SPICE

Understand the science of spice, create exciting

new blends, and revolutionize your cooking
 SPICE
Understand the science of spice, create exciting
new blends, and revolutionize your cooking

Dr. Stuart Farrimond

 Senior Editor Alastair Laing Managing Editor Soma B. Chowdhury
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 CONTENTS

Foreword ..................................................................... 6 Toasty Pyrazines ....................................................... 164

Sulfurous Compounds ............................................... 172
SPICE SCIENCE 8 Pungent Compounds ................................................. 180
Unique Compounds ................................................... 194
What is a Spice? ........................................................ 10
Spices and their Flavor Compounds ............................... 12 RECIPES
Periodic Table of Spices ............................................... 14 Chinese Steamed Salmon with Chili and Star Anise.......... 92
Creating Spice Pairings and Blends ............................... 16 Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with Seven-Spice ............ 104
Ejjeh with Zucchini, Feta, and Dill and
Black Lime Harissa ................................................ 112
WORLD OF SPICE 18 West African Peanut Curry with Durban Masala ............. 124
Asian Larb Salad with Curried Duck and Khao Kua......... 140
Middle East ............................................................... 20 Date and Tamarind Granita with Caramelized Pineapple .. 156
Africa ....................................................................... 30 Black Sesame, Licorice, and Cardamom Ice Cream ........ 170
South Asia ................................................................. 38 Sweet and Spicy Apple Pastry Rosettes ........................ 182
Southeast Asia ........................................................... 46 Spiced Scallops with Saffron Beurre Blanc ................... 196
East Asia ................................................................... 54 Spiced Filipino Adobo with Chicken and Pork ................ 208
The Americas ............................................................. 62
Europe ...................................................................... 70
World of Spice Further Recipes ................................... 210
Table of Spices and their Flavor Compounds ................. 214
SPICE PROFILES 78 Index ...................................................................... 218
About the Authors ..................................................... 223
Sweet Warming Phenols .............................................. 80 Acknowledgments ..................................................... 224
Warming Terpenes .................................................... 102
Fragrant Terpenes ..................................................... 116
Earthy Terpenes ........................................................ 126
Penetrating Terpenes ................................................ 130
Citrus Terpenes ........................................................ 142
Sweet-Sour Acids ..................................................... 148
Fruity Aldehydes ....................................................... 160
 FOREWORD
Many cooks are intimidated by spices. All too often, here you will explore the traditional range of spices
a pot of spice is bought for a recipe then pushed into used in key regions and countries around the world.
the gloomy depths of a kitchen cupboard, where it A variety of top chefs who specialize in different
remains untouched for many years. This should not regional cuisines have contributed some of their
be so, for spices are the lifeblood of countless dishes. favorite spice mixes and recipes. Rather than starting
Neglecting spices does a disservice to a cook’s from a blank canvas, you can use the spice blends as
culinary talents. They not only enhance the natural a foundation upon which new creations can be built.
flavors of a dish, but can bring new flavors and aromas The recipes showcase some of these blends, and also
to familiar foods, exciting all our senses. To cook suggest using innovative spice combinations to add
without spices is like composing an orchestral opus a tantalizing twist to familiar dishes.
without a string section; cooks who view spicing as a Whether you’re an experienced cook or a complete
grind of black pepper or a spoon of curry powder beginner, I hope that you will be inspired and
need to embrace the richness that spices can offer. empowered to unleash your culinary talents. Add
This book is for cooks who want to experience a sprinkle of flavor science or ladle in dollop-loads;
new flavor combinations that will both excite and let this guide open up a world of sensational new
delight. Prescriptive recipes can frustrate the creative gastronomic delights. Never again will your spice
cook, but until recently, the only way to know which jars languish in the dark!
spices would blend together was by trial and error.
Personal experience, tradition, and a sprinkle of
intuition were the ingredients for making spice
mixes. Not anymore, because scientific discoveries
have turned old-fashioned ideas on their head. Spices
can be blended and added to dishes that had not
previously been considered, and no one should be
shackled by recipes from chefs, internet “gurus,” or
family tradition. This book is the culmination of an
ambitious, never-before-attempted project that aims
to serve up some easy-to-follow, science-based
principles that will hopefully transform the way you Dr. Stuart Farrimond
use spices in your cooking.
It is important that ancient wisdom is not cast
aside, however. Centuries of cooking experience
are the bedrock of every country’s food heritage, and
 “
This book ser ves up easy-
to-follow, science-based
principles that will transform
the way you use spices.

”
SPICE | science
Understand the science behind how spices work,
discover flavor compounds and flavor groups, and learn
how to create inspired spice blends.
10 Spice Science

Spices are plant parts that are more densely loaded with flavor than most

WHAT IS A other ingredients used in cooking. Whereas herbs always come from leafy
parts, spices tend to derive from seeds, fruits, roots, stems, flowers, or bark,
and are usually dried. That said, some strongly flavored leaves, such as bay
SPICE? and curry leaf, can be considered spices because they are used more as a
potent background flavoring than as a fresh addition.

Chemical stores
Spices have been valued STEMS ROOT S AND
throughout history, in religious U NDE RG ROU ND S TO R E S
The stem of a plant distributes water and sugars
ceremonies and medicine as to where they are needed. Few spices derive from Roots are a plant’s lifeline to water and nutrients, and
much as in cooking. Science stems: lemongrass is the stalk of a tropical grass rhizomes, corms, and bulbs are storage chambers with
and little-known mastic is the dried resin collected the ability to produce new shoots and roots. Licorice
has shown us that these from lentisk trees; more famously, cinnamon and comes from dried roots and asafetida is derived from
once-mystical plant parts are cassia are dried pieces of inner and outer bark, dried root sap. Turmeric, ginger, galangal, and garlic
in fact the vessels of chemicals respectively, of Cinnamomum trees. are all examples of underground stores.
known as flavor (or aroma)
compounds, generated to help
plants survive and reproduce, Cinnamon Turmeric
New shoots of The rhizomes of New shoots
perfroming roles such as coppiced trees are the turmeric plant are produced
repelling animals or protecting stripped for their look similar to from nodes
inner bark to ginger, of which it
against bacteria. By happy produce cinnamon. is a close relative.
coincidence, many of these
compounds have aromas that
Inner bark
are pleasant to humans. is left to dry
in the sun

“
Spice flavors
Dried bark
is rolled by
hand to form
“quills”
Rhizomes are the
plant’s food store and
comprise up to

are chemicals
70 percent
carbohydrate

produced by Communication Animal deterrent

plants, often The spicy, woody aroma of
cinnamon comes from a chemical
compound called caryophyllene.
Turmeric’s flavor profile includes
a powerful compound called
cineole, which has a strong,
for defence. When a plant is being eaten, its role
is to act as an airborne signal that
penetrating, slightly medicinal
flavor and has evolved to act as a
“primes” downwind plants to bitter-tasting deterrent to animals

”
produce defensive chemicals. who try to eat the rhizomes.
 What Is a Spice? 11

Fl a v o r s to r es Round head Oil glands Cross section of a clove

is made up of the are more concentrated Cloves are rich in highly flavored oils,
The vast majority of flavor dried, unopened in the round head stored in oil glands just beneath the
compounds in spices are oil- rather petals of the bud of a clove surface of both the rounded top of
than water-soluble and are stored the bud and the “stalk.”
within bubbles of oil. Spices are
structured to keep these oils locked Glands rupture when the outer
away, to be released only if the
“Stalk” comprises surface is damaged. In the kitchen
plant is damaged or attacked by
the outer sepals this happens through bruising,
infection. Once the bubbles rupture
and the oil is exposed to air, the of the flower bud, grinding, and application of heat.
flavor compounds quickly and also contains Flavor compounds in the released
evaporate into gases. oil glands oils evaporate as a fragrant gas.

F RUITS S E E DS F LOW E RS

The seeds of flowering plants are contained in fruits. The majority of spices are seeds; think of cumin, Many flowers are known for their attractive aromas,
Many have evolved to be sugar-rich so they make an cardamom, mustard, and fenugreek, or less which have evolved to entice insects into paying a
appealing meal for animals, who thereby distribute obviously nutmeg, which is a seed kernel. It is little visit and pollinating the flower as they do so. Only
the seeds over a wide area. Numerous spices are wonder that plants frequently concentrate their a few have strong enough appealing flavors to be
derived from fruits, including allspice, sumac, vanilla, strongest-tasting defensive chemicals in seeds, considered a spice, most famously saffron, whose
and chilis. Several “seed” spices are technically fruits, since these are the precious packets of new life that red strands are pollen-receiving female sex parts
including dill and ajwain. will sprout into the next generation of plants. (stigmas) of a crocus flower. Another notable flower
spice, it may be surprising to discover, is clove.

Black pepper Star anise Clove Fresh cloves

Peppercorns are the The seeds of this The nail-shaped, are picked when
small dried berries strikingly shaped spice dark brown clove the buds have
of one of around a are contained within is neither a seed developed a
thousand different a woody protective nor a dried fruit, pinkish tint
flowering vine species covering, called a but the dried
in the plant family carpel, where much flower bud of an
Piperaceae. of the flavor is in evergreen tree
fact concentrated. from Indonesia.

Berries are carried

in clusters on spikes
Seed pods
(fruits) are
harvested when
Fully ripe berries are still unripe and
pink-red in color; black allowed to dry
Unpicked buds
and green peppercorns are open into flowers
picked when underripe with frothy heads
of stamens

Insect repellent Health protection Pollinator attraction

The heat from pepper is produced Star anise’s dominant flavor comes Clove contains a high concentration
by a chemical called piperine from anethole, a substance that of eugenol, a chemical with a warm,
which, as well as irritating hot appears to have evolved to fight off eucalyptus-like fragrance and sweet
pain nerves on the tongue, is infections and repel insects, and effect on the tongue. In the living
highly repellent to insects and has which incidentally has an appealing plant, eugenol serves to attract
been harnessed by the chemical taste—13 times sweeter than pollinating insects and
industry as an insecticide. sugar—to the animal tongue. also repel infections and pests.
12 Spice Science

SPICES AND Flavor compounds are the tiny molecules that give each spice
its unique flavor. When in the mouth, these molecules waft up

THEIR FLAVOR the throat as a vapor into the nose, where they are experienced
as if coming from the tongue. For the cook, learning about these
flavor compounds is more than mere nerdy curiosity: it is the
COMPOUNDS key to releasing true creativity in the use of spices in cooking.

S WEET WAR MING P HENOL S WARM I NG T E RP E NE S F RAG RANT T E RP E N E S

The warming, sweetly aromatic spices in this Terpenes are the broadest, most common type of Spices whose flavor is mostly due to this group
group owe their main flavor to compounds in the flavor compounds. Spices in this group are of terpenes share pleasantly fresh, pinelike or
phenol family. Often strongly flavored and potent, dominated by warming terpenes, bringing warmth floral flavor compounds, sometimes with woody
many share aniseed and eucalyptus flavors, and without strong sweetness. They tend to have notes. In nature, the aromas of these compounds
sometimes bitterness. woody, bitter, peppery, sometimes minty flavors. spread far and wide when released.

COMPOUND EXAMPLES COMPOUND EXAMPLES COMPOUND EXAMPLES

Eugenol in clove, anethole in fennel. Sabinene in nutmeg and mace, Pinene in juniper, linalool in coriander.
germacrene in annatto.
IN THE KITCHEN IN THE KITCHEN
Often strong-tasting and IN THE KITCHEN Fast-acting and short-lived,
persistent, with the flavor Evaporate easily and are generally not tolerating long
only slowly reduced with lost with prolonged cooking times. Disperse
cooking. Mostly dissolve cooking. Generally almost exclusively in oil or
and disperse in oil. oil-soluble. alcohol, rather than water.

EA RTHY TERP ENES PENE T RAT I NG T E RP E NE S C I T RU S T E RP E NE S

With an earthy, dusty, even burnt flavor, these Unlike other terpene flavor groups, spices in All these spices share compounds that we
spices have an abundance of terpenes that this group are dominated by powerful terpene recognize as being like citrus fruit, giving them
convey woody spiciness. Serving in nature as compounds that hit the back of the nose and a tangy, refreshing, lemony flavor profile with
poisons against pests, the compounds are not linger on the palate, with usually camphorous, some flowery and herbal aromas. They are found
harmful to humans in small amounts. eucalyptus-like, often medicinal flavors. in many ripe fruits as well as spices.

COMPOUND EXAMPLES COMPOUND EXAMPLES COMPOUND EXAMPLES

Cuminaldehyde in cumin, Fenchone in grains of Selim, Citronellal in lemon myrtle,
cymene in nigella. cineole in cardamom. citral in lemongrass.

IN THE KITCHEN IN THE KITCHEN IN THE KITCHEN

Oil-soluble flavors are Potent and lingering, these Fast-evaporating but found
tenacious and lingering. spices need to be used in in high quantities in this
Best combined with moderation or toasted to group, so can withstand
“lighter” fragrances. mask with other flavors. longer cooking times.
 Spices and their Flavor Compounds 13

Flavor groups
Using features shared by compounds, I have organized nose and so have no aroma or flavor. These substances
spices into 12 flavor groups. Their characteristics are (technically termed “tastants”) act directly on the tongue,
described in the chart below, and we have translated the and include sugars and tart acids. Many are chemicals
groupings into a Periodic Table of Spices on pp.14-15. intended to deter predators—but which humans can
Some elements of a spice’s taste are not strictly flavor enjoy—causing bitterness, numbness, coldness, or,
compounds because they cannot be sensed by the in the case of pungent compounds, spicy heat.

S W EET-S O UR ACIDS F RU I T Y ALDE HYDE S TOAS T Y P YRAZ I N E S

The fruit-based spices in this flavor group Aldehyde compounds are found in abundance in These spices have been toasted as part of their
are dominated by sourness from acids, and are fruiting plants and are more subtle on the palate processing or gain most of their flavor from
typically accompanied by sweetness from than other flavor compound groups. Spices in this being fried or toasted. Spices in this group carry
plant sugars. Sometimes acids have an aroma, group carry a distinct fruity, malty, or fresh green nutty, roasted, caramel-like flavors, sometimes
which can be like cheese or sweat. flavor, sometimes with fatty or sweaty nuances. with smoky, meaty, fresh bread–like nuances.

COMPOUND EXAMPLES COMPOUND EXAMPLES COMPOUND EXAMPLES

Hexanoic and pentanoic acids in carob, Nonanal in sumac, hexanal in barberry. Each spice develops a unique combination
citric acid in amchoor. of dozens of pyrazines.
IN THE KITCHEN
IN THE KITCHEN Partly water-soluble, but disperse IN THE KITCHEN
Water-soluble and tolerant of long best in oil and alcohol. Aromas do Create pyrazines by dry-toasting
cooking. Suited to dishes containing not survive high heats or long spices over 266°F (130°C). Flavors
sugar, which amplifies fruitiness cooking times. Cook briefly or spread best in oil and enhance
and blunts strong sourness. use raw to savor their subtleties. savory dishes, in particular.

S U LF UR OUS COMP OU NDS P U NG E NT C OM P OU NDS U NI QU E C OM P OU N D S

Spices in this group tend to be dominated by oniony These sometimes alarmingly hot spices share Some compounds are unique in the world of
and meaty flavors, with cabbage- and horseradish- compounds that are not flavors at all, but spices or do not fit in other groups. Spices
like nuances and a degree of pungency. In high chemicals that create an illusion of burning by dominated by such compounds can be earthy,
concentrations, sulfur compounds can smell hijacking pain nerves that normally send warning mellow, penetrating, or herby, and usually
offensive and fetid. signals to the brain above 108°F (42°C). partner with a wide range of other spices.

COMPOUND EXAMPLES COMPOUND EXAMPLES COMPOUND EXAMPLES

Isothiocyanate in mustard, Capsaicin in chili, piperine in black pepper. Picocrocin and safranal in saffron,
diallyl disulphide in garlic. tumerone in turmeric.
IN THE KITCHEN
IN THE KITCHEN Pungent compounds have IN THE KITCHEN
Dispersing in fats, the meaty varying strengths and agency, These spices possess
taste of these spices helps so combine spices for more characteristics usually not
bring depth of flavor to rounded heat. Cook with found elsewhere and will
vegetable dishes. fats to fully disperse the heat. bring unique aromas to a dish.
14 Spice Science

CINNAMON ANISE LICORICE VANILLA DRIED LIME LEMONGRASS

Ci An Lc Va Li Le

CASSIA STAR ANISE MAHLEB CUMIN LEMON MYRTLE TAMARIND

Ca St Mb Cu Lm Ta

CLOVE FENNEL MASTIC NIGELLA AMCHOOR SUMAC

Cl Fe Mc Ni Am Su

ALLSPICE CARAWAY JUNIPER GRAINS OF ANARDANA CAROB

Al Cw Ju SELIM
Ar Cb
Sl

NUTMEG DILL ROSE BLACK BAY BARBERRY

Nu Di Ro CARDAMOM
Ba By
Bl

MACE ANNATTO CORIANDER CARDAMOM GALANGAL CACAO

Ma Ao Co Cm Gg Cc
 Periodic Table of Spices 15

PAPRIKA SESAME SICHUAN

Pa Se PEPPER

Si PERI ODI C TABLE

OF SPI CES
WATTLE GRAINS OF GINGER
Taking inspiration from the scientific world, I have
Wa PARADISE
Gi devised this Periodic Table of Spices as a starting point
Pr for a new way of thinking about spices.
Each of the main spices featured in this book has
been assigned to one of 12 flavor groups, according
to the flavor compound that is most important to
its taste profile.
Use the key below to identify the flavor group
GARLIC BLACK PEPPER CHILI
and turn back to pp.12–13 for a full description of the
Ga Pe Ch characteristics defining each group.
Once you have familiarized yourself with the spice
groupings, turn the page for step-by-step instructions
on how to start using the Periodic Table of Spices to
create your own pairings and unique blends.

ASAFETIDA SAFFRON POPPY

As Sa Po
KE Y TO F LAVOR G ROU P S
Each group has been assigned a color and the Spice Profiles on
pp.80–207 are ordered in their groups, with colored borders
matching the colors of the Periodic Table to help with navigation.

CURRY LEAF FENUGREEK AJWAIN Sweet Warming Sweet-Sour

Cy Fg Aj Phenols Acids

Warming Fruity
Terpenes Aldehydes

Fragrant Toasty
Terpenes Pyrazines

MUSTARD TURMERIC CELERY SEED Earthy Sulfurous

Terpenes Compounds
Mu Tu Ce Penetrating Pungent
Terpenes Compounds

Citrus Unique
Terpenes Compounds
16 Spice Science

CREATING In most instances, spices work well together because they share
one or more flavor compounds. In this book, the Periodic Table

SPICE PAIRINGS of Spices and blending science of each spice profile have been
devised to help you understand spices through their flavor
compounds. Below is a step-by-step guide for how to use this
AND BLENDS information to create your own unique spice mixes.

Step 1 Step 2
CHOOSE MAIN FLAVOR GROUP(S) C HE C K T HE BLE NDI NG S C I E NC E
Consider the flavor groups of the Periodic Table when Read through the blending science in the relevant spice profiles to
choosing the main flavors of your dish. Do you want it to be get to know the range of flavor compounds that each spice would
spicy, fruity, earthy, zesty, or something else? You can have bring to the dish. Try to make connections through shared
one or several main flavors, such as a zesty citrus dessert compounds, especially between spices in different flavor groups;
or a meat dish that’s warming and smoky. spices with no flavor compound link are more likely to clash.

ALLSPICE

Al
CINNAMON ANISE LICORICE VANILLA GRAINS OF
Ci An Lc Va SELIM

Sl

CASSIA STAR ANISE MAHLEB BLACK BAY

EUGENOL LINALOOL
Ca St Mb CARDAMOM
Ba
Bl medicinal | woody | floral | woody |
warming spicy

FENNEL CINEOLE
CLOVE CARDAMOM GALANGAL PHELLANDRENE
Cl Fe Cm Gg eucalyptus |
peppery | mint |
medicinal |
mildly citrus
penetrating

ALLSPICE

Al
bring more combine with give a boost to the tap into the fragrant
complexity to the other cineoles peppery profile: floral side with
eugenol spectrum: to reinforce the other linalools:
star anise also
sharp, fresh notes:
nutmeg and shares cineole for coriander also
cinnamon will draw galangal will sweet aniseed adds zesty citrus notes
Sweet Warming Penetrating Terpenes out warmer notes provide a citrusy edge piquancy
grains of Selim
Phenols licorice
emphasizes sweetly
cardamom brings
a penetrating warmth
black pepper
contributes a gentle
also share cineole and
enhance the peppery
medicinal flavors pungent heat side of allspice
black cardamom
EXAMPLE bay has a fresher,
floral take on eugenol
adds a smoky layer
under the eucalyptus
You may want to bring a strongly fragrant
sweetness to a bean or lentil dish using spices
in Sweet Warming Phenols, counterbalanced
with an equally strong, but fresher, clean-tasting
spice from Penetrating Terpenes. You will now Main compounds Suggested pairings
be picking one or two spices from each of these are listed with their link spices through each
groups to convey these key flavors. flavor profile and flavor compound, but
other qualities are not exhaustive
 Creating Spice Pairings and Blends 17

Complexity increases with each extra spice,

“
and so will pleasure—research shows that
the greater the range of flavors and mouth
sensations in a dish, the tastier it will be.

”
Step 3 Step 4
P ICK YOUR P RIMARY SPIC E S ADD C OM P LE X I T Y
Having reviewed the different flavor compounds in each spice, Develop the blend by bringing in spices from
now settle on the specific spices that will convey the main flavors further flavor groups, again selecting through
of the dish. Consider using two spices from the same flavor group shared flavor compounds. In addition to the spice
to add depth and complexity: they will tend to blend well profiles, use the table on pp.214–217 to explore
but bring different nuances for a more rounded base flavor. the full range of main flavor compounds.

ALLSPICE STAR ANISE GALANGAL CORIANDER

Al St Gg Co

Eugenol is the Anethole has a Cineole is Linalool is the

main compound licorice flavor eucalyptus-like main compound in
and has a warm, and dominates and vital to the coriander and has
medicinal flavor star anise taste of galangal a lilac aroma

EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
Allspice and star anise link together powerfully Coriander shares floral linalool with both
because they belong to the same flavor group, allspice and star anise. This link helps
bringing warmth and sweetness with aniseed coriander harmonize with the primary
overtones. These spices are a particularly great pair spices and will also reinforce their floral
because they also share some minor compounds: aspects that might otherwise be lost.
peppery phellandrene and cineole. Galangal brings Another connection is made through its
a new flavor dimension and since it also contains camphene compound, which is related
cineole, the trio harmonize together incredibly well. to the penetrating camphor in galangal.
world of | SPICE
Explore the main regions of the spice world via ancient
trade routes and modern-day maps, discover the key
spices in each cuisine, and recreate signature blends.
20 World of Spice

Istanbul
The city’s location
on the edge of two
continents made it
a meeting point for
European and SUMAC
Asian spice traders.
Turkey is one of
the world's leading
producers of sumac.

On to Europe

World of Spice

MIDDLE EAST Alexandria

This Egyptian city was the main
player in the ancient spice trade
Cairo
The Middle East has been at the heart of until power shifted to the Romans.

the East–West spice trade for millennia.

EGYPT
The spice palette is bright and green on
the eastern shores of the Mediterranean,
and drier and more intense across the C UMI N
Native to Egypt, cumin is
deserts of Arabia, while Iran’s fertile lands grown across the eastern
Mediterranean.
brim with sweeter, fresher flavors.

SPICE REGIONS
Turkey p.23
Syria p.22
Spices from Asia
Lebanon p.25
From 700–1450 CE,
Israel p.24
global commerce in spices
Egypt p.28 was dominated by Arab
Iraq p.26 merchants, who sailed the
trade winds to bring goods
Iran p.27 from India and Southeast
Arabian Peninsula p.29 Asia, including turmeric,
black pepper, cloves,
nutmeg, and nigella.
 Middle East 21

TURKEY
S AFFRON
C H ILIS
Northeast Iran is
Mild Aleppo chilis famous for its fields
from Syria are prized Baghdad of saffron flowers.
Baghdad became the On to
around the world. China
premier city on the Silk
Road after 770 CE. Tehran
Aleppo
SYRIA IRAQ
LEBANON BARBE RRY
Dried, sour barberries Road to China
are a distinctively
Iranian speciality. Active from 114 BCE, this
ISRAEL P O M EG R A N ATE overland trade route from
China was a conduit for
Pomegranates are grown
in the Fertile Crescent,
East Asian spices, notably
Basra ginger and star anise. Now
from Israel to Iraq. IRAN
essential to Turkish and
Persian cuisine, rose petals
were first brought to the
region by Chinese traders.
Hormuz

SAUDI ARABIA

Berenike B L A C K L IM E S
Fresh limes are dried Muscat
“black” in the heat of Muscat was a popular
the Arabian desert. stopping point for spice ships
en route between the Indian
Ocean and the Middle East.

OMAN

YEMEN

KEY
Sana’a
Historical spice trade routes
Ancient Silk Road
22 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE
S YRI A
Fruity | Warm | Sour

a Often overlooked in favor of the cuisines of its Baharat—simply

c

su m
better known neighbors, Turkey and Lebanon, meaning “spices”—
it’s a bitter irony that Syria’s vibrant food culture is is the blend that
making a name for itself only as its people scatter defines the Middle
per

from conflict in the area. The country has plenty to

ep

po
p East, its smoky mix
Ale p offer: a rich natural larder bursting with fresh herbs,
varying from region
cherries, dates, pomegranates, and nuts, laced with
Signature to region.
a fragrant and mild spice palette.
Aleppo pepper, sumac,
allspice, black pepper, garlic
The palette gets its mild,

“
salty heat from the Aleppo
pepper; a tang from its Lamb kofte
native sumac; and a mellow with baharat,
piquancy from allspice. Star of the Syrian spice see p.210.

rack is Aleppo pepper,

Supporting
Safflower, cumin, cinnamon, a mild form of chili flakes
cardamom, nigella, sesame
Syrians have a more produced around the ancient
sensitive taste for spice than
the Turkish or Lebanese, Silk Road town of Aleppo.
choosing the milder safflower

”
over saffron to flavor and
color rice dishes.

Supplementary
Tamarind, nutmeg, caraway, anise LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Tamarind paste adds a
sweet-sourness to the palette,
while nutmeg, caraway, and
Za’atar
anise are used to bring This nutty, earthy blend of dried herbs and
richness and licorice spice spices is a versatile seasoning for hummus,
to cakes and desserts. labneh, cheeses, meats, and fish.
2 tbsp cumin seeds
1 tsp sea salt
2 tbsp sesame seeds
2 tbsp dried oregano
2 tbsp sumac

Dry-roast the cumin in a frying pan, over a low heat,

until fragrant, then grind with the salt. Dry-roast the
sesame seeds until golden and stir into the mixture
with the oregano and sumac.
 Middle East 23

SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Turkish baharat T U RK E Y
Use in meat kofte, pilafs,
or with roast vegetables,
Fresh | Mild | Smoky
especially eggplant.
2 tbsp black peppercorns
2 tbsp cumin seeds
2 tbsp coriander seeds At the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and the Middle ur
fa
1 tsp cloves biber
East, Turkey has long been a hub for the trading of
1/2 tbsp cardamom seeds
exotic spices. In the halls of Istanbul’s domed Spice
1 tbsp ground nutmeg
pinch of ground cinnamon
Bazaar, sacks of Iranian saffron and Sichuan pepper
1 tbsp dried spearmint sit alongside Turkish specialities such as pul biber, a
mild, coarsely ground chili used as a table condiment,
c um
Finely grind the whole spices or the darker, smokier urfa biber. Dishes from the in
and combine with the remaining
Aegean and Mediterranean coast tend to use more Signature
ingredients. Makes approximately Pul biber, black pepper,
9 tablespoons. fresh herbs and less spice than those from eastern cumin, garlic, sumac
areas, where heavier spicing and sweetness bring Turkish spicing is
a more Middle Eastern flavor. surprisingly subtle, with
dishes characterized by
the mild heat of pul biber
and black pepper.

