BAHRAIN
Political and historical developments
Like many of its neighbouring Middle Eastern countries, Bahrain was ruled by a series of conquering
nations, including the Assyrians, the Babylonians, and the Greeks. The Persians took control of the
country in the 4th century A.D., and their rule lasted until the Portuguese invaded in 1515. While the
Persians were able to regain their control of Bahrain in 1602, the Al Khalifa family of the Sunni Bani
Utbah tribe rose up in 1783 and Shaikh Ahmed Al-Fateh became the first of the Al Khalifa rulers. This
family continues to rule Bahrain to this day.
Regional struggles led the Al Khalifa to sign a protectorate treaty with Great Britain in 1820. After oil was
discovered in the region in the 1930s, the British moved their main military base to the islands, a
relationship that lasted until 1968 when Britain decided to end its protectorate agreements in the
Persian Gulf. After a failed attempt to create a union of Arab emirates, Bahrain was forced to declare
independence on 15 August 1971. The first constitution of the now independent State of Bahrain was
promulgated in 1973. It created an advisory legislative body (the National Assembly) and a 14 royally
appointed Cabinet of Ministers, but the Amir disbanded the National Assembly in 1975 when it
attempted to end of the Al Khalifa rule. The Amir removed all of the sections dealing with legislative
power from the constitution and continued to rule mainly unchallenged. The Iranian revolution of 1979,
however, changed the social dynamic in Bahrain. The Shi’a majority was empowered and encouraged by
Ayatollah Khomeini’s Iran, while the fall of the Shah greatly weakened the Sunni cultural and religious
authority throughout the Middle East.
The Shi’a community began to agitate for more democratic representation over growing frustration with
Sunni political dominance. After a series of violent clashes, the government responded by changing the
Cabinet for the first time in 20 year. In 1995, the Consultative Council, created to advise and, in special
circumstances, draft legislation, was expanded from 30 to 40 members. These efforts proved too little,
as a series of bombings in the following year resulted in several fatalities. The government resulted with
over 1,000 arrests, detaining political opponents and people connected to the violence. This tense
situation continued until Shaikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa replaced his father Shaikh Isa bin Hamad Al
Khalifa in 1999. The new ruler constituted a committee during his first year in order to transform
Bahrain into a constitutional monarchy. In the first national vote since the 1970s, the public
overwhelmingly voted in favour of the referendum instituting the resulting National Action Charter in
February 2001. The Shaikh also released all political prisoners and detainees. On 14 February 2002,
Shakih Hamad officially proclaimed Bahrain a constitutional monarchy, with himself as king.
2002 Constitution
The 2002 Constitution of the Kingdom of Bahrain recognizes the country’s Islamic faith by placing Islamic
Shariah law as its principle source for legislation. It also affirms that the goal of the state is to advance
the interests of the larger Islamic community, but it also guarantees freedom of religion, expression, and
the press. It creates a government with powers divided among the King, the Prime Minister, the Council
of Ministers, a bicameral National Assembly, and a Constitutional Court.
Executive branch
The King maintains broad powers under the Constitution. The monarchy is hereditary, passed from
father to eldest son. As the Head of State, it is the King’s duty to uphold the Constitution and the
sovereignty of Bahrain, to award honours and decorations, to grant pardons, and to appoint and dismiss
the Prime Minister, Ministers, judges, civil and military officials, ambassadors, and the Consultative
Council. He also acts as the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. However, the King’s most
important powers are his legislative powers. He has the ability to ratify constitutional amendments,
propose legislation, and veto laws. His veto of a law can only be overcome by a majority vote of the
legislature. He also has the ability to declare war and a state of emergency, as well as the power to
conclude treaties. The King is assisted in his duties by a Council of Ministers chaired by the Prime
Minister. The Prime Minister is appointed by the King, and the Ministers are appointed by the King on
advice from the Prime Minister. It is the duty of the Council to supervise the activities of the government
agencies and to implement national policy. Removal of the Ministers and the Prime Minister is
conducted by the King, though if the Prime Minister is removed or resigns, the entire Council is
considered resigned as well.
