are recognized, viz., the larger and doubtfully paler Sind-
Baliichistan aigneri, the all India-Ceylon indicus, and the Assam-
Burma atron.uchalis with somewhat different head markings.
Habits: The Red-wattled Lapwing is our commonest and most
familiar plover. It haunts open country, ploughed fields and grazing
land, and is almost invariably present on the margins and beds of
jheels and tanks whence the water has lately receded. Pairs or parties
of 3 or 4 birds are also usually to be met with in forest glades and
clearings. Here they are often a source of great annoyance to the
shikiiri. ruining his stalk by their uncanny and ceaseless vigilance and
giving away his presence to the siimbhar or other quarry grazing
in the open by their frantic calls and agitated behaviour.
They spend their time running about on the ground in short spurts,
feeding in the typical plover manner on insects, grubs, molluscs, etc,.
and seem to be quite as active and wide awake at night as during
daytime. Its ordinary flight is slow, attained by deliberate flaps
of the wings. The bird alights again after a short distance, usually
running a few steps on doing so. When thoroughly scared. however.
it is capable of considerable speed and much dextrous turning and
twisting on the wing.
Its call is the all-tao-familiar, loud and penetrating Did-he-do-it?
or Pity-to-do-it uttered either plaCidly or frantically, just once or twice
or repeatedly. depending upon the intensity of the prevailing emotion.
Nesting: The season is principally between March and August,
The nest is merely a natural depression or scrape in the ground, unlined,
sometimes margined with pebbles. It is situated on waste or fallow
land, more or Jess water-logged in the rains and with deep imprints of
cattle hoofs. The drying up beds of village tanks also offer suitable
sites. The eggs--normally 4, broad at one end, abruptly pointed
at the other-are some shade of stone or grey-brown in colour, blotched
with blackish. They, as well as the newly hatched downy young
harmonise with the soil to perfection and it is difficult to locate the eggs
or squatting chicks even in a circumscribed area except by patiently
shadowing the movements of the parents. Both sexes guard the
young assiduously and launch fierce attacks upon other birds and
mammals strayin~ into their proximity.
352
The Red"wattled Lapwing
353
The Yellow..wattled L.pwing
354
 164. The Yellow-wattled Lapwing

Lobipluvia malabarica (Boddaert)

Size: About that of the Partridge; more leggy.

:Field Characters: A sandy-brown plover with white belly, black

cap and bright yellow. lappets above and in front of the eyes. In
flight, a white bar conspicuous on the black wings. Sexes alike. Pairs
-or small parties, on dry waste land.

Distribution: Throughout India, from the base of the Himalayas

south, and Ceylon. Not in Upper Sind, Western Punjab, Assam
·or Burma. Resident, but partly also local migrant.

Habits: The Yellow-wattled Lapwing inhabits more or less the

same type of open country-plains, waste and fallow land-as the
preceding species, but with this consistent difference that it prefers
drier habitats and is less dependent upon the neighbourhood of
wa.ter. It is met with in pairs or small scattered parties, and except
that it is on the whole not so noisy or demonstrative as its Red-
wattled cousin there is little appreciable difference between the general
habits of the two.

Its call, however, is entirely distinctive and bears no resem-

blance to that of the Did-he-do-it. It is a sharp, plaintive,
bisyllabic ti-ee uttered every two or three seconds, and punctuated
from time to time by a high-pitched, quick-repeated twit-twit-
twit-twit.

Nesting: The season is mainly between April and July The eggs
are laid on the bare earth or in a shallow, unlined scrape sometimes
Surrounded by a circle or parapet of pebbles or kallkar. The nest
is usually situated on dry open waste land. The eggs-4 in number
and of the usual plover's shape-are buff to olive-stone in colour,
irregularly blotched with dark-brown and purplish-grey. They,
as well as the newly hatched downy chicks. harmonise with the soil
so effectively as to be completely invisible even at a few feet's pistance.
(Plate p. 99).

The parent birds demonstrate in the same frantically vocal

manner as the foregoing species when their nest or young are
approached, circling close overhead in great agitation, • dive-bombing'
.and often making as if to strike the intruder.
355
 165. The Black..winged Stilt
Himantopus himantopJts (Linnaeus)
Size: About that of the Partridge, but with bare slender legs 10
inches long.
Field Characters: A striking lanky wading bird of black, greyish·
brown and white plumage, and with a straight slender black bill. Its·
most striking feature is the enormous length of its thin reddish legs.
The summer and winter plumages differ in details, as also does the
summer plumage of the male and female. Pairs or flocks, wading
in shallow water at the edge of tanks, &c.
Distribution: Wide--in Europe, Africa, Asia, America, Australia
and New Zealand. Throughout India, Burma and Ceylon in winter.
Resident and breeding in many parts of North and North-western
India and Ceylon. Also local migrant.
Habits: The Black-winged Stilt is essentially a m~trsh bird, well-
equipped for obtaining its livelihood in shallow water. It is usually
met with in pairs or small flocks wading up to its I knees' on the
margins of jlzeels, village tanks, and shallow salt pal)S. It is some·
times seen even in ploughed inundated fields-but never on the
seashore. As it goose-steps along in the water, it probes into the
soft squelchy mud with its slender bill for worms, molluscs, aquatic
insects and seeds of water plants which form its food. On tbe
ground the bird walks and runs well and gracefully, and it can also
swim creditably on occasion. The flight is weak and flapping. The
pied colouration and slender build of the bird, coupled with the
extended neck and the long red legs trailing behind the tail make
its identity on the wing unmistakable, even at a distance. 1,Vhen
alarmed and flying off, the birds utter a rather squeaky piping note.
While largely a resident species, the Stilt is subject to marked local
migration under stress of natural conditions such as droughts and
heavy floods.
Nesting: The season is principally betvreen April and August.
Stilts nest in colonies, often of several hundred individuals. The-
nest is a hollow or depression in the ground about the rnargin of a jhee l
or a raised platform of kanliar in shallow salt-pans, lined with veget-
able scum off the water, grass, or such other odds and ends as can be
procured. The normal clutch consists of 3 or 4 eggs, light drab ill
colour, densely blotched with black. In size, shape and appearance
they closely resemble the eggs of the Red-wattled Lapwing.
- Brooding birds are not shy and permit a close a.pproach ?cfo re
they desert their nests. Once off, however. they become agitated
and noisy. circling over the intruder's head with lolld cries all th~'
time until he withdraws.
The Black·winged Stilt
357
The Avocet
358
 166. The Avocet

Recurv;yoslya avoselta Linnaeus

Size: Slightly larger than the Partridge, and more leggy.

Field Characters: A black-and-white marsh bird. rather like the-

Stilt in the distance, with loug bare bluish-·not reddish-legs and
slender, black, conspicuously upcurved bill. Sexes alike. Pairs or-
parties on marshes, jheels and sea-coast, especially tidal creeks.

Distribution: In winter the typical race avosctta is not uncommon in·

Northern India, and extends in smaller numbers throughout the-
peninsula east to Bihar and south to Ceylon. It is absent in Assam
and Burma.

Habits: The Avocet is a winter visitor to the plains and western:

seaboard of India, arriving in OUT midst about September and depart-
ing by the mi<ldle of :>lay. Pairs and small parties are usually seen
along the margins of jlteels, marshes, tidal creeks and mud-fiats where·
the birds spend their time actively running about on marshy ground
or wading with show deliberate steps into shallow water in search of
food. Large flocks of a hundred birds or Ulore may also occasionally
be met with. Its diet consists of aquatic insects, small crustacea,
worms, &c. The feeding with the curiously shaped bill is effected as~
hllows: the bill is partly opened and directed against the ground
obliquely -rather as a hOCkey stick is held in play-so that the curved
part skims the squelchy semi-liquid mud. It is then moved with
a back and fore rotatory churning motion taking in the food.

The to~s of the Avocet are partly webbed and enable it to swim
with ease when occasion dcnmnds. Its call note is a clear, loud,
rather high-pitched k!ltit uttered several times in succession, usually
on the wing.

Nesting: The Avocet breeds in temperate Europe and Asia-but

nOwhere within Indian limits-from April onwards, immediately on
return from its winter quarters. The nest and site are very like-
tl:!ose of the Stilt-a depression sometimes lined with grass, &e., OD
low-lying marshy ground and the margins of jheels. The eggs-usua.lly-
~ in a clutch-also closely resemble those of the Stilt.

359
 167. The Curlew
Numenius arquata (Linnaeus)

;Size: About that of the domestic hen.

:Field Characters: A darkish sandy-brown wading bird. streaked
with black and fulvous to produce ' game bird pattern.' \Vhite lower
back and rump conspicuous in flight. Its most characteristic feature
is the downcurved slender bill 5 or 6 inches long. Sexes alike. Singly
or small parties, on jheels, rivers and the seashore.
The Whimbrel (Nt{menius Ph030PUS)' a close relative of the
-Curlew and very similar to it in appearance and habits, is also a winter
visitor to India and found in identical habitats. It is distinguish·
.able by its somewhat smaller size and the presence of a conspicuous
whitish median streak on the dark crown. The cail it utters in flight
is a musical tetti, tetti, tetli, tet. As a rule it keeps in larger flocks than
the Curlew.
Distribution: The Eastern race orientalis winters commonly through·
·out India, Burma and Ceylon. The typical (European) form, arq:eata,
also occurs as a casual winter visitor.
Habits: The Curlew is a winter visitor to India, arriving in September
and leaving again for its breeding grounds by the beginning or middle
-of April. In winter it is found in small numbers-singly, pairs or
small parties-about jheels, marshland and rivers, but it is ra.ther
more plentiful along our seacoasts. Here the birds may be seen
running about or stalking along the shore at low tide, or on the mud·
banks of tidal creeks, picking up what they can find on the surface
-or probing i.nto the soft ooze with their bills, in search of food. Its
-diet varies according to the locality it frequents, consisting chiefly of
molluscs, crustaceans, insect larVa! as well as vegetable matter such
-as berries of marsh plants, grass shoots and seaweed. It is active
and on the move more or less throughout the day and night. The
<:all of the Curlew, usually uttered in flight, is a loud, plaintive scream
- a shrill co~r-lee or cur-lew--quite characteristic aud unmistakable
when once heard. The bird is at all times inordinately shy and wary
-very difficult to approach or circumvent. It is sought after by
sportsmen and highly esteemed as an article for the table.
Nesting: The Curlew breeds in Northern and Central Europe to
'Siberia from April to June. The eggs-4 in number-are laid in a
-scantily-lined depression on moors and marshland. They are pyri·
form in shape, i.e., broad at one end, abruptly pointed at the other
as in the plovers, grey-green to olive-brown in colour, freely spotted
.and blotched, more densely round the broad end.
360
The Curlew
361
The Wood or Spotted Sandpiper
362
 168. The Wood or Sp,otted Sandpiper
Tringa glareola Linnaeus
Size: About that of the Quail.
Field Characters: A little snipe-like wading bird. sepia brown above.
indistinctly spotted and marked with white. Lower back and rump
white. Breast pale brownish. Whitish stripe above eyes. The
summer (breeding) plumage is brighter with the spots and markings
more defined. Sexes alike. Singly or small flocks. about jheels,
marshes. etc.
Two other sandpipers need mention: The Green (Tringa och-
1'<>pus) and the Common (Actitis hypoleuCl>s). The former is distin-
guishable from the Wood Sandpiper by its sOIhewhat larger size and
the bronze-green gloss on its upper parts. In flig~t its white rump
and tail are conspicuous and it utters a low whistling ti-tui as it rises
and flies off. The Common Sandpiper is of the same size as the Wood
Sandpiper but with a brown rump and 'only the outer tail leathers
white. A white wing-bar is diagnostic in flight, which is accomplished
by peculiar rapid but stiff vibrating wing-strokes. and close over
water. It utters tee-tee-tee as it makes off.
The Redshank (Tringa toiallus) and Greenshank (Trillga nebularia)
are also common on marshes. iheels and tidal creeks during winter.
They are both larger than the sandpipers (less than Partridge) but
unmistakably of the tribe. Both have long. bare. slender legs-
red and olive-green respectively-'-and straight slender bills. In the
Greenshank this is slightly upturned. Singly, parties or flocks;
Greenshanks less gregarious. Both utter a sharp tiwee-dwee-tiwee or
tew-t~w-tew as they fly.
Distribution: In winter practically throughout India, Burma
and Ceylon.
Habits: The Wood or Spotted Sandpiper is one of the most abun-
dant of the numerous snipe-like birds. popularly known as "Snippets:
to be found in winter about every iheel, village tank, river. inundated
ploughed field and marsh in India. It commences to arrive in our
midst as early as August and stays on till May. ERA satisfactorily
defines the term • Snippet' as including any bird which purports to
be a snipe and is not a. snipe I Such birds often form an inadvertently
large proportion of the tyro snipe-shooter's bag. but with a little
practice there is no excuse for confusing the two. For one thing the
Snipe always rises with a very chinacteristic. rather harsh. scape or
p7n~h. while in the sandpipers or snippets this takes some form of shrill
plpmg notes. The white rump and barred brown-and-white tail
of .the Wood Sandpiper. conspicuous in flight. will furnish further
eVidence of its lowly identity. .',
Wood S",ndpipers collect into parties and flocks much more
freely than do the other species. The birds run about actively on the
,oft mud wagging their diminutive tails up and down-aud with them
the posterior part of their body-picking up what they can on the
surface and probing into the squelchy ooze with their bills for iusects,
larv<e. worms. small molluscs and the like. This species is principally
a marsh bird, and though found about tidal creeks. salt-pans and back-
wNater paddy cultivation, it is seldom, if ever, seen on the seashore.
~esting: The Wood Sandpiper breeds during May and June in
!!.urope and N. Asia. Its nest is a scantily-lined depresSion in some
dry elevated patch in open marshy, grass-covered localities.
363
 169. The Little Stint
Calidris milluta (Leisler)

Size: About that of the House-Sparrow.

