Identity

An International Journal of Theory and Research

ISSN: 1528-3488 (Print) 1532-706X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hidn20

Identity Development in Trinidad: Status

Differences by Age, Adulthood Transitions, and
Culture

Mary J. Arneaud, Nicole Alea & Makayla Espinet

To cite this article: Mary J. Arneaud, Nicole Alea & Makayla Espinet (2016) Identity
Development in Trinidad: Status Differences by Age, Adulthood Transitions, and Culture,
Identity, 16:1, 59-71, DOI: 10.1080/15283488.2015.1121818

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2015.1121818

Published online: 23 Feb 2016.

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 IDENTITY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THEORY AND RESEARCH
2016, VOL. 16, NO. 1, 59–71
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2015.1121818

Identity Development in Trinidad: Status Differences by Age,

Adulthood Transitions, and Culture
Mary J. Arneaud , Nicole Alea, and Makayla Espinet
Department of Behavioural Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
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Identity status differences by age, adulthood transitions (e.g., marriage), and Adulthood transitions;
values were examined in Trinidadians (N = 172) ranging from 11 to 84 years culture; identity status;
lifespan; Trinidad
old using the Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale (U-MICS;
Crocetti, Rubini, & Meeus, 2008). Cluster analysis revealed five identity
statuses: moratorium, active moratorium, diffusion, evaluative moratorium,
and achievement. As expected, identity achievement (i.e., commitment and
exploration high, reconsideration low) was most common in midlife and
among those who had made transitions to marriage and parenthood.
Achievement was also associated with higher conservation values (i.e.,
valuing norm adherence), compared to active moratorium (i.e., commit-
ment low, exploration and reconsideration high). The moratorium status
(i.e., commitment and exploration low, reconsideration high) was associated
with employment, though age moderated this effect (younger adults who
were employed were less likely to be in moratorium). Findings are discussed
considering chronological age, culturally meaningful markers of transition-
ing to adulthood, and the relations between values, well-being, and
national levels of human development.

Identity is an individual’s perception of being the same person across time (Erikson, 1968). Although
in Erikson’s theory of personality development, identity, the fifth developmental stage, is proposed to
be the dominant issue of the adolescent period, it remains salient across the life span (Miller, 2011).
Adolescence is the time when the individual becomes capable of engaging with her or his cultural
context, in preparation for the caretaking responsibilities of adulthood (e.g., parenting; Erikson,
1968). Consonant with the focus of this Special Issue on identity development in adulthood, and
Erikson’s emphasis on the influence of cultural conditions on individual development, our research
asked three questions: (a) Do the identity statuses (e.g., moratorium, achievement) differ by age,
from adolescence to older adulthood? (b) Are markers of transitioning to adulthood (e.g., marriage,
employment) differentially associated with the identity statuses? (c) Do the identity statuses differ by
values, a variable used as a proxy for culture (e.g., Inglehart & Baker, 2000)?
Identity statuses are operationalizations of possible behavioral responses to what Erikson called an
identity crisis (Marcia, 1966). This is a time when the individual questions and makes decisions
about her or his sense of identity. The identity statuses were originally based on the presence and
absence of two variables: commitment and crisis (or exploration; Matteson, 1977), in identity
domains (Marcia, 1966). In Marcia’s original model, commitment is personally investing in specific
alternatives in identity domains, and exploration is considering alternatives in identity domains and
reevaluating past beliefs (Marcia, 1966). The definitions of the identity development process vari-
ables have since been elaborated. Commitment, for example, now includes the extent to which
individuals identify with and feel sure about their choices, whereas exploration, or in-depth

CONTACT Mary J. Arneaud [email protected] Department of Behavioural Sciences, University of the West
Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago.
© 2016 Taylor & Francis
 60 M. J. ARNEAUD ET AL.

exploration (Crocetti, Rubini, & Meeus, 2008), has been expanded to include the evaluation of
present commitments (Luyckx, Goossens, & Soenenes, 2006; Meeus, 1996). Thus, an emphasis on
existing commitments has emerged in the literature since the time of Marcia’s original conceptua-
lization. The commitment-exploration processes are expected to begin during adolescence, and
repetitively recur, perhaps until midlife (Stephen, Fraser, & Marcia, 1992). The commitment-
exploration cycles have been conceptualized as an additional process variable: reconsideration of
commitment (hereafter, reconsideration), which is comparing existing identity commitments, and
possible alternative commitments, and intentions to change present unsatisfactory commitments
(Crocetti et al., 2008). Thus, a three-factor model of identity development consisting of commitment,
in-depth exploration, and reconsideration has been developed.
Five identity statuses, rather than four as is the case in Marcia’s (1966) original model, are proposed
to emerge from various combinations of degrees of the three process variables (Crocetti, Rubini,
Luyckx, & Meeus, 2008). Relatively similar to Marcia’s original model, diffusion is low on commitment,
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in-depth exploration, and reconsideration; moratorium is low on commitment and in-depth explora-
tion, and high on reconsideration; and achievement is high on commitment and in-depth exploration,
and low on reconsideration. The description of foreclosure—high on commitment, low to moderate on
in-depth exploration, and low on reconsideration—is somewhat at odds with Marcia’s (1966) model,
which it seeks to replicate, in that in-depth exploration can be moderate, rather than low. The
additional fifth identity status, searching moratorium is high on commitment, in-depth exploration,
and reconsideration. It has been noted that the moratorium status has two aspects: ruminating on now
unsatisfactory early identifications, and exploring alternative self-definitions (Kroger & Marcia, 2011).
Moratorium seems to be the ruminative aspect, and searching moratorium the exploratory. The
division of moratorium into its two distinguishable components is the most salient departure from
Marcia’s (1966) original model.