Legislative branch
The National Assembly of Bahrain is divided between the Consultative Council and the Chamber of
Deputies. The Council is composed of 40 royally appointed members who serve for 4 years, subject to
reappointment. The Chamber likewise has 40 members who serve 4 year terms, but its members are
elected by a direct vote. When the new constitution was proposed, the King gained support for the 2001
referendum from the Shi’a majority leaders by promising that the appointed Consultative Council would
have only advisory powers, but when the actual governing document was released in 2002, both houses
had legislative powers. In order for a bill to become a law, it has to be approved by both the Council and
the Chamber and ratified by the King. However, the Chamber does possess some specific powers,
including the power of interpellation and the passage of a vote of no-confidence against any Minister or
the Council of Ministers as a whole. The Chamber may not pass a vote of no-confidence against the
Prime Minister directly. If two-thirds of its members believe that they cannot work with the Prime
Minister, then it is put to a vote in the entire National Assembly, and if they decide by a two-thirds vote
that they cannot work with the Prime Minister, then the matter is submitted to the King who must
decide whether to replace the Prime Minister or the Chamber of Deputies.
Judicial branch
The judicial power of Bahrain is divided among a number of lower courts created by law, including
military, civil, and religious courts using Islamic law. This system is regulated and overseen by a Higher
Judicial Council, chaired by the King, which is tasked with ensuring the functioning of the courts and the
Public Prosecution Office. The highest appellate court is the High Civil Appeals Court, though the
Constitution does provide for a Constitutional Court as well. The Constitutional Court is comprised of a
President and 6 other members appointed by the King on the recommendation of the Higher Judicial
Council. It is their task to makes sure that all laws are constitutional as requested by Government, the
Consultative Council, or the Chamber of Deputies. The King may also ask the Court to review a law
before it is passed. Members of the Court cannot be dismissed.
Political challenges
Bahrain continues to face popular demands for increased democratization, which has manifested itself
in protests and uprisings around the country. Due to the King’s reneging on his promise to keep the
appointed Consultative Council in an advisory position, many Shi’a Muslims boycotted the first elections
held under the Constitution in 2002. While they participated in the 2006 and 2010 elections, resulting in
a win for the largest Shi’a political Society, Al Wifaq, the Shi’a population continues to demand increased
powers for the elected Chamber of Deputies and more representation in the government. Bahrain was
caught in the tide of the so-called Arab Spring of 2011 in which several countries in the Middle East and
North Africa saw a rise in popular protests. That same year, Shi’a protestors in Bahrain began a popular
movement demanding a new constitution, a release of political prisoners, and an end to discriminatory
policies favouring Sunnis in education, health care, and the government, as well as the creation of a
regulatory body that could investigate corruption. Some called for the end of the monarchy entirely, in
favour of a completely elected government. The government responded in an effort to disband the
protests, including the use of tear gas and rubber bullets. After government forces opened fire on a
crowd of mourners at the funeral of a protestor, Al Wifaq withdrew from the National Assembly.
Tensions further increased when protestors took control of the Pearl Roundabout in the capital,
prompting government forces to send security forces to retake the area. The King eventually was forced
to release some political prisoners and fire some government officials, but protests continued in
dissatisfaction over this response. Despite a dialogue between the opposition and Crown Prince Salman
bin Hamad Al Khalifa, negotiations have stalled and the King called in troops from the Gulf Cooperation
Council and declared a state of emergency.
Palestine
Palestine is a small region of land—roughly 2,400 square miles—that has played a
prominent role in the ancient and modern history of the Middle East. Violent
attempts to control land have defined much of the history of Palestine, making it
the site of constant political conflict. Arab people who call this territory home are
known as Palestinians, and the people of Palestine have a strong desire to create
a free and independent state in a contested region of the world that’s considered
sacred by many groups.
What Is Palestine?
Until 1948, Palestine typically referred to the geographic region located between
the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Arab people who call this territory
home are known as Palestinians. Much of this land is now considered present-
day Israel.
Today, Palestine theoretically includes the West Bank (a territory that divides
modern-day Israel and Jordan) and the Gaza Strip (land bordering modern-day
Israel and Egypt). However, control over this region is a complex and evolving
situation. The borders aren’t formally set, and many areas claimed by Palestinians
have been occupied by Israelis for years.
More than 135 United Nations member countries recognize Palestine as an
independent state, but Israel and some other countries, including the United
States, don’t make this distinction.