Field Characters: A diminutive wader, mottled greyish-brown or
dusky above, white below, with blackish legs and bill. Sexes alike,
but summer (breeding) plumage richer-more black and rufous.
Flocks, by jheels, tanks and on tidal mudflats.
Temminck's Stint (C. temminckii)-also of the same size and habits
and a common winter visitor-is frequently found in association
with the Little Stint. It is somewhat darker above and with the
outer tail feathers white instead of brownish. Legs olive-green. The
shaft of its first primary wing-quill is white, the rest of the shafts
brown; in minttfa the shafts of all primaries are more or less white.
Distribution: In winter throughout the Indian Empire. Two races
visit us, viz., the typical min uta from N. Europe and C. Siberia to
India and Ceylon, and the rufous-headed ruficollis from E. Siberia
and Japan to Burma and the Andamans.
Habits: The Little Stint is a common winter visitor to India, arriving
in our midst about August and departing again for its northern breeding
grounds by May. It is a sociable little wader and often collects in
large flocks, usually mixed with the closely related Temminck's Stint,
Dunlins, and other gregarious shore birds. It is found inland as
well as along the seaboard, frequenting the edges of tanks, marshland,
mudflats in the vicinity of tidal creeks, and the seashore. The memo
bers of the flocks spread themselves out when feeding but never stray
very far from one another. They are incessantly on the move,
running about with agility and picking up tiny insects, crustaccans
and molluscs which form their food. 'When disturbed, the flock
flies off swiftly in orderly mass formation, turning and twisting in
unison, the white undersides of the wings flashing, all together, from
time to time as the birds wheel in the air. They uttcr a soft musical
wit-wit-wit or a low tr·rr as they fly. The flock settles after a short
flight and the birds resume their feeding activity forthwith.
Nesting: The season in North-eastern Europe and Siberia is JUlie
and July. The nest is a cup·shaped depression lined with wi!lOIV
leaves, situated on grassy marshland. Four pyriform eggs are laid,
greenish to buffish-stone in colour, spotted and blotched with reddish-
brown.
The fact that by the beginning of August the birds already COUl-
, mence to arrive in India indicates how hurriedly the domestic operations
have to be performed. The adult birds are the first to arrive. The
young of the year remain behind till they are sufficiently strong to
undertake the arduous journey south, following 3 or 4 weeks later.
36 4
The Little Stint
The Common or Fantail Snipe
366
 170. The Common or Fantail Snip~
Capella gallinago (Linnaeus)
Size: Slightly larger than the Quail.
Field Characters: An obliteratively coloured marsh bird with ~traight
slender bill about 2! inches long. Dark brown above streak~d with
black, rufous and buff; whitish below. Sexes alike. Singly o:r wisps.
on grass-covered marshy ground, rising up suddenly with 11- harsh
note when disturbed, and flying off in swift zig-zags.
Another snipe, common during winter, and also featuring largely
in sportsmen's bags is the P'ntail (C. stcnul'a). It is not easy to dis-
tinguish the two species in the field except with much practice. In
the hand it can be told by the 26 or 28 attenuated pin featherS in its
tail as against I2 or 14 normal ones in that of the Fantail.
Distribution: Wide-in Europe, Asia, Africa and Amedca. In
winter two races visit practically the whole of the Indian :f!:mpire.
,iz., the typical gallinago from N. Europe and C. Siberia, and the
E. Asiatic ,.ad.1ii with white underwing coverts. This eVldently is
the breeding race also of Kashmir and the Himiilayas.
Hahits: The Common or Fantail Snipe is an abundant winter
visitor to the Indian plains, arriving about September and leaving
by)by. It frequents squelchy paddy-fields and stubble, and marshy
reed-covered ground on the margins of jlz eels , brackish bacln'i<l;te:s
and tidal creeks. The birds are usually met with singly, but it 15
not uncommon to flush them in wisps of 4 or 5 which have foregathered
in a patch with plentiful food supply. Their colouratiou harillonizes
"'~ ,,<i\"'~"';'c"\Jl ''l''<C\>. <C\,-,,"" S'STIs:;''''ti.<i'~''g~> <e"'lI.<e ",;_ "'" <i:"'f"s.:',,\';_ ,;_", ~- '1...
crouching snipe, even out in the open, unless it moves. \vllen ap-
proached or otherwise disturbed, they rise abruptly out of a tussock
Df grass or rushes with a harsh characteristic note-scape of pench,
rather like the squelching of a sodden shoe-and go off at a trenlendous
pace in a series of rapid zig-zags. It is this swift zig-zag flight that
gives spice to the sport of snipe-shooting and disappointil1g bags
to. inexperienced or mediocrc shots. During the heat of the day
SUlpe retire to cover under grass tufts and bushes borderil1g theIr
feeding grounds. They are then sluggish and usually reluctant to
fiy fast or travel far. \Vhen thoroughly scared, however, and on
cool windy days they will often flush wllile still well out of gunshot
and rise high in the air, flying at great pace with their peculiar angular
rolling movements in a wide circle overhead, uttering the penCil from
tIme to time and dropping to the ground again not far froll1 where
they rose. They commence to fced in the open in tll.e late
aft~moon and continue all through the night and till the sun lS well
up III the morning. Their food consists of worms, larVal, tiny molluscs
and the like. It is obtained by probing their long bills into the soft
mUd: the presence of the quarry being detected by means of the
sens~tive, thickened tip. . .
Nestmg: The season in Kashmir is May and June. The nest 15
~ shallow grasslined depression in a tuft of grass on mrasbY land.
'Our .eggs form the normal clutch. They are variable in colour a.nd
markmgs, yellowish-stone or olive-green. blotched or mottled wlth
blackish and chocolate-brown.
 171. The Spotted-billed or Grey Pelican
Pelecanus philippensis Gmelin
Size: Larger than the Vulture.
Field Characters: A large, squat water bird, with longish neck,
short stout legs and webbed feet. The long, heavy. flattened bill
under which hangs an enormous dull purplish elastic skin bag is
the most characteristic feature of the pelican. Large blue-black
spots on the upper mandible is the' trade mark' of this species. The
adult differs from the young bird (illustrated) in being chiefly white
with a pale brownish-pink tinge in parts. In flight, black v.ing·tips
conspicuous. Sexes alike. Small parties or large flocks at jheels, etc.
Distribution: The better watered tracts throughout India, Burma
and Ceylon. Less common in ·Western India. Also found in the
Oriental Region generally. Migrant, but movements imperfectly known.
Habits: The Spotted-billed Pelican (Hawasil in Hindustani) is
usually met with on large freshwater jheels and swamps, in small
parties or large flocks. The birds spend their time either swimming
about and fishing or floating on the water at rest, or in preening their
feathers on the shore and working up an appetite. They are very
greedy birds and devour large quantities of fish.
The pelican's method of fishing resembles the cormorant's· in
that it is a co-operative undertaking. Several birds work together
in a line or semicircle, driving the fish towards the shallows with
energetic and vigorous splashes of their wings upon the water. They
do not dive for their quarry but just sail into a shoal with their bills
open, the lower jaw trailing in the water and the enormous skin bag
spread out to act as a landing net and scoop in the fish.
Inspite of their clumsy and cumbrous appearance, pelicans are
graceful and strong on the wing. In flight the neck is pulled in, in
a sort of flattened S, with the head close between the shoulders. The
large broad wings beat the air steadily with a whistling sound. Their
flat-keeled bodies are now very reminiscent of the float of a flying
boat. They fly either in the typical wedge formation of geese, or in long
straggly ribbons with a wide front. The birds are frequently seen
soaring in circles high up in. the heavens in company with storks.
The oil obtained from pelican's fat is highly valued as an embro·
cation in rheumatism and similar ailments.
Nesting: This pelican nests in colonies, between November and
April. It is known to breed in the Madras Presidency and Ceylon.
But the largest colonies are reported from forests about the Sittang
river in Burma. These colonies occupy several square miles and ~vere
estimated by a famous ornithologist to contain millions of bJI'ds.
The nests are flat platforms of sticks, about 2 feet across. They are
I built in trees, often over a dozen in a single tree, and occasionally
far from water. Some of the nest-trees are over 100 feet high. The
eggs-usually 3-are chalky white. They become considerably
discoloured during incubation.
The Spotted..billed Pelican

36 9
The Little Cormorant
370
 ·112. The Little Cormorant
Pkalacrocora:J( niger (Vieillot) ,
Size: Somewhat larger than the Jungle-Crow.
Field Characters: A shabby-looking, glistening black, stiff-tailed
water bird with slender compressed bill, sharply hooked at tip. A
small white patch on throat. Sexes alike. Singly or gregariously,
at tanks and jheels, perched on trees and rocks, or swimming.
The Large Cormorant (P. carbo), frequently found in association
with this species, is of similar habits. It is about the size of the
domestic duck, and also black. but in the breeding season with some
white in the head and neck. and a large white patcl,l on either flank.
We have a third species of cormorant, the Indian Shag (P.
fuscicollis) , numbers of which are commonly seen together with the
above two. In size it is intermediate between the Little and the
Large Cormorants, but otherwise very similar.
Distribution: Throughout the Indian Empire, and beyond-east.
ward-to Malay Peninsula. Sumatra, Java. and Borneo.
Habits: The Little Cormorant is commonly found on jheels. village
tanks and the larger rivers inland, as well as on tidal creeks and
sparingly also on the sea-coast. In the non-breeding season the·
birds are met with in twos and ,threes or gregariously. but hardly in
closely-knit flocks. They are to be seen perched on trees overhanging:
or near the water, on sands pits or islets in the shallows 011 on partially
submerged rocks and dead tree-stumps. They love to sit here for
hours' on end, with outspread wings and tail, sunning themselves.
The food of this cormorant consists mostly of fhh, but sometimes
frogs are also eaten. It is an accomplished swimmer and diver and
all its fishing is done below the surface. It comes up with the quarry
held crosswise in its bill and then shifts it into position for being swal-
lowed head foremost by little upward jerks of its bill. On the water
it rides very low, unlike the duck, so that only its neck and the top
of its back are visible. It rises off the water with some difficulty
and much flapping. but flies strongly with rapid wing-strokes and
Occasional g_liding, when well under way. The neck is outstretched
and the legs extended behind under the taiL In alighting on the
water the long stiff tail is the first to break the surface, and functions·
as a brake to arrest the momentum. Cormorants sometimes hunt
fish by concerted action. A party of birds hems in a' shoal, diving
repeatedly with feverish energy and driving it from below towards the'
shore. They close in on their quarry as they drive, and do great massacre'
once the fish have been successfully manoeu'vred into the shallows.
Nesting: The season in N. India is July to September; in ~. India,
November to February. Little Cormorants breed in large colonies
running into thousands, often mixed with storks, herons, shags and other
water birds (Plate p. 100). The nests are shallow platforms of twigs.
rather like crows' nests, sometimes lined scantily. with grass-roots.•
They are built in babool and similar trees preferably standing in water.
The eggs-4 to 5-are pale bluish-green with a chalky surface.
371
 173. The Darter or Snake..Bird
A nhinga melanogaster Pennant
Size: About that of a small duck.
-Field Characters: A black, cormorant-like water bird with silver
~grey streaks on the back, and velvety brown head and neck. Chin and
throat whitish. Tail long, stiff, wedge-shaped. The long and very
,slender S-shapcd neck, narrow head and pointed dagger-like bill are
-characteristic features. Sexes alike. Singly or small loose parties,
,in and about tanks and rivers.
Distribution: Throughout India, Burma and Ceylon. Eastward
through Indo-Chinese countries and Malay Peninsula to the Philippines
: and Celebes. .
-Habits: The Darter frequents streams, rivers, village tanks and
jheels. It is also found on tidal estuaries and creeks but not on the
- sea-coast. It is usually met with singly or in twos and threes, but
large loose congregations of 50-100 birds are not uncommon where
conditions are especially favourable. As a rule they select jheels
with plenty of partially submerged trees, and are particularly fond of
clumps growing on little islets. It is an expert diver and swimmer
and spends a great deal of its time on the water, swimming about
with its body submerged and only the slender snake-like head and neck
exposed turning this way and that. When sated, the bird perches
upright aD the top of some tree or stake standing in the water or
nearby, tail and wings spread out to dry in the manner of the German
eagle before the Swastika became fashionable. Its staple food is
fish. It chases them under water, swimming at speed with wings
held half open and head and neck swaying back and forth in a
peculiar manner, like a javelin-thrower pOising his missile. -When
within striking distance, the dagger bill is shot out with lightning
rapidity transfixing the quarry. The bird now comes to the surface;
a sharp backward jerk of the head shakes the fish off into the air
whence it is caught between the mandibles head foremost and
swallowed. A special contrivance in the neck vertebrae enables the
bird to dart forward its bill as if released by a powerful spring.
When a tree overhanging a jheel on which Darters are resting
is approached, the birds often flop plumb down, one by one, into the
water below' dragging' through the intervening branches as if shot.
They go right under, but presently the snake-like heads reappear at
some distance in all directions. The call note usually heard is a harsh
disyllabic croak chi-gi. In flight and other habits they closely
resemble the cormorants with whom they habitually associate.
Nesting: The season in N. India is June to August; in S. India
,November to February. The Darter nests in mixed colonies with
cormorants, storks, herons and other water birds. Its nests are flat
platforms of twigs built in trees standing in or near water. The
-egg5-3 or 4-are greatly elongated in shape, only slightly more poill;ted
.at one end. They are pale greenish-blue with a whitish chalky coating.