The identity statuses and age

Kroger, Martinussen, and Marcia (2010) conducted a cross-sectional meta-analysis on research on
the identity statuses in North American adolescents and young adults. They found that, in general,
foreclosure and diffusion were more common whereas moratorium and achievement were less
common in mid-adolescence compared to late adolescence. Additionally, foreclosure and diffusion
alternated during the early young adulthood years, but were less common in late young adulthood.
Although in early young adulthood moratorium was more common compared to late young
adulthood, and in late young adulthood achievement was more common compared to early young
adulthood. Thus, during adolescence, foreclosure and diffusion may be the less advanced, and
moratorium and achievement the more advanced identity statuses. In young adulthood, foreclosure,
diffusion, and moratorium may be the less advanced statuses, and achievement the more advanced
identity status. However, in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, less than half of samples are
typically achieved by young adulthood, though it seems more likely by middle adulthood (Kroger,
2007a). In a longitudinal Finnish study from young to middle adulthood, there was generally
progressive development to achievement by middle age (Fadjukoff, Kokko, & Pulkkinen, 2007).

Transitions to adulthood and the identity statuses

Naturally occurring life events may be markers and underlying causes of identity development
(Luyckx et al., 2006). Thus, events that mark transitions to adulthood caretaking responsibilities,
such as transitioning from student status and transitioning to employment, residential autonomy,
marriage, and parenting (Fadjukoff et al., 2007) may repetitively stimulate questioning of one’s
existing sense of identity and periods of decision making. Moreover, these markers of transitioning
to adulthood may be differentially associated with the identity statuses. We came across only one
study that investigated the transitions to adulthood and identity status. Employment, residential
 IDENTITY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THEORY AND RESEARCH 61

autonomy, marriage, and parenting were all associated with identity achievement (Fadjukoff et al.,
2007). Thus, it seems that a sense of identity perhaps “comes upon” an individual (Erikson, 1968,
p. 20) due to experiencing transitions to adulthood.

The identity statuses and culture

Erikson commented on the universality of the demands of the developmental stages, but also on the
variation in their resolution by culture (Miller, 2011). This study was conducted in the Caribbean, on the
island of Trinidad, which is to some degree culturally distinct from the Western, Educated,
Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies from which psychological research is typically
published (Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010). Trinidad is likely a mixture of Western and Eastern
cultures, as a society’s cultural orientation is influenced by its religious heritage (Inglehart & Baker, 2000).
Roman Catholicism is the largest denomination on the island (21.6% of the population, introduced by
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Spanish colonists in 1498), and Hinduism is the second-largest denomination (18.2% of the population,
introduced with Indian indenture from 1845; Central Statistical Office, 2011; Brereton, 2009). With
regard to education, only 6.5% of the population goes on to do a bachelor degree or higher (Central
Statistical Office, 2011), compared with 25.9% in Canada, for example (Statistics Canada, 2011).
Although the economy is industrialized (e.g., the service sector makes a 50.9% contribution to the
economy; Ministry of Finance and the Economy, 2014), citizens are relatively poor. A recent analysis
indicated that, based on a poverty line of TT$665 (approximately US$105) per individual per month,
22% of Trinidadians are poor (Kedir & Sookram, 2011), compared with, for example, the United States,
which has a higher average poverty threshold of US$910 per individual per month and where 15.1% of
citizens were considered “poor” in 2010 (National Poverty Centre, 2015). Finally, like WEIRD societies,
Trinidad and Tobago is a democratic nation (Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago, 2012).
Values have been used as a proxy for culture, to culturally map the world (e.g., Inglehart & Baker,
2000), and are a component of identity (Welzel & Inglehart, 2010). Values therefore seem pertinent
for describing a country’s culture. Moreover, it seems that descriptions about the associations
between the identity statuses and values, in a relatively non-WEIRD sample, will make a valuable
contribution to the identity development literature. From one theoretical perspective, values are
proposed to exist on two dimensions: conservation versus openness to change, and self-transcen-
dence versus self-enhancement (Lindeman & Verkasalo, 2005). Conservation is maintaining the
status quo and experiencing certainty from conforming to norms, whereas openness to change is
following the individual’s own intellectual and emotional interests. Self-transcendence is a concern
for others’ welfare, whereas self-enhancement is a concern for the individual’s welfare. One study that
examined the identity statuses and conceptually similar values was conducted in Canada (Stephen
et al., 1992). It found that foreclosure was characteristic of values similar to conservation and self-
enhancement, diffusion was characteristic of values similar to conservation, moratorium was char-
acteristic of values similar to openness to change and self-transcendence, and achievement was
characteristic of values similar to openness to change.