Supporting
Urfa biber, paprika, allspice,
nigella, cinnamon
Paprika, allspice, and urfa
biber impart warmth and
richness to meat dishes
and soups, while cinnamon
is added to sweet dishes,
especially in eastern Turkey.

Supplementary
Fenugreek, clove, nutmeg,
coriander, cardamom
Look closely, and you’ll
find spices from all over
the world in Turkish
cooking—Asian flavors
are particularly common.
24 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE

ri k
a

pap

ac
sum

Signature
Sesame, sumac, cumin,
garlic, paprika
If Israel’s palette can be
characterized by any blend
of flavors, it’s this
Mediterranean-Middle
Eastern flush of warm, sour,
and spicy-sweet.

Supporting
Caraway, chili, fenugreek,
nigella, black pepper, cinnamon,
cardamom, coriander
Spices are particularly
popular in Israel’s famous
I S RA E L
breads: aniseedy caraway Varied | Earthy | Sweet
in Jewish rye bread, as well
as nigella seeds in pittas.

Supplementary
Turmeric, hibiscus, rose,
Although Israel shares much of its menu with
saffron, bay neighboring Lebanon, the country draws its
The melting pot of flavors sprawling, ever-evolving spice palette from across Hibiscus flowers
in Israeli cuisine is mirrored
the globe: fiery chili pastes from Yemen, paprika are steeped in water
in its range of spices, some
of which you won’t find from Russia and eastern Europe, harissa from North or ground to powder
elsewhere in the Middle Africa, and, increasingly, flavors from further afield to release their
East, such as earthy-sweet
dried hibiscus flowers.
thanks to Israeli travelers returning with Korean, sharp, cranberry-
Thai, and Mexican spice blends. The influx of fresh like fruitiness.
new flavors won’t dampen Israel’s devotion to its
spice traditions, however: you’ll still find its zhug
green chili condiment served alongside falafel,
grilled meats, sandwiches, soups, and egg dishes.
 Middle East 25

SPICE
PALETTE
L E BA NO N
Bright | Warm | Aniseedy

lls

a
The Middle East’s most famous export, traditional pic
e
Lebanese mezze, can be found across the Levantine g in
ger
region, often resulting in fierce disputes over origin:
hummus, for example, is steadfastly claimed by
both Israel and Lebanon. The country’s cooks
deploy spices liberally, whether on their own or
in the ubiquitous seven-spice baharat, a staple
in every kitchen for use in mezzes, marinades, nu
soups, and stews. tm e g
Sautéed squash
and potatoes with
poached egg and zhug.
Signature
Coriander, cinnamon, black

“
pepper, allspice, clove,
ginger, nutmeg
A baharat blend of these
This volatile heartland of seven spices is used to
flavor beef and lamb

LOCA L S P IC E B LE N D
the eastern Mediterranean dishes, such as kibbeh beef
croquettes, kafta skewers,

Zhug punches way above its weight and stuffed vegetables.

This bright, intensely spicy in its spectrum of spices. Supporting

chili paste is the national Garlic, sumac, paprika, cumin,
condiment of Israel.
1 tsp cardamom seeds
1 tsp coriander seeds
” cardamom, sesame, fenugreek
Lebanon’s spectrum of warm,
nutty, earthy, and sour spices
adds depth to meats and
1 tsp cumin seeds salads. Cardamom brings
2 green chilis, chopped a distinctive sweetness to
2 garlic cloves, chopped LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND tea and sweets.
1 large bunch cilantro, chopped
1 large bunch flat-leaf parsley, Taklia
chopped Supplementary
A versatile, savory blend usually added Saffron, turmeric, caraway, anise
2 tbsp olive oil
to soups and stews just before serving. The sweet-toothed
salt and pepper, to taste
juice of 1⁄2 lemon 3 cloves garlic, peeled and sliced Lebanese are particularly
fond of dishes spiced with
2 tbsp olive oil
Toast the dry spices in a frying pan aniseed flavors; meghli
1 tsp ground coriander
rice pudding or sfouf tea
over medium heat, then grind. a good pinch of cayenne cake are especially popular.
Pound to a paste with the chilis and 1
⁄2 tsp sea salt
garlic. Combine with the herbs and
1 tbsp oil. Season and set aside for Fry the garlic gently in the oil, then when it is
10 minutes. Stir in the lemon juice fragrant but not colored, pour it into a mortar with
and loosen with more olive oil. the coriander, cayenne, and salt, and grind to a paste.
26 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE
I RA Q
Sweet | Fragrant | Sour

Spices have been woven throughout Iraq’s rich Saffron is the most
om

am
card history and were first cultivated by the rulers of expensive spice in
ancient Mesopotamia. The palette was enlivened the world, and Iran
by the fresh, fruity spices of the Persians, and is responsible for
o further added to by traders on the Silk Road over 90 percent
n

am
cinn and Spice Route, who brought the sweet-and-sour
of its production.
flavors of Chinese cassia and the heady cardamom,
Signature turmeric, and fenugreek of South Asia.
Black pepper, cardamom,
cinnamon, cumin
Black pepper is the preferred

“
seasoning and the other rich,
warm spices are paired with
lamb, Iraq’s favorite meat,
in kebabs and stews. Spices are so central to Iraqi
Supporting home cooking that families
Allspice, garlic, turmeric,
tamarind, saffron, dried lime
have their own unique baharat
Sour flavors play an important
role in Iraqi spicing: tamarind
blended for them at the Persian rice pudding
with advieh, see p.210.
and turmeric, for example,
characterize the traditional
local market.

”
dish of masgûf (grilled carp).

Supplementary
Fenugreek, cassia, paprika,
coriander, ginger LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Additional spices are drawn
from across the globe, with
influences creeping in from
Arabic baharat
Latin America, China, This Iraqi version of the regional blend is
Southeast Asia, and India. sweet and fragrant, and can be used as an
all-purpose rub, marinade, or seasoning.
1 tbsp black peppercorns
1 tbsp allspice
1 tsp cloves
1 tsp coriander seeds
1 tsp cumin seeds
1 tbsp cinnamon
1 tsp grated nutmeg

Grind the whole spices and combine with

the cinnamon and cumin.
 Middle East 27

SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Advieh I RA N
A heady blend of Persian
spices to sprinkle over
Floral | Musky | Sour
savory rice, rub over meats,
or add to stews. It is good on
Persian rice pudding, too.
2 tbsp dried rose petals Iran’s spice palette and cuisine are as rich and exciting sa f
2 tbsp cardamom seeds
fron
as its history. In this sprawling intersection between
1 tbsp cumin seeds
east and west—the center of the Persian Empire and
2 tbsp ground cinnamon
2 tbsp ground ginger
the Silk Road, invaded by Greeks, Arabs, Turks,
Mongols, and Uzbeks—you’ll find caviar and Chinese
Grind the whole spices and combine noodles, smoked fish and hot-and-sour prawns, and a ros
e
with the cinnamon and ginger. natural larder brimming with pistachios, pomegranates,
mint, walnuts, and the prized Iranian saffron, grown in Signature
Saffron, sumac, rose
the northeast. Stews and pilafs are underpinned by Iran’s famous burnt-red
Iran’s sweet-and-sour spices—sumac, dried limes, saffron strands—never
barberries, and tamarind—while fragrant rose petals powder—give seafood
and poultry a rich, slightly
give spice mixes and sweets a hint of the exotic.
bitter flavor and rice dishes
their vibrant amber color.

Supporting
Dried lime, barberry, angelica,
cinnamon, cumin, ginger,
turmeric, garlic
Iranian cuisine owes its fruity
tang to its dried fruits and
sour, citrusy spices, with a
rich baseline of fragrant and
earthy cinnamon, cumin,
and ginger. Turmeric is used
to color and add a musky
depth to savory dishes.

Supplementary
Fenugreek leaves, curry powder,
paprika, tamarind
The subtle bitterness and
warmth of fenugreek leaves
and drier spices balance the
sweetness and sour flavors of
Iran’s fresh ingredients.
28 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE

in

cu
m
on

am
ci nn
Signature
Cumin, cinnamon
The go-to spice for savory
dishes is cumin, while
cinnamon is used just as
liberally to add depth to
Egypt’s array of sweet dishes.

Supporting
Garlic, black pepper,
chili, coriander
Tomato sauces are perked LOC AL S P IC E BL END
up with a fresh palette of
garlic, black pepper, and
chili flakes, while coriander
E G YP T Dukkah
provides a mellow, citrusy Fresh | Earthy | Nutty An everyday blend of spices
partner to cumin. and nuts that is often served
with olive oil and bread or
Supplementary used to season roasted meats
or hummus.
Ginger, cloves, bay, Flanked by the Red Sea and the Mediterranean,
cardamom, allspice 51⁄2 oz (150 g) hazelnuts
Egypt’s ports became the gateway to the riches
You will often find an 51⁄2 oz (150 g) whole almonds
additional spice or two of the East long before its mercantile heyday
1 tbsp coriander seeds
to partner the main flavor, in the Middle Ages. Despite its spice-rich history, 1 tbsp cumin seeds
but Egyptians keep their the modern Egyptian palette is simpler than that 3 tbsp sesame seeds
spicing relatively simple,
or reach for the baharat. of other Levantine countries. Indigenous cumin pinch of salt
is the prevailing flavor—its rich, nutty notes
Preheat the oven to 400°F (200°C).
enliven the relatively humble ingredients of Spread the nuts on separate baking
Egypt’s vegetable soups, meat stews, and grain sheets. Roast the almonds for
dishes such as koshari. Cumin, along with hazelnuts, 8 minutes and the hazelnuts for
sesame seeds, and coriander, is also a key flavoring 10 minutes, shaking the trays every
in dukkah, a distinctively Egyptian condiment 3 minutes. Toast the seeds over a
high heat for 3 minutes, tossing
that varies in content from house to house.
constantly. Grind together the cooled
nuts, seeds, and salt.
 Middle East 29

SPICE
PALETTE
A RA BIA N P E NI NS U LA
Rich | Dry | Musky

The Arabian spice palette shares many of its rich, dr

ied
fragrant flavors with its northern neighbors: the lim e
Levantine trinity of cumin, coriander, and cinnamon,
as well as dried limes and saffron from Iran. But as
the Arabian peninsula stretches down to Yemen and
Oman, with Africa and Asia beyond, the flavors ba y
and heat of its food intensify with the climate and
terrain. In come cloves and black pepper, masala Signature
Baharat, dried lime, bay
mixes, turmeric and coconut dishes from Asia, and The signature flavors of
hot chilis from Africa. Arab baharat, dried limes,
and bay leaves give slow-
cooked dishes and spice

“
mixes a distinctive sour,
musky flavor.

Omani and Yemeni Supporting

cuisines are justifiably Saffron, cardamom, clove,
cinnamon, cumin, coriander,
Hummus and
flatbreads served
famous for their heady garlic, chili, black pepper
Lamb and rice dishes are
with dukkah.
blend of fier y flavors. a firm fixture on Saudi
menus, and the palette
is full of piquant, citrusy

” spices that cut through

the richness of the meat.

Supplementary
Turmeric, nutmeg, caraway
Ancient Egyptians LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Sweet and slightly bitter,
founded the spice
Hawaij turmeric gives a brightness
trade, importing to the flavor and color
A currylike Yemeni blend, popular in slow- of Yemeni spice blends
spices from Africa cooked meat dishes and soups and as a spice and Omani fish soups.
and Arabia as early rub. A sweeter version replaces the pepper and
as 3000 bce. cumin with ginger, cloves, cinnamon, or fennel,
and is added to coffee and desserts.
1 tbsp black peppercorns
7 tsp cumin seeds
1 tbsp cardamom seeds
1 tbsp coriander seeds
2 tbsp ground turmeric

Grind the whole spices and combine with the turmeric.

30 World of Spice

Lisbon

Casablanca

Marrakesh ALGERIA
Ain Salah
In the heart of the desert,
this city was a stopping point
on many trans-Saharan routes.

Timbuktu
For centuries this
ancient city was a

World of Spice
hub for trade in
spices, salt, gold—
and slaves.

AFRICA
IVORY
Africa’s cuisine is as diverse as the land COAST GHANA
is vast. From Casablanca to the tip of the GRAINS OF SELIM
Elmina

Cape, you will find spices that tell a This musky spice, found
throughout West Africa,
complex story: of kingdoms and empires, is rare elsewhere.
GRAINS OF PARADISE
of overland and maritime spice routes,
This spice led the coast
of slave trades, of European colonization, of West Africa to be known
as the Grain Coast.
and of migration within Africa.

SPICE REGIONS
The Maghreb p.33
West Africa p.36 Across the desert
Central Africa p.35 From ancient times,
The Horn of Africa p.32 merchants found routes
East Africa p.34 across the Sahara to take
African spices, such as
Southern Africa p.37 grains of paradise, to North
Africa and Europe beyond.
Goods were transported by
camels in huge convoys
known as caravans.
 Africa 31

Tunis
TUNISIA
Baghdad
Alexandria
Basra
B A K LOU T I C H I L I Cairo
Ghat
This pepper is the main
ingredient in the Tunisian
hot paste harissa.

Agadez

KORARIMA Aden
Ethiopia is the main
NIGERIA producer and consumer of
aromatic korarima seeds. Kochi

ETHIOPIA
CAMEROON
SOMALIA
CALABASH NUTMEG
KENYA Eastern influence
Nutmeg trees grow in
forests across western
Nigeria and central Africa. The Spice Route and
the Silk Road greatly
TANZANIA Zanzibar influenced cooking in the
Rare, valuable eastern regions of Africa,
cloves brought this
introducing spices such
island huge wealth
in the 1500s. as cinnamon, cardamom,
turmeric, and ginger,
ANGOLA mainly from India.

MOZAMBIQUE
MADAGASCAR
PIRI PIRI CHILIS
Also called bird’s-eye
chilis, these grow wild in
much of Africa. VANILLA
Pods from Madagascar
are thought by many to
have the best flavor.

SOUTH KEY
AFRICA Historical spice trade routes
Trans-Saharan trade routes
Cape Town
32 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE
THE HO R N O F A F R I C A
Fiery | Aromatic | Smoky

eek

gr Ethiopia’s capital, Addis Ababa, is home to Africa’s

fenu largest spice market—a sign of this region’s spice
diversity. The ubiquitous berbere mix and its less Saffron is a top
export of Morocco,
om

complex sister blend mitmita, both shared by Ethiopia

am

and Eritrea. are dominated by red hot piri piri chilis. but is only seldom
rd

ca
Yet the quintessential taste of Ethiopian cooking cooked with locally,
comes from bittersweet fenugreek and smoky floral mainly due to
Signature korarima. Somalian cuisine, meanwhile, is defined by French influence.
Korarima, fenugreek, chili pepper,
cardamom, cumin, coriander the fruitiness of coriander, cleanness of cardamom,
Also called false or Ethiopian and earthiness of cumin.
cardamom, korarima is native

“
to Ethiopia and has a similar
but milder flavor to true
cardamom. The spice is
notably used to flavor kifto,
a type of steak tartare dish.
Spices are among the few
external influences brought Harissa served
as a dip with
flatbreads.
Supporting
Turmeric, ginger, garlic,
to bear on the unique flavors
nigella, clove
Cloves added to the
of Ethiopian cooking.

”
hottest chilis, cardamom
or korarima, and salt comprise
the mitmita spice blend.
Other supporting spices
help to flavor the many
interesting vegetable sides LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
and relishes of the region.
Niter kibbeh
Supplementary This spiced clarified butter is used as the
Cinnamon, nutmeg, ajwain, timiz flavorful base fat for many regional dishes,
Before the chili pepper including hearty wat meat stews.
arrived, the local species of
long pepper (Piper capense), 1lb 2oz (500 g) unsalted butter 1 tsp ground cumin seeds
known as timiz, provided the 1 medium onion, 1 tsp korarima or
main source of pungent heat. finely chopped cardamom seeds
2 garlic cloves, finely chopped 1
⁄2 tsp turmeric powder
1 tbsp grated fresh 1 tsp dried oregano
root ginger 6 basil leaves
1 tsp fenugreek seeds 4 sage leaves

Melt the butter in a pan over medium-low heat. Add the

remaining ingredients and cook, stirring, for 20 minutes.
Strain through muslin into a sterilized jar.
 Africa 33

SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Harissa THE MA G H R E B
Harissa paste is used as a
condiment, a dip for bread,
Earthy | Rich | Mild
or as the main flavoring for
stews and sauces.
31/2 oz (100 g) dried red chilis,
Baklouti if you can get them, or The collective of countries known as the Maghreb
other moderately hot chilis,
c um
in
such as Kashmiri is the portal where Africa meets the Middle East
3 or 4 large cloves of garlic and Europe. The region’s cuisine has been shaped
1 tsp salt by cultural exchange between indigenous Berbers
1–2 tbsp lemon juice and their conquerors through the centuries—Arabs, pr

pa
1
⁄2 tsp cumin seeds, ground ik a
Ottomans, and French—as well as from the period
1
⁄2 tsp coriander seeds, ground
1
⁄2 tsp caraway seeds, ground when Islamic Berbers themselves ruled most of the
Iberian peninsula as Al-Andalus. Spicing is sweet and Signature
1 tbsp olive oil
Cumin, cinnamon, ginger, chili
mild for the most part, with cumin the everyday Cumin gives the dishes of
Seed the chilis and soak in choice, and cinnamon bringing its aromatic notes to the Maghreb their mild and
hot water for 30 minutes. Drain, rich, fruit-laden tagines. The chili heat of Tunisia’s earthy undertones, while
combine with the other ingredients, cinnamon and ginger add
harissa paste is a sweat-inducing exception.
and pound or blend to a paste. an aromatic edge to tagines,
soups, and stews.

Supporting
Coriander, turmeric, clove,
paprika, allspice
Arab traders introduced
further exotic spices from
the East—coriander,
turmeric, and cloves—and in
the other direction, paprika
and allspice were introduced
from the Americas.

Supplementary
Pepper, nutmeg,
cardamom, fenugreek
These lesser spices tend not
to feature on their own and
are more usually encountered
in the blend ras el hanout, a
broad combination of spices
with local variations that
brings together most, if not all,
of the above palette of spices.
34 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE

om

am
card

y
ba
r
de

i an
cor
Signature Spices for an East
Ginger, cardamom, African pilau
garlic, cinnamon, clove masala blend.
Ginger gives East African
cuisine piquancy and heat.
Kenyan and Ugandan dishes
are fairly mild, but ginger is
used liberally. Cardamom,
clove, and cinnamon add
their sweet aromas to the
local version of chai tea.
EA S T A F R I C A
Supporting Zingy | Sweet | Fragrant LOC AL S P IC E BL END
Bay, black pepper,
cumin, coriander Pilau masala
Pepper and cumin bring
heat and earthiness to Introduced to the region
various blends. Bay and via India and Arabia, pilau
coriander are added to meaty Thanks to the legendary spice islands of the Zanzibar rice is a one-pot dish made
versions of pilau, alongside Archipelago, Tanzania has historically been the with meat or vegetables
the standard masala. and spiced with the
epicenter of East Africa’s spice trade and continues
to play the role of dominant influencer in the region’s following masala blend.
Supplementary cuisine. Over 2,000 years of trade with Arabia, Persia, 1
⁄2 tsp cumin seeds
Tsiperifery, turmeric, 1
⁄2 tsp whole black peppercorns
and India saw the introduction of warming spices
chili, sesame 1
⁄2 tsp cloves
Tsiperifery is a variety of such as cloves, ginger, pepper, cinnamon, and 1
⁄4 tsp cardamom seeds
pepper native to Madagascar, cardamom. Ginger and cardamom traveled farthest 1
⁄4 tsp ground cinnamon
more pungent and citrusy inland, making them the most widely used spices of
than ordinary black pepper.
Crushed sesame features in the region. In coastal areas, cooking draws on turmeric Grind the whole spices and
Ugandan cooking, often and coriander to bring fresh, tropical notes when combine with the cinnamon.
paired with spinach. combined with coconut. The masala is usually added
when frying the onions.
 Africa 35

SPICE
PALETTE
CENT RA L A F RI C A
Nutty | Pungent | Local

Sc
ch

ot
bon
net chili
With the exception of chilis introduced in the
15th century by Portuguese explorers, the cuisine
of Central Africa has remained true to its indigenous
spice cupboard. Seeds and bark of the bobimbi tree
are the region’s equivalent to garlic, used in almost
gin
every local dish, and three native pungent spices ger
provide lingering heat and hints of citrus: Ashanti
pepper (Piper guineense), grains of Selim, and mbongo Signature
Bobimbi, njangsa, mbongo
(Aframomum citratum). Njangsa are the oil-rich
seeds of the Ricinodendron
tree, bringing a nutty flavor

“
and thickening property
to dishes, with a particular
affinity for fish.
Confusingly, ‘grains of
paradise’ is a name applied Supporting
Calabash nutmeg (Monodora
locally to four different spices: myristica), chili (Scotch bonnet),
ginger, grains of paradise
Ashanti, mbongo, grains of Milder than ordinary
nutmeg, indigenous
Selim, and grains of paradise! calabash nutmeg found
its way to the Caribbean—
where it is called Jamaican

” nutmeg—via the European

slave trade. Ginger, chili,
and grains of paradise are
regular additions to soups.
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Zanzibar was once Supplementary
the world’s largest
Mbongo mix Garlic, bay, black pepper,
curry powder
producer of cloves, Use to flavor Cameroonian “black stew” mbongo
The region is gradually
tchobi, most often made with white fish.
a trade established embracing non-native
4 tsp ground mbongo or black cardamom spices, with garlic, pepper,
by Omani settlers 1 tsp bobimbi or 1 handful wild garlic or garlic chives and bay leaf used to
to the island. 30 njangsa seeds or 1 handful unsalted peanuts season local versions of
the jollof rice dish, and
2 calabash nutmeg seeds or 1 tsp grated nutmeg
curry powder employed
1 tsp grains of paradise
as a flavor shortcut in
4 garlic cloves Cameroonian curries.
1 onion, roughly chopped

Grind the whole spices, combine with the garlic and onion
in a blender, add 4 tbsp water, and process until smooth.
 36 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE
WES T A F RI C A
Hot | Pungent | Smoky

ai
gr

ns
of Selim
West Africa is a region of diverse landscapes and
peoples, and equally varied culinary traditions. It
can, however, be useful to consider the cuisine divided Durban is known
according to its two major language groups: French and as the biggest Indian
city outside India,
ise

English. In Francophone countries, the use of mustard

ad

paste and souring agents such as vinegar or lemon and Victoria Street
ar

p
of
grai ns juice is widespread, notably in the popular chicken Market is famed
Signature dish poulet yassa. Anglophone countries, by contrast,
Chili, ginger, garlic
for its spices.
Most savory dishes begin
bring intense depth of flavor to dishes through smoked,
with these backbone spices, fermented, and dried ingredients, pepping up almost
almost always used together. any savory dish with dried or smoked and ground
Chilis tend to be at the hot
crayfish, or fermented locust beans.
end of the scale, used fresh,
dried, or powdered.

Supporting
Grains of Selim, grains
of paradise, iru, prekese,
Originally from Senegal, the
“ Beef bunny chow
made with Durban
nutmeg, bay
Grains of Selim and grains
spicy rice dish jollof is raising curry masala,
see p.211.
of paradise both bring
pepperiness. Prekese are the
the profile of West African
sweetly fragrant pods of a
pealike plant, also known as
cuisine across the world.

”
“soup perfume.” Iru are the
fermented seeds of the
locust bean tree, with a
strong ammonia smell,
used as a condiment.

LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Supplementary
Turmeric, Ashanti pepper, Yaji
clove, anise
Ashanti pepper (see p.35)
This is the spice mix used to marinate the meat
is most important in soups, for suya, West Africa’s street food kebabs.
notably banga (palm nut), 10 strands of grains of Selim 5 tbsp ginger powder
peanut, or pepper soups. 1 tbsp whole Ashanti pepper 2 tbsp cayenne pepper flakes
Clove-spiced sour millet
5 tbsp crushed kuli-kuli 1 dry stock cube, crumbled
porridge is a popular or peanut puffs, e.g. 1
⁄2 tsp salt
breakfast dish in Accra. Osem Bamba
black pepper, to taste

Break up the grains of Selim and grind with the Ashanti

pepper ; you may need to sift out any fibers. Combine
with the remaining ingredients and mix well.
 Africa 37

SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Durban curry SO U TH E R N A F R I C A
masala Hot | Sweet | Diverse
This blend from South
Africa’s third city is
characterized by bold heat
with a touch of sweetness.
If South Africa is known as the Rainbow Nation, cin
2 tsp coriander seeds n am
the country’s cuisine encompasses a similarly broad on
2 tsp cumin seeds
1 tsp cardamom seeds diversity of spices, largely determined by the colonial
1
⁄2 tsp fenugreek seeds past. Early Dutch colonization has left a legacy of
2 cloves Indonesian-influenced spicing in Cape Malay dishes,
2 in (5 cm) cinnamon stick tu r
while the influx of Indian laborers under British m eri
6 tsp mild chili powder c
rule makes Durban a contender for the premier curry
1 tsp cayenne pepper
city in the world. Mozambique is the fiery quarter Signature
1
⁄2 tsp ground ginger
Cinnamon, turmeric,
of Southern Africa with its Portuguese-influenced coriander, chili, garlic
Toast the whole spices in a piri piri chili blends. By contrast, flavors within Regional cooks don’t hold
frying pan over medium heat landlocked Botswana and Zimbabwe are much back if chili is called for,
until fragrant, then grind and but turmeric is often used
milder, with spices used carefully and sparingly. for a milder currylike
combine with the remaining spices.
flavor. Cinnamon enlivens
the Dutch-derived custard
dessert melktert, and coriander
adds fruitiness to biltong,
a dry-cured meat.

Secondary
Clove, black pepper, cumin,
ginger, cardamom, bay
Further combinations
of Asian spices produce
a variety of Indonesian-
or Indian-inspired masala
blends, while bay leaf
flavors the savory custard
topping of bobotie, South
Africa’s national dish.

Supporting
Nutmeg, anise, allspice
These three sweet, fragrant
spices are sometimes used
alongside coriander in
regional variations of biltong.
38 World of Spice

KEY
Historical spice trade routes
Ancient Silk Road

World of Spice

SOUTH ASIA To Europe

Hormuz

Each of South Asia’s diverse communities

has its own distinctive seasonings, from a
simple sprinkle of cumin to complex spice
blends. Native spices, such as cardamom
and cinnamon, are central to many
cuisines, while chili and coriander, once
non-local, are now valuable exports.