37 2
lli :::~-..--- ~ ~BIrd

1-3
The Spo()nbill
374
 174. The Spoonbill
Pla/alea leucoyodia Linnaeus ,
Size: Rather larger than the domestic duck.
Field Characters: A long-necked, long-legged snow white marsh
bird with black legs and a distinctive large black-and-yellow spatula-
.'lhaped bill. A ,long full nuchal crest during the breeding season.
Sexes ~like. Parties on marshy ground. .
Distribution: The Indian race major is found throughout the
plains of India, Burma and Ceylon. Beyond, it extends west to
Mesopotamia, east to Japan. ' I .
Habits: The Spoonbill affects marshes, jheels, sfl:ndbanks in rivers
and also 'tidal mudflats. It is usually met with inl flocks of 10 to 20
birds keeping to themselves, but also consorting loosely with ibises,
storks and other marsh haunting species. They spend the middle
of the day resting on the margin of a jlleel or on a sandbank, and are
much more active in the evenings when they repair to their feeding
grounds in a diagonal single file, each bird a little behind and to one
side of the one ahead of it. The flight is rather slow with steady
long wing-strokes-neck and legs extended-and often at a consi-
derable height. Their food consists of tadpoles. frogs. molluscs and
insects, but they also eat a great deal of ,vegetable matter. Tb a large
extent the birds are nocturnal in their feeding habits. 'A herd'
wades into shallow water on a marsh, and with outstretched necks
and obliquely poised partly open bills they sweep from \side to side
with fl scythe action raking the squelchy mud with the tip of the
lower' mandible. The compact, eager, jostling herd moves forward
almost at a run when feeding. In this manner the birds work restricted
patche;; methodically, up and down and back again. Their intense
activity is punctuated by intermittent pauses of rest during which
the entire herd stands listless in one spot with apparently no further
interest in food.
Like storks-but unlike cranes-the Spoonbill possesses no' true
'Organs of voice production. The only sound it occasionally emits
is a low grunt. " '
Nesting: The season varies with locality and monsoon conditions,
but is principally between August and November.. The birds nest in
'colonies, as a rule more or less by themselves but sometimes also in
company with colonies of herons, ibises a~d storks. The nest is a.
rather massive stick platform built on the top or on the outside
branches of trees standing in or on the edge of a jheel--frequently on
the outskirts of a village. The same site and nests, repaired if
necessary, are used year after year. The normal clutch is of 4 eggs,
ra.ther a sullied white in colour, sparingly spotted and blotc»ed with
deep reddish-brown chiefly at the broader end.
In the newly-hatched chick the bill is fleshy-pink and of the
normal shape. It soon thickens, however, gradually becoming
.?ulbous at the tip with a slight decurvation. Not till the young
IS completely feathered does the 'bilI attain the characteristic ' spoon '
$hape.
375
 175. The .White Ibis
Thl'BSkiornis melanocephalus (Latham)
Size : About tlJ.at of a large domestic hen.
Field Characters: A large white marsh bird with naked black head'
and neck, and long black, curved, curlew-like bill. There is some-
slaty-grey near the Shoulders, and the tips of the primary quills are'
brownish. In the breeding season there are elongated white feathers
round the base of the neck and plumes on the upper breast. Young:
birds (as shown in plate) have the neck and part of the head feathered.
Sexes alike. Parties or flocks, on marshy land. '
Distribution: Throughout the plains of India, Burma and Ceylon,
Beyond, eastward through China to South Japan. Resident, but
also local migrant.
Habits: A near relation of the Spoonbill, the White Ibis resembles.
it closely in, general habits and habitat. It frequents jheels, tanks
and rivers in -the vicinity of which it is usually met with in small
parties or moderate sized flocks on marshes, water-logged grassland
and paddy stubble. Here the ,birds feed in company with storks
and other marsh birds. They are active on their legs walking about
gracefully on the soft mud in search of food which consists principally
of molluscs, crustaceans, insects, worms, frogs, &c. When disturbed
off the ground, they frequently alight on trees. The flight, in which
the long bill and neck are extended in front and the legs behind, is
strong and direct. It is attained by a series of steady rapid wing·
strokes punctuated by very short glides. The birds usually fly in
V-formation. Like the storks and the spoonbills, ibises lack true
voice organs. They are silent except during the breeding season
when the present species is said to produce a 'loud booming calL'
Bates, however, has recently described the noises produced by breeding
birds as a series of peculiar ventriloquial grunts, not loud but vibrant.
When heard in the distance, emanating from a number of birds at
the same time, he likens the sound to the mumble of many people
talking together.
Thongh a permanent resident in localities with perennial water,
the White Ibis elsewhere moves about a good deal locally under stress
of natural conditions such as drought and floods.
Nesting: The season in North India is June to August; in South
India and Ceylon November to February. White Ibises nest in
small colonies, often in association with storks, herons and other marsh
birds (Plate p. 158). The nest is a flat platform of sticks usually
unlined-built in trees standing in or near water, sometimes on the
outskirts of a village. The egg5-2 to 4 in number-are bluish or
.greenish-white either unmarked or with delicate spots' of yellowish-
brown.
 I

...
N
W
00;
Ii
o
A.
I:
~
A
"J

The White Ibis

377
I

The Black Ibis

378
 176. The Black Ibis
,
Pseudibis papillosa (Temm. & Laug.)

Size: About that of a large domestic hen. Slightly smaller than

the White Ibis.

Field Characters: A large distinctive black bird with slender, curlew-

like curved bill, a conspicuous white patch near the shoulder (not
shown in the plate!) and brick-red legs. A triangular patch of red
warts on the top of the naked black head. Pairs or small flocks;
in open country-usually 1Iot marshland.

Another bird rather similar in appearance to the Black Ibis

but smaller, glistening bJackish and chestnut, with slenderer bill
and feathered head is the Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcilleltus). It is
a resident species in India, but moves about a good deallocaliy. It is
essentially marsh-haunting like the White Ibis.

Distribution: Plains of North India, south to Mysore. Not on

the West Coast or in Ceylon. Sparingly in Assam and the drier
parts of Burma-and through Siam to Cochin-China. Resident.

Habits: The Black Ibis is a bird of open plains country on the out-
skirts of cultivation where it keeps in small parties of 3 or <\ and flocks
of up to 8 or 10 individuals. Though frequently found in the neigh-
bourhood of jheels and rivers, its existence is by no means bound up
with the presence of water. As a rule it does not feed on marshy
ground, but prefers the dry margins higher up, and the surrounding
fallow and stubble fields. Its food consists prinCipally of insects
and grain, but small reptiles are also eaten on occasion. The birds
keep to' favoured localities and have accustomed roosts in favourite
trees to which they resort nightly. They fly in V-formation by a
series of steady wing-strokes altemated with. short glides. They are
silent birds on the whole. A loud screaming cry of 2 or 3 notes,
reminiscent of the Ruddy Sheldrake's, is uttered mostly on the wing.
Nesting: The season is ill-defined ranging between l1arch and Oc-
tober in North India; November-December in the south. The Black
Ibis does not, normally, nest in colonies or in company with other
birds, but sometimes 2 or 3 nests of its own species may be found
in the same tree. The nest is a large cup-shaped structure of twigs
lined with straw, feathers, &c. It is placed high up in a tree generally
away from water. Sometimes an old eagle or vulture nest is utilised.
The egg&-2 to 4 in number-are bright pale green in colour,· either·
unmarked or with spots and streaks of brown.
379
 177. The White Stork
Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus)
Siie: About that of the Vulture, but standing about 3! feet to
the top of its head.
Field Characters: A long-legged, iong-necked, egret-like bird; white
except for the wings which are black. Legs and heavy pointed bill
red, Sexes alike, but female somewhat smaller. Singly, pairs or
small parties, on and about marshland.
Distribution: Europe, Africa, Asia. In winter practically through-
out the Indian Empire. The race visiting most of this area is the
typical European-West Asian ciconia. The East Asian race bo),ciaila,
with black instead of red bill, winters in Assiim and Burma.
Habits: The 'White Stork is a common winter visitor to North
India, but is rare south of the Deccan and in Ceylon. It begins to
'arrive in our midst in September, and most birds have left again for
their breeding grounds by the beginning of April. It is certain that
some at least of our winter visitors come from Central Europe.
Nestling storks ringed in Germany and Hungary have been recovered
on the Oman Coast of Arabia. One example ringed as a nestling in
Braunschw;eig (Germany) was found in Bikaner a few months late:-,
and therefore farther along the same direction of flight, The air
distance covered by this young bird was about 4,000 miles.
\Vhite Storks frequent marshes and the margins of jheels singly
or in pairs or small parties. They collect into larger flocks before
starting on their northward migration in spring. They stalk along
on the soft mud in search of food which consists of frogs, reptiles,
fish and large insects such as locusts of which last particularly, they
take enormous toll in times of swarms or 'invasions.' Its flight,
which appears leisurely, is in fact fast and strong, and the birds have
a habit of soaring in circles high up in the heavens with the effortless
ease and grace of the Vulture.
Storks do not possess voice muscles and are therefore silent except
for a loud clattering together of their mandibl'~s which both sexes
freely indulge in, more especially during the breeding season, During
this performance the neck is bent over backwards so that the crown
of the head rests on the back. The gular panch is puffed out and
serves as a resonating organ.
Nesting: The typical race breeds in "V. Asia and C. Europe, between
May and July, building a large platform of sticks on chimneys, the
tops of buildings or tall trees and rocks. The same site and nest are
used year after year. The eggs-3 to 5-arc pure white.
In most countries of the West as well as the East, sentiment
,affords rigid protection to breeding storks. A nest on a dwelling
house or in its proximity is an auspicious omen since 'White Storks,
from time immemorial, have been looked upon as models of cOlljng~1
bliss and parental devotion, and as the legendary ushers of human
babies.
The White Stork
3&1
The White-necked Stork
38z
 178. The White..necke4 Stork
Dissoura episcopus (Boddaert)

Size: Rather smaller than the White Stork; standing about 3 ft.
high.

Field Characters: A glistening black stork with conspicuous white

neck, and a black crown that looks like a padre's skull cap. Abdomen
and under tail also white. Red legs. Sexes alike. Singly, pairs or
small parties, by water and on marshland. .

Another stork, considerably larger than the White Stork, and

commonly seen on jheels standing in knee-deep water, is the Black~
necked Stork (XenorhYflchus asiaticlts\. Its enormous 'black ~ill,
glistening black head and neck, white underparts and the pied black-
and-white wings serve to reveal its identity.

Distribution: The typical race episocopus is resident throughout

the greater part of India (from about 3,000 ft. in the Himalayas),
Burma and Ceylon. Rare in Sind. Beyond-eastward-it extends
through the Malay Peninsula and the intervening \ countries and
islands to the Celebes. A second race is found in Africa.

Habits: The White-necked Stork affects well-watered plains country.