Palestine’s Early Roots
Scholars believe the name “Palestine” originally comes from the word “Philistia,”
which refers to the Philistines who occupied part of the region in the 12th century
B.C.
Throughout history, Palestine has been ruled by numerous groups, including the
Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Fatimids, Seljuk
Turks, Crusaders, Egyptians, Mamelukes and Islamists.
From about 1517 to 1917, the Ottoman Empire ruled much of the region.
When World War I ended in 1918, the British took control of Palestine.
The League of Nations issued a British mandate for Palestine—a document that
gave Britain the responsibility of establishing a Jewish national homeland in
Palestine—which went into effect in 1923.
The Partition of Palestine
In 1947, the United Nations proposed a plan to partition Palestine into two
sections: an independent Jewish state and an independent Arab state,
with Jerusalem as internationalized territory.
Jewish leaders accepted the plan, but many Palestinian Arabs vehemently
opposed it.
Arab groups argued that they represented the majority of the population in
certain regions and should be granted more territory. They began to form
volunteer armies throughout Palestine.
Israel Becomes a State
In May 1948, less than a year after the Partition of Palestine was introduced,
Britain withdrew from Palestine and Israel became an independent state.
Estimates suggest between 700,000 and 900,000 Palestinians fled or were forced
to leave their homes.
Almost immediately, war broke out between Jews and Arabs in the region. The
1948 Arab-Israeli War involved Israel and five Arab nations—Jordan, Iraq, Syria,
Egypt and Lebanon.
This conflict marked the beginning of years of violent conflict between Arabs and
Israelis.
The PLO is Born
In 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was formed to create a
platform for establishing a plan for a Palestinian state within Israel.
The PLO also emerged as a response to Zionism, an organized movement to
reestablish a Jewish homeland in Israel. In the years after its inception, the PLO
became associated with extremism and violence.
In 1969, the well-known Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat became the Chairman of
the PLO and held that title until he died in 2004.
The Six-Day War
Israel attacked Egypt, Jordan and Syria between June 5 and June 10, 1967. This
brief conflict, which became known as The Six-Day War, resulted in major land
gains for Israel.
After the war, Israel took control of the Gaza Strip, West Bank, Sinai Peninsula (a
desert region situated between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea) and
Golan Heights (a rocky plateau located between Syria and modern-day Israel).
The outcome of this war led to more fighting that continued for decades.
The First Intifada and the Oslo Accords
In 1987, the First Intifada broke out. This conflict was fueled by Israeli occupation
of Gaza and the West Bank. Palestinian militia groups revolted, and hundreds of
people were killed.
A subsequent peace process, known as the Oslo Peace Accords, was proposed to
end the ongoing violence.
The first Oslo Accord (Oslo I) created a timetable for a Middle East peace process
and a plan for an interim Palestinian government in parts of Gaza and the West
Bank. The agreement was signed in 1993 and witnessed by Israeli Prime Minister
Yitzhak Rabin and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat.
Arafat returned to Gaza in 1994 after being exiled for 27 years. He headed up the
newly-formed Palestinian Authority.
In 1995, Oslo II called for a complete withdrawal of Israeli troops from parts of the
West Bank and other areas. It also set a schedule for Palestinian Legislative
Council elections.
The Second Intifada: Violence Continues
In September 2000, the Second Palestinian Intifada began. One of the triggers for
the violence was when Ariel Sharon, who would later become Israel’s Prime
Minister, visited al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. Many Palestinians felt this was an
offensive move, and they protested.
Riots, suicide bombings and other attacks subsequently broke out, putting an end
to the promising peace process.
This period of violence between Palestinians and Israelis lasted nearly five years.
In 2005, the Israeli army withdrew from Gaza.
Hamas
In 2006, Hamas, a Sunni Islamist militant group, won the Palestinian legislative
elections.
That same year, fighting between Hamas and Fatah, the political group that
controlled the PLO, ensued. In 2007, Hamas defeated Fatah in a battle for Gaza.
Many countries consider Hamas to be a terrorist organization. The group has
carried out suicide bombings and repeatedly called for the destruction of Israel.
Hamas and Israel fought each other in several bloody wars, including Operation
Cast Lead in December 2008, Operation Pillar of Defense in November 2012 and
Operation Protective Edge in July 2014.
In April 2014, Hamas and Fatah agreed to a deal that would form a unified
national Palestinian government.