SPICE REGIONS
North India p.40
Himalayan Belt p.41 A rich coast
Central India p.42 India’s Malabar coast was
West India p.44 the main export outlet for
East India Kerala’s peppercorns, and has
long been at the center of the
and Bangladesh p.43
global spice trade. In the 16th
South India century, Portugal was the first
and Sri Lanka p.45 European nation to enrich
itself by trading peppercorns
from this area.
 South Asia 39

Kashgar

To China
Balkh
Lhasa
The capital of Tibet was
an important city on the
southwest Silk Road.
Spice hub
Calcutta (now called
Kolkata) was one of the
cities that grew out of
BLACK CARDAMOM the colonial trading posts
Black cardamom set up where the overland
flourishes on the cool Silk Road and maritime
foothills of the Himalayas. Spice Route met. Spice
Delhi merchants from all over
the world traded here.
FE N N E L NEPAL
Rajasthan is a major BHUTAN
producer of fennel.

AMCHOOR
Karachi Amchoor is a popular BANGLADESH
flavoring in central
India’s vegetarian dishes.
M US TARD
Bharuch Kolkata
Mustard seeds and oil
are key to traditional
Bengali cooking.
INDIA

Mumbai

Goa
When the Portuguese Yangon
colonized Goa in the
16th century, they
introduced chilis from
the New World.

Chennai
C INNAM ON
Eight cinnamon species
are native to Sri Lanka;
all but one grow wild.
CA R D A M O M
Around 75% of India’s
cardamom is grown in
SRI LANKA
the state of Kerala. Colombo Sri Lanka
Formerly called Ceylon, this island was for
centuries the only known source of cinnamon. To East Asia
 40 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE

c
er i

t ur
m

cum in

l
c hi
i

Signature Chickpea curry

spiced with
Cumin, turmeric, chili,
garam masala,
ginger, garlic
see p.211.
The foundation of essential
masala mixes and pastes,
these versatile spices are
often used together and
provide an obliging base
for main ingredients.

Supporting
N ORT H I NDI A
Cassia, clove, cardamom, Complex | Earthy | Fragrant
Indian bay, fennel LOC AL S P IC E BL END
These sweet spices bring
warmth and fragrance. Indian
bay is from the same family
Garam masala
as cinnamon, and tastes like From no-frills rustic cooking in Punjabi homes, to Many households have
a mix of cloves, cinnamon, their own variation of this
and allspice. the refined flavors of Mughal palace kitchens, and
warming spice blend, which
kebabs and hearty dhals finished with sizzling cumin
is used in the same way as
at roadside cafés, this food is as widely traveled
Supplementary you would a seasoning.
as the spices that have earned it such international scant 1 oz (25 g) black
Black cumin, anardana,
peppercorn, saffron acclaim. During the heyday of princely Maharajas cardamom seeds
Smoky, tart, warming, and and Nawabs, royal chefs created flamboyant spice scant 1 oz (25 g) cassia,
sweet, these spices grab the broken into pieces
blends for sophisticated dishes, many of which
senses with their distinctive scant 1 oz (25 g) black peppercorns
personalities, and perform featured a dozen or more aromatic seasonings. 1
⁄4 oz (10 g) black cumin seeds
well as solo seasonings or Home cooks also draw on a versatile spice box, 2 blades mace
as part of a blend. preferring the warming nature of garam masalas 1
⁄4 oz (10 g) cloves
over brute chili heat. 1
⁄8 nutmeg, chopped

Grind all the spices to a fine powder

and sift to remove any fibers.
 South Asia 41

SPICE
PALETTE
HIMALAYA N B E LT
Astringent | Fiery | Warming

Cooking in the Himalayas is shaped by nature’s fen

harvest in the foothills along with frugal high-altitude ugr
eek
pickings. There’s an emphasis on wholesome pulses,
often finished with a tarka of warming fried cumin
seeds, chilis, and ginger. Spices tend to be basic,
and in areas such as Bhutan, chilis are elevated to
a main ingredient. Ginger-spiced steamed dumplings,
chili-laden Tibetan broths, and Chinese noodles Signature t im u r
Fenugreek, chili, timur,
coexist with such Punjabi staples as parathas, naans, ginger, garlic
and homely dhals. The bitterness of fenugreek
seeds contrasts with the
nuttiness of lentils and

“
pulses, while timur (a type of
Sichuan pepper) lends a more
citrusy, but still astringent
Longevity of food is of flavor to Nepali masalas.

primary focus, and spiced Supporting

pickles and preserves perk Black cardamom, asafetida,
turmeric
up meals during the cold Asafetida’s sulfurous aroma
is softened to mellow
winter months. sweetness after cooking,
which complements the

”
earthiness of smoky black
cardamom and turmeric.

Supplementary
Coriander, ajwain, clove, cumin
Black cumin—or LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Ajwain seeds and cloves have
shahi jeera—is from
a different but related
Timur ko chhop robust and bitter flavors to
enliven everyday meals, along
The Himalayan equivalent of salt and with more discreet coriander
plant to regular cumin and cumin.
pepper: use as a seasoning for soups, a dip
and has a slightly for fried meats, or as a fiery pick-me-up over
smoky flavor. fried potatoes, noodles, and curries.
1 tsp timur or Sichuan pepper
2 tbsp red chili powder
1 tsp salt

Dry-roast the timur in a frying pan, over low heat,

until fragrant, stirring all the time. Mix with the chili
and salt, and grind to a powder.
42 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE
CENT R A L I ND I A
Tart | Nutty | Assertive

is
ch i l

dr
ed

drie Influenced by the culture of neighboring Rajasthan,

Gujarat, and Maharashtra, India’s central states
transform vegetarian staples into memorable dishes Panch phoran
with a creative use of contrasting spices. A well- translates as “five
d
er

an known simple seasoning is a trio of fried nigella, spices.” Bengali

cori fenugreek, and fennel seeds, which lends a pickled versions substitute
flavor to softened vegetables and meaty masalas.
Signature local spice radhuni
Meat eaters are catered to with predominantly
Coriander, cumin, dried for mustard seed.
red chilis, turmeric, ginger Mughal-style dishes. In Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh’s
The key spices of central capital city, cafés serve biryanis, kebabs, and aromatic
India provide depth of curries spiced with garam masala emboldened with
flavor and richness to
everyday vegetables, lentils,
plenty of pounded coriander seeds.
and pulses, and although

“
they are used across South
Asia, their versatility is very
much center stage here.
A sprinkling of amchoor
Supporting
Asafetida, fennel, nigella
mango powder can elevate
These bold seasonings
play a significant role
fried potatoes to star status
in pickles and preserves,
and their feisty character
in central India.
complements and contrasts
with main ingredients, too.

Supplementary
”
Ajwain, amchoor LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
With its thymelike
flavor, ajwain is often
used with fish and starchy
Chaat masala
vegetables, while amchoor A seasoning sprinkled over
cuts through richness with street snacks, fruit salads, and kebabs.
its fruity tartness.
2 tbsp cumin seeds 1 tsp ground ginger
1 tsp coriander seeds 1
⁄2 tsp asafetida
1 tbsp black 1 tbsp kala namak
peppercorns (Himalayan black salt)
3 tbsp amchoor 1 tsp salt

Toast the whole spices in a frying pan, over medium heat,

until fragrant. Leave to cool and then mix with the other
ingredients and grind to a powder.
 South Asia 43

SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Panch phoran EA ST I NDI A A ND
This whole spice mix is
a Bengali and Bangladeshi
speciality, and is particularly
BANG LA DE S H
good for flavoring dhals Pungent | Sweet-sour | Mustardy
and vegetable dishes.
us

m
2 tsp cumin seeds ta r
2 tsp brown mustard seeds d
2 tsp fennel seeds
Cooks in the river delta of West Bengal and
1 tsp nigella seeds
1 tsp fenugreek seeds
Bangladesh embrace complex spice blends, which
work especially well with fish and seafood. For
Simply mix together the whole religious reasons, many Hindus in Kolkata don’t gin
ger
spices. To use, fry a teaspoonful in oil cook with onions and garlic, preferring the distinctive
or ghee at the start of cooking, or to
nature of nutty-tasting poppy seed paste, popped Signature
temper a dish just before serving. Chili, mustard, turmeric,
mustard seeds, ginger, and the aromatic five-spice cumin, ginger, garlic
mix of panch phoran. Bangladeshi Muslims favor more Although chilis get top billing
strident seasonings in such dishes as Mughal-style in hilly regions, flavorings in
the plains are characterized
biryanis and beef curries infused with whole spices. by contrasting spice
combinations cooked
in mustard oil.
Masor tenga fish
curry featuring
panch phoran,
Supporting
see p.211. Poppy, black cardamom, fennel
Taking the edge off the
more assertive signature
spices is a cast of “carrier”
seasonings, which provide
depth of flavor and richness
to classic dishes.

Supplementary
Coriander, fenugreek, nigella
Fried nigella seeds lend
a nutty and pickled flavor
to vegetable and meat
dishes, and their piquancy
is complemented and
balanced by bitter
fenugreek and citrusy
coriander seeds.
 44 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE

rd

sta
mu

Vindaloo
paste ready for
i

use in a pork
hil

c
red or chicken curry,
dried see p.212.
f

l
ea

ry
c ur

Signature
Kokum, dried red chili,
cumin, turmeric, mustard,
ginger, garlic
These spices form the
backbone of most cooking
in this region, although
garlic is shunned by
the Jain community
for religious reasons. LOC AL S P IC E BL END
WE S T I ND I A Vindaloo paste
Supporting
Fenugreek, curry leaf,
Bitter | Sour | Sweet The Goans adopted and
black pepper adapted this fiery, sweet-sour
Dishes from this region mix from the Portuguese.
show restraint in their use
of fenugreek seeds and curry 11⁄2 tsp cumin seeds
leaves, but there’s no holding 15–20 dried Kashmiri chilis, whole
back when peppercorns are The use of spices in western India reflects varied 1 tsp black peppercorns
roasted and ground into landscapes and cultures. The arid climate of Rajasthan 2 tsp black mustard seeds
warming masalas. and parts of Gujarat differs from the tropical 1 tsp fenugreek seeds
6 cloves
atmosphere of Maharashtra and Goa, and the cooking
1 tsp cardamom seeds
Supplementary styles are equally distinct. Savory dishes in Gujarat 2 in (5 cm) piece of cassia
Asafetida, sesame are characterized by sweet-sour flavors underpinned 1
⁄2 star anise
Sesame seeds are so much
by jaggery and pungent spices such as fenugreek 6 tbsp cider vinegar or palm vinegar
more than a garnish: they
seeds and dried red chilis. Royal Rajasthani dishes are 1 tsp fine salt
add richness and a
nutty character when acclaimed for their richness and chili-laden masalas, 2 tsp jaggery or date palm sugar
roasted and ground, and while along the Konkan coastline, hot and sour fish
are good vehicles for Toast the spices in a frying pan
sulfurous asafetida. curries, balanced by creamy coconut masalas, are over a medium heat until fragrant,
emblematic. Goa is famed for accommodating then grind. Transfer to a bowl, add
vinegary and garlicky Indo-Portuguese dishes. the vinegar, salt, and jaggery, and
mix to a stiff paste.
 South Asia 45

SPICE
PALETTE
SOU T H I NDI A
A N D S R I LA NK A
Fresh | Zesty | Robust

tam
arind
From the cardamom hills of Kerala to Sri Lanka’s
cinnamon plantations and Andhra Pradesh’s renowned
chili harvest, this region’s culinary traditions come
from centuries of trading in spices. Influences from ca
rda
mom
the Portuguese, French, Dutch, Southeast Asians, and
British have been adapted to suit local tastes, but it’s Signature
Tamarind, mustard, fenugreek,
the stalwarts of sambhar (tart lentils with vegetables), cumin, cardamom, ginger,
rice in all its guises, and sour fish masalas that garlic, curry leaf, chili
give distinction to this region’s cuisine. Dishes are characterized
as mild and mellow or
bold and fiery depending
on whether the spices have
been dry-roasted, fried,
pounded, or left whole.
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND

Gunpowder Supporting
Cassia, cinnamon, black
Sprinkle this distinctly southern condiment over pepper, nutmeg, asafetida
rice dishes, dosa (lentil and rice pancakes), and Cassia is stronger and
idli (steamed rice cakes). When moistened with harsher in flavor than
a little oil, it makes a robustly spiced dip. cinnamon, and lends itself
to boldly seasoned masalas.
scant 1 oz (25 g) chana dhal 2 tbsp curry leaves (about 20) Both spices work well with
or split yellow lentils 6–8 red chilis, mild or hot the warmth of peppercorns,
scant 1 oz (25 g) split urad according to taste nutmeg, and chilis.
dhal or black gram lentils 1 tbsp tamarind pulp
Kokum is the dried scant 1 oz (25 g) fresh
coconut or coconut flakes
1
⁄4 tsp asafetida
Supplementary
2 tsp jaggery or date
rind of a fruit in 1 tbsp black sesame seeds palm sugar Sesame, star anise, mace
the mangosteen It’s likely that star anise was
introduced to this region by
family, used like Toast the lentils in a dry pan over low heat for 7–10 minutes,
Chinese traders, since very
stirring continuously, until colored. Transfer to a bowl and
tamarind to impart leave to cool. Toast the coconut for 3–4 minutes in the same
little is grown in South Asia.
Its fennellike sweetness
a sour flavor. way. When it turns pale golden, add the sesame seeds, is well matched with the
curry leaves, and chilis, and continue cooking until the chilis nuttiness of toasted sesame
have darkened. seeds and aromatic mace.

Stir in the tamarind pulp and asafetida, and toast for

1 minute before adding the sugar. Turn off the heat and
stir until the sugar has melted. Scrape all these ingredients
into the lentils and leave to cool, before grinding to a coarse
powder. Spread on a tray to dry for 1 hour.
46 World of Spice

MYANMAR

TAM ARIND
Tamarind is one of
Myanmar’s top
agricultural exports.
LAOS

THAILAND
World of Spice Yangon

MAKR UT L I ME

SOUTHEAST ASIA To South Asia

In tropical Thailand most
rural households have
their own lime tree.

When Portuguese traders brought

the chili pepper to Southeast Asia,
they started a culinary revolution: it
now dominates spice palettes across
the region, along with characteristic
fresh spices, such as garlic, ginger, MALAYSIA
and lemongrass.

SPICE REGIONS Malacca

During the 15th century
Malacca (or Melaka) was an
Myanmar p.48 important trading port for
Thailand, Laos, Arab and Chinese merchants.
and Cambodia p.49
Vietnam p.50
BL ACK PEPPER
Malaysia
and Singapore p.51 Indonesia provides
around one-fifth of
Philippines p.53 the world’s pepper.
Indonesia p.52
 Southeast Asia 47

Spice wars
The West’s demand for
spices made this region and
its sea routes hot property.
Between the 16th and 18th
Macau centuries there were many
VIETNAM skirmishes and conflicts as
the Portuguese, Spanish,
Hanoi
Dutch, and British vied for
domination of the area.
LEMO N G R A S S
These aromatic stalks
play a key role in
Vietnamese cuisine.

ANNAT T O
A New World native,
annatto is now grown in
the Philippines.
CAMBODIA Manila
Spanish galleons sailed
Phnom Penh between Manila and Acapulco,
in modern-day Mexico, to trade
spices and other goods.
Source of spice
PHILIPPINES
Known as the Spice Islands,
the Moluccas (now Malukus)
were for centuries the only
SINGAPORE source of cloves, nutmeg,
The British used MALAYSIA and mace, making them a
Singapore as their magnet for traders and
center for spice trading invaders—first from China,
and processing. India, and the Middle East,
GALANGAL later from European nations.
Native to Java, galangal
is now cultivated all over
Southeast Asia.

INDONESIA

Ambon

KEY
Jakarta Historical spice trade routes
The Dutch first landed in Jakarta in
1596, and it soon became the hub for
Dutch spice traders in the region.
48 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE
M YA NM A R
Punchy | Fragrant | Savory

Pandan leaves
g
are used to impart
er

gi n Varied terrain, climate, and ethnicity bring eclectic a vanilla-like

flavors to the Burmese table, where dry spices from
flavor, particularly
India and Bangladesh are used sparingly to enhance
to coconut-based
the flavor of freshly pounded spice pastes. The
cuisine is less sweet than that of neighboring
sweet dishes.
lic

r
ga Thailand, with sour notes popular, and a preference
for subtle pungency over pure heat. Fresh, fragrant
Signature leaves (both cultivated and wild) find their way into
Ginger, garlic, chili Thai salad of sliced
Early Chinese, and more
most dishes, as do various fermented fish products. steak, chili and
recent Thai, influences lime dressing,
and khao kua.
have had a lasting impact
on the Burmese spice palette:
few savory dishes omit the

“
base notes from this trio of
fresh spices.

Supporting Influences from over 100

Garam masala, mild curry powder,
sesame, coriander, lemongrass,
indigenous groups, and from
turmeric, cumin
Centuries of trade across
powerful neighbors, feed into
the Bay of Bengal have
seen Indian flavors
Myanmar’s rich bank of
well integrated into local
recipes, with garam masala
traditional recipes.
a particularly popular blend.

Supplementary
Black pepper, star anise,
”
cinnamon, curry leaf,
tamarind, poppy LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Spices that pack a punch
without flooring other flavors Burmese garam masala
are valued in Myanmar: the
India’s most famous spice mix is also popular
aromatic warmth of pepper,
star anise, and cinnamon; in Myanmar. Use as the basis for spicing a dish,
sulfurous curry leaves; or like a seasoning added at the end of cooking.
sour tamarind; and richly 1 tsp coriander seeds 1 tsp cardamom pods
nutty poppy seeds.
1 tsp black peppercorns 1 tsp cloves
1 tsp cumin seeds 1 in (2.5 cm) cinnamon stick
2 dried bay leaves 2 star anise

Toast all the spices in a frying pan, over low heat, until
fragrant. Leave to cool before grinding into a fine powder.
 Southeast Asia 49

SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Khao kua THA I LA ND, LA O S,
This ground roasted rice
powder, infused with fresh
spices, is a key ingredient in
A N D C A MB O DI A
both Laotian larb and Thai Hot | Fresh |Clean
beef salad. Its unique texture
means nothing else can be la
ck

b
used as a substitute. pepper
5 tbsp uncooked glutinous
(“sticky”) rice
No other country along the spice route embraced
1 lemongrass stalk, sliced the chili pepper as enthusiastically as Thailand. It’s
1 thumb-sized piece of galangal or impossible to imagine Thai cuisine without liberal l em
ginger, sliced quantities of chili, though the blander flavors of the on g
rass
3 makrut lime leaves, roughly torn
Cambodian kitchen do hint at what pre-chili Thai
food would have tasted like. Other spice staples were Signature
Toast all the ingredients in a frying Chili, garlic, coriander
pan over a medium heat, stirring less eagerly adopted and, like cooks in landlocked root, lemongrass
frequently, until the rice turns golden Laos, Thai chefs still prefer freshly pounded spice All four fresh spices are
brown. When cool, pick out the spices pastes. Cambodian cuisine, meanwhile, draws its near ubiquitous in Thai and
and pound the rice using a pestle Laotian cuisine. Cambodian
more subtle heat from the black pepper that has cooks use less chili but
and mortar until coarsely ground.
been grown in the country since the 13th century. enthusiastically embrace
the rest.

Supporting
Lime leaf, galangal, ginger,
krachai (wild ginger),
black pepper, tamarind
Several roots in the ginger
family, along with makrut
lime leaves, provide further
fresh flavors, while tamarind
is drawn on for sour notes,
and black or white pepper
for slow-burning heat.

Supplementary
Turmeric, clove, nutmeg,
cinnamon, fennel, cardamom,
pandan leaf, green pepper
Although widely available
throughout the region,
dry spices tend to find
their way into a limited
number of dishes rather
than everyday cooking.
50 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE

ss
ra

g
on
le m
se

a
ni

s t ar
Signature
Ginger, garlic, chili
A Chinese influence can
be seen in this trio of fresh
spices, which provide the
foundation that supports
all the herbs so beloved
by Vietnamese cooks.

Supporting
Lemongrass, coriander root,
star anise, allspice, turmeric,
dill, pandan leaf, black pepper
Aromatic spices add a rich
flavor profile to broths and LOC AL S P IC E BL END
stews, while black pepper
provides background heat in VI E T NA M Nuoc cham
dishes deemed too delicate
for chili.
Fresh | Warm | Delicate No Vietnamese table setting
is complete without a bowl
of nuoc cham dipping sauce,
Supplementary used for dunking anything
Cardamom, licorice, from spring rolls to grilled
fennel, cinnamon, clove While not as influenced by the spice trade as Malaysia
meats and seafood.
Rarely center stage, these or Indonesia, Vietnam nevertheless keeps a well-
spices are often used to 2 bird’s eye chilis, roughly chopped
stocked spice cupboard. Most dishes carry some vital
bring in background notes 1 garlic clove, roughly chopped
of sweetness and warmth. base notes from dried aromatics, but, on the plate, it 2 tsp palm sugar
tends to be the abundance of fresh herbs that stands juice of ½ a lime
out more. Southern Vietnamese cuisine is more richly 2 tbsp Vietnamese fish sauce
(nuoc mam)
spiced than its northern counterpart, while sour,
salty notes are prevalent throughout the country.
Place the chili, garlic, and sugar
To an already well-balanced Vietnamese kitchen, in a pestle and mortar, and pound
French colonialists brought a delicate way with more into a paste. Squeeze in the lime
European spices, such as dill, fennel, and licorice. juice, add 2 tablespoons of water
and the fish sauce, then mix well.
 Southeast Asia 51

SPICE
PALETTE
MA LAYS I A A ND
S I NG A P O R E
Complex | Rich | Fusion

ga
la n
gal
The southern Malay port of Melaka was ideally
placed to become a major trading hub, both for ships
plying the Indo-Chinese seas, and those bound for
more distant destinations on the spice route. As a

cu
ry

r
result, throughout Malaysia and Singapore, significant lea f
Chinese, Indian, and Muslim communities endure Signature
Ginger, garlic, chili
to this day, and the regional cuisine is distinguished The classic Southeast Asian
by a willingness to embrace such varied cultural flavor trilogy forms the
influences and experiment with new flavors. base of most savory recipes
in Malaysia and Singapore,
The concept of fusion food, as we know it, was
but the three are rarely
arguably born in Melaka, where Chinese, Indian, used on their own.
Arabic, and European ingredients often find
themselves in the same cooking pot. Supporting
Prawn summer
rolls for dipping in Cardamom, turmeric, dried chili,
nuoc cham, see p.212. black pepper, clove, coriander
seed and root, cumin, cinnamon,
curry leaf, lemongrass, galangal,
tamarind, pandan leaf, lime leaf
Dried spice mixes add warm,
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND earthy base notes to support
the fresh aromatics of the
Malaysian fish curry paste likes of lemongrass, makrut
Layering a fresh base of galangal, garlic, and lime, and curry leaves.
shallots with an Indian-style dry spice masala, this
classic fusion paste can be used to make a quick Supplementary
fish curry by mixing it with coconut milk and Fennel, anise, star anise,
simmering with chunks of any firm white fish. dried ginger, cassia, Sichuan
pepper, sesame
Bird’s eye chilis 2 tsp coriander seeds thumb-sized piece
Malay cooks were
1 tsp cumin seeds of galangal or ginger, peeled
are popular in and roughly chopped enthusiastic adopters of
½ tsp fennel seeds most new arrivals along
Vietnam and were ½ tsp black peppercorns 3 large garlic cloves,
the Spice Route, creating
probably introduced 4 medium-sized roughly chopped
richly flavored dishes
dried chilis 1¾ oz (50 g) shallots,
in the 16th century ½ tsp turmeric roughly chopped
with multi-layered spicing.
by the Portuguese.
Lightly toast the whole dry spices in a frying pan, leave to
cool, then grind to a powder along with the turmeric. In a food
processor or using a hand blender, blitz together the galangal,
garlic, and shallots with a splash of water to form a purée. Mix
the dry masala with the fresh purée to form the curry paste.
52 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE
IN D O NE S I A
Vibrant | Complex | Diverse

g
er

gi n Spread across an archipelago of more than 17,000

islands with strong natural resources and long-
established trade routes, Indonesia enjoys a spice Adobo is a Spanish
palette that’s as eclectic as the heritage of its people. term applied by
The traditional saying “if your eyes do not water, the colonists to the native
lic

r
ga food is not good” hints at a nation that fully embraced Filipino technique of
the 16th-century arrival of the chili pepper, but there preserving meat with
Signature is more to Indonesian cuisine than eye-watering vinegar and spices.
Garlic, ginger, shallot
Indonesian cooks draw on
heat. Fragrant local spices mix with exotic imports
a wide range of spices, but from Persia, India, and China to create dishes with
few are used as extensively as complex depth of flavor.
this trio, which form the base
notes for countless recipes.

Supporting The simple

Nutmeg, mace, clove, salam leaf, selection of
galangal, lemongrass, pandan spices for adobo
leaf, lime leaf, tamarind, chili, marinade.
turmeric, cumin, cinnamon LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Indigenous nutmeg, mace,
and cloves mingle with Bumbu
fresh, aromatic leaves
and roots—including Many Indonesian recipes are based on some
sour, astringent salam kind of bumbu (spice paste). Every region—
leaf—and the warm notes and cook—has their own favorite version.
of Spice Route imports. This one’s quite classic.
1 tsp coriander seeds 1 in (2.5 cm) fresh turmeric,
Supplementary 3 cloves peeled and roughly chopped
Black pepper, coriander, curry 1
⁄2 tsp white peppercorns 6 shallots, roughly chopped
leaf, cardamom, curry powder, 1 pinch grated nutmeg 3 garlic cloves,
Sichuan pepper, caraway, anise roughly chopped
1
⁄2 in (1.5 cm) galangal or
Further spices from India, ginger, peeled and 2 red chilis, roughly chopped
along with Sichuan pepper roughly chopped 1 tsp shrimp paste
from China, and caraway 1 tbsp vegetable oil, for frying
and anise from the
Mediterranean, complete You can use a blender, but the best flavor is achieved by
Indonesia’s broad-ranging pounding using a pestle and mortar: start with the dry spices,
arsenal of flavors.
then add fibrous galangal and turmeric, followed by the
remaining fresh ingredients, finally mixing in the shrimp paste.

Heat the oil in a wok or frying pan, add the spice mixture,
and cook over high heat, stirring frequently,
for approximately 5 minutes, or until the paste
turns golden. Cool before using.
 Southeast Asia 53

SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Adobo marinade P HI LI P P I NE S
Filipino recipes often start
with a simple marinade,
Mild | Colorful | Aromatic
usually with coconut
vinegar in a starring role.
Use this recipe to marinate
chicken or pork overnight.
Given how important food is to the Filipino way bay
See pp.208–209 for a
spiced-up version of adobo. of life (five meals a day is the norm), dishes are
surprisingly unadventurous with their spicing. Most
3½ fl oz (100 ml) coconut or cider
vinegar classic recipes use no more than two or three spices,
1¾ fl oz (50 ml) soy sauce and very few would classify as “spicy” in the hot la
ck

b
3 garlic cloves, crushed sense. Despite more than 300 years of Spanish rule, pepper
1 tsp black peppercorns which clearly left their mark on a spice palette that
2 bay leaves
feels more European than Asian, the Philippines Signature
Bay, black pepper, garlic
Place all the ingredients in a small didn’t take to the chili pepper in anywhere near This “holy trinity” of Filipino
saucepan and bring the mixture to a the same way as the Spanish and their trading cuisine is in nearly every
boil. As soon as it boils, remove from partners along the Spice Route. savory recipe, including
the heat and allow to cool to room the unofficial national
temperature before using. dish, adobo.