It is met with singly, in pairs or small parties on inundated or water-
logged ground and about rivers, jheels, tanks and ponds-especially
where the latter are in the process of drying up. The bird may be
seen standing motionless on one leg as if absorbed in meditation, or
stalking about in company with ibises, egrets and other marsh birds
in search of food. This consists of frogs, reptiles, crabs, molluscs
and large)nsects. In day-to-day habits it does not differ appreciably
from the White Stork, and like it also may commonly be seen soaring
in circles on outspread wings up in the air at great heights, in the
company of vultures. ,Any noise beyond the lOUd clattering of the
mandibles is seldom produced by this bire!:

Nesting: The White-necked Stork breeds practically throughout

the year, the favoured months varying with the locality. The nest
is a large platform of sticks with the central depression I lined with
grass and rubbish. It is placed fairly high up in a tree oiten close
to a village and seldom very far from water. A normal clutch is of
3 or 4 white, obtuse oval eggs.
Both sexes share in building the nest and evidently also iu
incubation.
 179. 'The Adjutant Stork
Leptop#los dubius. (Gmelin)
Size: Larger than the Vulture; standing 4 to 5 ft. high.
Field Characters: The largest and ugliest of our storks. A sad-
coloured black, grey and dirty white bird with an enonnous, thick,
four-sided, wedge-shaped bill; naked head and neck; and a huge
ruddy pouch, 12-15 inches long, pendant from the chest. Sexes
alike... Singly or parties, on outskirts of habitations Or at jkeels.
The Smaller Adjutant (L. javanicus), differing chiefly in size
and the absence of the neck pouch, is also found sparingly in well-
wooded and watered tracts over the greater part of India, including
Malabar and Ceylon.
Distribution: North India, Assam and Burma. Beyond-eastward
.;_through the Malay Peninsula and Indo-Chinese countries to Java
and Borneo.
Habits: The Ad;utant Stork derives its English name from its deli-
berate, high-stepping military gait as it paces up and down. It is
prinCipally a summer visitor to portions of North India and Bengal.
where it is common during that season. The bird ia met with
singly or gregariously on the outskirts of towns and villages. and
occasionally also on marshy land about jheels. It is an efficient
scavenger; until a few years ago when urban sanitation was still
rather primitive it used to be abundant about Calcutta, perching on
the housetops and consorting freely with kites and vultures to feast
on the offal and garbage dumped in the environs of the city. and on
carcases of animals on the countryside around. In addition to offal
and carrion it also eats frogs. fish. reptiles. large insects, and in fact
anything eatable it can come by. The precise significance of the
pendant pouch at the base of the neck is obscure. It is in the nature
of an air-sac communicating with the nasal cavity and has no connec-
tion with the gullet. Consequently it cannot receive and store food
as is popularly supposed.
The flight of the Adjutant is heavy and noisy. The bird is obliged
'to run a few steps before taking off, but when once well la.unched it is
perfectly at home in the air and. like its cousins, fond of soaring in
circles at great heights. On the ground it often squa.ts with the
'shanks' extended well in front as shown in the background on the
plate, head drawn in between the shoulders and presenting a lud!c-
rous spectacle. Like the rest of its family it is destitute of VOice
muscles. The only noise it normally produces is a loud clattering. of
the mandibles. It is, however. also said to emit lowing grunts dunng
the breeding season, the source of which is unknown.
Nesting: Though nests have been recorded from a few localities
in India,- the real breeding grounds of the Adjutant lie in S. Burma.
Here they breed in enormous numbers in the Pegu District along the
Ataran River, in company with Smaller Adjutants and Pelicans. The
nests are immense structures of sticks built on pinnacles of rock scarpS
or in lofty forest. The egg&-3 to 4--are white.
3 84
The Adjutant Stork
3 85
The Painted Stork
3 0
 180.' The Painted Stork
Ibis leuc()c8phalus (pennant)
:Size : About that of the White Stork.
rield Characters: A large typical stork with 100ig, heavy yellow
bill slightly decurved near tip, and unfeathered waxy yellow face.
Plumage white,. closely barred and marked with shining greenish-
black above and with a black band across breast. Beautifull rose-
~ink about shoulders and on wings.' Sexel\ alike. Pairs, parties or
large c.ongregations, at jheels and marshes. \I :
Distribution: The typical race leucocephalus is found throughout
India, Burma and Ceylon, but is rare in the Punjab .. Beycnd-eastward
-it extends tc Indo-China and SoW. China. Resident, but also
local migrant. .
'Habits: The Painted Stork is a common bird .on jheels and tanks,
.and to a lesser extent is also met with .on rivers. It is a resident
species, but moves abcut loca:lly under stress .of natural ccnditions
'such as droughts and floods. Ordinarily it keeps in pair,; and'small
ilocks, but during the breeding season encrmous numbers collect in
favourite localities. The birds spend the day standing' hunched-up'
.and moticnless, .or sauntering abcut sedately on grassr marshland or
,in i?ha:llcw water in search of fish and frogs which predcminate in
i:b.eir diet. They also eat aquatic insects, crabs and mclluscs.
The birds perch freely .on' and roost in trees standing in or near
water, and have the usual stcrk habit of soaring in circles .on moticn-
less wings for long periods-several birds together-high up in the
air. When shifting from their feeding grounds to their nightly roosts
and vice versa, or on .one of ~heir local migrations, they fly in wedge-
formaticn with neck extended and legs tucked under the tap. and
trailiIig behind. The flight consists of a series of powerful wing-strokes
followed lly a short glide, The .only ncise they make is the loud
'Clattering 9f the mandibles. typical of the family.
Nesting: The season varies with locality and natural' conditions
but ranges principally between September and, January. The
Painted Stork breeds in immense colonies sometimes running into
thousands, in close and amicable association with ibises, hercns.
'COrmorants and such birds. '(Plates pp. 1.00, 158). The nes~ are large
stick platforms with a shallow depression in the middle sparsely lined'
With leaves, straw. etc. They are built on babool and bther small
to moderately sized trees standing in water, .often 10 to 20 nests
'.on a single tree, close together and touching .one ancther. The
-egg5-2 to 5 in number-are a dull sullied white, occasicnally
with sparse spots and streaks .of brown.
Both sexes share in building the nest and feeding the young.
381
 181. The Open-billed Stork

Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert)

Size: .Small for a stork; standing about 2!- feet high.

Field Characters: A small stork of greyish-white or white plumage
with black in the wings. The peculiar reddish-black bill with arching
mandibles leaving a narrow open gap between them is diagnostic.
Sexes alike. Pairs .or flocks, at jheels and marshes.

Distributio'n: Throughout India, Ceylon and Burma. Beyond-

eastward-to Siam and Cochin-China. Resident, but also local
migrant.

Habits: The Open-billls one of our commonest storks with a very

Wide and general distribution. It is found in small parties or flocks
at all jheels and tanks of any size, and shifts about locally as these
dry up or as others spring into existence by the monsoon inundation
of depressions and low lying tracts. Occasionally it is also met with
on rivers and tidal mudflats. In general habits it does not differ
·from the family. Like the other storks it also indulges in the soaring
and circling flights high up in the air. Likewise, the only sound it
normally produces is the loud clattering of its mandibles. The preCise
significance and function of the curiously shaped bill is, however,
not understood and calls for special observation and study in the
field. Its food consists to a great extent of molluscs, especially the
large Ampullaria snails found on marshes, the thick shell of which it
sometimes crushes in its mandibles, extracting and swallowing the soft
body and viscera. From the bill and throat of a specimen 8 of such
large snails, minus their shells; have been taken. It also eats crabs,
frogs and any other small living things that can be obtained on its
accustomed feeding grounds.

Nesting: The season over the greater part of its range is July to
September; in S. India and Ceylon November to March. Open bills
breed in large colonies frequently in association with cormorants,
herons, ibises and other marsh birds. The nests are circular plat-
forms of twigs with the central depression lined with leaves, etc.
They are placed-often a great many together on a single tree-on
trees standing in a jheel or on its edge, and sometimes in the close
proximity of a village. A normal clutch consists of 2. to 4 sullied
white eggs, oval in shape and with a close texture.
3 88
The Open~ b1O
lled Stork
38 9
The Grey Heron
390
 182. The Grey Heron
Ardea cinerea (Linnaeus)
Size: About that of the Open-bill.
Field Characters: A large slender long-legged egret-like bird wita
long thin S-shaped neck and pointed dagger bill. Ashgrey with
whitish crown, neck and abdomen. Long black occipital crest. A
conspicuous black dottcd line down middle of foreneck. Sexes alike.
Solitary, by recdy jheels, tanks and rivers.
The Purple Heron (A. purpurea) of the same size and general.
habits, is also found as a solitary bird on reed-bordered water through-·
out India. It is bluish-grey, with head and neck chiefly rufous, and
black and chestnut underparts.
Distribution: '.Vide-in Europe, Africa, Asia.. The Eastern race·
reclirostris-paler grey above than the European cinerea-is resident
throughout India, Burma and Ceylon, in the plains and up to about.
5,000 ft. elevation.
Habits: The Grey Heron affects j/zeels, tanks, streams and tidal
creeks espeCially such as have plenty of reeds growing on their margins
or lining their banks. It is normally met with as a solitary bird
standing motionless in knee-deep water with head sunk between the
sboulders and apparently fast asleep. All the while, however, it is
fully alert and peering intently into the shallows for any fish or frog
that might blunder past within striking range. '.Vhen the qnarry
is sighted the bird cranes forward its long flexible neck and' freezes.'
waiting with poised bill for a favourable opportunity to strike. Pre-
~ently the rapier bill darts out with lightning speed and the unsuspecting
Victim is impaled or firmly held 'across the mandibles. '.Vith an
upward jerk of the bill it is manceuvred into position and swallowed
bead foremost. The whole of this performance is put through with
astonishing quickness, and the bird promptly resumes its vigil. It
sometimes walks in stealthly towards its prey or to a new vantage
point, withdrawing and pntting down its feet in the water noiselessly
and with great deliberation.
Herons are crepnscular and partly nocturnal in their habits,
and do most of their active feeding in the early mornings and in the
evening twilight. Their food consists largcly of fish and frogs, but
aquatic insects, molluscs and crnstaceans as well as small mammals
like mice arc also eaten. \\'hen disturbed the bird rises with a deep
barsh croak, wbich is often also uttered from time to time in flight.
The initial get-off is clumsy and accompanied by an awkward stretching
of tbe long neck, vigorous laboured flapping of the wings and by much
swaying and balancing with the long dangling legs. \Vhen well
launched, the legs are tucked under the tail and trail behind, while
the head is drawn in between the shoulders. This' telescoped'
position of the head and neck in flight is characteristic of the entire
beron tribe and contrasts strongly with the storks and cranes which
iy with fully extended nccl{s.
Nesting: The season varies with locality, but is mainly July to
September in N. India; November to ?larch in S. India and Ceylon.
This species nests gregariously in heronries, usually in company with
colonies of darters, cormorants, egrets, etc. The nests are twig
platforms with the central depression scantily lined with leavcs and
~traw. They are built in trees standing in water or on the edge of
Jheels. The eggs-normally 3 in number, but up to 6-are deep-
Sea-green in colour. Both sexes share in building the nets, incubation
and feeding the young.
39 1
 183. The Little Egret
Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus)
:Size: About that of a village hen, but with longer neck and legs.
FIeld Characters: A lanky snow-white egret, differentiated at all
·seasons from the very similar Cattle Egret by its black not yellow bill.
"In the breeding season it develops a long drooping crest of two narrow
"plumes, and decomposed dainty ornamental feathers or • aigrettes '
·on its breast and back. Sexes alike. Parties, by jheels and rivers.
Distribution: The typical race garzetta is found in Europe. Africa.
;and Asia east to Japan. It is common throughout the plains of India.
Burma and Ceylon.
Habits: The Little Egret frequents fresh water jheels, tanks, ponds
;and rivers but to a lesser extent it is also found by tidal creeks. It is
.a sociable bird usually met with in small parties or larger flocks, and
·commonly in association with the very similar but slightly larger
Egretta intermedia-the Smaller Egret. They wade in shallow water
·or stalk about on the soft mud and grassland around the margins in
search of food which consists mainly of insects, frogs and small reptiles.
The birds roost at night in trees.
Some years ago Little Egrets used to be extensively and lucra-
"tively farmed by the mohdnils or local fishermen ou many of the dhallds
·or jheels in Sind, for the sake of their elegant ornamental breeding
plumes. These were collected in a humane manner, without injury
to the birds. Each bird seldom yielded less than a tala during the
year. They fetched from Rs. 10 to Rs. IS per tala locally, and as
much as £15 per oz. smuggled into Europe. With the change in
women's fashions, egret feathers no longer carry the same demand,
and prices have also dwindled accordingly. But some small farms
.exist even to this day. The species that chiefly supplied these
• aigrette' feathers of commerce were: The Little Egret; the slightly
larger Smaller Egret and the solitary Large Egret (Egretta alb~).
The last is a solitary bird about the size of the Grey Heron, of pure
white plumage and with black legs and bill.
Nesting: The season in N. India is principally July and August;
in the south November to February. The Little Egret breeds in
heronries in the mixed company of Paddy Birds, cormorants and
other marsh birds. The nests are shallow twig cups of the crow
'type, scantily lined with straw, leaves, etc. They are built in trees,
usually but not always standing in or near water, and often in the
very midst of towns or villages. The same site and nests. repaired If
necessary, are used year after year. The eggs-usually 4-are mode·
xately broad ovals in shape and pale bluish-green in colour.
392
The Little Egret
393
The Cattle Egret
394
 184. Th~ Cattle Egret
Bubulcus. ibis (Linnaeus)
Size: SaDie as of the Little Egret. Village hen.
Field,Characters: A snow-white lanky bird, very similar' in . non.
breeding plumage to the Little Egret, but recognisable by the colpur
of its bill which is yellow not black. In the breeding season it acquires
delicate golden-buff hair-like. plumes on head, neck and back. Sexes
alike. Gregario.us. Usually attending grazing "cattle. Not neces-
sarily near water.
Distribution: Africa and the southern, warmer parts of Europe and
Asia. The race coromantlus is found throughout India, Burma and
Ceylon. Beyond--eastward-it extends to Korea. Resident.
Habits: The Cattle Egret is less dependent on the neighbourhood
of water than are most of its family. It is met with gregariously on
grass and pasture-land both on the margins of tanks and jheels as well
as further inland. The birds are in constant attendance 'jm grazing
cattle, stalking alongside the animals, running in and out between
their legs, or riding on their backs for a change. (Plate 154.) They
keep an unceasing look-out for the grasshoppers and \ other insects
disturbed in the animals' progress through the grass, darting out
their long flexible necks and pointed, bills and snapping them up as
soon as they show any movement. They also pick off blood-sucking
liies, ticks and other parasitic insects from the backs and bellies of
the oxen and. buffaloes, jumping up for them as they scurry alongside
or alighting complacently on the animals' heads and backs to reach
the less accessible parts. Their staple food, unlike that of their marsh-
haunting cousins, is insects, but they do not despise frogs and lizards
whenever available. ,Flies-both the House-Fly and the Blue-
bottle-are greatly relished. The birds are as a rule tame, running or
stalking aliout fearlessly amongst the cattle within a few feet of the
observer, and completely engrossed in the search for food.
Cattle Egrets have regular roots in favourable ,trees to which
they resort every evening, flying more or'less in a disorderly rabble,
with neck folded back, head hunched in between the shoulders, legs
tucked under the tail.and projecting behind like a rudder.
Nestin,': The season, depending on the monsoons, is mainly June to
August in N. In.dia; November/December in the south. The birds
breed in colonies usually in company with Paddy Birds and sometimes
also with darters, cormorants and herons. The nest is of the usual
crow pattern-an untidy structure of twigs. It is built in trees not
necessarily near water and often in the midst of a noisy bazaar in a
town or village. Three to 5 eggs form the normal clutch. They are
a pale skim-milk blue in colour.
395
 185. The Indian Reef Heron
Demiegretta asha (Sykes)