Study hypotheses
Based on the literature reviewed we tested three hypotheses, although they are tentative since to our
knowledge no other study has examined the identity statuses in Trinidad. First, it was expected that
achievement would be more common in middle and older adulthood than in adolescence, emerging,
and young adulthood. Second, events that mark transitioning to adulthood caretaking responsibil-
ities (i.e., transitioning from student status, and transitioning to employment, residentially auton-
omy, marriage, and parenthood) would be associated with identity achievement. Finally, it was
expected that the identity statuses would differ by values, although no directional expectations were
made since Trinidad is simultaneously different and similar on the dimensions of WEIRDness to
societies like Canada where the identity statuses and values have been previously studied.
 62 M. J. ARNEAUD ET AL.

Method
Participants
Participants ranged from 11 to 84 years old (N = 172; female, n = 81): adolescence (n = 33;
M = 14.52, SD = 1.70, age 11 to 17), emerging adults (n = 41; M = 21.27, SD = 1.94, age 18 to
25), young adults (n = 39; M = 31.05, SD = 3.28, age 26 to 39), middle-aged adults (n = 37;
M = 47.92, SD = 5.65, age 40 to 59), and older adults (n = 22; M = 68.95, SD = 7.60, age 60 to 84).
The island’s major ethnic groups were represented: Afro- (37%), Indo- (22%), and mixed
Trinidadians (30%). Participants were recruited via social media, notice boards, and undergraduate
psychology courses at a university in Trinidad. Psychology students were given course credit; others
were compensated with TT$100 (US$15).
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Procedure and measures

Data were collected as part of a larger structured, oral, one-on-one interview that lasted approxi-
mately 2 hours. Interviews were conducted in quiet university rooms or similar community settings.
After informed consent, the demographics and transitions to adulthood questionnaire was adminis-
tered first, followed by the Short Schwartz’s Value Survey (SSVS; Lindeman & Verkasalo, 2005), and
the Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale (U-MICS; Crocetti et al., 2008).

Demographics and transitions to adulthood questionnaire

Basic demographic information (e.g., age) was collected. The transitions to adulthood questionnaire
measured current status in five markers of transitions to adulthood (Fadjukoff et al., 2007), grouped as
dichotomous events to indicate a change to the caretaking responsibilities of adulthood (Erikson,
1968). The adulthood transitions thus included: (a) student status—student (i.e., currently pursuing
educational qualifications) versus nonstudent; (b) employment status—unemployed (i.e., unemployed
and employed part-time) versus employed (i.e., employed full time and retired); (c) residential status—
home (i.e., living at and temporarily moved from parents’ home) versus moved; (d) marital status—
single (i.e., single and currently in a romantic relationship) versus married (i.e., married, cohabiting,
separated, divorced, and widowed); (e) parental status—nonparent versus parent.

The Short Schwartz’s Value Survey

The SSVS (Lindeman & Verkasalo, 2005) assesses the importance of values as life-guiding principles
to individuals. Based on an initial factor analysis to determine the value subscales, two dimensions
were assessed in this study: conservation (i.e., conformity, security, tradition), and self-enhancement
(i.e., achievement, hedonism, power). Responses were given on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0
(opposed to my principles) to 8 (of supreme importance). Cronbach’s alpha for this study were:
conservation = .75; self-enhancement = .62.

The Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale

The U-MICS (Crocetti et al., 2008) is a self-report measure of identity in various domains. It was
modified to a 12-item measure in this study. One item “I often try to find out what other people
think about my (life philosophy, et cetera)” was dropped from the Exploration subscale based on an
initial factor analysis. Participants chose three from nine identity domains (i.e., gender, interperso-
nal, life philosophy, occupation, physical appearance, politics, religion/ spirituality/ ethics, sexuality,
social class) to assess a meaningful overall identity (Kroger, 2003). Three subscales assessed commit-
ment (five items), in-depth exploration (four items), and reconsideration (three items) in the chosen
identity domains. Responses were given on a Likert-scale ranging from 1 (completely untrue) to 5
(completely true). Cronbach’s alphas in this study were: commitment = .93, exploration = .81,
reconsideration = .89.
 IDENTITY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THEORY AND RESEARCH 63