Supporting
Annatto, turmeric, ginger,
lemongrass, pandan leaf
Spices are rarely used to add
heat, but often as natural food
coloring (red from annatto,
yellow from turmeric) or for
their aromatic properties.

Supplementary
Chili powder, paprika, tamarind
When Filipinos do reach for
the hot stuff, they tend to
choose powder over fresh
chilis, or opt instead for
paprika. Tartness is valued
over heat, and tamarind is the
main flavor constituent of the
popular sinigang broth.
54 World of Spice

Kashghar
The northern and
southern routes of
the Silk Road merged
in this oasis city.

Turpan
This city was
an important trade
World of Spice center on the northern
branch of the Silk Road.

EAST ASIA CHINA

Despite being at the far eastern edge of
the Old World, East Asia has influenced the
global spice trade hugely, from key stops on
15th-century trade routes to being the
world’s fourth-largest spice producer today.
Most of the spices here are mild; Sichuan Kolkata
pepper is a tongue-tingling exception.

SPICE REGIONS
West China p.61 Chennai
North China p.58
East China p.59
South China p.60
South Korea p.56
Japan p.57

To the
Middle East
and Europe
 East Asia 55

The road begins

The Silk Road was the
world’s greatest trade
thoroughfare until the 15th
CHINA
century, when faster sea
P E RILLA S E E DS
routes were found. The
Xi’an Also known as shiso,
Chinese city of Chang’an The Western Market in the perilla is grown mainly
(now Xi’an) marked the old city of Chang’an was a in central Japan.
start of this 4,000-mile meeting place for traders
(6,400-km) network. from all over the world.
S E S AM E
Grown widely in East
Beijing Asia, sesame is one of
the world’s oldest crops.
JAPAN
GINGE R
Ginger from China’s SOUTH KOREA
Shandong region is
prized for its high quality.
Yeosu
S ICHUAN P E P P E R
This key spice is a
distinguishing feature Shanghai Nagasaki
of East Asian cuisine.
Portuguese traders made
Nagasaki their Japanese
base in the late 16th century.
LIC ORIC E
Licorice gives meat
marinades in southern
China a sweet-salty tang.

C A S S IA
Macau TAIWAN
This sweet spice grows
in the tropical climate
of southern China.
Flavor exchange
The spice trade between
Yangon China and the West went
both ways: spices such as
cassia traveled west to
Manila Central Asia and Europe,
Chengdu while ginger and saffron
The city’s market is known went east and became
worldwide for the quality integral to cooking in many
of its Sichuan peppercorns. regions of China.

KEY
Historical spice trade routes
Ancient Silk Road
56 World of Spice

S P IC E
LOC AL S P IC E BL END
PA L ETTE
SOU T H K O R E A Yangnyeomjang
A very popular and deeply
Fiery | Warm | Pungent flavored, pungent seasoning
sauce. It also makes a great
dipping sauce and marinade.
2 tsp white sesame seeds
Korean cooking has only recently become as popular
ili

ch 3 tbsp soy sauce

red across the world as other long-established Asian 1 tbsp toasted sesame oil
1
⁄2 tsp rice vinegar
flavors, but with its intoxicating blend of heat
2 tsp gochugaru (dried chili peppers)
and acidity in a cuisine that is complex, robust, and 1
⁄2 tsp caster sugar or honey
subtle, it has quickly come to be a favorite. 1 garlic clove, crushed
lic

r
ga Unsurprisingly, given Korea’s location and history 1 spring onion, sliced
of colonization by China and Japan, influences and
Signature spices from these neighbors abound, with chilis, Toast the sesame seeds in a frying
Sesame, red chili, garlic pan, over high heat, stirring until just
Korean spicing is full-bodied
ginger, and garlic playing important roles. Yet the
golden. Mix with the other
and robust, but subtle, too, key techniques of fermentation and preservation in ingredients and keep in the fridge
with the pungency of chilis which they are employed create flavors and dishes for up to a week.
and garlic often balanced
that are unique to this country.
by the rich, toasty flavors
of sesame, or mellowed
through fermentation in
dishes such as kimchi.

Supporting
Ginger, black pepper, perilla seeds
Supporting spices such as
ginger and pepper add
deeper notes of pungency,
with hints of mint and licorice
from the perilla seeds.

Supplementary
Green chili, cinnamon
While red chilis provide
the fire in fermented
dishes, green chilis
and cinnamon bolster
the pungent and sweet
aspects of Korean dishes.
 East Asia 57

SPICE
PALETTE
J A PA N
Fresh | Mild | Bright

For a relatively small archipelago, Japan is surprisingly sa

se
me
diverse in its cooking and spicing. The southern
Perilla seeds are “barbarian” cuisine was developed in the 16th and 17th
from a plant in sta
centuries through interaction with the few foreigners ra
nise
the mint family. who were allowed to visit the island. The Portuguese
They have a nutty, introduced deep-frying, chilis, and vinegar, the
slightly menthol- Chinese brought ramen, gyoza, and dumplings, and
aniseed flavor. the British introduced curry. This Western-influenced
in
cuisine contrasts with the more subtle washoku ger

g
(Japanese cuisine) found elsewhere in the country.
Signature
Sesame, sanshō, ginger
The richness of sesame,
citrus heat of sanshõ

“
(similar to Sichuan pepper),
Pan-fried tofu and fresh zing of ginger are
with spring
representative of a cuisine
onions and
yangnyeomjang.
All Japanese cooking shares that manages to be both
pungent and subtle.
an emphasis on the natural
world, with seasonality at the Supporting
heart of ever ything. White pepper, chili, garlic,
star anise
Additional levels of heat

”
come from the fire of chilis
and the slow burn of white
pepper, while garlic and star
anise bring complex aromas
of sulfur and licorice.

LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND Supplementary

Clove, allspice, cinnamon,
Shichimi-togarashi black pepper
These stronger spices
This aromatic mixture can be used as are used sparingly, their
a table condiment or for flavoring curries, aim being to layer flavors
grilled meats, and noodle dishes. without overwhelming the
2 tbsp sanshō or Sichuan 2 tbsp nori seaweed flakes key Japanese elements of
pepper, finely ground freshness and brightness.
2 tsp black sesame seeds
2 tbsp dried orange, yuzu, 2 tsp hemp seeds, flax seeds,
or lemon peel or chia seeds
4 tbsp chili powder 2 tsp garlic powder

Simply mix together all the ingredients.

58 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE
N O RT H C HI NA
Salty | Sour | Light

am In a country as vast as China there are huge

e

ses
variations in cuisine, but when it comes to
spicing it’s a more integrated picture, with
er
epp

most of the country incorporating the gentle

np

ua spices used in the Shandong, Henan, and Beijing

Si c h cuisines of northern China. Shandong cooking
is characterized by subtle flavors that preserve
Signature rather than dominate the main ingredients.
Ginger, sesame, Sichuan pepper
Freshness and simplicity are
Henan features more delicate but harmonious
at the heart of this region’s flavors, and Beijing draws influences from both,
dishes, in which spices are with an emphasis on sour notes provided by the
used sparingly alongside
dark vinegar used throughout the region.
lamb, beef, fish, and wheat.

“
Supporting
Star anise, garlic
Tofu and fresh vegetable
dishes in Shandong cooking Shandong is regarded as the
make use of fragrant star
anise, while among Beijing’s primar y cuisine of China’s
Muslim population garlic is
combined with lamb and beef. eight major regional cuisines.
Supplementary
Cumin, chili
Having originated in
” Muslin and
ingredients ready
to make a Nanjing
spice bag.
the kitchens of Chinese
Muslims, yangrou chuan
(lamb skewers) are coated LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
in cumin and chili and are
a favorite in Beijing. Shandong spice bag
This collection of spices is used to infuse the
master stock for many northern Chinese chicken Lotus seeds have
stews, such as Dezhou- or Daokou-style. a mild, sweet
10 cardamom pods 3 in (7.5 cm) cinnamon stick flavor reminiscent of
2 star anise 4–5 in (10–12 cm) piece fresh almonds and
1
⁄2 tbsp whole Sichuan pepper of licorice root
1
⁄2 tbsp cloves dried peel of an orange pine nuts.
or tangerine
1
⁄2 tbsp ground cumin

Place all the ingredients in a piece of muslin or spice bag,

tie tightly, and drop into the cooking water.
 East Asia 59

SPICE
PALETTE

g in
ger

hit

w
e pe
pper

Signature
Ginger, white pepper,
Sichuan pepper, sesame
The signature spices of this
region never dominate; rather
they are used to bring out
the flavors of the fish or meat
component of a dish.

Supporting
Star anise, cinnamon, lotus seed
The four styles of Jiangsu’s
cuisine use sweet aromatics
like star anise and cinnamon
in dishes such as Wuxi spare
ribs. Desserts like lotus
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D porridge are another favorite.

Nanjing spice bag EAS T C HI NA Supplementary

These spices are combined Subtle | Aromatic | Sweet Black cardamom, fennel,
with sliced fresh ginger and cumin, licorice
Shaoxing wine to flavor Suzhou’s pastries are made
the stock for the renowned with a wide range of spices
Nanjing salted duck and spice-based ingredients
(see p.212). Eastern Chinese cuisine is a contrasting mix of that offer smoky, sweet, salty,
and nutty flavors, as well as
6 cloves flavors determined largely by the varying terrain. powerful aromatics.
4 star anise Inland, the Yellow Mountains and the Huangshan
1 tsp whole white pepper, crushed area are the preserve of unique foraged ingredients
6 bay leaves
in Anhui cuisine, which is often sweetened with
dried peel of an orange or tangerine
1 tsp licorice root powder
sugar to create hearty peasant food. The coast, by
1 tsp salt contrast, taking in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Shanghai,
has a refined gourmet cuisine whose emphasis is on
Place all the ingredients in a piece
of muslin or spice bag, tie tightly, subtly aromatic flavors that highlight the abundant sea
and drop into the cooking water. and river food of the region.
60 World of Spice

S P IC E
LOC AL S P IC E BL END
PA L ETTE
SOU T H C H I NA Five-spice powder
Yes, you can buy this in any
Sour | Aromatic | Sweet supermarket, but homemade
is truly a million times
better. Use as a rub for
roasting meats, or add
g to stir-fries and stews.
er

gi n If there’s one Chinese cuisine that has traveled

throughout the world, it’s the Cantonese food from 2 star anise
1 tsp fennel seeds
Guangdong, the most southerly of the country’s
1 tsp cloves
eight great food traditions. Thanks to extensive 2 in (5 cm) cinnamon stick
emigration from this largely coastal region, cooking 1 tbsp whole Sichuan pepper
lic

r
ga techniques such as steaming and stir-frying traveled
the world. Simple condiments and spicing—light soy Simply grind all the spices to
Signature sauce, garlic, ginger, and sesame oil—dominate in
a fine powder, sifting out any
Garlic, ginger, chili, sesame fibers if necessary.
South China’s signature
Canton cooking, but other parts of south China’s
spices intensify and cuisines, notably Hunan, Fujian, and Taiwan, offer
enhance the techniques more intense flavors—spicy, sour, sweet, and bitter—
that are geared toward
via techniques such as drying and preserving and
preserving the flavor,
color, and texture of the a wider use of spices.
Prawn stir-fry
main ingredients. flavored with
five-spice,
see p.213.
Supporting
Black pepper, shajiang,
five-spice powder
Woody black pepper
and camphorous shajiang
powder add a kick to many
dishes, while five-spice is
used to enhance sweetness
and fragrance.

Supplementary
White pepper, licorice
Licorice root replaces
five-spice where a more
lingering, bitter, aniseed
flavor is desired. In Taiwan,
white pepper is often paired
with pork belly.
 East Asia 61

SPICE
PALETTE
WE S T C H I NA
Fruity | Warm | Earthy

ich

S
uan
Shajiang is also The Silk Road introduced the Sichuan region to less pepper
known as sand familiar spices brought by travelers from neighboring
ginger, and has the western and central Asia. The result was a wide blend
same fresh heat as of flavor sensations, including sour, sweet, bitter, salty,

i
ch il
hot, and spicy, especially in the far-west region of
ginger, with a mildly ’s e

ye
Xinjiang. Here, where the population is more than bird
medicinal edge.
50 percent Muslim, spices such as cumin and saffron,
as well as dried fruits, feature heavily in lamb, chicken, Signature
Bird’s eye chili,
and vegetable dishes from Uyghur and Kazakh cuisine. Sichuan pepper, garlic
In classic Sichuan dishes

“
such as beef in chili broth,
this trio of spices often
dominates the flavor.
Western Chinese cuisine is
Supporting
dominated by Sichuan pepper, Star anise, ginger, sesame,
used in the region’s cooking for black cardamom
Used in both Sichuan and
more than 2,000 years. Xinjiang cuisine, star anise,
ginger, sesame, and black
cardamom add complexity

” to dishes such as bang bang

chicken and hotpot.

Supplementary
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
Cumin, saffron, cinnamon

Chili black bean sauce In Kashgar, the market

is filled with the flavors
This is a homemade version of doubanjiang, that made their way to
the Sichuan fermented bean paste. Use as this Uyghur region from
the Middle East, including
a marinade, dip, or in stir-fries.
cumin, cinnamon, and saffron.
7 oz (200 g) red bird’s eye 2 tsp dark rice vinegar
chilis, finely chopped 1 tbsp sugar
1¾ oz (50 g) fermented black 3 garlic cloves
beans, rinsed and chopped
3 in (7.5 cm) piece of
2 tbsp vegetable oil ginger, chopped
1 tbsp rice wine

Fry the chilis and beans in the oil for 1 minute. Add
the wine and vinegar and simmer for 3 minutes. Add the
sugar and simmer for 10 minutes. Then add the garlic
and ginger, and cook until the oil floats on the surface.
Store in the fridge for up to 3 weeks.
62 World of Spice

To Asia

Two-way traffic
Spices traveled in both
World of Spice directions between
continents. Cloves, pepper,
and cinnamon reached the

THE AMERICAS
New World by sea from
Asia; in return, chilis, vanilla,
and cocoa beans were all
transported back
to the Old World.
An amalgamation of flavors and textures
from mountains high, valleys low, seas
and oceans, forests and islands—plus an
array of influences from all corners of
Asia and Europe—the spice map of the To Asia
Americas is eclectic, bold, and complex.

SPICE REGIONS
North America p.68
Mexico and Central
America p.65
The Caribbean p.64
Pacific South America p.69
The Amazon p.67
The Andes p.66

KEY
Historical spice trade routes
 The Americas 63

UNITED STATES
San Francisco PA P R I K A
United States
Fresh, dried, or smoked, The US is the world’s largest
this spice is common in importer of spices, with vanilla
MU L AT O C H I L I North American blends. and pepper being the most popular.
Brown-black mulato
chilis are grown
extensively in Mexico.
To Europe
ALLS P IC E
Allspice is the only spice
Havana exclusively grown in the
MEXICO western hemisphere.
CARIBBEAN
Veracruz Jamaica
Explorer Christopher Columbus, who was
searching for the source of black pepper, instead
discovered allspice on Jamaica in the 1490s.

Panama
C UM ARI C H ILIS
Acapulco
In the 17th century, These pea-sized peppers
spices that arrived here C AC AO grow wild in the Amazon
from Asia were sent rainforest.
Ecuador produces high-
overland to Vera Cruz, quality cacao, used to
and then by sea to Spain. make premium chocolate.
Manaus

PERU
Lima BRAZIL
Cusco
M OLLE
La Paz
This spice is used to
make chicha, a traditional
spiced beer.

A new world
Between the 15th and the CHILE
18th centuries the search
for spices led European Santiago
explorers on a series of Rio de Janeiro
voyages in uncharted seas. In 1502, the first
Their discovery of the GARLIC Europeans to see Rio
Americas—the New World, Chile is one of the were members of
as they called it—radically Americas’ main a Portuguese spice-
redrew the world map. producers of garlic. hunting mission.
 64 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE
THE C A RI B B E A N
Adventurous | Bold | Spicy
e

cl When European explorers went looking for the Indies,

ov

they found instead the Caribbean Islands. Centuries Mexican oregano

of empire-building ensued, almost wiping out the
ili

has pronounced
t ch

indigenous peoples and turning the West Indies into a

citrus and aniseed
ne

n
bo
Scotch new trading hub on the Spice Route. Such forces made
notes. Dried, it is
Caribbean cuisine into the melting pot that it is today,
fusing Native American, African, Creole, Spanish,
added to chili
powder blends.
e

Dutch, Portuguese, British, Latin American, Persian,

pic
lls

a South Asian, and Indonesian cuisines.

Signature
Scotch bonnet chili, allspice,
clove, ginger, nutmeg, cinnamon
Apart from Scotch bonnet,
these staples are used across
The Caribbean’s varied
“
both sweet and savory recipes,
with native allspice joined by
cultural influences make for Roasted vegetables
fragrant spices from Asia.
adventurous spicing, including served with
mole sauce.

Supporting sweet, sour, hot, tangy, and

Black pepper, cumin, garlic,
paprika, habanero earthy flavors.
Mainly used to create

”
greater depth in one-pot
dishes, these spices bring
flavors from South Asia,
the Mediterranean, and
Central America. LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND

Supplementary Jamaican jerk rub

Turmeric, coriander, fenugreek, A dry seasoning used to marinate chicken,
cayenne, nigella fish, pork, and beef. Invented in Jamaica
The first three spices and adapted around the Caribbean.
are integral to West
Indian curry powder, 2 tsp allspice 1 tsp ground ginger
cayenne is used in hotter 1 tsp whole black peppercorns ½ tsp ground cinnamon
jerk blends, and roasted ½ tsp cloves 2 tsp onion powder
nigella seeds flavor breads 1 tsp chipotle or 2 tsp garlic powder
and vegetable dishes. cayenne powder 1 tsp dried thyme
1 tsp paprika 2 tsp brown sugar
1 tsp grated nutmeg 2 tsp sea salt

Grind the whole spices and combine with the rest of the
ingredients. Flavor intensity depends on marinating time.
 The Americas 65

SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Mole mix ME XI C O A ND
Each country has its own
version, always made with
three different chilis.
C EN T RA L A ME R I C A
Hot | Toasted | Complex
2 each dried ancho, pasilla,
and mulato chilis
3 tbsp cacao nibs pa
1 tbsp sesame seeds prik
a
¾ in (2 cm) piece of cinnamon stick
¼ tsp cumin seeds
The range of spices used in everyday Mexican
¼ tsp anise seeds and Central American dishes is as complex as the
¼ tsp whole black peppercorns region’s historical culinary influences. Cultural
¼ tsp cloves fusion is key: Belizean cuisine draws from the c um
in
¼ tsp dried thyme Maya, the Garifuna, Creole, and even the British,
¼ tsp dried marjoram
while Mexico’s dishes can thank Mayan, Aztec, and Signature
1 dried bay leaf, crumbled Chili (ancho, jalapeño, pasilla,
Spanish-colonial influences. The Mayans frequently mulato, chipotle, chile de arbol),
Toast the whole spices in a dry frying made use of red and green jalapeño chilis; the Aztecs paprika, cumin
used chipotle chilis, cacao, and vanilla. All of these For that fiery kick, any of
pan over medium heat, stirring, until 60 different chilis offering
fragrant. Mix with the remaining spices made their way around the world via the varying degrees of heat
ingredients and grind. Stir into fried Spanish conquistadores, who in return brought are used, either fresh,
onions and garlic, then simmer with cumin, pepper, cloves, and cinnamon. whole dried, or powdered,
chopped tomatoes for a mole sauce. while cumin is essential
to chili powder mix.

Supporting
Black pepper, garlic, cinnamon,
clove, vanilla
Black pepper is usually
slow cooked to draw out its
complex pungency. Savory
and sweet dishes draw on
the latter three spices, with
cinnamon traditionally
flavoring local chocolate bars.

Supplementary
Cacao, sesame, allspice, Mexican
oregano, coriander, annatto
The first three spices all
contribute to mole sauce,
while Mexican oregano
and coriander seeds bring
extra complexity to chili
blends. Annatto is mainly
used for coloring meats,
rice, and stews.
66 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE

ric
t ur me

rl
ic

ga

Signature
Chili (ají amarillo, rocoto/locoto,
merquén), cumin, garlic
Chilis lead Andean cuisine,
offering heat, freshness, and
color, and often starring
as the main ingredient.
Spicy sauces pep up any
slow-cooked dish.

Supporting
Pepper (white and black), molle
(pink pepper), turmeric, cinnamon,
paprika (sweet and smoked)
These warming spices tend
to be added to slow-cooked
TH E A ND E S
stews and soups to create Warming | Earthy | Piquant LOC AL S P IC E BL END
depth of flavor and color.
Chimichurri
Supplementary A popular fresh spice and
Annatto, coriander, mustard herb sauce, widely served
More usually seen in
Spanning some 4,500 miles, the Andes mountain
with sausages and steak.
Mexico and Central range traces a route from Argentina and Chile,
America, annatto brings 1 tsp chili powder
crossing through Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, up to
color to Andean dishes,
1
⁄2 tsp dried chili flakes
Colombia and Venezuela. People who live in or close 1
⁄2 tsp paprika
too. Coriander and mustard
seeds add subtly aromatic to the Andes at 3,250 to 10,000 ft (1,000 to 3,000 m) or 2 garlic cloves, finely chopped
and warming touches. more above sea level usually slow cook hearty dishes 1 onion, finely chopped
such as stews and soups. Chilis play a dominant role; 4 tsp finely chopped parsley
or cilantro
ají amarillo (yellow chili) has been cultivated for
1 tsp finely chopped oregano
more than 8,000 years and was a key ingredient in 3 tsp white or red wine vinegar
Inca cuisine. In Andean Peru, uchucuta is a spicy salsa 6 tbsp olive oil
made from rocoto chili and herbs; llajua is the Bolivian salt and black pepper, to taste
and Argentine equivalent.
Place all the ingredients in a bowl
and stir well to combine them.
 The Americas 67

SPICE
PALETTE
TH E A MA Z O N
Exotic | Mysterious | Hot

ac

bl
Ranging across nine different countries, the kp
epp er
Amazon is the world’s largest rainforest. Ancestral
influence, convergence between the rainforest’s
three key countries—Brazil, Peru, and Colombia—
plus an array of European influences, most cu
mi
significantly from Portugal and Spain, all play their n
part in this extensive larder. Amazon chilis are some
of the world’s hottest, and are often—along with Signature
Black pepper, chili (ají amarillo,
garlic, cumin, and turmeric— used to marinate ojito de pez, pinguita de mono,
meat and fish. pucunucho, cumari, malagueta,
cayenne), garlic, cumin
With hundreds of native chili

“
species, in all shapes and
sizes, and ranging from mild
to fiery hot, it’s little wonder
Dominating the spice wheel that they cross the spectrum
to be used in many dishes.
Slices of steak
dressed with are chilis, grown here since
chimichurri.
pre-Columbian times. Supporting
Annatto, açaí berries, jambú,

”
tonka beans, turmeric
Jambú is a flower whose
numbing effect leads
to its nickname of
“toothache plant”. It
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND is used in tacacá, one of
Brazil’s most popular soups.
Tucupí
A Brazilian brothlike sauce made from cassava Supplementary
Molle are the dried root and served with duck, pork, or fish. Priprioca, guaraná, ginger,
pink berries of the 41⁄2 lb (2 kg) sweet cassava root, peeled and roughly chopped
cinnamon, clove, paprika, vanilla,
copoazú, macambo
Peruvian peppertree. 2 garlic cloves, finely chopped The dried roots of priprioca (a
They are similar to 3–4 hot, fresh red chilis, finely chopped (or more to taste) type of sedge grass) offer up a
peppery hit, while guaraná
peppercorns, but the 1 tsp whole black pepper, ground
seeds are used as a stimulant
plants are unrelated. Blend the cassava with 1¼ pints (750 ml) water in a food more than for their flavor, but
processor to form a thick purée. Transfer to a muslin cloth are very common. Copoazú and
macambo are relatives of cacao.
placed over a bowl and squeeze out the starchy juice.

Leave to settle, then strain off the liquid into a jug, discarding
the sediment. Cover the liquid and leave at room temperature
for 24 hours to ferment. Pour into a pan, stir in the spices, bring
to a boil, and simmer for 30 minutes.
68 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE
N O RT H A M E R I C A
Hot | Sweet | Eclectic

p European settlers brought a limited range of spices

er

pep with them to North America, mainly as a way to

preserve food for the long journey. Gradually spices Aji limo is a
from Central America (chili, annatto), the Caribbean hot chili with
(allspice), and South America (molle) left their mark, a strong lemony
lla

though only chili has enjoyed an enduring popularity flavor, although it

ni

va
thanks to the proximity of Mexico. Today, North takes its name from
Signature American cuisine is a true fusion, in which dishes
Chili (jalapeño, poblano,
the Lima region.
ancho, cayenne), garlic, pepper from Mexican fajitas to Indian curries and Japanese
(black and white), vanilla ramen form part of the everyday diet.
After garlic and chilis,
pepper and vanilla are

“
the most common spice
imports, adding everyday
warmth to savory and sweet
dishes, respectively. The eclectic spice palette of
Supporting
contemporar y North America
Paprika, mustard, ginger, nutmeg, reflects the diverse migration Ceviche of raw
cinnamon, cloves white fish marinated
Milder forms of mustard that defines the region. in leche de tigre.
are used particularly in

”
table condiments, while
nutmeg, cinnamon, and
cloves are the spices of
choice for sweet baking.

