Chapter 3
RF & M/W Network Theory and
Analysis
Shankar Gangaju
[email protected] Kathmandu Engineering College
Kalimati, Kathmandu
Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering
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Microwave Network Analysis
• A microwave network consists of microwave devices and components
(sources, attenuators, resonators, filters, amplifiers, etc.) coupled together
by transmission lines or waveguides for the desired transmission of
microwave signals through ports.
• The point of intersection of two or more signals, devices, components,
circuits or modules is called port or simply junction.
• Circuits operating at low frequencies, for which the circuit dimensions are
small relative to the wavelength, can be treated as an interconnection of
lumped passive or active components with unique voltages and currents
defined at any point in the circuit.
• In the case of microwave, the circuit dimensions are small enough so that
there is negligible phase change from one point in the circuit to another
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• So far we’ve used maxwell’s equations and transmission line theory to
understand concepts of propagation and impedance. However we don’t
want to build only transmission line, we want to build filters, amplifiers and
oscillators.
• At microwave frequencies, we cannot use the KCL and KVL techniques of
low frequency analysis to determine the transfer characteristics of a
network. Also we don’t want to solve Maxwell's equations for every
network. This gives us more information than is necessary and it is too hard.
• Subsequently we need another set of techniques for the analysis of circuits
and systems at microwave frequencies, one that combines circuit analysis
with wave theory.
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Two Port Networks
• A two-port network (a kind of four-terminal network) is a electrical network or
device with two pairs of terminals to connect to external circuits.
• Two terminals constitute a port if the currents applied to them satisfy the essential
requirement known as the port condition: the electric current entering one terminal
must equal the current emerging from the other terminal on the same port.
• The ports constitute interfaces where the network connects to other networks, the
points where signals are applied or outputs are taken. In a two-port network, often
port 1 is considered the input port and port 2 is considered the output port.
• The two-port network model is used in mathematical circuit analysis techniques to
isolate portions of larger circuits.
• A two-port network is regarded as a "black box" with its properties specified by
a matrix of numbers. This allows the response of the network to signals applied to
the ports to be calculated easily, without solving for all the internal voltages and
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currents in the network.
• It also allows similar circuits or devices to be compared easily. For example,
transistors are often regarded as two-ports, characterized by their h-parameters
which are listed by the manufacturer. Any linear circuit with four terminals can be
regarded as a two-port network provided that it does not contain an independent
source and satisfies the port conditions.
• Examples of circuits analyzed as two-ports are filters, matching
networks, transmission lines, transformers and small-signal models for transistors
(such as the hybrid-pi model). The analysis of passive two-port networks is an
outgrowth of reciprocity theorems.
• Two port networks can be describes in many ways:
• Z-parameters:
V1 Z11 Z12 I1
• =
V2 Z21 Z22 I2
• Y-Parameters:
Y1 Y11 Y12 V1
• =
Y2 Y21 Y22 V2 5
Limitations of ABCD, Y, Z and h-Parameters
• At low frequencies, physical length of the network is larger than
wavelength (λ) of the signal.
• Therefore the measurable input and output values are voltage and
current analyzed in terms of ABCD, Y, Z and h-parameters with well-
defined termination conditions .
• These parameters are analyzed under short or open circuit
conditions.
• But in microwaves open or short circuit conditions are not easily
achievable and terminating active devices, this way can damage the
devices due to the total reflection of power back into the devices.
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Limitations of ABCD, Y, Z and h-Parameters
• Open or short circuit conditions often results in oscillation for a wide range
of frequencies for active devices such as the transistor and negative
resistance diode.
• Physical length of the components or devices at microwave frequencies are
comparable or much smaller than wavelength (λ).
• Hence the voltage and current are not well defined at each discrete point.
So a distributive analysis is required.
• Z, Y, ABCD and h-parameters often change the biasing conditions such as
junction capacitances at higher frequencies.
• Unavailability of equipment to measure RF/MW total current and voltage.
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Solutions:
• Input-output behavior of network is defined in terms of normalized
power waves.
• Ratio of the power waves is recorded , called scattering parameters.
• S-parameters are measured based on properly terminated transmission
lines (not open/short circuit conditions)
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S-parameters
• The S-parameters are members of a family of similar parameters, other examples being: Y-
parameters, Z-parameters, H-parameters, and ABCD-parameters. They differ from these, in the
sense that S-parameters do not use open or short circuit conditions to characterize a linear
electrical network; instead, matched loads are used.
• These terminations are much easier to use at high signal frequencies than open-circuit and short-
circuit terminations. Moreover, the quantities are measured in terms of power.
• Many electrical properties of networks of components (inductors, capacitors, resistors) may be
expressed using S-parameters, such as gain, return loss, voltage standing wave
ratio (VSWR), reflection coefficient and amplifier stability.
• The term 'scattering' is more common to optical engineering than RF engineering, referring to the
effect observed when a plane electromagnetic wave is incident on an obstruction or passes across
dissimilar dielectric media.
• In the context of S-parameters, scattering refers to the way in which the
traveling currents and voltages in a transmission line are affected when they meet
a discontinuity caused by the insertion of a network into the transmission line. This is equivalent to
the wave meeting an impedance differing from the line's characteristic impedance.