Data analyses
To answer the research questions, the identity statuses first needed to be developed. This was done via
cluster analyses. This section describes our choices for this analysis. We also discuss analytic choices to
compensate for the limitations of the cluster analysis given the small sample size. Previous studies with
larger samples using the U-MICS tended to use a two-step clustering procedure (e.g. Crocetti et al., 2008).
However, given our smaller sample size, hierarchical cluster analysis only was done using Ward’s method
on squared Euclidian distances. This method is robust and accurate (Gore, 2000), and has been used in
identity development research with similar sample sizes (e.g., Syed, Azmitia, & Phinney, 2007) to ours. A
range of clusters was explored: a minimum of four solutions was requested based on theoretical tradition
(i.e., Marcia, 1966) and previous studies using the U-MICS (e.g., Crocetti, Avanzi, Hawk, Fraccaroli, &
Meeus, 2014; Crocetti, Jahromi, & Meeus, 2012). A five-cluster solution that is usually obtained by
Crocetti and colleagues (e.g. Crocetti et al., 2008: achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, searching
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moratorium, diffusion) was also allowed. A maximum of six solutions was requested because in-depth
exploration is strongly related to Marcia’s (1966) conception of exploration (Luyckx et al., 2006), and we
wanted to explore whether a moratorium constituted by a combination of low commitment and high in-
depth exploration (unlike the moratorium in which commitment and in-depth exploration are low and
reconsideration is high) might be found. A moratorium with high in-depth exploration would be
consistent with the process variable combination constituting achievement, in which, consistent with
Marcia’s (1966) original conceptualization, in-depth exploration is high.
We determined which cluster solution was the most theoretically meaningful (Gore, 2000) and
parsimonious of the three by using the means of the process variables as markers of their degree (cf.
Meeus, 1996). That is, z scores above 0 indicated a high degree of a process variable, and z scores below
0 indicated a low degree of a process variable. Redundant clusters were not accepted. The cluster
solution could not be validated in this study by, for example, dividing the sample and cross-validating
across age groups (cf., Crocetti et al., 2008). This can be done only with large group sample sizes (e.g.,
N = 150 per age group). Thus, a discriminant function analysis was done and the corresponding means
and standard deviations of the three process variables for the five statuses are shown in Table 1. As
seen, the process variable descriptives are generally consistent with the identity status clusters, lending
support to the validity of the obtained cluster solution. Recognizing, however, that this does not
guarantee the replicability of the obtained cluster solution, and corresponding to the first research
question, age group differences in the process variables (i.e., commitment, in-depth exploration, and
reconsideration) were also examined. Consistency across both analyses (i.e., the identity statuses and
processes) should further corroborate the validity of the obtained cluster solution.

Results
The five-cluster solution, presented in Figure 1, fit the data best. The identity statuses were
interpreted as: (a) moratorium—low commitment and exploration, high reconsideration; (b) active
moratorium—low commitment, high exploration and reconsideration, named to reflect the active
nature of the exploration and reconsideration variables in the cluster; (c) diffusion—low commit-
ment, exploration, and reconsideration; (d) evaluative moratorium—low commitment and

Table 1. Means and standard deviations for the identity development process variables by identity status.
Commitment Exploration Reconsideration
Identity status M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
Moratorium 2.78 (.34) 3.04 (.25) 2.87 (.65)
Active moratorium 3.83 (.47) 4.22 (.42) 3.18 (.54)
Diffusion 3.94 (.35) 3.19 (.33) 1.82 (.57)
Evaluative moratorium 3.62 (.49) 4.00 (.30) 1.98 (.45)
Achievement 4.55 (.32) 4.35 (.32) 1.51 (.37)
 64 M. J. ARNEAUD ET AL.
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Figure 1. The z scores for commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment for the five identity status
clusters: moratorium, n = 13; active moratorium, n = 26; diffusion, n = 37; evaluative moratorium, n = 37; achievement, n = 59.

reconsideration, high exploration, named for its emphasis on the evaluative nature of in-depth
exploration; and (e) achievement—high commitment and exploration, low reconsideration.

Identity development and age

Two sets of analyses of variance were conducted to test the hypothesis that achievement is more
common in middle and older adulthood than in adolescence, emerging, and young adulthood. For
these analyses (as well as for the values analysis) Hochberg’s GT2 post hoc tests were reported due to
relatively large sample size differences per identity status (e.g., achievement n = 59; moratorium
n = 13). Correlations were reported as effect sizes for follow-up tests (Field, 2013).
In the first analysis, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to examine whether
the five identity statuses differed by age. The homogeneity of variance assumption was violated with
the Levene’s test, F(4,167) = 7.85, p < .001; thus the Brown-Forsythe test statistic is reported. The
identity statuses differed by age, F(4, 150) = 8.66, p < .001, η2 = .14. Consistent with the hypothesis,
the achieved status had the highest mean age (M = 42.69, SD = 19.62) compared to the other
statuses: moratorium, M = 21.15, SD = 10.05, t(70) = 4.12, p = .001, r = .44; active moratorium,
M = 28.73, SD = 8.22, t (83) = −3.48, p = .01, r = .36; diffusion, M = 30.68, SD = 17.85, t(94) = 3.36,
p = .01, r = .33; and evaluative moratorium, M = 31.78, SD = 18.22, t(94) = −3.05, p = .03, r = .30.
Thus, as expected, achievement had a mean age that is characteristic of middle adulthood, whereas
the various moratorium and diffusion statuses had mean ages representing emerging and young
adulthood. The other statuses did not differ from each other by age. The mean age differences
between achievement and the other statuses represented medium effect sizes (Field, 2013).
In the second analysis, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine
whether, consistent with the identity status results, the adolescent, emerging, young, middle-aged, and older
adult age groups differed on the identity development process variables (i.e., commitment, in-depth
exploration, reconsideration) underlying the identity statuses. If the homogeneity of covariance assumption
was violated using Box’s M, Hotelling’s trace was reported; if not, Pillai’s trace was reported (also for the
values analysis). The covariance assumption was violated, Box’s M(24, 50,669) = 51.441, p = .002. There
was, however, a multivariate age group effect, Hotelling’s trace = .39, F(12, 491) = 5.30, p < .001. All three of
the univariate effects were significant: commitment, F(4, 167) = 7.28, p < .001, η2 = .15; exploration, F(4,
167) = 8.69, p < .001, η2 = .17; reconsideration, F(4, 167) = 5.41, p < .001, η2 = .11. Descriptive statistics for
the three process variables are shown in Table 2. Follow-up comparisons nicely matched the results for the
identity status findings described above: The process variables results were consistent with the hypothesized
 IDENTITY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THEORY AND RESEARCH 65