Supplementary LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND

Anise, sesame, cumin,
paprika, turmeric, mace
BBQ rub
These diverse spices are A dry spice blend for barbecued meat,
used in dishes drawn from with many regional variations. This recipe
the cuisines of the Middle
takes brown sugar from Kansas City and
East and Asia, which have
an increasingly strong
paprika from the Memphis rub.
influence on the North 1 tbsp ground cumin ½ tbsp cayenne pepper
American food scene. 1 tbsp chili powder 3 tbsp brown sugar
1 tbsp ground black pepper 2 tbsp smoked paprika
1 tbsp onion powder 2 tbsp sea salt
1 tbsp garlic powder

Mix together all of the ingredients to create a

dry rub for barbecued meat, from steak or brisket
to pulled pork and chicken wings.
 The Americas 69

SPICE
LOC A L S P IC E B LE N D
PALETTE
Leche de tigre PA C I F I C
Translating as “tiger’s milk,”
this is the marinating
liquid for ceviche, the raw
SO UT H A ME R I C A
fish dish originally from Peru Fresh | Spicy | Citrus
and now enjoyed all along
the Pacific coast.
ging
½–1 ají limo, habanero, or other er
hot chili, finely chopped
1 large garlic clove, crushed
From the Gulf of Panama to the tip of Patagonia, the
1 in (2.5 cm) piece of ginger, vast coastline of South America naturally draws from
coarsely grated its waters for sustenance: all manner of seafood is la

ci
1 tbsp fresh cilantro stalks, n tr
fried, grilled, or stewed. Indigenous culture, Spanish o stalks
finely chopped
½ small red onion, finely chopped colonization, the slave trade, and Asian and Arab
migrations have all influenced dishes, from delicate Signature
juice of 5 limes
Chili (ají limo, panca, chombo),
salt, to taste chili and coconut fish soups to hearty charquicán garlic, cilantro stalks
(beef and vegetable stew). Chilis are key to the spice Chilis, usually used fresh, are
Combine all the ingredients and extremely prevalent and add
refrigerate for 1 hour before using
mix, often used fresh in ceviche, while dishes in the
zip to seafood dishes, while
to marinate fresh white fish. Nikkei tradition—a fusion of Japanese and Peruvian cilantro stalks bring a slightly
Leche de tigre is traditionally drunk cooking—draw on flavorings such as ginger, sesame, floral flavor.
after the fish has been eaten. tamarind, and umeboshi (pickled plum) paste.
Supporting
Cumin, chili powder, ginger,
fresh lime, turmeric
Cumin is used as a seasoning,
while chili powder provides
a milder alternative to
fiery whole chilis. Fresh,
clean ingredients, such as
ginger and lime, are added
to soups and stews.

Supplementary
Annatto, sesame, tamarind
Tangy tamarind adds both
sweet and sour touches,
sesame lends a nutty
richness, and annatto’s
bright red hue colors
soups and stews.
70 World of Spice

European empires
Competition between the
nations of Europe to control
global trade, including in
spices, led to these countries
setting up colonies in Africa,
Asia, and the Americas. By
the end of the 19th century,
Europe controlled 85
percent of the world’s land.

World of Spice

EUROPE GREAT
BRITAIN
Despite the diversity of European cuisine,
the continent has few native spices. London
Almost everything used across the region
was introduced via the global spice trade,
the legacy of which is that European spice
palettes are broadly similar—though FRANCE
interesting regional variations still occur.
E S P EL ETTE CHI L I
This mild chili is used to
spice traditional French
SPICE REGIONS Basque dishes.

Scandinavia p.72
Great Britain p.73
PORTUGAL
France p.74
SPAIN
Spain and Portugal p.75 Lisbon
Italy p.76
Southeast Europe p.77

To Asia and
the Americas
 Europe 71

C ARAWAY
Finnish caraway is rich in
SWEDEN essential oils, making it
highly sought-after.

FINLAND
NORWAY
Oslo

Ribe
Spices reached Scandinavia City built on spice
in the 9th century, via Viking
trading cities such as Ribe. Venice’s location meant that
in medieval times, most of
the black pepper destined
for Europe passed through
the city. Venetian merchants
controlled Europe’s pepper
Amsterdam trade, and consequently the
The 17th century was Amsterdam’s city became extremely
Golden Age—its wealth was based on wealthy and powerful.
Bruges domination of the world’s spice trade.

J U N IP E R PAP RIK A
Italian wild juniper is Strings of drying peppers
festoon houses and
especially prized by
gin makers.
HUNGARY gardens in Hungary.
BLUE FENUGREEK

Venice This aromatic spice grows

wild in mountainous
northern Georgia.
ITALY
Istanbul
GEORGIA

GREECE
M AS T IC
The Greek island of Chios
is the main source of
the world’s mastic.

Genoa Rome
Genoa used its The heart of the Roman CYPRUS KEY
spice-trade wealth to Empire, Rome was the Historical spice trade routes
become a powerful western end point of the Ancient Silk Road
and rich city-state. ancient Silk Road. Alexandria
72 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE

l
di l
eg

m
n ut
ay

aw
car
Signature
Cardamom, cinnamon,
caraway, dill, nutmeg
Cardamom is king, although
cinnamon runs a close
second, while caraway is
more popular in Finland.
Dill seeds are common in
pickling solutions.

Supporting S C A NDI NAVI A

LOC AL S P IC E BL END
Ground ginger, clove, allspice, Sweet | Earthy | Aromatic
licorice, mustard, saffron, juniper
Ginger, cloves, and allspice Finnish
are used more for seasonal
sweet baking, although gingerbread spice
allspice is also paired with The clean, refined fare of the Nordic countries has A fragrant, warming
pickled herring and pork.
some of the most distinctive spicing in all of Europe. spice mix and the perfect
Salty licorice is a unique
Scandinavian treat. Most notable is the use of cardamom, supposedly base for the classic Finnish
gingerbread known as
brought north by the Vikings from Constantinople
piparkakut.
Supplementary 1,000 years ago. Danish pastries and other Nordic
1 tbsp bitter orange powder
Angelica, bitter orange powder, baking would be lost without the festive flavors of
2 tsp ground cloves
dried rosehips, fennel cinnamon, cloves, ginger, and allspice. The region’s 2 tsp ground ginger
Angelica and powdered
love of pickling and preserving sees a profusion of 2 tsp ground cinnamon
orange peel are common in
Finland—the latter is added aromatics such as dill seed and the native juniper, 1 tsp ground cardamom
to cookies, cakes, and the which also appears with game and in Finland’s
traditional Easter dessert, sahti beer. Brown mustard is common both as a Simply mix all the ingredients
mämmi. Rosehips are used to together. Makes enough to flavor the
flavor jelly, jams, oil, and tea. condiment and as a whole spice.
dough for around 30 cookies.
 Europe 73

SPICE
PALETTE
B R I TA I N
Warming | Gutsy | Festive

One of the culinary legacies of the British Empire mu

sta r
is a taste for South Asian spicing, often amalgamated d
into all-purpose curry powders. These are used
liberally in the eponymous national dish, as
well as a gravylike sauce for French fries, the
vegetable preserve known as piccalilli, and the c lo
ve
summer buffet staple Coronation chicken. Dating
Cookie shapes further back to Britain’s medieval past is a love Signature
cut from Finnish Curry powder, allspice,
piparkakut dough, of warming aromatic spices for flavoring sweet clove, cinnamon
see p.213. pastries and alcoholic drinks consumed in the Curry powder is a mix of
cold winter months; to a Brit, cloves, cinnamon, spices including fenugreek,
turmeric, ginger, and cumin.
nutmeg, ginger, and mace are all immediately Allspice is used in a myriad
evocative of the festive season. of sweet dishes and also in
salted beef.

Supporting
Mustard, cayenne pepper,
nutmeg, mace, ginger, juniper
Potent English mustard is
an essential accompaniment
to cooked meats, fiery
cayenne is used in devilled
kidneys, and juniper is most
often used in game dishes.
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND

Mulling spice Supplementary

Saffron, white pepper, coriander,
Warm red wine or cider is infused with this anise, turmeric
collection of whole sweet spices and traditionally Historically saffron and
Bitter orange drunk at winter celebrations, from Bonfire Night white pepper were popular,
to orchard wassails on Twelfth Night. but their traditional use has
powder is made largely dwindled to Cornish
from the dried peel 2 cinnamon sticks buns and preserved meats,
6 cloves respectively. In addition to
of Seville oranges,
6 allspice berries use in pickling spice, coriander
and imparts a sour ½ nutmeg seeds flavor Lancastrian
citrus flavor. 2 bay leaves Goosnargh cakes.

Add the spices to a pan of red wine or cider, or tie them up

first in a piece of muslin for easy retrieval, and heat
to simmering point. Add sugar or honey, orange and/or
lemon slices, and rum or sloe gin to taste. Enough for two
bottles of red wine or 3 pints (1.75 liters) of still cider.
74 World of Spice

S P IC E
LOC AL SPI CE BL END
PA L ETTE
F RA NC E Paella mix
Saffron and pimentón are
Pungent | Fragrant | Comforting essential to the flavor of
paella, Spain’s versatile
rice-based dish.
2 pinches of saffron
c
rli

ga France doesn’t immediately spring to mind as a 3 tbsp pimentón (a mixture

of smoked and sweet)
country with a spice-rich cuisine, yet the word itself is
2 tsp garlic powder
derived from Old French espice (meaning “seasoning”), 2 tsp onion powder
and it was the 18th-century French botanist Pierre 1 tsp cayenne pepper
Poivre who broke the Dutch stranglehold on clove
rd

sta 1 tsp ground black pepper

mu and nutmeg with smuggling raids to the Moluccas 1 tsp dried oregano
Spice Islands. Indeed, it’s hard to imagine a classic
1
/2 tsp dried parsley
Signature Dauphinoise potato without the warmth of nutmeg,
1
/2 tsp ground cloves
Garlic, mustard, fennel, nutmeg 1
/2 tsp ground cumin
French cooking and garlic are
Provençal cookery without the aniseedy notes of
utterly inseparable. Whether fennel, or innumerable French dishes without Grind the saffron threads using a
smoked, fresh, or green, for garlic or Dijon and Bordeaux mustards. pestle and mortar, and combine with
many it is the defining taste the remaining ingredients. Makes
of Gallic food. approximately 6 tablespoons.

Supporting
Caraway, vanilla, anise, French cooking tends to
“
white pepper, juniper, saffron
White pepper is essential
to the quatre épices mix,
draw heat from garlic and
and you’ll find juniper
used in Alpine regions,
pepper, but chilis feature in
and saffron for the southern
fish stew bouillabaisse.
Basque and Provençal dishes.

”
Caraway, vanilla, and anise
flavor creams and cakes.

Supplementary
Angelica, tonka bean,
clove, mace LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND
The French kitchen utilizes
a number of more unusual
spices: angelica stalk is
Quatre épices
added to candies and digestif This “four spices” mix is often used to season
liqueurs, while the powerful terrines. Proportions can be tweaked and,
tonka bean is infused into confusingly, cinnamon added as a fifth spice.
creams and custards.
1 tbsp white peppercorns
1 tsp cloves
1 tsp ground nutmeg
1 tsp ground ginger

Grind the whole spices and combine with the nutmeg and
ginger. To make a mix for sweet pastries, replace the white
pepper with allspice or cinnamon.
 Europe 75

SPICE
PALETTE
S PA IN A ND P O RT U G A L
Smoky | Sweet | Piquant

Brought back from the Americas by Columbus in p im

entón
the late 1400s, sweet and chili peppers are inescapable
Arab conquerors in this region. Spanish cooks often reach for the
from North Africa mildness of pimentón, while the Portuguese brave
first introduced the heat of malagueta chilis. Dried nora peppers iri

p
saffron cultivation to are essential to the Catalan romesco sauce for fish, p ir
i chili
the Iberian peninsula and green guindilla chilis are used in a hot sauce from
the Canaries. Saffron abounds in Andalusian cuisine Signature
in the 8th century. Pimentón, chili (malagueta)
and the Valencian classic, paella, while cinnamon Spain’s vivid red pimentón
laces sweet Portuguese dishes. (paprika) comes in three
varieties: dulce (sweet),
agridulce (bittersweet), and
ahumado (smoked). Hot
malagueta chilis are popular
Spice mix and in Portuguese stews and
ingredients other meat dishes.
ready for paella,
see p.213.
Supporting
Pimentón picante, dried
nora peppers, chili (piri piri),
garlic, saffron
Pungent pimentón picante is
less popular than its milder
variants, but makes a regular
appearance in the Canaries
and Galicia. Piri piri is used
interchangeably with
malagueta in Portugal.

Supplementary
Dried choricero peppers, chili
(guindilla, alegrías), cacao, anise,
cloves, cinnamon
Cacao nibs are occasionally
used in game and beef stews.
Fragrant anise is paired with
chestnuts in Portugal and
with dried figs in Catalonia.
 76 World of Spice

S P IC E
PA L ETTE

il
la

v an

bla
ck pepper

Penne pasta
n with arrabiata
el

fen sauce, Parmesan,

Signature and fresh basil.
Chili (peperoncino), black
pepper, fennel
Hot peppers have long
been popular in southern
Italy, although their appeal
is increasingly spreading
north. More than anywhere
else in Europe, black pepper
LOC AL S P IC E BL END
I TA LY
transcends being a mere
seasoning in Italy.
Arrabiata sauce
Punchy | Rustic | Warming Translating as “angry,”
Supporting
this quick pasta sauce gets
Coriander, nutmeg, garlic,
saffron, clove, vanilla
its fiery reputation from
Coriander seeds are a popular liberal quantities of chili
flavoring for meat dishes, and black pepper.
Italy played a key role in the story of spice when the
and it can seem as if almost 1 tbsp hot red chili flakes
every Italian cheese dish Republic of Venice dominated the trade from the 8th
1 tsp dried oregano
features nutmeg. to 15th centuries. Today, varied regional palettes reflect
1 tsp garlic powder
Italy’s history as a collection of separate states, but 1 tsp salt
Supplementary fennel, nutmeg, and saffron are popular countrywide 1 tsp ground black pepper
Ginger, cacao, licorice, for flavoring meats, cheeses, pasta dishes, and risottos. 1 tbsp olive oil
cinnamon, anise The fiery food of Calabria uses the hot peperoncino 13⁄4 oz (50 g) cubed pancetta
Ginger is used sparingly, 1 onion, finely chopped
chili to spice cheese, salami, and oil. Cloves, too, are
while cacao nibs may 2 (14.5 oz) cans chopped tomatoes
feature in the sweet prevalent both in sweet dishes—the compact Sienese
and sour agrodolce sauce. panforte tart, for instance—and in rustic savory ones. Combine the first five ingredients
Calabrians pair licorice and set aside. Heat the oil and
with game and also use it
fry the pancetta and onion for
to flavor liqueurs.
5 minutes. Add the spice mix
and tomatoes, and simmer for
10 minutes. Serve with penne pasta.
 Europe 77

SPICE
PALETTE
S O U TH E A S T E U R O P E
Unusual | Earthy | Generous

The food of these eastern Mediterranean and former ue

bl
communist states is far from spice heavy, and Greek fen
ugreek
food in particular tends to favor herbal flavoring. That
said, Hungarian paprika (introduced by the Turks in
the 17th century), and Georgian blue fenugreek
represent two of Europe’s most distinctive flavors.
Chilis appear often in Balkan cooking, but rarely for pa
prik
a
heat; what warmth there is tends to come from black Signature
pepper. Caraway is often paired with cabbage in Blue fenugreek, black pepper,
Hungary and occasionally with fish in the Balkans, paprika
and cinnamon is popular in Romania. The food of Blue fenugreek, almost
exclusively used in Georgian
Cyprus is often laced with coriander seeds and, cuisine, tastes a little like
unusually, pinelike mastic. hay and burned sugar. Both
seeds and pods are ground
to a powder.

Supporting
Cinnamon, caraway, fennel, chili
As well as providing the
warm spice notes of Greek
moussaka, cinnamon features
heavily in Romanian cookery,
which is otherwise spice light.
Caraway is sometimes added
LOC AL S P IC E BLE ND to the Greek orange-flavored
loukaniko sausage.
Khmeli-suneli
Peverino is a Universally popular in Georgia, khmeli-suneli Supplementary
peppery cookie from is used as a meat rub or in hearty stews, Dill, carob, vanilla, mastic
Venice dating from although it is highly palatable sprinkled Dill seeds are often paired
on almost anything. with fish in Eastern Europe.
the city’s heyday as Carob is popular as an
1 tbsp coriander seeds ½ tsp chili powder
the European center alternative to chocolate,
1 tsp black peppercorns 2 tbsp dried marigold and is used in Greek carob
of the spice trade. 2 dried bay leaves 2 tbsp dried savory cake; Hungarian creams
1 tbsp blue 2 tbsp dried marjoram and cakes are often infused
fenugreek leaves 1 tbsp dried mint with vanilla.
1 tbsp blue fenugreek seeds 1 tbsp dried dill
1 tsp garlic powder 1 tsp dried hyssop

Grind the whole spices and combine

with the rest of the ingredients.
FLAVOR GROUPS RECIPES
Sweet Warming Phenols .............................................. 80 Chinese Steamed Salmon with Chili and Star Anise.......... 92
Warming Terpenes .................................................... 102 Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with Seven-Spice ............ 104
Fragrant Terpenes ..................................................... 116 Ejjeh with Zucchini, Feta, and Dill and
Earthy Terpenes ........................................................ 126 Black Lime Harissa ................................................ 112
Penetrating Terpenes ................................................ 130 West African Peanut Curry with Durban Masala ............. 124
Citrus Terpenes ........................................................ 142 Asian Larb Salad with Curried Duck and Khao Kua......... 140
Sweet-Sour Acids ..................................................... 148 Date and Tamarind Granita with
Fruity Aldehydes ....................................................... 160 Caramelized Pineapple .......................................... 156
Toasty Pyrazines ....................................................... 164 Black Sesame, Licorice, and Cardamom Ice Cream ........ 170
Sulfurous Compounds ............................................... 172 Sweet and Spicy Apple Pastry Rosettes ........................ 182
Pungent Compounds ................................................. 180 Spiced Scallops with Saffron Beurre Blanc ................... 196
Unique Compounds ................................................... 194 Spiced Filipino Adobo with Chicken and Pork ................ 208
SPICE | profiles
Discover all you need to know about the world’s top spices
with in-depth science and practical advice, and begin
your culinary adventure with innovative recipes.
80 Spice Profiles

Spice story
CINNAM ON From 1600 BCE, ancient Egyptians
used a type of cinnamon for incense
Sweet | Aromatic | Warm and as an embalming spice, importing
it from Asia via African traders. It is not
known for certain whether this was
cinnamon from Sri Lanka or Chinese
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION cassia. From the 8th century CE, Arab
Cinnamomum verum Trees are coppiced at 18–24 months of age merchants dominated the trade and
and the stump covered, causing it to grow
like a bush. New shoots are removed at invented tall tales to protect their
ALSO KNOWN AS
the base and stripped for their bark. sources and high prices. In one such
Ceylon cinnamon, “true” cinnamon
myth, giant birds were said to gather
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION the bark from an unknown land, using
Inner layers of bark are dried in the sun it to make nests on high cliffs, and the
Cinnamaldehyde
and rolled together by hand into long
“quills,” which are graded and cut. only way to collect it was to lure the
PARTS USED birds away with large pieces of meat.
Dried bark of tender shoots
NON-CULINARY USES The real source remained a mystery to
In perfumery and as a natural antiseptic. Europeans until the Portuguese found
cinnamon trees growing in Sri Lanka
in the early 1500s, and promptly
The plant occupied the island. They in turn were
Cinnamon is a small evergreen tree ousted by the Dutch, who then fought
in the laurel family, found in the
wild growing in wet tropical forests. the British for centuries over control of
the territory and lucrative trade.

Young shoots
are harvested
for their bark
every two years
MYANMAR

VIETNAM
Powder
Ground spice quickly loses its
flavor. Buy it in small quantities,
keep in an airtight container in a cool,
dark place, and use within 6 months. SRI LANKA
INDONESIA

Whole
Cinnamon sticks
will keep their
flavor for up to a
year. Lighter brown,
thinner, more Region of cultivation
fragile sticks are Cinnamon is native to the island of Sri Lanka
higher quality. and is now also notably cultivated in Myanmar,
Vietnam, Indonesia, and the islands of the
Seychelles off the coast of East Africa.
 Flavor Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Cinnamon 81

Kitchen Cinnamon does not in itself taste sweet, but rather it enhances the perception
of sweetness in other ingredients. This makes it perfect for sweet pastries and
creativity desserts, and for drawing out sweet notes in savory dishes.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Cinnamaldehyde is the main flavor compound and is sensed by temperature Fruit Mix cinnamon powder with
receptors on the tongue, giving cinnamon a warming quality that makes it a good sugar and sprinkle over peaches,
partner for other warming spices. Make further connections through the woodiness figs, apples, and pears before baking
of caryophyllene, the penetrating aroma of eugenol, and the floral notes of linalool. or grilling, or add to the batter for a
plum or cherry clafoutis.

Sweet baked goods Use ground

CINNAMON cinnamon to flavor Nordic buns, Italian

Ci panforte, or French pain d’épices.

Tomatoes and eggplants

A cinnamon-infused tomato sauce
makes an excellent topping for
CARYOPHYLLENE EUGENOL baked eggplants.
spicy | medicinal | woody |
woody | dry warming Red meats Add a stick or two to a
lamb tagine, an Iranian khorak beef stew,
or the stock of a fragrant Vietnamese
CINNAMALDEHYDE beef pho noodle soup.
LINALOOL
warming | spicy |
floral | woody | spicy Pigeon Cinnamon is the main
pungent
flavoring in Moroccan pastilla pigeon
pie with phyllo pastry.
pair with other
eugenols for clean,
enhance woody add depth with an draw out the floral penetrating aromas:
notes with earthier warming side with another
clove also shares
caryophyllenes: compound: linalool:
caryophyllene and
BLE NDS TO T RY
allspice also cumin contributes cardamom brings should be used
shares eugenol, for the equally warming complex citrus-floral Use and adapt these recipes for
sparingly
warming spiciness and tenacious and penetrating classic blends featuring cinnamon:
anise and star
peppercorn
cuminaldehyde eucalyptus aromas Advieh p.27
anise will enhance
adds pungent heat the sweetening effect Burmese garam masala p.48
from piperine of cinnamon and add Jamaican jerk rub p.64
licorice notes
Mole mix p.65
Mulling spice p.73

REL EAS E T HE F LAVOR

The taste components in cinnamon

need time to escape from its woody
matrix, and the critical flavor
compound, cinnamaldehyde, does
not dissolve in water.

Add early in cooking to Fat and alcohol will help Steam is also a carrier of
give flavors time to disperse cinnamaldehyde. cinnamaldehyde, so boil vigorously
suffuse the dish. with a lid on the pan.
82 Spice Profiles

Spice story
CASSIA Cassia was used for medicinal purposes
in ancient China from 2700 bce, and
Sweet | Peppery | Astringent was among the first spices to reach the
Mediterranean via the ancient trade
routes. The Egyptians used cinnamon
as a culinary spice and for its health
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION properties, but it is unclear whether
Cinnamomum cassia, C. loureirii, C. burmannii The bark is harvested every second year they used cinnamon or cassia. Persians
in the monsoon season from trees that are
at least four years old. knew cassia and cinnamon as darchini,
ALSO KNOWN AS
and used them in savory and sweet
Chinese cinnamon (C. cassia), Vietnamese/
Saigon cinnamon (C. loureirii), Indonesian/ COMMERCIAL PREPARATION dishes. By the 5th century bce, cassia
Java/Korintje cinnamon (C. burmannii) Strips of inner bark are dried in the sun a had been identified as distinct from
nd curl up naturally, forming thick shards; cinnamon. Medieval English and
buds are dried.
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND French cookbooks referred to cassia
Cinnamaldehyde
NON-CULINARY USES
and cinnamon as “canella,” but cassia’s
In perfumes; in Chinese medicine to treat coarser flavor saw its status demoted:
PARTS USED
Dried bark, unripe fruits (“buds”)
diarrhea and dyspepsia. in his 15th-century book of manners,
Bok of Nurture, John Russell wrote
that “Synamone is for lords, canelle
The plant for common people.” Today, cassia
Cassia comes from accounts for nearly 50 percent of the
an evergreen tree
in the laurel family, world’s cinnamon supply, and is a key
and is closely related spice in China and Southeast Asia. It is
to cinnamon.
popular in North America, where most
“ground cinnamon” is actually cassia.

CHINA
Buds (TROPICAL)
The dried unripe fruits resemble TAIWAN
cloves and are used in the Far East
Leaves and as a pickling spice. INDIA
buds are also LAOS
aromatic,
VIETNAM
unlike “true” Bark THAILAND
cinnamon The bark is darker, MALAYSIA
thicker, more loosely
coiled, and harder to INDONESIA
snap than that of
cinnamon. It carries
a stronger aroma
Bark and more intense
is coarse flavour. Region of cultivation
and grayish Cassia is native to the wet tropical forests
brown of southern China. It is cultivated across
southern and eastern Asia, but mainly in
southern China and Vietnam.
 Flavor Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Cassia 83

Kitchen Cassia has a sweet, warming taste, but is bitter and lacks the floral, citrus notes of
cinnamon. Its deeper, spicier, less subtle flavor is best suited to robustly flavored
creativity savory dishes, although the spice can be used in sweet baking.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Cassia’s flavor profile is dominated by cinnamaldehyde, the compound that gives cinnamon and cassia Beef, pork Include a piece of cassia
their recognisable taste. Tannins, which give a mouth-puckering astringency, are also present and it bark with other warming spices in an
contains coumarin, a phenol absent in “true” cinnamon, as well as eucalyptus-scented cineole. Italian beef or oxtail ragu, beef rendang,
or pork vindaloo.

Pulses, grains Add a piece of cassia

CASSIA bark to the base aromatic ingredients for

Ca a pilaf, dhal, or curry.

Baking Create the unmistakable

aroma of American iced cinnamon rolls
by using ground bark; add ground buds
to Christmas confections, fruit cake, and
CINNAMALDEHYDE CINEOLE spiced cookie dough.
warming | sweet-spicy penetrating |
| cinnamon-like eucalyptus | fresh Preserves Infuse cucumber pickling
brine, tomato chutney, or a barbecue
sauce with cassia buds.
COUMARIN
sweet | warming |
grassy
pair with other earthy, pair with cineole-flavored
bitter, and/or gently spices to enhance BLE ND TO T RY
warming spices: eucalyptus nuances:
Use and adapt this classic blend
carob is sweet, earthy and combine with other sweet cardamom adds a sweet featuring cassia:
contains cinnamaldehyde spices for a broader profile: minty background
Garam masala p.40
cumin contributes an mahleb shares coumarin bay is rich in cineole and
earthy, slightly bitter warmth and gives an almond flavor introduces a complex, piney,
and floral freshness
star anise adds herbal, nutmeg is a star match,
earthy, and floral notes, and adding bittersweet woodiness allspice provides a sweet Co umarin c aut io n
an undercurrent of licorice peppery warmth
vanilla is honey sweet and Sweet-tasting coumarin can cause
ginger brings pungent slightly nutty grains of Selim has a temporary liver damage if consumed
warmth and sweet medicinal flavor and adds in excessive amounts. Regular
anise intensifies sweetness
citrus notes pine, floral, and woody notes
and adds herby notes consumers of cinnamon-flavored foods
should therefore choose “true
cinnamon” rather than cassia.