Size ~ About that of the Smaller Egret. Slightly larger than, the
Vi¥age hen.
Field Characters: General effect as of the Smaller Egret with a
long, slender neck but found in two colour phases, viz: (I) pure
white, (2) bluish-slaty with a white patch on throat. Occasional
examples are intermediate, being partly white and partly slaty. A
backwardly drooping crest of 2 narrow plumes is donned in the breed-
ing season. The white phase is distinguishable from the Smaller
Egret by its parti-coloured-yellow, brown or greenish-not blac!'
legs. Sexes alike. Singly about the sea-coast.
The illustration opposite is misleading; the legs are incorrectly
shown. The tibia in this species (i.e., the portion above the tarsal
joint or ' knee: which in reality is the heel in birds) is naked for about
half its length.
Distribution: Along the shores of the Persian Gulf and down to
Ceylon and the Laccadive Islands.
Habits: The Indian Reef Heron is essentially a bird of the sea-
coasts. Except when breeding, it is met with as a solitary, affecting
the reefs of rocks or coral exposed at low tide. It is also found on
mangrove-lined tidal creeks and estuaries and on the adjoining mud-
flats, but seldom if ever on fresh water or far inland. The bird may
be seen perched on the rocks or amongst the mangroves hunched up
as shown in the plate, ready to strike out with its long flexible neck
and pointed bill at any prey swimming past. Or it wades about in
search of food at the edge of the surf or among the shallow pools and
puddles left by the receding tide. Its diet consists chiefly of fish,
crustaceans and molluscs.
Except that it is not gregarious at ordinary times, does not leave
the sea-coast and is rather crepuscular, there is no noteworthy depar-
ture in its general habits from those of other egrets and herons.
Nesting: The season ranges, according to locality, between March
and June. Reef Herons nest in colonies, but as a rule not in company
with other species. Their nests are the usual twig structures of the
family, but sometimes with the green leaves still attached to the
sticks, and often also lined with green leaves. They are built either
on trees such as peepaI, ber or jiimbiil some distance from salt water,
or in mangrove trees growing in a tidal swamp. The eggs-3 or ~­
are a pale sea-green or blue-green in colour_
396
The Indian Reef Heron
397
The Indian Pond Heron or Paddy Bird
S
 186. The Indian Pond Heron or
Paddy Bird
At'deola gt'ayii (Sykes)
Size: Slightly smaller than the Cattle Egret.
Field Characters: An egret-like bird with the plumage mostly white
but effectively concealed. while at rest, under a camoufiagi_ng buff-
streaked earthy-brown mantle, In flight the white. wings, tail, rump
and undetparts flash conspicuously. In the breeding season' the
back becomes maroon-covered with dainty hair-like plumes-and
a long white occipital crest is developed. Sexes alike. Singly or
gregariously, by water.
Distribution: Resident throughout the Indian Empire, in the plains
and up to about 3,000 ft. in the hills. Beyond, it extends west to the
Persian Gulf, east to Siam and the Malay States.
Habits: The Pond Heron or Paddy Bird is an abundant and familiar
species, found wherever there is water in any form-river. jheel, tank,
inundated paddy field, puddle or ditch, seashore, tidal creek or man-
grove swamp. It is also found at kutcha wells and temple ponds,
often in the heart of populous cities, and is especially partial to drying-
up village tanks on whose margins large numbers collect to feed on
the fast concentrating frog population. The birds stand hunched up
and \inert on the squelchy mud or in the shallow water at the edge,
head drawn in between the shoulders. In reality however, they are
wide awake and watching intently all the while for any frog or fish
that may blunder within range of the long extensile neck and spear-
pointed bill. Sometimes they wade stealthily in, lifting each foot
clear of the water and putting it down again circumspectly, nec~
craned forward and bill poised in readiness.
Its food consists of frogs,' fish, crabs and insects.
Where not mol~sted the birds become very tame. sitting by
the water''i_ edge or stalking unconcernedly within a few feet of the
village dhobi banging his clothes or of the chattering house-wives
trooping down to the tank with their domestic pots, When alarmed,
the bird rises up with a harsh croak and a sudden flash oUts snow-white
wings, and flies off with steady strokes' in the typical heron style.
Large congregations resort to favourite roosts in trees every ev~ning.
Nesting: The season. is froni May to September in most parts of
India i November to January in the south. Pond Herons nest in
colonies in association with other egrets and Night Herons. The
nests are untidy twig structUl;es of the crow type, built in large trees
such as tamarind and mango, often growing in the midst of towns
and villages and not necessarily close to water. The same trees are
·tenanted year after year. A normal clutch consists of 3 to 5 pale
greenish-blue eggs.
399
 187. The .Night Heron
NycticortU nycticoytU (Linnaeus)
Size: About that of the Kite. Larger than the Paddy Bird.
Field Characters: A rather stocky egret-like bird of the same general
effect as the Paddy Bird but with a stouter bill. Ashy-grey above
with glossy greenish-black back and scapulars. Crown, nape and lpng
occipital crest black, the last with some white feathers intermixed.·
Young birds brown, streaked and speckled with rufous and dark
brown. Sexes alike. Gregarious. Flying at dusk with loud raucous
Kwaark. .
Distribution: S. and C. Europe, Asia, Africa and the greater part
of N. America. The typical race nycticorax is found practically throu.
ghout India (up to 5,000 ft. in the N-W. Himii.layiis), Burma and
Ceylon. Resident, but also local migrant.
Habits: The Night Heron is found commonly but locally in all the
better-watered tracts both inland and along the sea-board. It is a
bird of crepuscular and nocturnal habits. It lives in colonies which
spend the day roosting sluggishly in some clump of trees, often well
away from water, in its characteristic pose with shortened neck and
rounded shoulders. At evening dusk the birds bestir themselves. Indivi-
duals or small parties may then be seen winging their way high over·
head towards their accustomed feeding grounds on the margins of
jheels, tanks or tidal creeks, uttering from time to time a loud, raucous
and distinctive Kwaark. They feed largely at night" and during the
evening and morning twilight. When tending nest young however,
the parents are busy forgaging all day and probably throughout the
night. In their quest for food they are usually more active than the
true herons, cOJ_lstantly moving about on the soft mud or in shallow
water, and seldom standing hunched up and inert like them. Their
diet consists of fish, frogs, aquatic insects, dragonflies, etc. The flight
of the Night Heron is in the distance reminiscent of both the flying
fox's and the gull's. It is strong and direct and attained by quick
strokes of the rounded wings. The neck is shortened, but not folded
back as in the herons. At the communal roosts emotion of any kind,
sexual or otherwise, howsoever momentary, is expressed by an erection
of the crest and a fluffing out' of the feathers of the breast, neck and
back.
Nesting: The season ranges between April and September, being:
most general in July/August. In S. India December to February
are the favoured months. Night Herons nest in colonies often covering:
several adjacent trees, either by themselves or in company with Paddy
Birds, Cattle Egrets and cormorants. The nest is the usual structure
of twigs about 9 inches across, rather flimsy and unlined. The eggs
,-4 or 5-are pale sea-green in colour. Both sexes share in building:
the nest, incuba.tion and care of the young. The young birds 's~on
leave the nest and clamber about the neighbouring branches usmg:
feet, wings and bill. The colony resounds with the deafening incessant
dick, click, click, of the young clamouring to be fed.
400
The Night HeroD
401
The Common Flamingo
 188. The Common Flamingo
Phoeniropterus l'uber Linn.'
Size ,: Body about that of a goose, but with very long and slender
legs and neck. Standing about 4 feet to top of head.
Field Characters: A pale rosy-white stork-like bird with bare red-
pink legs and long slender neck. Peculiar heavy pink bill turned down
at an angle (" broken ") from about half its length. Three front-
toes webbed as in a duck. Sexes alike. In flight the bright scarlet:
coverts, glistening in the sun and set off by the black wing border,.
present an exquisite spectacle. Flocks on ~hallow jheels, tidal mud-'
flats &c.
Distribution: Southern Europe, Africa and Asia'east to but excluding:
Burma. Irregularly allover India, and in Ceylon.
Habits: Flamingoes frequent shallow jheels, especially those withe
brackish water. They move about a great deal locally. The Sambhar
Lake in Rajputana and the Rann of Cutch are among their favourite'
haunts. They live in flocks which sometimes number many hundreci
individuals. The birds wade into shallow water and feed with their'
heads immersed. The peculiar bill is inverted, so that the top of it
scrapes the ground and the upper mandible forms a scoop in which.
the mud and water are collected. The comb-like fringes with which.
the mandibles are provided (as in a duck) enable the squelchy mud,
to be squeezed and sifted leaving the food particles behind. Their
diet consists of molluscs, crustaceans and vegetable matter. Flamin-
goes fly in V-formation like geese, or in long diagonal wavy ribbons~
The flight is attained by fairly rapid wing beats. The slender neck
is stretched out in front, while the long red legs trail behind. The'
flock keeps up a constant babble when feeding, and the birds also-
utter a loud goose-like hOllk. \Vhen at rest, they usually stand on
one leg with the long snake-like neck coiled round, and the head tucked
away under the feathers of the back.
Nesting: Flamingoes breed in large colonies in Spain, Mesopotamia
and elsewhere. In India their best known nesting grounds are on the
open, flat, sandy expanses in the Rann of Cutch which get covered with
shallow w<l.ter during the monsoon, between July and October. The'
nests, of which there are often several hundred together, are conical
mounds of hard sun-baked mud. The mud is scraped up when in
a semi-liquid condition from the proximity, and plastered on. The-
height of the mounds varies from a fe,\> inches to a couple of feet.
The eggs are laid in the slight depression on the top of the mound.
The brooding bird sits on its nest with its. legs folded under, and does
not stand straddled across it as has sometimes been described. Both
sexes are said to incubate. The eggs-usually two-are white in
colour with a very faint bluish tinge. The newly hatched rlamingo's
bill is of the normal shape. It develops its peculiar broken outline as
the bird grows.
For a good account of the breeding of flamingoes in Cutch, see
Journal of the Bombay Natural History SOCiety, Vol, xli pp. I2-38-
by C. McCann. (Aug. 1939).
 189. The Nukta or Comb-Duck
Sarkidiomis melanotos (Pennant)
Size: About that of a small goose.
Field Characters: A large duck, black above glossed with blue
and green; white below. Head and neck speckled with black. A
white wing-patch conspicuous in flight. The drake has a curious,
fleshy comb or knob at forehead near base of bill which becomes
greatly swollen in the breeding season. The female is similarly coloured
but smaller and without the comb. Small flocks, on reedy jlzeels.
Another common resident Indian duck is the Spotbill (Anas
pcecilorlzyncha). It is the size of the domestic duck, of scaly-patterned
light and dark brown plumage and with a white and metallic green
wing-bar. The two orange-red spots at the base of its bill, one on
either side of the forehead, are diagnostic. .
Distribution: The typical race melaltotos occurs practically through-
out India, Burma and Ceylon. Absent in the N.vV.F. Province.
Baluchistan, North and West Punjab and the N-W. portions of Sind.
Another race inhabits Africa south of the Sahiira, and }Iadagascar.
Habits: The Nukta is one of our few resident ducks, the majority
of species being merely winter visitors to our area. It affects well-
watered, well-wooded country and is found on jheels and tanks with
plenty of reeds and floating vegetation growing about the shallow
margins, and with patches of open water here and there in the middle.
It is usually met with in family parties of 4 to 10 birds, but flocks
of up to 25 or 30 are sometimes seen. These break up into pairs
during the breeding season. The birds are strong and rapid fiiers.
\Vhen moving from one tank to another or to and from their feeding
grounds in inundated paddy fields, they fly in a more or less disorderly
rabble and not in the regular V-formation of geese and cranes. They
walk and dive well and with ease, and perch freely on the thicker boughs
of trees. Their food consists to a large extcnt of the grain and shoots
of wild and cultivated rice and other vegetable matter, but they also
eat frogs, aquatic insects, and, occasionally fish. The ordinary
·call note of thc drake is a low grating croak; during the breeding
season the birds utter a loud honk.
The flesh of adult birds is considered rather indifferent for the
table, but flying ducklings arc good eating.
Nesting: The season is 'during the S-W. Monsoon, mainly between
July and September. The eggs are normally laid in natural hollow5
in tree trunks standing in water or at the edge of a jhcel (Plate p. 107)'
:These hollows are either unlined or have a scanty lining of sticks,
grass and leaves. The normal clutch consists of 8 to 12 eggs, but
up to 47 have been taken from a single nest, probably the product
of 2 or more ducks. The eggs are pale cream coloured, with the texture
and appearance of polished ivory. The female alone seems to incubate.
 190. The Cotton Teal I