Current State of Palestine
Palestinians are still fighting for an official state that’s formally recognized by all
countries.
Although Palestinians occupy key areas of land, including the West Bank and the
Gaza strip, large populations of Israelis continue to settle in these locations. Many
international rights groups consider these settlements illegal, the borders aren’t
clearly defined, and persistent conflict continues to be the norm.
In May 2017, leaders of Hamas presented a document that proposed the
formation of a Palestinian state using the 1967 defined borders, with Jerusalem as
its capital. However, the group refused to recognize Israel as a state, and the
Israeli government promptly rejected the plan.
While so much of Palestine’s history has involved bloodshed, displacement, and
instability, many world leaders are working toward a resolution that will result in
peace throughout the region.
ISRAEL
Israel is small country in the Middle East, about the size of New Jersey, located on the eastern shores of
the Mediterranean Sea and bordered by Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria. The nation of Israel—with a
population of more than 8 million people, most of them Jewish—has many important archaeological
and religious sites considered sacred by Jews, Muslims and Christians alike, and a complex history with
periods of peace and conflict.
Early History of Israel
Much of what scholars know about Israel’s ancient history comes from the Hebrew Bible. According to
the text, Israel’s origins can be traced back to Abraham, who is considered the father of
both Judaism (through his son Isaac) and Islam (through his son Ishmael).
Abraham’s descendants were thought to be enslaved by the Egyptians for hundreds of years before
settling in Canaan, which is approximately the region of modern-day Israel.
The word Israel comes from Abraham’s grandson, Jacob, who was renamed “Israel” by the Hebrew God
in the Bible.
King David and King Solomon
King David ruled the region around 1000 B.C. His son, who became King Solomon, is credited with
building the first holy temple in ancient Jerusalem. In about 931 B.C., the area was divided into two
kingdoms: Israel in the north and Judah in the south.
Around 722 B.C., the Assyrians invaded and destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel. In 568 B.C., the
Babylonians conquered Jerusalem and destroyed the first temple, which was replaced by a second
temple in about 516 B.C.
For the next several centuries, the land of modern-day Israel was conquered and ruled by various
groups, including the Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Fatimids, Seljuk Turks, Crusaders, Egyptians,
Mamelukes, Islamists and others.
The Balfour Declaration
From 1517 to 1917, Israel, along with much of the Middle East, was ruled by the Ottoman Empire.
But World War I dramatically altered the geopolitical landscape in the Middle East. In 1917, at the height
of the war, British Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour submitted a letter of intent supporting the
establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The British government hoped that the formal
declaration—known thereafter as the Balfour Declaration—would encourage support for the Allies in
World War I.
When World War I ended in 1918 with an Allied victory, the 400-year Ottoman Empire rule ended, and
Great Britain took control over what became known as Palestine (modern-day Israel, Palestine and
Jordan).
The Balfour Declaration and the British mandate over Palestine were approved by the League of
Nations in 1922. Arabs vehemently opposed the Balfour Declaration, concerned that a Jewish homeland
would mean the subjugation of Arab Palestinians.
The British controlled Palestine until Israel, in the years following the end of World War II, became an
independent state in 1947.
Conflict Between Jews and Arabs
Throughout Israel’s long history, tensions between Jews and Arab Muslims have existed. The complex
hostility between the two groups dates all the way back to ancient times when they both populated the
area and deemed it holy.
Both Jews and Muslims consider the city of Jerusalem sacred. It contains the Temple Mount, which
includes the holy sites al-Aqsa Mosque, the Western Wall, the Dome of the Rock and more.
Much of the conflict in recent years has centered around who is occupying the following areas:
Gaza Strip: A piece of land located between Egypt and modern-day Israel.
Golan Heights: A rocky plateau between Syria and modern-day Israel.
West Bank: A territory that divides part of modern-day Israel and Jordan.
The Zionism Movement
In the late 19th and early 20th century, an organized religious and political movement known
as Zionism emerged among Jews.
Zionists wanted to reestablish a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Massive numbers of Jews immigrated to
the ancient holy land and built settlements. Between 1882 and 1903, about 35,000 Jews relocated to
Palestine. Another 40,000 settled in the area between 1904 and 1914.