Children
REL EASE THE FL AVOR 1
⁄8 oz (3.5 g)
Most flavor compounds in cassia, including dominant cinnamaldehyde, do not
dissolve in water and can struggle to escape from woody bark’s matrix.
Adults
1
⁄4 oz (7g)
Cassia bark is
best ground in an
electric grinder Medical authorities have recommended
maximum weekly quantities of cassia,
above which it should not be consumed
Grind cassia just before use Include fats and/or alcohol Steam disperses cinnamaldehyde,
for a long period.
to minimize the loss of flavor in a dish to help disperse and a water-based dish can be infused
oils by evaporation. flavor compounds. with flavor if boiled in a lidded pot.
84 Spice Profiles

Spice story
CLOVE The Moluccas (now Maluku) of
Indonesia were once renowned as
Sweet | Astringent | Camphorous the Spice Islands thanks to a trio of
indigenous spices—cloves, nutmeg,
and mace—which were cultivated
there, and nowhere else, for almost
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION two millennia. Courtiers addressing the
Syzygium aromaticum Twice a year, the flower buds are picked Emperor during the Chinese Hang
by hand when they have just turned
pinky-red and are almost ready to open. dynasty (206 bCE–220 CE) used cloves to
ALSO KNOWN AS
sweeten their breath, and the Romans,
Nail spice: the common name
in many languages translates COMMERCIAL PREPARATION who named the spice clavus (Latin for
as “nail spice” due to its shape. The buds are dried in the sun until they nail), used it as an incense and perfume.
turn dark brown and harden. In the Middle Ages, clove took off as
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND a culinary spice in the West. At first
Eugenol NON-CULINARY USES
To flavor kretek cigarettes in Indonesia;
the Republic of Venice had a virtual
in some dental products; and to treat monopoly of the lucrative trade, but
PARTS USED
Flower bud
nausea, indigestion, and inflammation. the Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, and
English fought a series of wars to seize
control, with the Dutch eventually
Unpicked Round tops winning out. In the 18th century,
buds develop are the Frenchman Pierre Poivre managed to
into crimson unopened
flowers with a petals of the smuggle clove seedlings to Mauritius.
creamy froth flower
of stamens

PAKISTAN

Whole INDIA
Look for cloves that are plump, not
shriveled or broken, and where the INDONESIA
Glossy, majority retain their rounded tops. Test
bay-like for quality by pressing the “stem”
leaves are with a fingernail: oil should ooze out. SRI LANKA
also aromatic

MALUKU
Powder ISLANDS
The plant Ground cloves
The clove tree is a quickly lose their
tropical evergreen, flavor, and it is
which flourishes in better to buy whole Region of cultivation
volcanic, loamy soil. cloves and grind as Indonesia is still the largest producer of cloves,
Flowers are produced required. Twelve although most of the crop is used by the local
after five years, but whole cloves are kretek cigarette industry. Other major producers
the tree can remain roughly equivalent to are Madagascar and Tanzania, with lesser
productive for 100 years. a teaspoon of ground. amounts from India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan.
 Flavor Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Clove 85

Kitchen Clove’s powerful flavor is usually tamed by blending it with other similarly
warming spices to soften its dominance. Antiseptic properties make it a common
creativity spice for pickling, but use sparingly.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Clove has the highest eugenol content of any spice; this perfumed, warming phenol compound has a eucalyptus- Tomatoes and red cabbage Add a
like scent and a sweetening effect on the tongue. Woody caryophyllene is the other compound useful for pairing, pinch to tomato sauce or when braising
and the flavor profile is rounded off with green banana–like methyl amylketone and minty methyl salicylate. red cabbage.

Peaches The fruit shares eugenol,

making it a natural partner. Preserve
CLOVE in a sugar syrup infused with cinnamon,

Cl fresh ginger, and whole cloves (2–3

per peach).

Beef and pork Season a beef

stew, pork braise, or classic French
pot-au-feu with a few whole cloves, or
use them in the masala for a Keralan
beef curry.

Milk Add a clove or two to milk

EUGENOL CARYOPHYLLENE before scalding it to make a white sauce
medicinal | woody | woody | spicy | or an Indian kheer or payasam pudding.
warming bitter
Hot drinks Infuse tea or coffee with
a whole clove for sweetness without the
calories. Cloves are also an essential
aromatic in mulled wine or cider.
pair with other warming spices that contain draw out the spicier side with more
some eugenol: caryophyllene-carrying spices:
allspice provides a sweet, peppery warmth grains of paradise bring a peppery
warmth and penetrating spiciness
BLE NDS TO T RY
licorice contributes sweetness and
eucalyptus-like notes black pepper lends warmth as well Try these recipes for classic blends
nutmeg or cinnamon used sparingly add
as woody notes featuring clove, or why not adapt
warm spicy notes cacao adds rich, roasted, bitter flavors them with some blending science?
Pilau masala p.34
bay leaf and fenugreek offer excellent
savory pairings Vindaloo paste p.44
Finnish gingerbread spice p.72

REL EAS E T HE F LAVOR

Clove’s main flavor compounds, eugenol and caryophyllene, are oil based. They
evaporate very quickly once released, and barely dissolve in water.

Alcohol Oil
Use whole cloves or Add early to give ample time Some oil/fat and/or alcohol
grind just before adding for the flavor to diffuse out is needed to distribute
to the recipe. of the woody matrix. the flavor compounds.
86 Spice Profiles

Spice story
ALLSPICE The Mayans of Central America
were using allspice from at
Warm | Peppery | Sweet least 2000 BCE to embalm their
dead, alleviate arthritis, and flavor
chocolate beverages, while the
indigenous peoples of the Caribbean
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION used it to preserve meat and fish.
Pimenta dioica Twigs bearing bunches of berries are Christopher Columbus was the first
handpicked from trees in summer, when
the berries are mature but still green. European to encounter the spice, in
ALSO KNOWN AS
Jamaica in 1494, but mistook it for a
Jamaican pepper, clove pepper, pimento
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION variety of pepper, hence its Spanish
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
Berries are “sweated” (see vanilla curing, name pimento. From the outset,
p.100) and then dried for several days in Europeans were enamored of its
Eugenol
the sun, or artificially, before being picked.
preservative powers, and the spice
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES
is used as a preservative in the
Dried berries; occasionally fresh leaves
Essential oil in perfumes and cosmetics; Scandinavian fishing industry to this
flavoring agent in medicines; pesticide day. When Russia was invaded by
and fungicide; antiseptic and digestive aid.
Napoleon in the early 19th century,
the Russian troops crushed allspice
berries inside their boots to ward off
The plant Powder
Allspice is an evergreen tree in Ground allspice bacterial and fungal foot infections.
the myrtle family. It starts fruiting quickly loses its
by the age of 7 or 8 years, and potency. Buy in
continues for up to 100 years. small quantities
and keep sealed
in a cool, dark place
for up to 6 months.
Berries ripen
to dark
purple if left
on the tree, Whole
but lose most MEXICO JAMAICA
The dried berries retain their flavor
of their aroma well and will keep almost indefinitely
sealed in a cool, dark place.
GUATEMALA

Rough HONDURAS
surface
contains tiny
oil glands

Region of cultivation
Most flavor is Native to the West Indies, Mexico, and Central
Glossy leaves concentrated in America, allspice is mainly cultivated in
are used in the the wrinkled husk Jamaica, but also in Honduras, Mexico,
Caribbean for (or “pericarp”), Guatemala, Hawaii, and Tonga.
stuffing meat not the seeds
 Flavor Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Allspice 87

Kitchen True to its name, this full-bodied, versatile spice suits both sweet and savory
dishes, and blends comfortably with other spices. Allspice forms the backbone
creativity of Jamaican cuisine and is a key component of jerk seasoning.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Allspice pairs with other spices that share the phenolic compound eugenol, Raw fish Combine with
which carries a strongly medicinal aroma. Other cineole-bearing spices with a mustard seeds as a pickling spice
eucalyptus-like, penetrating quality also pair well. Lesser amounts of the lighter for raw fish, such as herring, or in
terpenes phellandrene, linalool, myrcene, and pinene round off the taste profile. Mexican escabeche.

Sweet vegetables To bring out

the natural sweetness in vegetables, try
ALLSPICE it in a tomato sauce or soup, a beet

Al borscht, or puréed sweet potato.

Red meats Stir ground spice into

beef stews (particularly tomato-based)
and pork or game pâté mixtures.
EUGENOL LINALOOL
medicinal | woody | floral | woody | Stone fruit and rhubarb Sprinkle
warming spicy a pinch of ground allspice into the pan
when poaching plums, apples, pears,
or rhubarb.
CINEOLE
PHELLANDRENE
eucalyptus | Sweet baked goods Add a pinch to
peppery | mint |
medicinal | biscuit dough, ginger cake, milk
mildly citrus
penetrating
puddings, or steam puddings.

bring more combine with give a boost to the tap into the fragrant
complexity to the other cineoles peppery profile: floral side with
eugenol spectrum: to reinforce the
star anise also
other linalools: BLE NDS TO T RY
sharp, fresh notes:
nutmeg and shares cineole for coriander also
cinnamon will draw galangal will sweet aniseed adds zesty citrus notes Try these recipes for classic blends
out warmer notes provide a citrusy edge piquancy featuring allspice, or why not adapt
grains of Selim them with some blending science?
licorice cardamom brings black pepper also share cineole and
emphasizes sweetly a penetrating warmth contributes a gentle enhance on the Arabic baharat p.26
medicinal flavors pungent heat peppery side of allspice Jamaican jerk rub p.64
black cardamom
bay has a fresher, adds a smoky layer Mulling spice p.73
floral take on eugenol under the eucalyptus

RELEAS E Flavor 266°F (130°C)–

compounds are
THE F LAVO R concentrated
356°F (180°C)
in the shell
Extra layers of smoky, roasted
aromas from pyrazines can
be created by cracking
and toasting the whole Before toasting, crush the Cracking the shells helps to Toast in a dry frying pan. New flavor
spice before grinding. berries lightly in a pestle and release the flavor oils, which compounds, such as pyrazines, form
mortar to crack the shells. are stored in tiny glands. above 266°F (130°C), but at 356°F
(180°C) burned flavors dominate.
88 Spice Profiles

Spice story
ANISE Records show ancient Egyptians using
anise as a cure for snake bites, but it
Camphorous | Sweet | Warming was the Romans who really developed
a fondness for its intensely sweet,
licorice-like taste, drawing on anise to
flavor everything from the provisions
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION of a lowly centurion to the spiced wine,
Pimpinella anisum Grown as an annual crop, plants are pulled conditum, and rich cake, mustaceoe,
up or mown when the fruits ripen.
served at special banquets. Anise
ALSO KNOWN AS
endured as a popular kitchen garden
Aniseed, sweet cumin, white anise COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Fruits are left to dry for a week, then plant into the Middle Ages, especially
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUNDS
threshed to separate the flower heads. in the Pyrenees, where monks produced
Anethole, anisyl alcohol an anise-flavored liqueur that the
NON-CULINARY USES French drank as an aperitif and also
The essential oil is used in cough
PARTS USED
medicine, perfumes, and soaps. Also
added to stews and stocks. Today,
Fleshless fruits housing small seeds
known as a traditional remedy for several liqueurs are still flavored with
gas and headaches. anise’s essential oil, including French
pastis, Greek ouzo, Turkish raki, and
Arab arrak. Anise has also long been
The plant Seeds often retain regarded as an effective aid to
Anise is a frost-sensitive, bits of stalk, but digestion; in India today the fruits are
non-woody plant. The excessive stalk
flowers bloom in commonly chewed whole after meals.
midsummer, and develop
indicates sub-
into ripe fruits a month or standard quality
two later. Anise thrives in
a light, alkaline soil.
EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN

GREECE

Small flowers EGYPT MIDDLE

are yellow-white
EAST
and clustered
in umbels
Check that
seeds are free
of dust
Whole
The brown-green oval seeds are best Region of cultivation
bought whole and ground as required. Anise is cultivated widely in its native region
Fern-like Seeds will keep for up to two years in of the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, and the
leaves have a a sealed container. Wild black anise Middle East, and commercial crops are now
subtle flavour from Calabria in Italy is sweeter and grown as far afield as the Baltic countries and
and can be less bitter than standard anise, but Latin America. Cultivation has also spread east
used as a herb much harder to source. to India, China, and Japan.
 Flavor Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Anise 89

Kitchen Anise is most frequently used to flavor sweet baked goods, but has many savory uses
as well. Anise and fennel seeds are largely interchangeable in Asian cooking. If using
creativity an anise-based liqueur, add the lightest drizzle to avoid overwhelming a dish.

BL ENDING SCIENC E F OOD PART NE RS

The unmistakable herby licorice flavor of anise derives from the powerful anethole compound. Spice pairings Celeriac Add ground anise to a rich
can be made through the other, more subtle compounds—anisyl alcohol for its hints of cherry, vanilla, dressing for celeriac remoulade.
and chocolate, as well as estragole and traces of pinene and limonene.
Potatoes Fry chopped onions
with whole anise, curry leaves, and
mustard seeds to flavor a potato
ANISE and pea curry.

An Fish Stir a teaspoonful into a South

Indian–style coconut fish soup or
tomato-based Mediterranean fish stew.

ANISYL ALCOHOL ANETHOLE

Pork Add the toasted seeds to
sweet cherry | vanilla sweet | medicinal | sausage meat used for meatballs
| floral fennel-like or stuffing.

Fruit Incorporate the seeds into

a sweet pastry dough for a lemon,
ESTRAGOLE PINENE quince, or apple tart, or fry them in
licorice | harsh | woody | spicy |
a batter for apple or banana fritters.
herbal camphorous

RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
Anethole dissolves in alcohol and oil but
pair with spices mix with licorice- enhance woody combine with other not in water. Fry gently in oil or other fats
that have tasting spices or notes with sweet or licorice before mixing into the rest of the dish,
similar tastes: other penetrating another pinene: flavors: or use alcohol (e.g. from rice wine or
flavours: fermented soy sauce) in a liquid-based
vanilla adds black pepper nutmeg contains
creaminess as licorice has similar also brings a dipentene, and is dish to disperse.
well as sweetness flavour,adding gentle pungency sweetly warming
eucalyptus cineole and
cocoa flavor fennel enhances
sweetness
contributes earthy the licorice character
bittersweet notes bay contributes thanks to its estragole
a fresh, penetrating and anethole
herbiness

Alcohol Oil

T h e s w e e t n e ss c o m p o u n d 13 times
sweeter
Anethole comprises up to 90 percent of the flavor oils in anise and than sugar BLE NDS TO T RY
conveys the spice’s licorice flavor. The compound also excites the
sweetness receptors on human taste buds, making it sweeter than Try these recipes for classic blends
sugar—but without the calories. It is no surprise, then, that anise featuring anise, or why not adapt
has long been the spice of choice for flavoring sweet candies and them with some blending science?
liqueurs, especially before the ready availability of sugar. Burmese garam masala p.48
Shandong spice bag p.58
Nanjing spice bag p.59
90 Spice Profiles

Spice story
STAR ANISE Star anise’s Latin name Illicium means
“allurement,” referring to its sweet
Licorice | Sweet | Warm smell and pretty shape. It has been
cultivated for more than 3,000 years for
culinary and medicinal use in its native
China and Vietnam. It symbolizes
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION good fortune in Chinese culture,
Illicium verum The fruits are harvested before they ripen, where finding a star with more than
from late summer through early winter.
the normal eight arms is considered
ALSO KNOWN AS
very good luck. From the late Middle
Chinese anise, badian COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
anise, Siberian anise The fruits are dried, typically in the sun, Ages it was traded along the tea route
until hard and woody and the pods’ points from China via Russia, and for much
have split to expose the seeds. of this time it was known as Siberian
MAIN FLAVOR COMPOUND
Anethole cardamom. Due to the relatively
NON-CULINARY USES
In soaps, perfumery, and cough mixtures;
high price of anise, and the increasing
PARTS USED
in Chinese medicine for stomach pain, popularity of Asian cooking, star anise
Seed pods, seeds
headaches, and rheumatism. has never been more widely used than
it is today. Indeed, shortages have
occurred during international flu
The plant outbreaks because star anise contains
Star anise is the fruit shikimic acid, a chemical used to
of a small Chinese
evergreen tree, closely make the antiviral drug Tamiflu.
related to magnolia.
Trees can bear fruit
for 100 years or more.

Leaves are large,

fragrant, and
waxy, forming
in bunches Ground
The seeds and woody carpels are used JAPAN
CHINA
to make the ground spice. The flavor
compounds evaporate fast, so it does
not stay fresh for long. TAIWAN
INDIA
LAOS
Narcissus-like Each “arm” is VIETNAM
flowers turn a carpel that PHILIPPINES
yellow just contains a seed
before fruiting.

Whole pods
The shiny seeds have Region of cultivation
less flavor than the Native to southwest China and northeast
carpels, where fragrant Vietnam, star anise is cultivated in China,
Whitish trunk defense compounds India, Laos, Vietnam, the Philippines,
is aromatic. are concentrated. Japan, and Taiwan.
 Flavor Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Star Anise 91

Kitchen Star anise is essential to Chinese cuisine and indispensable to five-spice powder.
In South India, it may be added to a biryani and used in versions of garam
creativity masala. Vietnamese pho would be incomplete without its distinctive flavor.

BL ENDING SCIENC E F OOD PART NE RS

Star anise shares the anethole flavor compound with anise, fennel, and licorice, Vegetables Add a pod to braised
even though they are from unrelated plants. Anethole is 13 times sweeter than leeks, cabbage, or fennel; sprinkle the
table sugar, and gives the spice its sweetness. The overall flavor profile is more ground spice over pumpkin, root
complex than that of other anethole spices, and features linalool’s alluring floral flavor. vegetables, and swede before roasting;
or add a pinch to sweet vegetable purées.

Rice Put a whole pod in the pan

STAR ANISE when cooking basmati or sticky Thai

St rice—its delicate, sweet flavor

complements biryanis and pilaus.

Beef, pork Use the whole spice to

CINEOLE add freshness to an oxtail stew, or add
eucalyptus | to Chinese slow-braised pork.
mildly medicinal | PHELLANDRENE
penetrating green | peppery | Seafood Mix star anise, ginger,
citrus and peppercorns in the saucepan
before adding clams or mussels and
ANETHOLE wine or a splash of sherry or Pernod
sweet | licorice | for a Vietnamese-style dish.
warming
draw out the underlying Fruit preserves Combine with
eucalyptus notes with quince, figs, apples, apricots, and
more cineole spices: tropical fruits such as pineapple and
cardamom also brings mango to add a fresh licorice taste.
pair with similarly sweet add heft to traces of
floral notes through shared and/or warming spices: fresh, herbal tanginess
linalool by combining with more
nutmeg, mace and
bay adds pinelike phellandrene spices:
allspice possess eugenol
notes, and shares linalool that synergizes with anethole; peppercorn brings a
for fresh, floral aromas and nutmeg and mace also lingering spicy heat
BLE NDS TO T RY
slight bitterness share terpineol for fresh,
dill also features limonene Try these recipes for classic blends
black cardamom and woody notes
for a stronger citrus edge featuring star anise, or why not adapt
grains of Selim lend an cinnamon has a sweet,
appetizing wood smoke
them with some blending science?
warming spiciness that
aroma to the blend Vindaloo paste p.44
complements anethole
galangal and ginger also Burmese garam masala p.48
make excellent, fresh and Shandong spice bag p.58
zesty pairings
Nanjing spice bag p.59
Five-spice powder p.60

REL EAS E T HE F LAVOR

Much of the flavor is locked up in
the hard carpels of the pods, which
protect the seeds and contain
concentrated flavor compounds
that evolved to repel pests. There Toast at 266–356°F Use oil and alcohol (e.g. Cooking with alliums Slow cook with whole pods
are various ways to release and (130–180°C) to create nutty rice wine, fermented soy sauce) creates meaty flavors when to allow time for the flavors
enhance that distinctive flavor. pyrazine compounds. to disperse the anethole. sulfur reacts with the anethole. to escape the woody husk.
92 Spice Profiles

Simple and easy to prepare, this delicately

CHINESE STEAMED spiced Chinese supper is given a piquant twist
with star anise and Scotch bonnet chili, adding
SALMON WITH CHILI depth to the dish without overpowering the mild
flavor of the fish. It works especially well with
AND STAR ANISE lightly smoked salmon, but if you prefer you can
use unsmoked fillets.

SPICE
Serves 4
Prep time 30 mins
1 Rub the salmon fillets with the white pepper. Arrange them in
a single layer in a heatproof dish, placing one piece of star anise
underneath and one piece on top of each fillet of fish.
IDEA S Cooking time 10 mins

4 lightly smoked salmon fillets, skinned 2 Pour in the wine or sherry, sprinkle the ginger over the fish, and
place a few strips of chili on top of each salmon fillet.
Swap in different ½ tsp ground white pepper
colored peppers:
black pepper for
a more aromatic,
handful of star anise, broken up
1 tbsp Shaoxing wine or dry sherry
3 Pour water to a depth of ¾ in (2 cm) into a steamer or deep pan
with a trivet in the bottom, and bring to a simmer. Place the fish
dish in the pan, cover the pan tightly with foil, and steam over low–
complex heat; green 1 tbsp finely chopped fresh root ginger medium heat for 8–10 minutes, depending on the thickness of the
pepper for dominant
1 Scotch bonnet chili, seeded and cut fish. Add more hot water to the pan if necessary.
herbaceous notes.
into around 12 strips

Be inspired by the
fresh spices to try
2 tsp light soy sauce
2 tsp dark soy sauce
4 When the fish is cooked, take the dish from the pan and remove
the star anise pieces. Pour the soy sauces over the fish and
sprinkle with the spring onions.
alternatives to star 3 spring onions, finely chopped
anise: allspice will
pick out fruity esters
in chili; citrus-floral
coriander will enhance
1 tbsp vegetable oil
2 tsp sesame oil 5 Heat a wok or heavy pan over high heat. Add the three oils
and swirl them around the pan. When the oil is very hot and
slightly smoking, remove from the heat and pour over the fish. Serve
1 tsp chili oil
the citral in ginger. with steamed rice and stir-fried greens, such as bok choy.

Replace fresh chilis

with dried—rehydrated
and sliced—for smoky,
toasted flavors.
94 Spice Profiles

Spice story
FENNEL Herbalists throughout the ages, from
the Vedic tradition of India to the
Aniseedy | Warming | Bittersweet authors of Ancient Greek medical
texts, have endorsed fennel for its
sight-restoring powers and as an
antidote to snake bites. The Greek
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION for fennel is maratho, and the plains
Foeniculum vulgare (bitter fennel), Plants are cut when the seeds have of Marathon, where the Greeks won
F. v. var. dulce (sweet fennel) matured on the flowering umbels and
taken on a sage green color. a decisive battle against the Persians
in 490 BCE, were named for their
ALSO KNOWN AS
Sweet cumin COMMERCIAL PREPARATION “fennel fields.” The Romans
Umbels bearing the fruits are dried, then introduced the spice to all the lands
threshed, cleaned, and graded. they conquered, and by the early
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUND
Anethole medieval period its popularity was
NON-CULINARY USES
Essential oil in cough medicines, soaps,
widespread across Europe, thanks
PARTS USED
and perfumes. In herbal medicine to in part to the King of the Franks,
Fruits (misnamed seeds), pollen
improve vision and aid digestion. Emperor Charlemagne (742–814 CE),
who demanded that it be cultivated
on his Imperial farms. European
Fruits are Fruits are colonists used fennel as a preservative
produced by tiny soft enough to Oval husk and to disguise the flavor of meat
yellow flowers eat whole contains past its best. They spread the plant
the seeds
to the Americas and Australia, where
wild escapees are now considered
noxious weeds.

SOUTHERN EUROPE

Sweet fennel
grows a swollen NORTH AFRICA
stem base TURKEY

Colour ranges from

green to yellow-brown
The plant
A hardy, herbaceous
perennial in the carrot
family, fennel grown Region of cultivation
for spice comes in two Whole Fennel is native to the Mediterranean and
forms: wild bitter Bitter fennel has a mildy bitter cultivated throughout Europe, but India is in
fennel and cultivated taste a little like celery seed. fact the main producer. Other notable growers
sweet fennel. Aniselike sweet fennel is more include Turkey, Japan, Argentina, North Africa,
widely available. and the US (mostly California).
 Flavor Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Fennel 95

Kitchen Fennel enhances both sweet and savory foods with its mild aniseed character. The
spice is most notable as a flavoring for Italian salami, and for its use in masala blends
creativity throughout South Asia, from Kashmir to Sri Lanka.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

The main sweet aniseed flavor of fennel comes from powerful anethole, while Plums and figs Add toasted
penetrating fenchone contributes bitter pungency, and small amounts of citrusy seeds when poaching or making jams
limonene and pine-scented pinene are also present. and chutneys.

Fruiting vegetables Stir ground

fennel into an eggplant, zucchini,
FENNEL and tomato caponata stew.

Fe Pork and beef Mix into meatballs

or lightly crush with salt as a rub for
roasting pork belly skin.

Oily fish Crush with a little pepper

ANETHOLE FENCHONE and salt and then sprinkle on top of fish
sweet | herby | camphorous | bitter |
fillets before frying.
aniseed pungent
Almonds Sprinkle sugar mixed
with crushed fennel over warm
LIMONENE PINENE almond cookies.
citrus | herby | woody | spicy |
turpentine pinelike

pair with other enhance the fresh, combine with other draw out fennel’s
sweet spices fruity side with pinenes to penetrating, RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
containing another limonene: complement the camphorous side:
licorice-like woody spice notes: Fennel’s flavor-containing
cardamom’s cassia’s camphor oils are housed within
compounds:
penetrating black pepper adds will highlight the
hollow tubes (canals) just beneath
anise and star eucalyptus-like a pungent warmth fenchone, but its
the outer ridges of the fruits.
anise are dominated cineole also helps sweetness will balance
cumin contributes
by anethole and add to counterbalance bitter notes
an earthy, slightly
herby, floral aromas anethole
bitter flavor
dill seed brings
minty, licorice-like
carvone and citrus
notes of limonene
nutmeg is similarly Grinding the seeds will break the
sweetening; eugenol canals and help the oils to escape.
is a match for anethole

BL ENDS TO TRY Toasting beforehand will create

new roasted, nutty pyrazine flavors,
Try these recipes for classic blends featuring fennel, or why which quickly combine with
not adapt them with some blending science? existing flavor compounds.
Panch phoran p.43
Five-spice powder p.60
96 Spice Profiles

Spice story
LICORICE Ancient Assyrians, Babylonians,
Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans
Sweet | Aniseedy | Warm all chewed licorice to allay thirst,
freshen breath, and increase stamina.
The spice reached China, where it was
used as a stimulant and antidote to
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION poison, via the Silk Road over 2,000
Glycyrrhiza glabra Roots and rhizomes are harvested by digging years ago. By the 12th century,
up the whole plant when it is 3–5 years old.
licorice extract was being widely used
ALSO KNOWN AS
in northern Europe, often cultivated
Sweetwood, Spanish COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
juice plant, jethimadh Roots and rhizomes are cut off, cleaned and by monks and prescribed for coughs,
trimmed, and then dried for several months. gastric ulcers, and chest complaints.
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND The first licorice candy was made in
Glycyrrhizin NON-CULINARY USES 1760, and by the late 19th century
Tobacco flavoring; ingredient in cough
medicines and lozenges; in traditional
candies and liqueurs were being
PARTS USED
medicine to treat inflammation, peptic manufactured across Europe,
Roots and rhizomes (underground stems)
ulcers, and chest complaints. particularly in Nordic countries. The
spice was also being used to flavor
tobacco, and today the majority of the
The plant Powder world’s crop is grown for this purpose.
Licorice is a The ground dried root is available in Its use as a spice remains localized to
herbaceous perennial various shades and in “fine” or “raw”
in the pea and bean varieties, depending on the plant variety China, India, and Scandinavia.
family, with rhizomes and how it was processed.
that form a branched,
spreading network.