Nettapus coyom~nrlelianus (Gmelin)

Size:' Between the Pigeon' and the Crow.
Field Characters: The smallest of our ducks. White predominating
in thlJ plumage: Bill deep at base and gooselike, not as flat as the
Duck's. Male glossy brown above with a prominent black collar
and a white wing-bar. In flight, whitish edge of wings conspicuous.
Female paler without _co~ or wing-bar. fn non-breeding season
the male loses the black ;{;eiIar and,! with the exception of the white
wing-bar, resembles the female. Flocks on tanks land jheels.
Distribution: Common practically throughout India, Burma and
Ceylon rare or absent in Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan, and Rajpiitana.
Beyond-eastward-it extends through the intervening countries to
the Celebes. Resident, but also local migrant.
Habits: The Cotton Teal is not only the smallest but the commone;;t
and most generally distributed of our resident ducks. It is found
wherever there is water with plenty of reeds, floating vegetation and
the like--on jheels and village tanks as well as on weedy, 'overgrown
roadside ditches and flooded borrow-pits, and inundated paddy :fi~lds.
It is also at home on the vast shallow expanses of brackish water such
as are found in the environs of Calcutta City and els~where. It is
usually met with in parties of 5 to ~5 individuals, but larger flocks
of up to 50 or more are sometimes seen. Where unmolested this
little teal becomes 'very tame, swimming about and tipping for food.
unconcernedly within a few yards of the inhabitants engaged at their
daily avocations on village tanks. ,Under persecution, however, it
soon becomes extremely wary and difficult to approach.
The birds are swift on the wing and can dive creditably on
occasion. A peculiar clucking is commonly uttered in flight. Their
food consists of shoots and gram of wild and cultivated rice and, other
vegetable matter, to which is added a quantity of insects, crustacea,
worms, etc.
Nesting: The season is from, July to September. The nest is in
Some natural hollow in a tree trunk standing in or near-water, 6 to I5
feet above the level. This is either unlined or has a scanty lining
of grass, feathers and rubbish. Occasionally a hole in a building
is utilised, and there is a record of a nest in the coping of Government
House, Rangoon, as high up as 68 feet. The normal clutch consists
o~ 6 to 12 eggs, but as many as 22-probably the product Of'2 or more
females-have been found in a nest. They are ivory white in colour.
The ducklings are not carried down to the water by the parents as
is supposed, but just pushed out of the hole. They drop like a stone
for some distance and then flutter to break the fall as they approach
the ground. '
 191. The Bar-headed Goose
Anser indicus (Latham)
Size: About that of the domestic goose.
Field Characters: A grey, brownish and white goose, with white
head and sides of neck and 2 distinctive broad black bars on the na;:>c.
Sexes alike. Flocks, on rivers and jheels, and about young winter
cultivation.
Another common goose, also a winter-,risitor to N. India in large
numbers, is the Grey Lag (Anser ansery:-- In size, colouration and
general effect it is very like the normal brown phase of tl::le domestic
goose. The grey rump and white nail to the flesh-pink bill are addi·
tional clues to its identity. It keeps more to the dry margins oi
jlzeels than to rivers as the Bar-head essentially does.
Distribution: Central Asia and Western China, south to Ladiikh
and Tibet. In winter common throughout North India and Ass,;m,
rare in Centr(l.l India and straggling as far south as Myso:re._
Habits: The Bar-headed Goose is a cold weather visito:c to India,
arriving in our midst about October. By the beginning of )Iarch
most birds have departed for their northern breeding grollnds. It is
met with in small parties or skeins of IS to 20 birds. The skeins fly
off separately when alarmed or when flighting to and from tlleir feeding
\!;rounds, but cong,reg,ate in vast \!;a'b\!;les when feedin~ or resting.
They spend the day dozing on some sandbank in a large fiver or on
the margin of a jlzeel" resting on the dry ground or floatillg listlessly
upon the shallow water. The birds. become active towards evening
when flock after flock may be seen winging its way steadily in orderly
V-formation or straight' ribbons' high up in the air. in tIle direction
of their feedings in cultivated fields and marshy grassl~nd around
jlzeels and irrigation canals. They feed largely on the green shoots
of winter crops such as gram and wheat, and owing to their numbers
and voracity often do considerable damage. They are rather cre·
puscular and nocturnal in their habits, commencing to feed in the
late afternoon and continuing throughout the night till well past
dawn. The call, usually heard on the wing, is a musical honk, and the
din produced by a gaggle as they rise on alarm is one of the most
exhilarating and unforgetable sounds to the sportsman on a North
Indian jheel. The Bar-head is at all times an excessively wary species
and caJls for much skill and labour in circumventing and bringing to bag.
Nesting: The nearest breeding localities are Ladakh and Tibet,
'Where the birds nest in colonies running into thousands, oil the shore
and islets of the high altitude lakes, at 13 or 14 thousand feet above
sea level. The nests are hollows in the lush herbage or piles of moSS,
weeds and grass thickly lined with down and feathers. The eggs-
, 3 or 4 in a normal clutch-are ivory white.

408
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 192. The Common or Lesser Whistling
Teal
De11dyocygna javanica (Horsfield)
Size: Smaller than the domestic duck.
Field Characters: A small chestnut coloured duck, confusable with
no other of the same size. Sexes alike. Shrill whistling notes uttered
during the feeble, flapping flight. Small flocks, on weedy tanks .
. The Large Whistling Teal (Dendrocygna'julva), distinguished by
its larger size and by its upper tail-coverts being whitish instead of
chestnut, is also found sparingly in India and the Indo-Chines(~ countries
over the same area as javanica. It has a remarkably brolren distri-
bution outside these limits, occurring in parts of Africa, and then
again in North and South America.
Distribution: Practically throughout the plains of India, Burma and
Ceylon except in the N-vV. F. Province and in N. & W. Punjab.
Beyond-eastward-it extends through the :Malay Peninsula and
Islands, Siam Cochin-China, etc., to South China, Sumatra, Java and
Borneo. Resident, but also local migrant.
Habits: The Lesser Whistling Teal is a common and familiar
resident Indian species found on all reed and floating vegetation-
covered tanks and jheels and often also in swampy paddy fields.
1" l\)v~ o;;uch ao;; ha'\1e uee, glowing in or awund them, on the bianche-;;
of which it perches freely. It avoids open water and rivers. The
birds move about a good deal locally under stress of natural condi-
tions such as drought and floods. They usually keep in small parties
of 10 to 15, but occasionally much larger flocks are met ,villi. They
have a feeble, :flapping flight, rather reminiscent of the Ja~anas', which
IS accompanied by constant, shrill, wheezy whistling notes. The
birds keep wheeling over a tank long after most of the other ducks
have departed as a result of gunfire. They are poor eati.Jlg and on
that account seldom shot by sportsmen. Their food consists of snails,
worms, frogs, fish, etc., as well as tender green shoots of grass, paddy
and the like, and grain. The birds walk and dive well.
Nesting: The season ranges from June' to October in 1ndia and
Burma, February to August in Ceylon. its commencement depending
Upon the break of the S-W. Monsoons. ,Although many birds build
nests of leaves, rushes and grass on the ground among thorny scrub,
reeds, etc., most nests are found in trees, often well away from water.
They are twig structures situated either iu natural hollows in the
trunks or in the forks of the larger branches. Sometimes old nests
of crows, kites and herons are utilised. Seven to 12 eggs form the
normal clutch, the commonest nnmber being 10. They are milk-
white in colour, but become stained brownish during incubation,
Which seems to be undertaken by the female alone.
193. The Ruddy Sheldrake or Brahminy Duck
Casaf'ca jerruginea (Vroeg.)

Size : About that of a large domestic duck.