Table 2. Means and standard deviations for the identity process variables commitment, exploration, and reconsideration by age
group.
Adolescence Emerging adults Young adults Middle-aged adults Older adults
Identity process M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
Commitment 3.74 (.45) 3.85 (.61) 3.85 (.74) 4.17 (.58) 4.49 (.51)
Exploration 3.44 (.54) 3.88 (.52) 4.06 (.51) 4.00 (.63) 4.22 (.55)
Reconsideration 2.15 (.58) 2.16 (.75) 2.31 (.98) 1.79 (.66) 1.55 (.42)
Note. Significant differences are reported in the text.

differences in identity status by age, further corroborating the validity of the cluster solution. For commit-
ment, middle-aged, t(68) = 3.01, p = .029, r = .21, and older adults, t(53) = 4.59, p < .001, r = .28, scored
higher than adolescents; and older adults scored higher than emerging, t(61) = 4.07, p = .001, r = .25, and
young adults, t(59) = 4.03, p = .001, r = .25. For exploration, emerging, t(72) = 3.41, p = .008, r = .21, young, t
(70) = 4.74, p < .001, r = .25, middle-aged, t(68) = 4.23, p < .001, r = .24, and older adults, t(53) = 5.13,
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p < .001, r = .30, scored higher than adolescents. And for reconsideration, older adults scored lower than
adolescents, t(53) = 2.99, p = .032, r = .23, and emerging adults, t(61) = 3.20, p = .016, r = .22; and middle-
aged, t(74) = 3.11, p = .022, r = .20, and older adults, t (59) = 3.93, p = .001, r = .25, scored lower than young
adults. Effect sizes were small to medium. Thus, the pattern for the process variables that is characteristic of
the achieved status (Figure 1) was evident from midlife onward.

Adulthood transitions and identity statuses

The next set of analyses used χ2 analyses to test the hypothesis that transitioning from student status
and transitioning to employment, residential autonomy, marriage, and parenthood are associated
with the achieved identity status. For all χ2 analyses, if the expected frequency for any cell was less
than five, Fisher’s exact test was reported (Field, 2013). Frequencies and samples sizes are shown in
Table 3. Two transitions to adulthood did not correspond with the identity statuses: transitioning
from student status, χ2(4) = 7.16, p = .13, and to residential autonomy, χ2(4) = 7.15, p = .13.
However, the other three transitions did, in expected ways: transitioning to employment,
χ2(4) = 11.64, p = .02 and marriage, χ2(4) = 11.04, p = .02, Cramer’s V = .26, representing small
effects (Field, 2013); and parenting, χ2(4) = 14.93, p = .004, Cramer’s V = .30, representing a medium
effect. Standardized residuals were used to determine whether the associations were significant, using
1.96 (or p < .05; Field, 2013). Unexpectedly, being unemployed corresponded marginally more than
expected with moratorium (z = 1.9), and being employed corresponded significantly less than
expected with moratorium (z = −2.0). As predicted, being married (z = 2.1) and a parent (z = 2.5)
corresponded significantly more than expected with the achieved status.
However, post hoc t- tests (equal variances not assumed) indicated that all transitions to
adulthood were associated with higher ages, specifically middle age, and not having made these

Table 3. Correspondence between adulthood transitions and identity statuses, and mean age.
Adulthood Moratorium Active moratorium Diffusion Evaluative Achievement Total Age
transitions n (%) n (%) n (%) moratorium n (%) n (%) N M (SD)
Nonstudent 2 (15.4) 9 (34.6) 18 (48.6) 14 (37.8) 30 (50.8) 73 45.84b (18.29)
Employed 1 (7.7)a 14 (53.8) 15 (40.5) 16 (43.2) 33 (56.9) 79 43.86b (16.71)
Moved 3 (23.1) 10 (38.5) 14 (37.8) 13 (35.1) 32 (55.2) 72 47.01b (17.60)
Married 1 (7.7) 5 (19.2) 10 (27) 10 (27) 27 (45.8)a 53 54.32b (14.86)
Parent 1 (7.7) 3 (11.5) 9 (24.3) 9 (24.3) 27 (45.8)a 49 54.45b (15.32)
Note. Frequencies and percentages (in parentheses) are reported. The percentage figures show the percentage of participants who
have made the adulthood transition (compared with the percentage of participants who have not made the adulthood
transition) within each of the five identity statuses. The mean age and standard deviation (in parentheses) of participants
who have made the transition to adulthood are also reported.
a
Significant differences in observed and expected frequencies for the correspondence between an adulthood transition and
identity status.
b
Age difference within each dichotomous adulthood transition was significant.
 66 M. J. ARNEAUD ET AL.