Bluish-purple
flowers produce SPAIN
RUSSIA
reddish-brown,
bristly seed pods
FRANCE

TURKEY CHINA
NORTH
AFRICA MIDDLE EAST
INDIA

Whole ITALY
Dried licorice root
can be bought in
slices or in pieces
of up to 8in (20cm)
long, and will store
almost indefinitely Region of cultivation
in a sealed container Licorice is native to the Mediterranean region
Rhizomes are
in a cool, dry place. and West Asia. It is cultivated mainly in Russia,
bright yellow and
Spain, and the Middle East, but also in North
pencil thick
Africa, France, Italy, Turkey, North America,
India, and China.
 Flavor Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Licorice 97

Kitchen The dried root or rhizome has an intense aniseed flavor and warm, lingering sweetness.
It can be used to infuse sweet dishes, stocks, sauces, and stews, and it is added to spice
creativity blends such as Chinese five-spice. Use sparingly to avoid overwhelming the dish.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

The powerful sweetening effect of licorice root is produced by glycyrrhizin, a compound that is around 50 times Citrus Sprinkle a little ground licorice
sweeter than sugar. The warming, medicinal flavors of this spice are produced by three compounds— aniseed- over a grapefruit and orange salad.
like estragole, eucalyptus-like cineole, and clovelike eugenol. Small amounts of floral linalool,
cucumber-like aldehydes, and oregano-tasting phenols give licorice its rounded, complex taste. Asparagus, fennel Add to a butter
dressing for grilled asparagus, or
sprinkle over roasted fennel with lemon.
LICORICE Oily fish Add ground licorice to a

Lc cure for salmon or trout.

Ham, beef Infuse a braising liquid for

a ham or beef brisket with licorice root.

Baking Use ground in gingerbread

ESTRAGOLE MINOR COMPOUNDS
dough, or steep licorice root in the syrup
aniseedy | warming | floral | cucumber |
woody oregano
for a steamed sponge pudding.

Preserves Use to flavor apple jelly

CINEOLE EUGENOL and cherry jam, or with cardamom and
penetrating | medicinal | woody | coriander in a Scandinavian plum chutney.
eucalyptus | herbal warming

RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
combine with other add more cineole to pair with other make unusual
warming spices complement the eugenol-rich spices: pairings through the
The glycyrrhizin in licorice helps to
to reinforce the slightly herbal notes: minor compounds: disperse the flavors of both licorice
clove contributes and any other spices in a dish by
aniseed notes:
bay contributes sweet, astringent, coriander enabling oil and water to mix.
anise adds an a fresh, penetrating, camphorous notes enhances the floral
herby flavor with hints herbal-floral flavor notes of licorice
cinnamon and Oil droplets
of cherry, creamy
cardamom cassia are similarly vanilla has floral, suspended
vanilla, and cacao
intensifies eucalyptus sweet, and add woody leafy notes, alongside in water
alongside aniseed
flavors, adding some and citrus notes aniselike anisaldehyde
fennel enhances mint and lemon notes and creamy flavours
the sweet flavor and Added to water, glycyrrhizin can thicken
nigella and ajwain
adds complexity to the to form a gel that allows oil and
will partner with
aniseed character water to form a smooth mixture.
trace oregano-like
star anise has compounds
penetrating eucalyptus
and peppery mint
notes, alongside
sweet anethole
Add licorice near the start of
cooking to maximize the taste.

BL ENDS TO TRY
Use and adapt these classic blends featuring licorice:
Nanjing spice bag p.59 Steep the root in hot water first for dishes
Five-spice powder p.60 with a short cooking time or little liquid.
98 Spice Profiles

Spice story
M AHLEB Mahleb cherry stones have been
found at Mediterranean and Middle
Bittersweet | Fruity | Woody Eastern prehistoric sites, but written
evidence of their use in ancient times
is scarce. The earliest perfume recipes
listing kernels for their aromatic
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION qualities date back only to the 12th
Prunus mahaleb The ripe cherries are harvested in the century ce. There is some evidence,
autumn, when they have turned dark
purplish-black. though, that mahleb may have been
ALSO KNOWN AS
cultivated as early as the Sumerian
Mahlab, mehlepi, rock cherry,
St. Lucie cherry COMMERCIAL PREPARATION era (4500–1900 bce) in ancient
The small, soft kernel is extracted by Mesopotamia, around modern-day
cracking open the stone inside the Iraq and Syria. In the native regions
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
thin-fleshed cherry fruit. The seed is then
Coumarin of the mahleb cherry tree, use of the
blanched, dried, and ground or sold whole.
dried, ground kernels as a culinary
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES spice dates back centuries, popular
The kernel (seed) within
the stone of the fruit
Essential oil is used in perfumery. in rich breads and cakes enjoyed at
religious holidays. Mahleb is not
commonly used outside Greece,
The plant Turkey, North Africa, and the Middle
Mahleb cherry is a East, although Greek Americans
deciduous tree or large Ground
shrub that belongs to mahleb often add it to their European-style
the rose family. should be yeast cakes and pastries.
pale cream
in color

GREECE TURKMENISTAN
Powder
Less bitter and flavorful than whole
kernels, the powder turns rancid fairly TURKEY
quickly due to its high oil content.
IRAN
SYRIA
Oval kernels
AFGHANISTAN
are soft and
about the size
of peppercorns
Cherries are
very tart and
considered Whole
inedible Whole kernels
retain their Region of cultivation
flavorful oils better Mahleb is native to the Mediterranean region,
than ground spice, parts of Central Asia, and Iran. It is mainly
White flowers are but should be frozen cultivated in the Anatolia region of Turkey,
highly fragrant for prolonged storage. and in Syria and Iran.
 Flavor Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Mahleb 99

Kitchen Mahleb is luxuriously sweet and fruity, with an almond aroma and a woody
cherry taste; whole kernels also release a bitterness when chewed. Mainly
creativity known as a baking spice, it can add fruit-and-nut notes to savory dishes.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

A lactone called coumarin produces mahleb’s creamy taste, like sweet clover Stone fruit Use ground mahleb to
and apricot. Almond notes come from methoxyethyl cinnamate, and the spice thicken a sweet cherry sauce, add it to a
also contains woody, peppery azulene and balsamic, fruity pentanol, as well as plum crumble topping, or sprinkle it over
green apple–like dioxolane. Bitterness in the fresh spice comes from phenols. roasted apricots or peaches.

Meat Add to a Turkish dry spice rub

for roast duck legs, pork, or lamb.
MAHLEB

Mb Baking Include mahleb with other

warm spices in festive pastries, or add it
to the sweet dough for an apricot tart.

Ice cream Sprinkle into cherry ice

cream and top with candied pistachios.

Tonka beans Partner with vanilla-

like tonka beans, which are similarly high
in coumarin, in sweet recipes.

METHOXYETHYL
COUMARIN AZULENE PENTANOL
CINNAMATE
sweet | floral | woody | peppery | balsamic | fruity |
warming | balsamic |
grassy
fruity
herbal floral RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
Of mahleb’s flavor compounds, only
dioxolane and some bitter phenols are
soluble in water to any great extent.
Cooking in a water-based liquid will
therefore result in a “green” and bitter
pair with sweet combine with other complement the pair with spices taste and should be avoided.
spices or those with warming spices: sweet woodiness that either contain
creamy nuances: of mahleb: pentanol or enhance
cinnamon and
its flavor: Grind kernels to
clove contributes cassia contribute sesame brings
release short-lived
sweet, astringent, sweet, spicy, woody harmonizing nutty and poppy seeds
oils. Leave for a few
camphorous notes qualities bready flavors; pale, contain pentanol
minutes before use
unroasted seeds also and add earthiness
nutmeg adds galangal contains to let bitter phenols
have a creamy taste
warm spiciness a similar cinnamate lemon myrtle has evaporate.
compound and hints cacao adds bitter distinctive green
licorice brings
of cherry, adding a chocolate notes, odors from the fruity
sweetness and Add to fats before
penetrating pungency pairing well with the tasting heptanone,
eucalyptus-like notes, mixing into a recipe
sweet coumarin and adds a powerful
and sometimes ginger adds to allow sweet and
lemon-lime flavor
contains coumarin-like hotness and sweet, woody flavors to
substances citrusy notes come to the fore.
vanilla lends rich,
mellow creaminess
Application of
heat will decrease
the bitter flavors and
allow hints of cherry
fruitiness to emerge.
100 Spice Profiles

Spice story
VANILLA Vanilla was first cultivated for its scent
1,000 years ago on the eastern coast of
Sweet | Musky | Woody Mexico by the Totonac people. The
first recorded use as a flavoring dates
to the 15th century CE, when the
Aztecs conquered the Totonacs,
BOTANICAL NAME COMMERCIAL PREPARATION discovered the beanlike fruit, and
Vanilla planifolia Pods are scalded or steamed, then used it to flavor cacao drinks. The
sweated in sealed containers to make
them release defensive phenol molecules. Spanish conquistador Cortés was
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
These react with the air and destructive served just such a drink by the Aztec
Vanillin
plant enzymes to disintegrate into dark, king in 1519 and took vanilla pods
flavorful compounds. Pods are then dried
PARTS USED until black and shriveled to one-fifth
and cacao beans back to Spain. But
“Pods” (which are really fruits) their original weight. Mexico retained a monopoly because
the pods would only form when
METHOD OF CULTIVATION NON-CULINARY USES pollinated by native orchid bees.
Plants are trained up posts or trees In perfumes and cosmetics. That is, until the 1830s, when a
and the flowers pollinated by hand.
Pods are picked before fully ripe. Belgian botanist unraveled the
mystery and devised a technique of
hand pollination. In 1874, German
The plant chemists created a synthetic
Vanilla is the fruit of a alternative to the natural flavor, and
perennial, vinelike tropical
orchid that bears bunches now 97 percent of vanilla-flavored
of green-yellow flowers. foods are made with synthetic vanillin.

Flowers
must be Extract
pollinated This is made by macerating pods in alcohol.
by hand Find labels saying “natural extract” and
stating around 35 percent alcohol.
Fresh pods MEXICO
are 6–10 in
(15–25 cm) CENTRAL
Dark, plump AMERICA
long and look
appearance is
like green beans
a sign of good
sweating and
maturing

Whole pods
Brittleness is a sign
of age, but pods can Region of cultivation
keep their flavor Vanilla is native to Mexico and Central
for up to 4 years. America, where it is still cultivated. It is
Frosting is caused also grown in Madagascar, Réunion, India,
by exposure to air. Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and Tahiti.
 Flavor Group | SWEET WARMING PHENOLS | Vanilla 101

Kitchen Rich, mellow vanilla has historically been used in sweet cooking, but is an
increasingly popular addition to savory dishes, particularly fish and seafood.
creativity Tread carefully, though, as it can easily overwhelm a dish.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Vanillin is a phenol that makes up 85 percent of vanilla’s flavor and has a natural Vegetables Add seeds to carrots,
affinity with other sweetly fragrant spices. But more than 250 flavor compounds can cauliflower, root vegetables, or potatoes.
be present, which encompass woody, spicy, floral, and fruity aromas. These lesser Put a split pod in a tomato chutney.
compounds distinguish vanilla pods from synthetic vanillin flavoring.
Strawberries Combine vanilla and
black pepper in a caramelized sugar
syrup for macerating strawberries.
VANILLA

Va Fish, seafood Stir into melted butter

and brush over grilled lobster, scallops,
or fish; put a sliver of pod in a pan of
mussels before steaming.
VANILLIN
sweet | warming | Desserts Add to chocolate and
creamy PIPERONAL
floral | cream desserts. Use vanilla-flavored
subtle cherry sugar in cake and pancake batters.

GUAIACOL ANISALDEHYDE
connect with other smoky | woody | sweet | woody |
naturally sweet slightly medicinal aniseedy RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
and/or warming
compounds: Many trace compounds in vanilla are
quick to evaporate: use seeds
cinnamon, cassia
intensify sweetness
immediately and cook on low heat to
draw out notes of boost aniseed with pick out an unusual
and bring in spicy wood and smoke: spices that share a cherry connection:
avoid losing subtle nuances.
heat and floral notes similar compound:
cacao’s blend of mahleb has a
ginger, galangal smoky, earthy flavors clove, nutmeg are nutty sweetness and Lightly pound
convey both heat and have close synergy sweet, woody, and lingering cherry taste pods to release
sweetness, and cherry somewhat penetrating, flavor from the
allspice has a
hints from galangal which harmonizes with inner fibers.
warming woodiness
the aniseed flavor
licorice is an
black pepper’s
ideal partner due to anise also has
warm, woody, and Add whole pods
intensely sweet anisaldehyde as a
citrusy aspects make it early in cooking to
glycyrrhizin and its minor compound
an unexpected partner allow flavors to
aniseed flavor
diffuse out of the
tough tissue.

Vanilla c ho o s e r

Depending on where they Country Plant Flavor content Description

were grown and how Madagascar, Réunion Vanilla planifolia 2% vanillin Bourbon vanilla is esteemed as rich and balanced.
they were dried and cured,
vanilla pods will derive Mexico Vanilla pompona 1.75% vanillin Mexican vanilla carries winelike and fruity flavor compounds.
from one of three orchid Tahiti Vanilla tahitensis 1.70% vanillin The most expensive vanilla, with a deep flavor that includes
species and have varying cherry-chocolate, licorice, and caramel.
levels of vanillin and India, Sri Lanka Vanilla planifolia 1.50% vanillin Vanilla grown in South Asia has lower levels of vanillin,
different flavor profiles. resulting in a gentler flavor and a smokiness.
102 Spice Profiles

Spice story
NUTMEG Native to the Banda Islands in the
Moluccas (Maluku) archipelago of
Bittersweet | Woody | Warm Indonesia, nutmeg has a complex,
violent history. Its source was initially
kept secret by traders who wanted to
protect their valuable commodity,
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION treasured for its rarity, flavor, and
Myristica fragrans Fruit is harvested several times a year; one apparent aphrodisiac and healing
tree yields 10,000 or more nutmegs a year.
properties. By the 16th century there
ALSO KNOWN AS
was such huge demand for nutmeg
True nutmeg, fragrant nutmeg COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Fruit is split open, dried, and the lacy aril in Europe that it was said to be more
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
removed to make mace. Seeds shells are precious than gold, triggering a race
cracked open to remove nutmegs. to find and take control of its source.
Myristicin
Portugal conquered the Moluccas in
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
In pharmaceuticals, including toothpaste
1511, then the Dutch wrested control
Seed kernels
and cough syrups. Mild pain-killing power is in 1599, and England seized two of
used to treat toothache and joint pain. the Banda Islands in 1603. The spice
was so valued by the Dutch that they
struck a deal with England to take
The plant back one of the islands in return for
Nutmeg comes from a one of their settlements in the New
tropical evergreen tree
that produces two World. The land they gave to England
distinct spices: the seed was known then as New Amsterdam—
(nutmeg) and its lacy
covering (mace). and today as New York City.

Fleshy fruit
casing encloses
the woody seed Powder
Nutmeg is available ground, but its
flavor oils are among the quickest of all
spices to evaporate: far preferable to buy
whole and grate fresh. MALUKU ISLANDS

Kernels are SRI LANKA

Bell-shaped revealed after
flowers have a lily- cracking open
of-the-valley scent the seed casing

Region of cultivation
Whole Nutmeg trees are grown throughout the
Grows to at Kernels keep for at least a year in a sealed Maluku (Moluccas) islands of Indonesia, and
least 40 ft container in a cool, dark place. Discard if also in Sri Lanka, the Caribbean (notably
(16 m) high black spots develop. Grenada), and South Africa.
 Flavor Group | WARMING TERPENES | Nutmeg 103

Kitchen Nutmeg’s deep, sweet, woody flavor works in both sweet and savory dishes.
Somewhat penetrating and astringent with tannins, it can easily overpower a
creativity dish but blends happily with other strong spices.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Nutmeg’s woody aroma comes from myristicin, which is integral to its flavor Spinach Grate over buttered or
profile, though it makes up only a small proportion of the oil. Nutmeg also creamed spinach or add to the filling
contains peppery, fruity sabinene, floral geraniol and safrole, clovelike eugenol, for spinach and ricotta ravioli.
eucalyptus-scented cineole, and conifer-like pinene.
Lamb Add a generous grating to
meatball mixture or use in moussaka.
NUTMEG Sauces and drinks Include nutmeg

Nu in béchamel, cheese fondue, soufflés,

Indian golden latte (haldi doodh), eggnog,
and Caribbean nutmeg ice cream.
EUGENOL, CINEOLE
clovelike | eucalyptus Sweet pastries Use in a Sienese
SABINENE panforte or sprinkle over custard tarts.
| penetrating
oranges |
pepperiness |
woody

GERANIOL, MYRISTICIN
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
bolster with other
penetrating spices: SAFROLE woody | warm | Nutmeg’s flavor oils are so powerful they
rosy | sweet balsamic
cardamom shares can easily overpower a dish, yet
both compounds and they are also short-lived.
brings floral sweetness bring out sabinene’s
and hints of camphor fruity piquancy: Use sparingly: a
add depth to the complement with grating literally
grains of Selim garlic shares
sweetness: warming spices: means one stroke
shares cineole and sabinene, and its on a grater
also pinene, bringing a allspice contains ginger’s zingerone sulfurous pungency
medicinal camphorous similarly floral linalool adds zesty heat, with stands up well to
flavor like rosemary and shares eugenol citrus-sweet crossover powerful nutmeg
and cineole
clove’s flavor is black pepper also juniper shares
owed to cineole and it curry leaf has has a shared floral and nutmeg’s pinene, and
brings added depth many flavor profile citrus background citrus notes from
and sweetness overlaps with nutmeg, limonene work well
anise has some
sharing both these with orangey sabinene
cassia has cineole myristicin and
compounds, as well as
and its cinnamaldehyde enhances nutmeg’s Add toward the end of the cooking time
pinene and cineole
can resist nutmeg sweet woodiness for a stronger, more complex flavor, because
the oils are very quick to evaporate.

N e o l i g n a n s’ c o o l i n g e f fe c t
A group of chemicals Neolignan molecules BLE NDS TO T RY
Surface of
called neolignans were
tongue Use and adapt these classic blends
recently discovered in Tongue turns slightly
nutmeg oil. These act numb from the effect featuring nutmeg:
Cold temperature
on the temperature- receptor Tongue papilla
Turkish baharat p.23
sensing nerves on the Bumbu p.52
tongue and in the mouth Taste bud
to give a numbing sense False cold signals are Jamaican jerk rub p.64
of lingering coolness. sent to the brain Mulling spice p.73
Quatre épices p.74
104 Spice Profiles

The biryani is a true melting pot of a dish.

CHICKEN AND Conceived in Persia, it was introduced to India by
Arab merchants, and became popular in almost
EGGPLANT BIRYANI every region. Seven-spice, Lebanon’s answer to
garam masala, gives this version a rich, smoky,
WITH SEVEN-SPICE Middle Eastern flavor. For a milder chili kick,
simply halve the amount of chili flakes.

SPICE
Serves 4–6
Prep time 30 mins
1 Make the seven-spice by grinding the whole spices and mixing
with the remaining spices. Reserve 1 tablespoon and store the rest.

IDEA S Cooking time 1 hour

40–50 mins 2 Preheat the oven to 325°F (160°C). In a large, ovenproof pan,
melt about 2 tablespoons (25 g) of the butter and gently sauté the
chicken thighs with the cloves, star anise, and peppercorns. When
Experiment with your For the seven-spice the chicken starts to turn opaque, cover with boiling water and bring
own seven-spice mix: 1 tbsp black peppercorns to a simmer. Cook in the oven with the pan lid on for about an hour,
replace sweet spices 1 tbsp allspice berries until the meat is tender. Take out the chicken and set aside.
with cumin and/or
1 tsp cloves

3
nigella for earthiness, Remove the spices from the liquid, then add boiling water to
or fenugreek for musty, 1 tsp coriander seeds
fill the pan. Add the rice and a good pinch of salt. Boil for 7–8
bittersweet notes. 1 tbsp ground cinnamon minutes, until the rice starts to soften. While the rice is cooking,
1 tsp ground ginger shred the chicken, then line a large, heavy-based saucepan with
Highlight eucalyptus-
like cineole found 1 tsp grated nutmeg baking paper. Drain the rice and rinse under the cold tap.
in several of the dry
spices by swapping
fresh ginger for
cineole-rich galangal.
For the biryani
5 tbsp (75 g) butter 4 Heat 2 tablespoons of the oil in a frying pan and fry the garlic for
less than a minute over a medium heat. Then add the ginger, chili
flakes, seven-spice, and a good pinch of sea salt. Add the chicken,
4 skinless, boneless chicken thighs
followed by a little more oil and the diced eggplant. Stir fry for about
4 cloves
Preserve more of the 5 minutes, until the chicken and eggplant are coated in oil and spices.
pungent gingerols and 1 star anise Season with salt and pepper.
zingiberene by 8 black peppercorns

5
adding fresh ginger Melt the remaining butter with a little oil, then pour into the
later—at the same 1 cup (250 g) basmati rice
paper-lined saucepan. Sprinkle with sea salt and add a thin layer
time as the peas—for a 4–5 tbsp vegetable oil
zestier hit of flavor. of rice, then a layer of chicken and eggplant mix. Repeat, alternating
6–8 garlic cloves, thinly sliced
the layers and finishing with rice. Poke a few holes in the mixture
3 in (7 cm) piece fresh root ginger, with a wooden-spoon handle, to allow steam to rise through the dish.
finely grated
1 tsp chili flakes
1 tbsp seven-spice (see above) 6 Wrap the pan lid in a tea towel and put it on the pan. Cook over
the lowest heat possible for 35–45 minutes. With 15 minutes to
go, add the peas to the pan. At the end of cooking, use a fork to check
2 eggplants, cut into ½ in (1 cm) cubes
sea salt flakes and freshly ground that the bottom layer of rice has formed a crust. If it has not, raise the
black pepper heat and cook for up to 5 more minutes.
1 cup (100 g) frozen peas

7 To serve, flip the biryani onto a dish, so that the golden, crispy rice
base—known in Persian as the tahdig—is on top. For a crispier crust,
omit the paper, but ensure that the rice does not burn while cooking.
106 Spice Profiles

Spice story
M ACE Native only to the tiny Banda Islands
in the Moluccas (Maluku) archipelago
Sweet | Warm | Aromatic of Indonesia, mace was being traded
with the Byzantine empire by the
6th century ce, where it was widely
valued as a cure-all, food preservative,
BOTANICAL NAME COMMERCIAL PREPARATION fumigant, and aphrodisiac. By the
Myristica fragrans The split fruit reveals a nutmeg seed with Middle Ages, mace had become one of
a plasticky, scarlet-red covering called an
aril. The leathery aril is peeled off, pressed the most sought-after and expensive
PARTS USED
and dried. Grenadian mace is traditionally spices of European cuisine. The
Aril (seed covering) of the nutmeg seed
“cured” in the dark for several months. appetite for these spices prompted a
Mace is then either ground or sold whole
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND as “blades” after drying
centuries-long, bloody power struggle
Sabinene between the Portuguese, Dutch, and
NON-CULINARY USES English to gain control of the growing
METHOD OF CULTIVATION In perfumes, soaps, and shampoos; regions. Eventually, the English
Ripe fruits are often harvested from in traditional medicine to relieve managed to establish their own supply
trees using a long pole with a basket bronchial disorders and rheumatism,
attached, called a gai-gai. aid digestion, and improve circulation.
by successfully transplanting nutmeg
trees, along with their soil, to several of
their colonies, including Grenada and
The plant Sri Lanka. With greater availability,
Mace is from a tropical tree that nutmeg and mace overtook saffron
bears two spices: the inner seed
kernel (nutmeg) and the seed’s and mustard as the spices of choice
sheathlike covering (mace). Powder in Western cuisine, with mace more
Ground
mace keeps common (and cheaper) than nutmeg.
reasonably
well, although
subtler flavors
are lacking.
Bell-shaped
flowers have
pale yellow, Blades exude oil when
waxy petals pressed with a fingernail
MALUKU ISLANDS

SRI LANKA

Grooved Region of cultivation

fruits Whole Mace is cultivated across the Maluku
Dried arils, or pieces thereof, are known (Moluccas) archipelago of Indonesia, and also
resemble
as blades. Orange-red blades tend to be in Sri Lanka, South Africa, and the Caribbean—
apricots from Indonesia, while Grenadian blades notably Grenada, which features an image of
are dried to a paler orange-yellow. nutmeg and mace on its national flag.
 Flavor Group | WARMING TERPENES | Mace 107

Kitchen Mace will substitute for nutmeg in most sweet dishes, but it is mostly used to
flavor savory sauces, meat, pickles, and chutneys. Use whole blades to infuse
creativity pale creams and clear broths where flecks of grated nutmeg are unwanted.

BL ENDING SCIENC E F OOD PART NE RS

Peppery sabinene is less dominating in mace than in nutmeg and mace has more Vegetables Sprinkle ground mace
fragrant oils, with a wider diversity of perfumed compounds, including floral elemicin, over a creamy potato bake, spinach or
which works in partnership with terpineol, and small amounts of eugenol and safrole. carrot soup, or try it in a vegetable pilau.
Mace lacks the mouth-puckering tannins of nutmeg, giving it a smoother mouthfeel.
Shellfish Add a blade of mace to a
shellfish broth, or sprinkle ground mace
over potted shrimp or crab before stirring
MACE it through warm pasta or serving it on

Ma toasted rye bread.

Pork, chicken Sprinkle a little

ground mace into the mixture for pork,
ricotta, and lemon-zest meatballs. Add
SABINENE EUGENOL a blade to a béchamel sauce for a
woody | peppery | eucalyptus | creamy chicken pie.
citrus | camphorous warming
Cheese sauce Infuse milk with a
blade of mace, then make into a cheese
TERPINEOL SAFROLE sauce for lasagne or macaroni and cheese.
floral | citrus | sweet | warming |
pinewood aniselike Desserts Infuse into custard for a
pair with other trifle or whisk into sweetened whipped
sabinene spices: draw out eucalyptus cream to serve with fruit.
with eugenol from
black pepper is a
great flavor match,
other spices: Baking Add ground mace to spiced
pair with another add safrole from cake batters, or sprinkle sparingly over
sharing many of spice that is smooth elsewhere: clove’s sweet scent
sabinene’s qualities is from eugenol, which pumpkin pie or milk puddings.
with hyacinth-like
star anise carries strengthens mace’s
black cardamom aromas:
this uncommon eucalyptus, and also
also brings smokiness, coriander is compound too and is shares terpinenol
and limonene traces powerfully floral, with strongly flavored with
to enhance the citrus distinct pine and citrus aniselike anethole; it allspice also has
curry leaf also has compounds, making a also brings penetrating strong eugenol, and BLE ND TO T RY
highly effective match pepperiness adds deep, sweet
extra woody notes,
pepperiness with a Use and adapt this spice blend
pine flavors, and
floral background recipe featuring mace:
hints of mint
Garam masala p.40

REL EA S E T HE F LAVOR

The oil-based compounds

in mace dissolve poorly in
water and its flavor can
change with prolonged
heating: some compounds
evaporate and degrade
while new terpenelike Mace’s more subtle terpene Include oil in the cooking Add whole mace early to Add powder later as it
compounds are formed, flavors can be lost through liquid or gently fry, for example give maximum time for oils diffuses and spreads more
producing tastes many evaporation, so grind as with an onion base, near the to diffuse out of the blades, but quickly, and this reduces
people dislike. needed and use immediately. beginning of a dish. be wary of lengthy cooking. evaporation of terpenes.
108 Spice Profiles

Spice story
CARAWAY Archaeologists have discovered
caraway seeds in Stone Age refuse
Menthol | Warming | Earthy pits and 5,000-year-old dwellings
in Switzerland, but the first written
reference dates to around 1500 BCE,
in an Egyptian herbal encyclopedia.
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION The spice also held symbolic
Carum carvi Plants are grown for two years and significance for the Egyptians, who
harvested in the second summer, when
the seedlike fruits darken. placed the seeds in tombs to ward off
ALSO KNOWN AS
evil spirits. The Romans knew it as
Carvies, and (incorrectly) wild cumin,
Persian cumin, meridian fennel. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION karo or careum, and introduced the
The cut flower heads are left for up to spice to northern Europe. By the
10 days to dry and finish ripening, before Middle Ages, caraway had became a
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
being cleaned and threshed.
S-carvone common ingredient in game and meat
NON-CULINARY USES
cookery and bean and cabbage dishes,
PARTS USED
The essential oil flavors commercial as well as sweeter confections and as a
Seedlike fruits
mouthwash and children's medicines; flavoring for alcohol; Kümmel, the
as a traditional remedy to aid digestion.
German for caraway, is also the name
of a still-popular liqueur. Folklore
abounds that placing caraway seeds
The plant The “seeds”
Caraway is a frost-hardy are actually in your lover’s pocket will keep
biennial in the carrot family. It a dry fruit them faithful.
thrives in rich clay soil and can
grow up to 2 ft (60 cm) tall.