Field Characten: A large orange-brown duck with paler head and
neck. Wings white. black. and glistening green. Tail black. Female
very similar to male (illustrated) but lacking the black collar on lower
neck. and with much paler-almost whitish-head. Pairs or small
parties on open tanks and shingly river banks.
Distribution: In winter throughout the Indian Empire. Rare in
extreme south India. Ceylon and south Burma. Breeds in Southern
Europe. North Africa. Central Asia. Ladak & Tibet.
Habits: The Brahminy Duck is a common but not abundant cold
weather visitor. It arrives about October 'November and departs
northward in March/April. It is usually seen in pairs. but occasion-
ally in small parties of 10 or more. on open jheels and the larger
rivers which latter are undoubtedly its favourite haunts. Larger
flocks are met with when the birds have just arrived. and again before
the hot weather exodus commences.
The birds are oftener seen on mudspits and sandbanks than on
the water. They walk well and with ease. and graze like geese on
grain and vegetable matter. They are. however. omnivorous and will
eat crustaceans. molluscs. water insects. fish and reptiles with equal
relish. Nor are they averse to carrion; for they may sometimes be
seen feeding at carcases in company with vultures. All this naturaJly
makes their flesh rank and unsavoury. and they are therefore seldom
shot by sportsmen. Despite this. however. they are among the wariest
and most wide-awake of the duck tribe and invariably give the alarm
long before other species have suspected or detected the approach
of danger.
Their calls are a loud, clanging. nasal aang-aang, often sounding
rather like a goose's honk in the distance. They are uttered on the
ground as well as on the wing.
As "Chakwa .. and "Chakwi" (one of its common Hindustani
names for male and female) the Brahminy Duck has won immortality
in the popular mind. Legend describes the birds as a pair of lovers
cast adrift by unkind Fate and ceaselessly calling to each other in
anguished tones. for evermore.
Neating: The nearest nesting grounds of the Brahminy Duck are in
Ladak and Tibet at elevations between 12 and 16 thousand feet. The
nest is a thick pad of down feathers. I t is placed in the deserted burrow
of some animal. in holes. in cliffs and sometimes in holes of buildings.
even occupied ones. Often the nest is at a considerable distance
from water.
The eggs--6 to lo-are pearly white in colour with a smooth
and fine texture.
 194. The Common Teal
Anas crecca (Linnaeus)
Size: Smaller than the domestic duck.
Field Characters: Our second smallest duck; slightly larger than
the Cotton Teal. Male pencilled greyish colour. Chestnut head
with broad metallic green band running through the eye, bordered
above and below with whitish. A tricoloured wing-bar-black, green
and buff-particularly conspicuous in flight. Female mottled dark
and light brown with pale underparts, and a black-and-green wing-
bar. Flocks on tanks, jlzeels and marshes, etc.
Distribution: The typical race crecca breeds throughout the Pal<e-
arctic Region. \Vinter visitor to all India, Ceylon and Burma, south
to Pegu. Also to the Indo-Chinese countries and N. Africa.
Habits: In abundance as a winter visitor the Common Teal rivals
the \Vhite-eyed Pochard. Along with the Garganey or Blue-\vinged
Teal (Anas qHerquedula) it is one of the earliest ducks to arrive in
our midst, numbers being already in by the end of August. By the
middle or end of l\Iarch most birds have departed on the long journey
to their northern breeding grounds. A teal ringed in \Vester..! Siberia
-presumably as a nestling-in July 1929 was recovered in December
of the same year in the Gonda District, U.P., about 2,500 miles to
the south.
The Common Teal frequents jlzeeZs, tanks and ponds, as well
as rivers, canals, roadside ditches, marshes and flooded paddy-fields.
It is usually met with either in small parties of 3 or 4 birds or flocks
of up to 50 or more, but very large flocks-running into hundreds-
are not uncommon on the larger jheels. The birds feed in the marginal
shallows mostly at night, when they also spread out a good deal over
the surrounding country on flooded paddy-fields and marshy land.
In places where they are not much disturbed they may be seen walking
about on the grass-covered edges of tanks till quite late in the mornings
and in the early afternoons, grubbing with their bills in the squelchy
mud. Th(;y also procure much of their food by , tipping' in shallow
water. The food consists of the tender shoots of young crops and
marsh plants as well as molluscs, cnlstaceans, worms, etc. Their
flight is very swift and strong. and the birds twist and wheel in the
air with astonishing agility. The call-note most commonly heard is
a low-toned krit uttered by the male, and a subdued wheezy quack
by the female. It is at all times an excellent bird for the table and
much sought after by sportsmen.
Nesting: The Common Teal does not breed anywhere within our
limits. The season in the North is from April to June. The nest
is an untidy but well-made pad of rushes, grass. etc., and always
thickly lined with down. It is generally placed at the edge of swamps
and lakes and on boggy groul1d. The eggs-nonnally 8 to 14--are
pale buff or cream coloured, rather long ovals with a smooth and
glossy texture.
 195. The White..eyed Pochard
Aythya rufa (Linnaeus)
Size: Smaller than the domestic duck.
Field Characters: General aspect of plumage rufous-brown and
blackish brown with a whitish wing-bar conspicuous in fligbt. In
overhead flight the abdomen, seen as an oval white patch, is diagnostic.
Eyes white. The female is duller coloured. Flocks on jheels, tanks
and salt ...v:ater lagoons, in winter.
Distribution: _The typical race rufa is a winter visitor from the
western Pal<earctic Region to the greater part of India and Bunlla.
The East Asian race baeri with green-glossed black head and neck
in the male, visits Bengal, Assam and Burma.
Habits: The White-eyed Pochard is one of the commonest and most
abundant of the ducks that visit us during the cold weather. It is
plentiful in North and continental India, but rare in the south where,
however large numbers may be met with patchily along the coast
as on the Travancore backwaters. It frequents every type of water
provided there is a sufficiency of reeds and floating herbage growing
in it or along its margins. But it may also be found resting during
the day in the middle of open irrigation tanks, or riding just outside
the surf on the sea-coast, safe from the disturba.nce of passing boats.
The birds use these open tanks and the sea as a day-time refuge.
They flight inland at night regularly to feed in the inundated paddy
fields and marshes in the surrounding country, returning again in
the early morning. -
Though rather slow in taking off the water, the -White-eye is
strong on the wing once under way, flying high and with rapid swishing
wing~strokes. It is an expert diver and extremely difficult to retrieve
if merely winged, even in perfectly open water, for besides keeping
itself submerged for con~iderable periods it swims with ease under
the surface, showing itself only momentarily now and again in the
most unexpected places and giving no chance for a second shot. In
this way it steadily increases th() distance between itself and its pur-
suers until a weedy spot is reached where it simply vanishes. It is
a bad walker and clumsy on land. Its food consists of vegetable
matter, gr.€Lin, insects, molluscs, small fish, etc. Its flesh is on the
whole poor eating. Its note is described as a harsh hoor-ker-her,
uttered both as it rises and when wandering about feeding.
Nesting: The only locality within our limits where the White-eyed
Pochard breeds is Kashmir, on the Hokra and other jheets, in May
and June. The nest is a pad of rushes lined with finer grasses and
a thick layer of down. It is generally built among reeds close to. t.he
water. The eggs--6 to lo-are pale buff in colour. Large quantitIes
of its eggs formerly used to be collected by local fishermen and sold
in the Kashmir bazaars, but this practice has now been put a stop
t9·
 196. The Little Grebe or Dabchic::k
Podiceps ruficollis (Vroeg.)
Size: About that of the Pigeon, but squat and tailless.
Field Characters: A drab-coloured plump and squat water bird with
silky. white underparts, short pointed bill and practically' no tail.
Sexes alike. Gregariously on ponds, village tanks, jhei,[S, etc.,
s\\'imming about low-down on the water with the tail-end acnd wings
raised, rather like a swan. Diving at the least suspicion.
Distribution: The race capensis occurs th~oughout Indiac, Burma
and Ceylon in the plains as well as up to about 5,OCO ft. in the Hima-
layas and Peninsular Hills. It is also found in tropical Africa, Ma-
dagascar, Palestine and Mesopotamia; and in Siam and Yum1an.
Habits: The Dabchick is present practically on every jheel, village
tank or pond in India. It moves about locally to some exfent, con-
centrating on perennial sheets of water as the seasonal ponds and
tanks gradually dry up in the hot weather. The birds are met with
in twos and three6 on the smaller tanks, but congregations of 40 to
50 or more are not uncommon on the larger jheels. They spend their
time swimming about and are past masters in the art of diving. The
rapidity with which a Dabchick will disappear below the surface
leaving scarcely a ripple behind, is amazing. 'Vhen fired ;Lt with a
shot '?,Ut\., tt\.e bi.rd b..as often. v<l.t.l..ished hetClre tt\.e d\.ar'?,e can. reach it !
Their food consists of aquatic insects and their larv<E, tadpoles,
crustace:\I1s and the like which are captured below the surface, the
bird being an adept at swimming under water. The usual call-notes
are a sharp tiUcring often heard when the birds are disporting them-
selves of an evening, as is their wont, pattering along the surface
half running half swimming with rapid vibrations of their d~Jl1inntive
wings, and chasing one another. They are loathe to leave the water,
and when pressed will only fly a short distance close over tlJ.e surface
and flop down again. \-Vhen once properly launched, ho,vever,. as
when shifting from one tank to another, the birds can fly incredibly
well and strongly, and often for a long distances.
Nesting: The season is not well-defined but rangzs p,:incipally
between April and October. Two broods are frequently raised in
quick succession. The nest is a rough pad of sodden weeds and
rushes placed among reeds or on floating vegetation and often half
snbmerged. The normal clntch consists of 3 to 5 eggs. 'J.'hese are
white at first but soon get discoloured to dirty brownish by the cons~ant
soaking and contact with the sodden vegetation with which the birds
habitually cover them up very time they leave the nest. Both sex~s
share in incubation and tending the young. \Vhen the female IS
incubating her second successrve clutch of eggs, the care of the first
brood devolves upon the male alone.
 BIRD WATCHING

Nearly every one enjoys birds: the beauty of their forms and
colouring, the vivacity of their movements, the buoyancy of their
flight and the sweetness of their songs. It is precisely on this account
that as a pursuit for the out·of-doors, bird-wa~ching stands in a class
by itself. Its strong point is that it can be indulged in with pleasure
and profit not only by the man who stUdies birds scientifically,. but
also by one possessing no specialised knowledge. The latter, moreover,
is enabled to share his profit with the scientist who for certain aspect3
of bird study has to depend entirely upon data collected by the intelli-
gent watcher.

The appreciation of the beautiful and the novel is a characteristic

latent in the human species. There is none in whom the seed of this
faculty is entirely wanting. Environment may nurture and develop
it in some, smother it in others. The fact of its existence is proved
by the enqUiries an ornithologist frequently receives concerning the
identity of this bird with a green head or that with a red tail from
persons of the most prosaic . butcher, baker and candlestick-maker'
type who in the course of their day to day lives would never dream
of going a step out of their way solely to look at a bird. It shows
that even such a person, inspite of himself, cannot at one time or
another help being struck by some peculiarity in the sight or sound of
a bird which had not forced itself on his notice before.

It is amazing what tricks the imagination can play with undis-

ciplined observation. A person who, for example, notices a male
Paradise Flycatcher for the iirst time and is struck by its exquisite
tail-ribbons fluttering in the breeze, will, as likely as not and in all
good faith, clothe his bird in multi-coloured hues of green and blue
and yellow and red when describing it to you. The only real clue he
furnishes is the ribbon tail. Some days later you have an opportunity
of pointing out a Paradise Flycatcher to your enquirer with the suit-
able suggestion, whereupon you promptly learn that this indeed was
the object of his esctacy! Yet it is equally amazing what small
effort is needed to discipline oneself to observe accurately. After ~
comparatively short period of intelligent bird-watching one can often
become so proficient that the mere glimpse of a bird as it flits acroSS
'from one bush to another-some distinctive flash of colour, a peculia
twitch of the tail-is enough to suggest its identity fairly reliably.
If it is an unfamiliar species this fleeting impression will often suffic
to puzzle it out with the aid of a bird book afterwards.
4 20
Pltoto E. 8. N. LoutMr
A Raised .. Hille" Platform
For observation and Plzotog:aphy of birds nesting in taU trees.
421
 Apart from the joy and exhilara'tion it affords, careful and intelli-
gent bird-watching-considering that it can be indulged in by the
many without special scientific training-widens the scope immensely
for procuring data relating to the lives and behaviour of birds. Ob-
servations by people who habitually watch birds even merely for
pleasure, are often of great value to the scientist trying to unravel
some particular phase of bird-life. Indeed, such otservations-made
as they are without knowledge of, or being swayed by this pet theory
or that-frequently carry the added virtue of being completely un-
biased. As mentioned in a previous chapter the bulk of the work
that now remains to be done on the birds of India concerns the'living
bird in its natural surroundings: How the bird lives and behaves;
In what way is it fitted or is fitting itself to its habitat? How is it
influenced by or is influencing its environment? It is only satis-
factory answers to questions like these-and their number is legion
-that can lead us to a better understanding of that very real but
strangely elusive thing called Life.

One often hears it asserted that there are no birds in this locality
or that. Such statements merely suggest that the observer may not
know exactly where and how to look for them. For indeed it is di-
fficult to imagine a single square mile of the Indian cl:mtinent entirely
devoid of birds. Even in the midst of the scorching Riijpiitana desert
or amongst the high HimiUayiin snows, birds there are for those who
know how to find them. They may be scarce and local, simply because
their food happens to be scarce and local, but they are never entirely ,
absent over areas of any size.

For the new arrival in this country and for the novice, some
suggestions as to when and where to look for birds with success might
prove helpful. First and foremost, although birds are on the move
all day long, their activity is greatest in the early mornings; therefore
early riSing is a most important pre-requisite for successful watching.
Most song is also heard during the early morning hours. Discovering
the identity of a songster often entails patient watching, and the
facility for tracking him down is naturally greatest in the early
morning when the bird is most vocal. "

Contrary to the popular notion, a forest, to the ine~perienced is

Usually a very disappointing place for bird-watching. You may tramp
miles without seeming to meet or hear a bird, and then just as you
begin to despair you may ,ound a bend in the path and suddenly
find yourself confronted by a gathering that includes well nigh every

42 3
species of the neighbourhood! There are birds on every hand: on
the ground, among the bushes, on the trunks of the lofty trees and
in the canopy of leaves high overhead. There are tits, babblers and
tree-pies, wood peckers, nuthatches and drongos, flycatchers, minivets,
and tree-warblers and numerous other species besides. The scene is
suddenly transformed into one of bustling activity. You have in
fact struck what the books call a • Mixed Hunting Party: or • Lo·
calised Forest Association.' These mixed assemblages are a charac-
teristic feature of our forests, both hill and plain. Here birds do
not as a rule spread themselves out uniformly, but rove about in c()-
operative bands of mixed species in more or less regular daily circuits·
All the members of the association profit through the co-ordinated efforts
of the lot. Babblers rummaging amongst the fallen leaves for insect
food disturb a moth which is presently swooped upon and captured
in mid air by a drongo on the look-out hard by. A woodpecker
scuttling up a tree-trunk in search of beetle galleries stampedes nu-
merous winged insects resting upon the protectingly coloured bark
or lurking within its crevices. These are promptly set upon by a
vigilant flycatcher or warbler-and so on.

Banyan and peepal trees, when in ripe fig, attract a multitude

of birds of many species from far and wide and offer excellent oppor-
tunities to the bird-watcher. A lively scene presents itself as party
after party arrives, all eager to gorge themselves on the abundance
spread around. There is a great deal of noise and chatter as the visitors
hop from branch to branch in their quest. Bickering and bullying
are incessant, but no serious encounters develop since every individual
is much too preoccupied with the main business in hand. Such
gatherings are ideal for studying the natural dispositions and' table
manners' of the various species.
One of the most charming and enjoyable \·CllUCS for bird-watching
certainly is provid"d by the Silk CottOll, Coral Flower or Flame-of-
the-Forest trees in bloom. Their particular attractiveness lies in the
fact that the trees, or thc branches bearing the gorgeous flowers,
are bare and leafless at this season, allowing a clear and unobstructed
view of the visitors. Almost every small bird of the surrounding
countryside flocks to the blossoms for the sake of the sugary nectar
which they produce in such abundance. Riot and revelry prevails
throughout the day, but especially in the mornings, and there is
constant bullying, hustling and mock fighting amongst the roysterers.
A pair of good binoculars multiplies the pleasure~ of bird-watching
manifold, and is indeed an indispensablc item of thc watcher's
equipmcnt.
 Another favourable occasion is after the first few showers of rain
have fallen and the Vtinged termites-the potential queens and their
numerous suitors-are emerging from their underground retreats
for their momentous nuptial flight. A termite swarm acts like a magnet
upon the bird population of its neighbourhood. Caste and creed are
forgotten and every species hastens ta the repast; no quarter is given,
the insects being chased and captured on the ground as well as in the
air.. The agile and graceful gliding swoops of the swallows and swifts
contrast, strangely with the ponderous, ungainly efforts of crows
makillg unaccustomed aerial sallies :n the pursuit. Kites, kestrels,
crows, owlets, mynas and bulbuls, sparrows, bayas and munias, tree-
pies, drongos and orioles, tailor-birds and wren-warblers all join in
the massacre, \\-hile e'-en woodpeckers and bar bets can seldom resist
the temptation.
Nesting birds provide much important material for the study
of animal behaviour. These can best be studied from a ' hide' erected
in the proximity of their nests. A portable 'hide' is easily made
with a few iron reds and some canyas, oraneorstr",'{'aualeaIy branches
can usually be rigged up on the spot without difficulty_ The birds
soon get inured to its presence and can be watched from within in
comparative comfort and at close quarters. Bird photography adds
enormously to the zest of bird-watching. :i\Iany facts d far-reaching
significance concerning nesting habits and sexual behayiour have
been brought to light by the careful observations and pictorial evidence
of bird-photographers. There is no pleasanter way of prolonged and
intensive wa.tching tha.n in pursuit of bird photography, and there
can be no success in bird photography without patient and intensive
watching. Camera studies of birds in their natural surrounc.ings
and busy at their normal occupations are a joy not ody to their maker,
but also to others who have not been fortunate enough to share in
his watching. The several attractive photographs reproduced in these
pages willvear this out. No one interested in this fascinating pastime
should miss 1Iajor (now Lieut. Col.) R. S. p, Bates's informative article
on Bird Photography in India published in Volume XL of the
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (May, 1939).
A North Indian jheel b winter is a veritable paradise for the
bird-watcher. Every species of water bird, as well as those that
live about the margins and in the marshy reed-beds, may be met
here, and an unique opportunity is afforded of getting acquainted
with them. It is an exhilarating experience, even for one who is not
a shilliiri; to drift along in a punt over the pladd water on a cold morn-
ing with the din of honking. quacking and trumpeting on eyery hand,
and the fluttering and swishing of wings of countless wildfowl. over-
head. The multitudes of the birds, apart from their great variety,
leave a picture on the mind that is not easily lost.