Table 4. Correspondence between significant adulthood transitions and identity statuses for younger (adolescence to young
adulthood) and older (middle-aged and older adults) age groups.
Active Evaluative
Adulthood Moratorium moratorium Diffusion moratorium Achievement Total
transitions n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) N
Younger age group N 11 23 26 26 27 113
Employed 0 (0)* 12 (52.2) 7 (26.9) 8 (30.8) 10 (37) 37
Married 0 (0) 3 (13) 2 (7.7) 1 (3.8) 3 (11.1) 9
Parent 0 (0) 2 (8.7) 1 (3.8) 2 (7.7) 3 (11.1) 8
Older age group N 2 3 11 11 32 59
Employed 1 (50) 2 (66.7) 8 (72.7) 8 (72.7) 23 (74.2) 42
Married 1 (50) 2 (66.7) 8 (72.7) 9 (81.8) 24 (75) 44
Parent 1 (50) 1 (33.3) 8 (72.7) 7 (63.6) 24 (75) 41
*Significant differences in observed and expected frequencies for the correspondence between an adulthood transition and
identity status.
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transitions was associated with emerging and young adulthood: student status, t(118) = 8.31,
p < .001, r = .61; employment status, t (154) = −7.82, p < .001, r = .53; residential status,
t(115) = −9.49, p < .001, r = .66; marital status, t (77) = −12.95, p < .001, r = .83; and parental
status, t(71) = −11.76, p < .001, r = .81. The mean age of participants for each adulthood transition
are reported in the far right column of Table 3. Thus, it was unclear whether it was the employment,
marriage, or parenthood transitions, or age, or perhaps an interaction between the transitions and
age that was the source of the associations with moratorium and achievement, respectively.
Additional analyses were carried out to determine whether the adulthood transitions that were
significantly associated with identity status in the above χ2 analyses (i.e., employment, marriage, and
parenthood) would also correspond to the identity statuses within younger (i.e., adolescents, and
emerging and young adults) and older (i.e., middle and older adults) age groups. We used χ2 analyses
to see whether the associations between employment and moratorium, and marriage and parenting and
achievement, would hold within each age group (e.g., whether married younger adults were as likely to be
achieved as married older adults), or whether the associations would differ by age group. Different
patterns of associations by age group would hint at interactive effects between age and adulthood
transitions. Results are shown in Table 4. There was only one significant effect. For the younger age
group, employment status corresponded with identity status, χ2(4) = 10.49, p = .03, representing a
medium effect, Cramer’s V = .30. Specifically, younger adults who were employed full time were
marginally less likely than expected to be in the moratorium status (z = −1.9). For participants in the
younger age group, neither marital status, χ2(4) = 2.31, p = .72, nor parental status, χ2(4) = 1.73, p = .88,
corresponded with the identity statuses any more than expected. In addition, for the older age group
employment status, χ2(4) = 1.39, p = .98, marital status, χ2(4) = 1.81, p = .88, and parental status,
χ2(4) = 3.36, p = .49, did not correspond with the identity statuses any more than expected.

Identity status differences by values

A MANOVA was conducted to examine whether the identity statuses differed by conservation and self-
enhancement. The equality of covariance matrices assumption was nonsignificant, Box’s M(12,
25,727) = 11.17, p = .55. The multivariate effect was significant, Pillai’s trace = .11, F(8, 332) = 2.31,
p = .02. There was a significant univariate effect for the conservation value, F(4, 166) = 4.00, p = .004,
η2 = .09. Achievement was associated with higher conservation than active moratorium, t(83) = 3.06,
p = .026, r = .07, representing a small effect. None of the other statuses differed by conservation values.
There was no univariate effect for the self-enhancement value, F(4, 166) = .36, p = .84, η2 = .01
(moratorium, M = 4.90, SD = 1.36; active moratorium, M = 4.99, SD = 1.50; diffusion, M = 5.14,
SD = 1.62; evaluative moratorium, M = 5.02, SD = 1.34; achievement, M = 4.77, SD = 1.58).
 IDENTITY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THEORY AND RESEARCH 67

Discussion
This study was conducted to examine if, in a life span Trinidadian sample, identity statuses differed
by chronological age, transitions to adulthood (e.g., marriage), and values. As hypothesized, achieve-
ment was associated with middle adulthood, and was also indicative of transitioning to adulthood;
transitioning to marriage and parenthood were associated with achievement. Although not expected,
an age by adulthood transition interaction seemed to emerge: The transition to employment was
associated less than expected with the moratorium status, primarily for the younger-aged groups.
Finally, our exploration of the link between the identity statuses and values revealed that achieve-
ment was associated with higher conservation values compared to active moratorium. Before we
discuss these results further, however, we comment on the identity statuses found in this sample.
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Identity statuses in an adolescent to older adult Trinidadian sample