Many Jews living in Europe and elsewhere, fearing persecution during the Nazi reign, found refuge in
Palestine and embraced Zionism. After the Holocaust and World War II ended, members of the Zionist
movement primarily focused on creating an independent Jewish state.
Arabs in Palestine resisted the Zionism movement, and tensions between the two groups continue. An
Arab nationalist movement developed as a result.
Israeli Independence
The United Nations approved a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and Arab state in 1947, but the
Arabs rejected it.
In May 1948, Israel was officially declared an independent state with David Ben-Gurion, the head of the
Jewish Agency, as the prime minister.
While this historic event seemed to be a victory for Jews, it also marked the beginning of more violence
with the Arabs.
1948 Arab-Israeli War
Following the announcement of an independent Israel, five Arab nations—Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and
Lebanon—immediately invaded the region in what became known as the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.
Civil war broke out throughout all of Israel, but a cease-fire agreement was reached in 1949. As part of
the temporary armistice agreement, the West Bank became part of Jordan, and the Gaza Strip became
Egyptian territory.
Arab-Israeli Conflict
Numerous wars and acts of violence between Arabs and Jews have ensued since the 1948 Arab-Israeli
War. Some of these include:
Suez Crisis: Relations between Israel and Egypt were rocky in the years following the 1948 war. In 1956,
Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser overtook and nationalized the Suez Canal, the important
shipping waterway that connects the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. With the help of British and
French forces, Israel attacked the Sinai Peninsula and retook the Suez Canal.
Six-Day War: In what started as a surprise attack, Israel in 1967 defeated Egypt, Jordan and Syria in six
days. After this brief war, Israel took control of the Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank, and Golan
Heights. These areas were considered “occupied” by Israel.
Yom Kippur War: Hoping to catch the Israeli army off guard, in 1973 Egypt and Syria launched air strikes
against Israel on the Holy Day of Yom Kippur. The fighting went on for two weeks, until the UN adopted
a resolution to stop the war. Syria hoped to recapture the Golan Heights during this battle but was
unsuccessful. In 1981, Israel annexed the Golan Heights, but Syria continued to claim it as territory.
Lebanon War: In 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon and ejected the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
This group, which started in 1964 and declared all Arab citizens living in Palestine up to 1947 to be called
“Palestinians,” focused on creating a Palestinian state within Israel.
First Palestinian Intifada: Israeli occupation of Gaza and the West Bank led to a 1987 Palestinian uprising
and hundreds of deaths. A peace process, known as the Oslo Peace Accords, ended the Intifada (a Arabic
word meaning “shaking off”). After this, the Palestinian Authority formed and took over some territories
in Israel. In 1997, the Israeli army withdrew from parts of the West Bank.
Second Palestinian Intifada: Palestinians launched suicide bombs and other attacks on Israelis in 2000.
The resulting violence lasted for years, until a cease-fire was reached. Israel announced a plan to remove
all troops and Jewish settlements from the Gaza strip by the end of 2005.
Second Lebanon War: Israel went to war with Hezbollah—a Shiite Islamic militant group in Lebanon—in
2006. A UN-negotiated ceasefire ended the conflict a couple of months after it started.
Hamas Wars: Israel has been involved in repeated violence with Hamas, a Sunni Islamist militant group
that assumed Palestinian power in 2006. Some of the more significant conflicts took place beginning in
2008, 2012 and 2014.
Israel Today
Clashes between Israelis and Palestinians are still commonplace. Key territories of land are divided, but
some are claimed by both groups. For instance, they both cite Jerusalem as their capital.
Both groups blame each other for terror attacks that kill civilians. While Israel doesn’t officially recognize
Palestine as a state, more than 135 UN member nations do.
The Two-State Solution
Several countries have pushed for more peace agreements in recent years. Many have suggested a two-
state solution but acknowledge that Israelis and Palestinians are unlikely to settle on borders.
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has supported the two-state solution but has felt pressure to
change his stance. Netanyahu has also been accused of encouraging Jewish settlements in Palestinian
areas while still backing a two-state solution.
The United States is one of Israel’s closest allies. In a visit to Israel in May 2017, U.S. President Donald
Trump urged Netanyahu to embrace peace agreements with Palestinians.
While Israel has been plagued by unpredictable war and violence in the past, many national leaders and
citizens are hoping for a secure, stable nation in the future.