It must not be supposed that this list exhausts the possibilities

for ·bird-watching in India. Indeed pleasure can be derived from
the most everyday birds in the most everyday surroundings and even
the jaded city dweller Can regale his leisure hours without the necessity
of going far afield in search of special opportunities. Birds call
be attracted to our homes and gardens without any great difficulty
by the provision of suitable feeding trays, baths and nesting boxes.
These simple and inexpensive appliances not only add charm and
ornament to the garden but they soon engender that friendliness and
confidence in the bird visitors which is so essential for their enjoy-
ment at close quarters.
The author will be happy to give his advice for what it is worth
on the question of nesting boxes, bird baths &c., and to put those
interested in touch with reliable suppliers in this country.
Everyone who watches birds intelligently enough to enjoy them,
and who carries a note book, should be in a position to contribute
in some measure to our store of knowledge. The essentials are Patience
plus the ability to observe accurately and to record faithfully, even
though the observations may sometimes disagree with the books or
the observer himself would sometimes prefer things to happen differ-
ently from what he observes!

Above all it is important that sentimentality be kept in check

and to remember at all times that the behaviour of birds cannot be
adjudged entirely from human standards. Birds do not possess the
-power of reasoning; therefore their actions, however intelligent they
may seem, are 'Ossentially no more than instinctive reflexes.

U. A. SrIM!\maL0RE
UNIVERSiTY LIBRARY..

Ace. NO...........,......... lIb

CL. NO .....................•..... • rUI
 INDEX OF/SPECI~~ .~
(Those P:;rtly ,dtscribed, ~jGS) -_ -.
.... . -.
Page '''. Page
A ./ Coucal or Crow-pheasant, r88
Adjutant Stork, ser, Cream-coloured, 343
- - - - - - - Lesser,- ~:. Indian, 343
Avocet, Crmie, Common, 335
- - - Demoiselle, 335
,_"/
. B
- - - Sarus, 332
Babbler, Common, 18 Crow, Common House-, 2
- - - - Jungle, 17 - - - Jungle, 5
- - - - Large Grey, 18 - - - King-, or Black
- - - - Rufous-bellied, 22 Drongo, 85
- - - - Scimitar, 21 - - - pheasant or Coucal, I8S
- - - - Yellow-eved, 25 Cuckoo, Common Hawk-, or
Barbet, Crimson-b;easted,
- - - Crimson-tlwoated, ISO
ISo I Brain-fever Bird,
Cuckoo, Pied Crested,
18 3
184
Baya or Common Weaver Cuckoo-Shrike, Black-headed, 78
Bird, 13 1 J Cuckoo-Shrike, Large, 81
Bee-eater, Blue-tailed, 215 V I Curlew, 3 60
I
- - - - - Common or
Green, 212 D
- - - - - Chestnut-head- Dabchick or Little Grel)e, 419
ed, 216 Darter or Snake-bird, 372
Blackbird, Southern, 53 Dhyal, or :\lagpie-Robin, 49
Blue Jay or Roller, 2II Dove, Little Braum. 2 84
Brain-fever Bird or Hawk- - - - Red Turtle-, 28 3
Cuckoo, IS3 - - - Ring, 284
Bulbul, Green, or Chloropsis, 29 ---Spotted, 2 83
- - - Red-vented, 33 Drongo, Black, or KiIlg-
- - - Red-whiskered, 37 Crow, 85
- - - \Vhite-browed, 38 - - - - Racket-tailed, 89
- - - - \Yhite-cheeked, 34 - - - - \vl1itc-bellicd, 86
Bunting, Black-headed, 144 Duck, Brailluiny or Ruddy
- - - - eYes/Nl, 144 Sheldrake, 41 Z
- - - - Red-headed, LH - - - Comb-, or Nukt!l, 40 4
Eustard, Great Indian, 336 - - - Spatbill, 4°4
C E
Chat, Bro,u)! Roc"-, 54 Eagle, Crested Serpent, 263
- - Collared or Indian - - - Pallas's or Ring-
Bush-, 42 tailed Fishing, 267
- - Pi"d Bush-, 41 - - - Short-toed, 260
Chloropsis, Gold-fronted, 29 - - - Tawny, 259
- - - - - J erdoJl's, 30 ---\Vhite-eyed Buzzard-, 264
Coot 324 ,/ Egret, Cattle, 395
Comlol'ant, Large, 371 / - - - Large, 392
- - - - - Little, v 371 ../~ Little, 392
Cotton Teal,' 407 / - - - Smalrer, 392
:ltxxix-
. _,.
 INDEX OF SPECIES-contd.
(Those partly described, in italics)

Page Page
F J
Falcon, Laggar, 252 J aqana, Bronze-winged,
- - - - Peregrine, 252 ___._. Pheasant-tailed,
Finch, Indian Rose-, 139 Junglefowl, Grey,
Finch-lark, Ashy-crowned, 164 -----Red,
Flamingo, Common, 403 K
Florican, Lesser, or Likh 339 K~tr~ ~6
Flowerpecker, Thick-billed, 172 Zingfisher, Common, :2:20
- - - - - - Tickell's, 172 ~/ Pied, 219
Flycatcher, Paradise, 62 • Himalayan Pied, 219
- - - - - Tiekell's Blue, 58 - - - - - \\'bite-breasted, 223
- - - - - Verditer, 6] Kingfisher, Brown-headed
- - - - - White-bra wed Stork billed, 224
Fantail, 65 Rite, Black-winged, 272
-----\\'bite-spotted - - Brahminy, 268
Fantail. 65 - - Common Pariah, 271
G Roel, IS7
Goose, Bar-headed, 408 L
- - - Grey Lag, 408 Laggar Falcon, 252
Grackle or Hill-1Iyna, n6 -Lapwing, Red-wattled, 352
Grebe, Little, or Dabchick, 419 - - - - Yellow-wattled, 355
Greellshank, 363 Lark Crested, 163
Gull, Black-headed or Laugh- - - Finch-, Ashy-crowned, 16 ..
ing, 344 - - Malabar Crested, 163
- - Brown-headed, 344 - - Sky_-, Small. 160
- - Sykes's C,'csted, 163
H Loriquct, 208
Harewa, (Chloropsis), 30 M
H aYrier, 111al'sh, 275 Magpie-Robin, or Dhyal, 49
- - - - Pale, 275 M arlin, Crag, 147
- - , Hen-, 275 - - - Dusky Crago, 147
Heron, Grey, 391 Merlin, Red-headed, 255
- - - Indian Reef, 396 ]Vlillivet, Orange, 74
/,--Night, 400 Minivet, Scarlet, 74
---Pond or Paddy - - - - Short-billed, 74
Bird, 399 - - - - Small, 77
- - - Purple, 391 Moorhen, Indian, 320
Hoopoe, 228 - - - - Purple, 323
Hornbill, Common Grey, 227 Munia, Red, or Wax-bill, 136
----1vlalabar Grey, 227 - - - Spotted, 136
I - - - White-backed, 135
, Ibis, Black, 379 - - - White-throated, 135
- - Glossy, 379 Myna, Bank, 127
v-:-- White, 37 6 - - - Brahminy or Black-
lora, Common, 26 headed, 12 3

xl
 INDEX OF SPECIES-contd.
(Those partly described, in italics)

Page Page
M-colltd. Q
?Iyna, Common, I24 Quail, Black-breasted or
---Grey-headed, 120 Rain, 299
- , - - Hill-, or Grackle, II6 - - Bustard- 308
-'-" . ......jullgle, I27 - - Common or Grey, 296
- - ' - Pied, I28 - - Jungle Bush-, 300
- - Rock Bush·, 300
N R
Night Heron,v' 400 Redshank, 363
Nightjar, Common Indian, 235 Redstart, 45
Nukta, or Comb-Duck, 40 4 Robin, Indian, 46
Nuthatch, Chestnut-bellied, 13 - - - l\iagpie, or Dhyal, 49
- - - - - Velvet-fronted, I4 Roller, or Blue Jay, 2II
o Rose-Finch, Indian, 139
Rosy Pastor, 119
Oriole, Black-headed, II5
- - - Golden, I I2 S
Open. billed, Stork, 388 Sandgrouse, Common, 287
Osprey, 244 Salldpiper, Common, 363
Owl, Barn or Screech-, 236 ' - - - - - - Grec\l, 363
- - Brown Fish-, 239 - - - - Wood or Spott-
- - Indian - Great Horn· ed, 363
ed-, 240 Sarus Crane, 332
Owlet, Spotted, 243 " Sii.tbhi\i" or Jungle Bab-
p bler, I7
" Seven Sisters" or .Jungle
Paddy Bird or Pond Heron, 399 Babbler, 17
Parakeet, Blossom-headed, 195 Shag, Indial1, 371
---~- Large Indian, or Shsma. 50
Alexandrine, 191 Shikra, 276
- - - - - Rose-ringed, 192 Shl'ike, Bay-backed, 69
Partridge, Blaek~ 303 - - - Cuckoo-, Black-
- - - - Grey, 307 headed, 78
- - - - - Painted, 304 - - - Cuckoo-, Large, 81
Peafowl, Common, 288 - - - Grey. 66
Pelican, Spottcd-biIIed, 368 - - - RUious-backed, 70
PeregriJle FalcolI, 252 --\Vood, 73
Pharaoh's Chicken, or Scav- Skylark, Small I60
enger Vulture, 251 ,--Snake-bird, or Darter. 372
Pigeon, Blue Rock-, 280 Snipe, Common or Fantail, 367
- - - Common Green, 279 - - - Painted, 331
Pipit, Indian, 159 - - - Pintail, 367
Pitta, Indian, 175 Sparrow, House~ 143
Plover, Little Ringed-, 351 - - - - Yellow-throated, 140
Pochard, White-eyed, 4I6 Spoonbill, 375
xli
 INDEX OF SPECIES-contd_
(Those partly Mscribed, in italics)
Page Page
5-contd. Tern, Black-bellied, 347
- - Gull-billed, 347
Spotbill Duck, ~~1 - - River, 347
. Spur-fowl, Red 295 - - Whiskered, 348
- - - - - Pamted, 295 Thrush, Blue Rock-, " ,....54
- - . Ceylon. _ .or ____j\1''11nSl}x.''n-in~'''~ "5/
'Starling.1:tose-coloureil- ' 119 - - - Himiilayan. Whistl-
Rosy Pastor. . ing, 57
Stilt. Black-winged, 357 Tit, Grey, 9
Stint. Little. 36 4 - Yellow-cheeked,
_ _ Temminck's, 364 Tree-Pie,
10
6
_/Stone-curlew, 3~O
Stork. Adjutant.
_ _ Lesser, Adjutanl,
3 4
3 84
v
_ _ Black-necked. 3 83 Vulture, Black, King
_ _ Open-billed. 3 88 Pondicherry ,
_ _ Painted, 387 - - - White-backed,
_ _ White, 3 80 - - - White Scavenger,
- - White-necked, i~§ W
Sunbird. Purple, ed, 171.
. Purple-rump 148 Wagtail, Eastern Grey, I52
,.,..swallow, Common, iled 15 1 - - - Large Pied, 155
- - - Indian Wire-t:1- '15 I - - - White, T56
Swallow, Red-rumped, 82 Warbler, Ashy 'vVren-, 94
- - - Shrike, Ashy, - - - - Indian Wren-, 97
Swift, House- 23 1
232
- - - - Streaked Fantail, 93
--Palm-, 'Naterhen, White-breasted, 3,19
T Weaver-Bird, Common-, or
Baya, . 131
Tailor-Bird, Gar- 90
Teal, Blue-winged or - - - - - - Striated,. 132
-ganey, Whimbrel, 360
--Common, White-eye, 167
--Cotton, Woodpecker, Golden-backed,
- - Large Whistling, 179
. _ - Lesser Whistlin~ - - - - - Mabratta, 176

Pnntcd b A E poctor, at the Brltl.!l India Press, Bo!"bay, arid

ys '1Im' j\ll for tM Bomb"y Natural HiStory Society.
Edit.d ~Y II
 UNIV. OF AGRIL. SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY LIBRARY, BANGALORE-560024

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