Three identity statuses in this life span sample were consistent with previous research; namely,
moratorium, diffusion, and achievement (e.g., Crocetti et al., 2008). Two additional moratorium
statuses were labeled: active moratorium was characterized by activity (i.e., high in-depth exploration
and reconsideration), and evaluative moratorium by evaluation (i.e., high in-depth exploration). These
statuses resembled statuses in previous work (i.e., active moratorium and moratorium in Crocetti et al.,
2012; and evaluative moratorium and early closure in the ideological identity domain in Klimstra et al.,
2011). However, they were labeled differently in this study considering Marcia’s (1966) original
conceptualization of moratorium (i.e., commitment absent or low, and exploration present or high;
Marcia, 1966, 2001) in conjunction with the age range of our sample. That is, the U-MICS (Crocetti
et al., 2008) assesses process variables particularly relevant beyond adolescence and early adulthood.
The reconceptualized in-depth exploration on this measure emphasizes evaluating existing commit-
ments, and the additional reconsideration captures repetitively cycling through the commitment and
exploration processes. These processes may be necessary to assess and develop identity status struc-
tures beyond young adulthood (cf., Kroger, 2003), specifically, the phases of moratorium suggested by
qualitative research with midlife adults (Kroger, 2007b). Our labels capture the process variable
combinations that may describe active and evaluative phases of moratorium.
Two identity statuses usually found in studies using the U-MICS were not found in the current
study: foreclosure and searching moratorium. A closer examination of the earlier studies, however,
actually reveals that both the searching moratorium (e.g., Crocetti et al., 2012) and foreclosure
statuses (e.g., Klimstra et al., 2011) have not always been found. For example, scores on the three
identity process variables in any direction have been interpreted as comparable to Marcia’s (1966)
foreclosure (e.g., early closure in Klimstra et al., 2011), although this seems inconsistent with theory.
We suspect that the occasional fluctuation of the identity status across studies may be due to
differences in sample sizes influencing cluster reliability (Gore, 2000). Considering our small sample
size, the theoretically meaningful status classification using mean z scores as markers of the degrees
of the process variables, and the life span nature of our sample, the current cluster solution and
interpretation of the identity statues seems valid.

The achieved and moratorium statuses in Trinidad: Age, adulthood transitions, and values
The identity statuses differed by age, and the first study hypothesis was supported, with achievement
characterizing midlife. The analysis of the process variables corroborated this result. Characteristic of
the achieved status, commitment and exploration were higher and reconsideration lower by midlife
compared with adolescence and emerging and young adulthood. The various moratorium and
diffusion statuses, on the other hand, characterized lower ages: emerging and young adulthood. The
moratorium and diffusion statuses were not differentiated by age. Our cross-sectional results are
consistent with longitudinal research (i.e. Fadjukoff et al., 2007), which suggests that achievement is
 68 M. J. ARNEAUD ET AL.

the most advanced of the identity statuses and seems most likely to be attained by midlife. Moreover,
our results suggest that the achieved status remains stable into older adulthood.
However, simply looking at chronological age does not seem to thoroughly describe identity status
and age differences. The markers of transitioning to adulthood were also differentially associated with the
identity statuses. All of the transitions were associated with middle age, indicating that they are
developmentally normative. However, only the transitions to employment, marriage, and parenthood
were significantly associated with the identity statuses. First, although it was not expected, being
unemployed corresponded marginally more than expected with moratorium, whereas being employed
corresponded less than expected with moratorium. This association between employment and morator-
ium, however, seemed to be moderated by age: It was the employed younger adults who were less likely
than expected to be in moratorium. We believe that cultural expectations about what constitutes
meaningful adulthood transitions may help to explain the associations found between employment
and moratorium in our Trinidadian sample. Work is a “very important” value to most (76.5%)
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Trinidadians (World Values Survey Association, 2014), and unemployment is relatively low (6.6%;
International Labour Organization, 2015). Thus, perhaps it is when individuals deviate from the social
value and norm of being employed that they are likely to reconsider their sense of identity in morator-
ium. Moreover, being employed, especially at a young age when it is less developmentally normative but
still a cultural expectation, perhaps accounted for its association with the moratorium status.
Second, supporting the second study hypothesis, transitioning to marriage and parenthood corre-
sponded with achievement. The associations between marriage, parenthood, and achievement seem to
be independent of age. Again, cultural expectations about meaningful adulthood transitions may help
with interpretations. In the Caribbean, legal marriage and parenthood are indicators of “respectabil-
ity,” a Caribbean moral and social value. Moreover, relatively high poverty rates in the Caribbean mean
that legal marriage often only becomes affordable by middle age (Wilson, 2001). Thus, perhaps it is
when individuals meet the cultural expectation of being respectable via marriage and parenthood by
midlife that they can explore and commit to a sense of identity, without reconsideration, in the
achieved status. Therefore, it is perhaps the meaningfulness of being married and a parent by midlife
in the cultural context, regardless of the developmental normativity of these transitions at midlife,
which may account for their associations with achievement. That is, the age effect, in which achieve-
ment characterized midlife, is perhaps not due to the biological fact of aging per se, but may instead be
the result of having made the transition to marriage and parenthood by midlife. The marriage and
parenthood adulthood transition markers, therefore, may be underlying causes of identity achieve-
ment (cf. Luyckx et al., 2006). This may be one reason why the achieved status eludes the majority of
young adults (Kroger, 2007a); they have not yet transitioned to meaningful markers of adulthood.
Finally, the identity statuses differed by values. Achievement, compared with active moratorium,
was associated with higher conservation, which is the motivation to maintain existing conditions,
and experiencing security from norm conformity. This pattern contradicts previous work in Canada
(i.e., Stephen et al., 1992). This may be because the values associated with well-being differ by
national levels of human development. In Trinidad, human development, as measured by economic,
education, and health indicators, is lower than in Canada (United Nations Development
Programme, 2014). Survival needs may therefore be more salient in Trinidad, and perhaps values
similar to conservation are related to well-being (Welzel & Inglehart, 2010). Thus, exploring and
committing to, but not reconsidering, one’s sense of identity in the achieved status is perhaps
associated with personally conforming to values that are related to well-being, given national levels
of human development. On the other hand, exploring and reconsidering one’s sense of identity in
active moratorium may be associated with deviating from values linked with well-being.