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• Although applicable at any frequency, S-parameters are mostly used for networks operating
at radio frequency (RF) and microwave frequencies where signal power and energy considerations
are more easily quantified than currents and voltages.
• S-parameters change with the measurement frequency, so frequency must be specified for any S-
parameter measurements stated, in addition to the characteristic impedance or system impedance.
• S-parameters are different, and are defined in terms of incident and reflected waves at ports.
• S-parameters are used primarily at UHF and microwave frequencies where it becomes difficult to
measure voltages and currents directly.
• On the other hand, incident and reflected power are easy to measure using directional couplers.
b1 S S12 a1
= 11
b2 S21 S22 a2
• where the ak are the incident waves and the bk are the reflected waves at port k. It is conventional
to define the ak and bk in terms of the square root of power. Consequently, there is a relationship
with the wave voltages
• For reciprocal networks S12 = S21 . For symmetrical networks S11=S22 . For antimetrical
networks S11=-S22. For lossless reciprocal networks 𝑆11 = 𝑆22 and 𝑆11 2 + 𝑆22 2 =1. 10
S-parameters are measured by sending a single frequency signal into the
network or “black box” and detecting what waves exit from each port.
Power, voltage and current
can be considered to be in
the form of waves travelling
in both directions.
For a wave incident on Port 1,
some part of this signal
reflects back out of that port
and some portion of the signal
exits other ports.
What does S11 refers to?
S11 refers to the signal
reflected at Port 1 for the
signal incident at Port 1.
Scattering parameter S11
is the ratio of the two
waves b1/a1.
What does S21,S22 and S12 refers to?
S21 refers to the signal
exiting at Port 2 for the
signal incident at Port 1.
Scattering parameter S21
is the ratio of the two
waves b2/a1.
Scattering Matrix
• Problem arises in measuring currents and voltages at microwave
frequencies.
• However they can be derived from measurable quantities such as
VSWR, reflection coefficient, power, etc.
• The easiest parameters to measure are incident and reflected power.
• The optimum test conditions are when the two ports are terminated
in matched loads.
• For describing and analyzing a microwave network the input and
output parameters are defined by scattering matrix.
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Scattering Matrix
• Scattering matrix is also known as S-matrix or S-parameters.
• Scattering matrices are widely used in RF and microwave frequencies for
component modelling, component specifications and circuit design.
• S-parameters can be measured by network analyzers.
• For a general n-port network, the s-matrix is given in the following equations:
ai = incident wave voltages at port i
bi = reflected wave voltages at port i
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Properties of S-matrix
A generalized n-port has n2 scattering coefficients. While the Sij may be
all independent, in general due to symmetries etc. the number of
independent coefficients is much smaller.
• An n-port is reciprocal when Sij = Sji for all i and j. Most passive
components are reciprocal (resistors, capacitors, transformers, etc.,
except for structures involving magnetized ferrites, plasmas etc.),
active components such as amplifiers are generally non-reciprocal.
• A two-port is symmetric, when it is reciprocal (S21 = S12) and when the
input and output reflection coefficients are equal (S22 = S11).
• For any matched port i, Sii=0.
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Properties of S-matrix
• For a lossless and reciprocal network
𝑁 𝑁
∗
𝑆𝑛𝑖 2 = 𝑆𝑛𝑖 . 𝑆𝑛𝑖 =1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
• In general the S-parameters are complex and frequency dependent.
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Larger networks:
• A Network may have any number of ports.
• The S-matrix for an n-port network contains n2 coefficients (S-parameters), each one
representing a possible input-output path.
• The number of rows and columns in an S-parameters matrix is equal to the number of ports.
• For the S-parameter subscripts “ij”, “j” is the port that is excited (the input port) and “i” is
the output port.
Two Port Network Analysis
General Two port Network
Two port Network with Ports Terminated in Matched Loads
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Two Port Network Analysis
• Incident and reflected amplitudes at any point gives average power.
• Hence there exists three power components:
• Incident Power (Pi)
• Transmitted Power (Pt)
• Reflected Power (Pr)
• Accordingly network can be analyzed with the reflection coefficient
(Г) which depends upon point of insights.
• When looked towards the input port, reflection coefficient is given by
Гs.
• When looking towards the network from input port, it is given by Гs.
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Two Port Network Analysis
• When looking towards network from port 2, it is Гout.
• When looking towards the load from network it is ГL.
• The same network can be defined by S-matrix.
where,
S11 = parameter describing input.
S22 = parameter describing output.
S12 and S21 = parameters describing the network.
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Two Port Network Analysis
• If the output parameters are defined by matrix [b] and input
parameters by matrix [a], then
[b] = [S][a]
• For two port network
• Thus,
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Two Port Network Analysis
• Hence, from above equations
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Two Port Network Analysis
• Signal flow diagram
• In other words,
S11 = Return loss at port 1.
S22 = Return loss at port 2.
S12 = Isolation loss.
S21 = Insertion loss.
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Losses in the Network
• Consider 2-port network as shown
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Losses in the Network
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