Considering WEIRDness when examining identity statuses across adulthood

The transitions from student status and to residential autonomy, although developmentally norma-
tive, were not associated with the identity statuses. Although the association between student status
 IDENTITY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THEORY AND RESEARCH 69

and identity is unclear, based on previous work from Finland it was expected that residential status
would correspond with achievement (Fadjukoff et al., 2007). Transitioning from student status and
to residential autonomy, therefore, may not meaningfully mark transitioning to adulthood in the
Trinidadian context, perhaps because the concept of adulthood presumes caretaking responsibilities,
which in turn presumes having financial means. The poverty rate in Trinidad, however, is relatively
high, and education provides only minimal gains in access to goods and services (i.e., 2% for the
poor; Kedir & Sookram, 2011). Moreover, although there are few large households in high-income
countries (e.g., Finland; United Nations Statistics Division, 2013), in Trinidad, a larger household
relates to better household economic welfare (Kedir & Sookram, 2011). Thus, residential depen-
dency, even after attaining working age, may be associated with being a responsible adult caretaker
on the island. It seems that societal variation on the dimensions of WEIRDness (e.g., the Rich
dimension) may influence which adulthood transitions meaningfully mark the transition to adult-
hood, despite their developmental normativity, across societies. Thus, considering a society’s location
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on the dimensions of WEIRDness may help to explain variations in the associations between
adulthood transitions and identity statuses across cultures.

Limitations, future directions, and conclusion

We discuss two statistical limitations of this study in light of the focus on identity status differences
and the study’s small sample size. First, we were unable to cross-validate the cluster solution as is
recommended in the literature (e.g., Gore, 2000); for example, across age groups. Thus, although we
used a robust and accurate clustering technique (Gore, 2000), our findings must be interpreted with
caution. Future research might focus on the identity processes, and use a variable-centered rather
than a person-centred approach. Alternatively, research that intends to examine identity status
differences across the life span should aim to recruit larger sample sizes per age group to determine
whether the current cluster solution, as well as the pattern of variable relations, can be replicated in
similar cultural contexts.
Second, the small sample size also limited the analyses we were able to conduct (i.e., χ2) to test the
associations between the transitions to adulthood, age, and the identity statuses. More advanced
statistical analyses, such as log-linear modeling, are preferable. However, in this study, the distribu-
tion of the sample across the cells (i.e., many cells were empty) limited the possibility of using this
analytic technique (Stelzl, 2000). For example, there were no married emerging adults who were
achieved. Unfortunately, this problem is not likely to be solved simply by increasing the overall
sample size. To use these statistical techniques in the future, purposive sampling should be used to
find individuals who meet at the intersection of the transitional and chronological demarcations
(e.g., employed adolescents). Additionally, however, recruiting large samples to meet the demands of
a categorical outcome variable is, unfortunately, not always possible in countries with challenges of
limited resources (i.e., relatively non-WEIRD countries). Thus, we also suggest that identity
researchers begin to work on developing interval or ratio scales with which to measure the identity
statuses, so that more robust analytic techniques can be used.
In conclusion, the age, adulthood transitions, and values findings paint a coherent picture of
identity development in Trinidad. The various moratorium and diffusion statuses characterize the
younger age groups, whereas the achieved status was associated with later life. Additionally,
employed younger adults were less likely than expected to be in moratorium, consistent with
social values and norms related to work. Identity achievement, on the other hand, corresponded
to transitioning to marriage and parenthood, perhaps due to engaging with the Caribbean value
of respectability by midlife. Finally, the active moratorium status was associated with lower
conservation, and the achieved status with higher conservation, perhaps because lower conserva-
tion may not be related to well-being, whereas higher conservation may be in the Trinidadian
context where there are relatively low levels of human development. These findings seem to
highlight the importance of considering culturally meaningful markers of transitioning to
 70 M. J. ARNEAUD ET AL.

adulthood, as well as the relations among values, well-being, and national levels of human
development, when examining associations between age, adulthood transitions, values, and the
identity statuses.

Funding
This research was fully supported by a Campus Research and Publication Fund Award from the University of the West
Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago, awarded to the first author (Grant CRP.5.NOV10.5).

ORCID
Mary J. Arneaud http://orcid.org/00000-0002-8264-4322
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