Fruits develop
from umbels
NETHERLANDS
of creamy
white flowers
FINLAND

Whole POLAND
Store the brown, crescent-shaped GERMANY UKRAINE
“seeds” in a sealed container in a
cool, dark place for up to six months. HUNGARY
They benefit from gentle toasting. ROMANIA

NORTH AFRICA
Powder
Caraway can be
bought in powder Region of cultivation
form, but the flavor Caraway is native to central Europe and Asia,
quickly diminishes, and its major producers are Finland, Poland, the
Feathery leaves are and it is better to Netherlands, Germany, Ukraine, Hungary, and
edible and taste quite buy whole and Romania. Cultivation has also spread to North
similar to dill grind as needed. Africa, Egypt, and North America.
 Flavor Group | WARMING TERPENES | Caraway 109

Kitchen Caraway has a complex, warming taste, and its flavor can be found in many central
European dishes. It is a key component of the Algerian and Tunisian blend tabil,
inspiration and may be used in harissa, the chili-based paste from North Africa.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

The most abundant flavor compound is the oil-loving terpene S-carvone, Cabbage, beets Add
which, unlike most terpenes, confers a powerfully spicy flavor, with ground to buttered cabbage, and
hints of menthol and rye, reminiscent of anise. The other major flavor whole to beet slaw or soup.
compounds are citrusy limonene, with lesser amounts of woody sabinene.
Red meats Stir into sausage,
beef, or lamb stews, or use to flavor
dumplings and serve on the side.
CARAWAY

Cw Duck, goose Massage a mix

of ground caraway, salt, and garlic
over duck and goose before roasting.

Oily fish Combine with pepper,

S-CARVONE SABINENE
fennel, and coriander in a cure.
spicy | menthol | woody | orangey |
licorice spicy
Swiss cheese Drop a pinch of
ground caraway into silky fondue.

LIMONENE Cookies Sprinkle the seeds

citrus | herby | over just-baked shortbread.
turpentine

bring depth to licorice/ pair with other limonenes enhance the sweet
anise notes through to strengthen the citrus notes with RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
related compounds: zesty edge: more sabinene:
Cook with oil to allow flavor compounds
anise and star anise cardamom also nutmeg and mace are to dissolve and add late in cooking if
are also licorice-like, due to brings sweetness and both partly dominated by
using ground caraway.
medicinal anethole, and both penetrating herbiness sabinene and add a rich
bring woody warmth sweetness
black pepper adds
cinnamon and allspice gentle pungency and 266°F (130°C)–
feature the very similar enhances the pepperiness 356°F (180°C)
eugenol and will bring out
ginger has a
the sweetness in caraway
complementary citrus
background, and brings
characteristic heat to a dish

Toasting caraway increases the

flavor intensity, but take care not to
M i r r o r- i m a g e c o m p o u n d s O O
over-toast, which makes them bitter.

S-carvone, the main flavor compound in caraway, has

exactly the same molecular structure as D-carvone, the BLE ND TO T RY
cooling, minty flavor compound found in spearmint. H H
However, they are mirror images, which means these Try this recipe for a classic blend
twin chemicals produce completely different aromas, D-carvone S-carvone featuring caraway, and why not
and caraway’s flavor is spearmint turned inside out! (spearmint) (caraway) adapt it with some blending science?
Harissa p.33
110 Spice Profiles

Spice story
DILL Evidence suggests that the seeds and
fronds of the dill plant were used for
Bitter | Citrus | Woody medicinal purposes in Egypt as early
as 3000 bce, and the ancient Greeks
appreciated dill’s digestive and
sedative properties. The seeds were
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION first used as a seasoning and flavoring
Anethum graveolens Fruits are harvested after flowering. Seeds for vinegars and pickles in Scandinavia
are left to ripen and dry on the stalk.
and in central and eastern Europe. By
ALSO KNOWN AS
the Middle Ages, dill was a common
False aniseed COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Cut stalks are stacked and left for a week culinary herb, and was also used in
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
or so to dry. The fruits are then threshed witchcraft, love potions, and as an
from the flower heads by machine. aphrodisiac. Kosher dill pickles later
D-carvone
became a dietary staple for Jews living
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
In traditional medicine to treat stomach
in eastern Europe and in Russia, and
“Seeds” (technically fruits)
complaints—it’s a common ingredient were introduced to the US by eastern
of gripe water—and as a gentle sedative. European Jewish immigrants in the
late 1800s and early 1900s. Dill rapidly
became an important commercial crop
The plant for the pickling industry in the US,
Dill is a hardy although today most of that industry’s
annual plant in
the parsley seed supply comes from India.
family.

SOUTHEAST THE CAUCASUS

EUROPE
TURKEY
“Seeds” are the Powder
ripe fruits of the Dill seed is available ground, but don’t get it
plant that have confused with “dill weed,” a name the dried
herb is sometimes sold under. THE LEVANT
been allowed to
dry on the stalk
EGYPT
Whole
The oval, brown-beige seeds look very
similar to fennel seeds. They have little
aroma until crushed and ground.

Region of cultivation
Dill is native to southern Europe, the Middle
Fernlike East, and the Caucasus. It is now mainly grown
leaves are used in India, Pakistan, the US, and countries around
as a herb the southeast corner of the Mediterranean.
 Flavor Group | WARMING TERPENES | Dill 111

Kitchen The flavor of dill seeds resembles a cross between anise and a milder version
of caraway, having the latter’s herby flavor with lemony overtones and a gentle
creativity woodiness. There is also a hint of bitterness.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

The flavor profile of dill seeds is dominated by D-carvone, a terpene flavor Apples Caramelize apples in butter
compound, which is spicy with hints of menthol, rye, and aniselike licorice. The and sugar with dill seeds; good on its
other significant flavor compound is citrus-scented limonene. There are also own or with roasted pork.
small amounts of bitter fenchone, and phellandrene, which has minty aromas.
Carrots, onions Sprinkle over baked
onions or honey-roasted carrots.
DILL Fish Lightly toast seeds with cumin

Di and coriander, coarsely grind, and rub

over fish skin before grilling or roasting.

Goulash Swap caraway seeds

for dill seeds in a paprika-spiced
D-CARVONE beef or pork goulash, served with
PHELLANDRENE
spicy | menthol | sour cream.
minty | spicy | citrus
licorice
Flatbreads Heat the seeds in melted
butter or ghee and brush over flatbread
LIMONENE before serving.
citrus | herby |
turpentine-like
pair with spices that combine with spices
contain carvone or pair sharing phellandrene
well with its flavor: to foreground minty
and lemony nuances:
caraway echoes the combine with other spices
herbiness of dill, introducing carrying limonene to boost allspice provides a sweet
pine and woody qualities citrus flavors: peppery warmth
Dill pic kle s
anise enhances the licorice coriander is a particularly star anise contributes Although dill’s flavor compounds do
notes of dill effective pairing, adding earthy, floral notes, and an not dissolve well in water, the ample
warmth and floral notes undercurrent of eucalyptus, pickling time and fermentation process
fennel adds complexity
as well as aniseed help the compounds to escape.
to aniselike flavors and cardamom lends a sweet,
brings citrus notes through penetrating mintiness bay adds fresh floral-herbal
shared limonene notes, penetrating eucalyptus, Compounds such as
ginger is a good match
and slight bitterness carvone and limonene
for introducing pungent heat dissolve in alcohol
thanks to shared limonene,
which also adds sweetness

REL EASE THE FL AVOR

Dill benefits from toasting to
create new flavor compounds
from the interaction of sugars
and amino acids. Both new and
existing compounds dissolve Fermentation in low-temperature
poorly in water, however. Toast seeds to create nutty and Cook in oil or fats to pickling produces alcohol to help
allow flavor compounds disperse flavors.
roasted flavor compounds,
particularly pyrazines. to escape.
112 Spice Profiles

Ejjeh is a Lebanese omelette of fresh herbs and

EJJEH WITH ZUCCHINI, zucchini, usually spiced with a regional baharat
(see pp.23 and 26), but enlivened here with North
FETA, AND DILL AND African harissa paste. In a twist on the paste’s
usual recipe, dill seeds replace caraway, black lime

BLACK LIME HARISSA supplants preserved lemon, and the rich smokiness
comes from chipotle instead of smoked paprika.

SPICE
Serves 2–3
Prep time 10 mins
1 First make the harissa paste: Preheat the oven to 400°F (200°C).
Place the chilis and bell pepper on a lightly oiled baking sheet
and roast in the oven – 15–20 minutes for the chilis, and around
IDEA S Cooking time 30 mins 30 minutes for the bell pepper – turning a few times until tender
and lightly charred.
For the harissa
Try swapping dill for
other spices on the
aniseed spectrum,
5 large red chilis
1 red bell pepper 2 Remove from the oven and place in a sealed plastic bag for a
few minutes to help to loosen the skin. Once they are cool
enough to handle, pat them dry and peel. Seed the bell pepper and
1 tbsp chipotle chili paste
such as anise, star anise,
½ tsp dried chili flakes roughly chop, along with the chilis.
allspice, or licorice.

3
½ tsp cumin seeds, toasted and ground Blend the chilis and bell pepper in a food processor, then add the
Experiment with ½ tsp dill seeds, toasted and ground rest of the harissa ingredients and blend until smooth. Dilute with
different sweet–sour
2 large garlic cloves, crushed a little water if the mixture is too thick. Transfer to a small, clean glass
substitutes for black
lime, such as sumac, 1½ tsp red wine vinegar jar, seal, and store in the refrigerator. You will have enough harissa for
barberry, amchoor, 3 tbsp olive oil 15 tablespoons, and it will keep for about a week in the refrigerator.
anardana, tamarind, or

4
pinch of sea salt
lemon myrtle. Now make the omelette: Set the grill to high heat. Place a
½ tsp black lime powder medium frying pan over medium heat, add the olive oil, and cook
Draw on the wide the grated zucchini for 4–5 minutes, stirring, until it starts to soften
range of chilis For the omelette and turns slightly golden.
available, fresh and 1 tbsp olive oil, plus extra for dressing

5
dried, to vary the Sprinkle over the herbs, dot the harissa around, and then add the
1 zucchini, grated
degrees of heat, chopped feta and a grind or two of black pepper. After 30 seconds,
smokiness, and flavor large handful Italian flat-leaf parsley,
complexity. chopped pour in the eggs and cook for 3–4 minutes, until the base is firm but
large handful mint leaves, chopped
the top is still liquid. Transfer to the grill and cook for 1–2 minutes,
until the omelette is risen but still slightly gooey.
1 tbsp harissa (use extra for more heat)
1 cup (200 g) feta cheese, drained and
roughly chopped
sea salt and black pepper
6 Serve stuffed into pita bread with a za’atar-dressed radish
and green leaf salad.

4 large eggs, lightly beaten and

seasoned with sea salt and black
pepper

To serve
pita bread and a radish and green leaf
salad, dressed in olive oil and za’atar
(see recipe p.22)
114 Spice Profiles

Spice story
ANNATT O This New World spice, sometimes
called “poor man’s saffron,” has been
Peppery | Earthy | Sweet used as a natural dye for centuries.
The Mayan Indians of Central America
made a red paste from the brightly
colored seeds to paint on their bodies
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION in preparation for battle. Annatto was
Bixa orellana Seed pods are harvested when ripe pods also used by early Aztec civilizations as
have split to reveal the triangular seeds.
a ceremonial pigment, and apparently
ALSO KNOWN AS
as a means of protecting the skin from
Achiote, bijol, lipstick tree, roucou, urucu COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
The ripe pods are dried, then beaten with sunburn. The Aztecs added annatto
MAIN FLAVOR COMPOUND
sticks to remove the seeds, and finally to hot drinks to color their mouths
carefully winnowed by hand or machine. red—hence the common name
Germacrene
“lipstick tree.” By the 17th century,
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Fabric dye; coloring agent in cosmetics
this spice had arrived in Europe and
Seeds
and medications; in traditional South was being used as a food coloring
American and Ayurvedic medicine. agent. It subsequently became a
popular means of giving cheese and
smoked fish products an attractive
The plant Seeds are golden-orange color—a practice that
Annatto is a tropical bright red in continues to this day.
evergreen shrub or colour and
small tree in the yield a vivid
achiote family. orange-
yellow dye
CARIBBEAN ISLANDS

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA
ECUADOR
Each prickly red
fruit capsule
contains about 50 Whole
PERU BRAZIL
seeds, covered in The angular seeds are too hard to
red waxy pulp grind without a very powerful blender,
and should be removed before BOLIVIA
serving. Store for up to three years.

Heart-shaped
glossy leaves with Powder
reddish veins Ground annatto has
a fainter aroma and
milder flavour, but
is easier to use and Region of cultivation
yields colour faster Annatto is native to the Caribbean and
than whole seeds. tropical South America. It is also cultivated
The powder has a in the Philippines, Sri Lanka, India, Africa,
shelf-life of one year. and Asia.
 Flavor Group | WARMING TERPENES | Annatto 115

Kitchen Often employed solely for its staining ability, annatto is not just about
color, and can bring a peppery, slightly citrus, almost smoked-earth
creativity flavor to dishes.

BL ENDING SCIENC E RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R

AND C OLOR
The gently flavored terpene family of compounds provide much of annatto’s taste, in
the form of germacrene, elemene, and copaene, all of which possess an underlying Whole annatto gives the best flavor, but
sweetness. The contrasting peppery, bitter edge to annatto comes from caryophyllene. the hard, dense seeds need time for the
flavor molecules to escape, and must be
removed before serving. For these
ANNATTO reasons, it is best to cook with oil

Ao
or water flavored by the seeds.

Cook seeds slowly

in light oil over
a low heat
GERMACRENE CARYOPHYLLENE
woody | sweet peppery | dry |
| spicy bitter

ELEMENE COPAENE
citrus | sweet | honey | woody | Infusing in oil
fir needles spicy Annatto oil has a stronger taste
because most flavor compounds
dissolve best in oil. The oil-loving
bixin pigment is plentiful, so
cooking with fat will give the
partner other spices enhance citrus use sweet spices reinforce strongest coloring.
with traces of this notes with another to draw out the lingering
main compound: tart spice: underlying honey: pepperiness:
juniper brings a coriander cinnamon is black pepper Steep the
pinelike fruitiness enhances sweet, similarly sweet, shares caryophyllene seeds for
that also works lemon fruit qualities, fragrant, and woody and germacrene, at least
with elemene bringing in floral notes
allspice lends
and has a flavor an hour
profile that includes
asafetida’s onion sumac will warmth and spice
citrus and pine
flavors are rounded reinforce the citrus to the mix
off by germacrene’s quality of elemene grains of Selim
clove has notes
sweet notes have a peppery
of camphor that also Steeping in water
smokiness and
suit the fir-tree flavors Use more seeds than for infusing oil,
share germacrene
of elemene as flavor compounds dissolve less
readily in water, and the water-
solvent norbixin pigment is four
times less abundant than bixin.

FOO D PART NE RS
Sweet corn Drizzle annatto-infused oil over hot corn on the cob. Rice Use annatto-steeped water instead of saffron in Spanish
rice with chicken.
Fish Steep the seeds in hot oil and then use the oil to fry
fish cakes or fritters. Chocolate Add a pinch of ground annatto, cinnamon,
and chili to chocolate mousse.
Meat Use achiote paste in a marinade for chicken, pork, or beef before
slow cooking and serving the meat “pulled” in tacos or tostadas.
116 Spice Profiles

Spice story
M ASTIC The tree that produces mastic grows
only on the Greek island of Chios,
Pinelike | Resinous | Woody where this unique product has been
cultivated for more than 2,500 years.
The Ancient Greeks and Romans
chewed it as a breath freshener—it is
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION the origin of the word “masticate.”
Pistacia lentiscus The tree’s bark is scored in late summer to When the Genoese took Chios from
exude resin. Trees produce resin at 5 years
and can continue for 60 years. the Venetians in 1346 ce, they
ALSO KNOWN AS
provided the islanders with protection
Arabic gum (not to be confused with gum
arabic), mastiha, lentisk. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION from pirates in return for a monopoly
Resin gradually hardens at the base of the over the lucrative mastic trade, which
tree into pear-shaped “tears,” which are was by then a highly sought-after
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
collected, cleaned, and dried.
Pinene spice. In 1566, the Ottoman Turks
NON-CULINARY USES
seized control of the island and
PARTS USED
In cosmetics and perfumery; in traditional controlled mastic trade until Chios
Resin
medicine for treating wounds. became part of the Greek state in
1913. Today, the 24 remaining mastic-
producing villages—known as
The plant Color is light ivory mastichochoria—harvest and process
Mastic is harvested at first, darkening the resin in the same time-honored
from small evergreen to golden-yellow due
trees in the sumac to reaction with way. Chios mastic is now a product
family, closely related of Protected Designation of Origin
sunlight and air
to pistachios.
(PDO) and most of it is exported to
Turkey and the Middle East.

TURKEY
Inedible
berries turn
from red to
GREECE
black

CHIOS

Resin “tears”
Hard, translucent pieces are used in
cooking and called dahtilidopetres (flint Region of cultivation
stones). Lower-grade, softer, larger tears Mastic trees are native to the Mediterranean
Grows to 6½–20 ft are called kantiles (blisters) and are and the resin is harvested exclusively on the
(2–6 m) high mainly used for chewing. Greek island of Chios.
 Flavor Group | FRAGRANT TERPENES | Mastic 117

Kitchen In Turkey, mastic is added to Turkish delight; in Lebanon, it flavors a slightly

chewy, eggless ice cream, scented with rosewater. In Egypt, it is added to red
creativity meat and poultry dishes, often along with cardamom.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Mastic’s subtle aroma is mostly due to the flavor compound pinene, which Fruit preserves Add a little mastic
comprises up to 80 percent of its chemical make up. Lesser amounts of myrcene to apple jelly or fig jam.
and other terpene compounds give opportunities to partner mastic
with a wide variety of savory, sweet, or woody spices. Roast lamb Rub a joint of lamb with
mastic, crushed onion and garlic, and
some cardamom before roasting.
MASTIC Bread Add a teaspoon of ground

Mc mastic and some fennel seeds to a

savory bread dough

Sweet baked goods Add mastic to

macaroons—mastic pairs happily with
PINENE
almonds—or to rosewater-scented
CARYOPHYLLENE sponge cake.
pinelike |
woody | bitter
penetrating
Rice pudding Make a mastic-
scented rice pudding and drizzle with an
MYRCENE orange blossom–flavored syrup.
LINALOOL
peppery |
floral | lilac
light balsam

RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
add complexity to boost pepperiness draw out floral use caryophyllene- Mastic is best ground before use
the dominant pine: with myrcene- aromas: carrying spices for
and mixed with another powdery
carrying spices: more woodiness:
nutmeg brings a rose brings a ingredient so that it is dispersed
complex profile of coriander adds a sweet-smelling raft of cinnamon also throughout the dish.
orange, floral, and refreshing citrus quality floral compounds brings warming
woody notes alongside and shares many other sweetness and floral
cardamom’s
shared pinene and the compounds, making it fragrance
sweet mintiness and
equally harmonizing a top match
penetrating eucalyptus, clove’s powerful
camphene
allspice has a alongside linalool, also eucalyptus-like
peppery sweetness help balance out eugenol also holds
and also shares floral mastic’s dominant its own against
aromas of linalool pine flavor mastic’s pinene
Grind with sugar for a sweet recipe,
or salt for savory dishes, or flour for
either. This also stops the mastic
sticking to the grinder.
P l a s t i c m as t i c

Adding whole mastic to a cooking broth runs the risk of creating a

gluey plastic paste stuck to the bottom of the pan.

Mixed with water, myrcene flavor Microscopically thin

molecules in mastic clasp on to one cables are similar to
another very rapidly to form long those found in natural
chains, or polymers, which tangle and man-made plastics Try adding mastic to dishes via a sauce
together into a sticky mass. and rubbers made from a roux of flour, mastic, and
butter or other fats.
118 Spice Profiles

Spice story
JUNIPER In folklore, juniper is associated with
healing and magical powers, and the
Resinous | Sharp | Floral dense shrub is known as a place
of safe refuge; in one legend the infant
Jesus is concealed in a juniper hedge
to hide him from King Herod’s
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION soldiers. Since ancient times, branches
Juniperus communis Shrubs are grown on chalky soils. Berries of the bush have been burned to
are harvested in late summer or autumn.
smoke meat and fish, and in the
ALSO KNOWN AS
Middle Ages the wood was burned to
Common juniper COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Berries are often partially dehydrated at a purify the air in times of plague. Italy
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
temperature below 95°F (35°C) to limit has been exporting home-grown
the evaporation of essential oils, which juniper for more than 500 years. Most
Pinene
contain the flavor compounds.
of the country’s crop goes straight to
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES
distilleries for making gin, and it is
Berries (actually cones, like those on
In perfumes; as a fabric dye; as an still a legal requirement for juniper to
pine trees, but with fleshy scales)
insecticide. In traditional medicine, be the dominant aromatic in all gins.
as a diuretic and anti-inflammatory.
The Dutch in the 13th century appear
to have been the first to flavor spirits
The plant with juniper, using the green, unripe
Juniper is a dense,
prickly, evergreen
berries to produce a strongly alcoholic
shrub. Female seed drink they named jenever.
cones produce the
“berries,” which take
several years to ripen.

Ground
Berries are available roughly ground, but
the flavor-containing oils soon degrade and
the spice needs to be used quickly.

EUROPE
(TEMPERATE REGIONS)
Oiliness of the
berry indicates
good quality

Each berry
contains 6
black seeds

“Berry” flesh Whole Region of cultivation

contains The berries are available fresh, but more Juniper is native to temperate regions of Europe,
several sacs of commonly bought semi-dried. Store in a Russia, and the Caucasus, North America, and
flavorful oils sealed container because the oils evaporate Japan. The strongest-tasting berries are grown
easily; best used within six months. in warm, sunny, southern Europe.
 Flavor Group | FRAGRANT TERPENES | Juniper 119

Kitchen Juniper has a sweet taste with a strong aroma of pine and hints of turpentine.
Its clean, citrus qualities make it particularly well suited to meat, on which its
creativity acids have a mild tenderizing effect.

BL ENDING SCIENC E F OOD PART NE RS

Juniper’s principal flavor—light, woody pine—reflects the coniferous tree from which it Cabbage, beets Add crushed berries
originates; fragrant terpene compounds make up 80 percent of juniper’s flavor oils, with the to coleslaw, along with slivers of tart
pinewood aroma of pinene foremost. This range of pleasantly fragrant terpenes, combined apple; mix with salt and sprinkle over
with juniper’s high sugar content (up to 33 percent), provide ample blending opportunities. beets before roasting.

Citrus fruits Flavor citrus preserves

with a couple of crushed berries, or top
JUNIPER lemon sorbet with a small pinch.

Ju Meat Use in marinades, rubs, and

stuffing for most meats, particularly
game. Drop crushed berries into
casseroles and stews, with a strip of
orange peel.

Salmon Juniper’s resinous qualities

work well with oily fish: include it in a
homemade cure for salmon gravlax.

Chocolate Stir crushed berries into

ALPHA-TERPINEOL, a truffle or mousse cake mixture.
PINENE TERPINEOL, AND LIMONENE GERANIOL
woody | spicy | MYRCENE citrus | herby | floral | sweet |
camphoraceous herby | spicy | turpentine lingering
woody
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
Juniper berries don't need roasting, but
do benefit from crushing or grinding to
speed the rate at which the terpene-rich
oils spread through a dish.
combine juniper’s add clean herbal draw out the citrus highlight the fresh
dominant pine notes to strongly notes with another floral notes with
with other complex flavored terpenes: limonene: geraniols:
spices featuring
bay contributes lemon myrtle, nutmeg also Crush berries just
pinene:
woody-tasting which also has floral contains terpineol and before using them;
cumin has a terpineol, alongside hints of linalool, will pinene for a woody compounds soon
rich, heady aroma pinene and geraniol, bring an intensely and earthy depth evaporate when the
but with a strong making for a sweet citrus taste oil sacs are broken.
coriander also
pinewood background strong match
contains pinene and
from pinene
cardamom’s myrcene, making it a
grains of Selim terpene compounds great fit Terpenes from the
have high levels carry woody spice oil dissolve poorly in
ginger has both
of pinene, and base notes, in addition water but spread
sweet and lemon
contribute distinctive to sharing limonene easily through oil
flavors, which can
eucalyptus notes and geraniol and alcohol.
both be brought out
black pepper
highlights the pine
aroma, while adding Meat rubs of
a peppery heat crushed juniper give
a strong taste as the
surface fats disperse
the flavors.
120 Spice Profiles

Spice story
ROSE The rose was first cultivated about
5,000 years ago by the ancient
Floral | Musky | Sweet civilizations of China, who prized the
flower for its beauty, perfume, and
healing properties. The Romans grew
roses extensively and documented
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION their medicinal uses, including (when
Rosa x damascena Buds and flower heads are harvested by worn as a floral crown) protection
(most commonly used species) hand. For petals, they are picked before or
at sunrise on the first day in full bloom. from hangovers. In the 7th century ce
cultivation of roses spread throughout
ALSO KNOWN AS
Damask rose COMMERCIAL PREPARATION the Middle East. Around this time the
Buds and petals are dried to sell as a spice, Persians discovered how to extract oil
or distilled to produce rose oil. from the flower, and its culinary use
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
Geraniol became more widespread. By the
NON-CULINARY USES
In perfumery and cosmetics; in traditional
Middle Ages, roses were used at
PARTS USED
herbal medicine as an antidepressant and medieval banquets to perfume water
Dried buds or petals
antiseptic, and to treat anxiety. for hand washing, and to flavor
savory and sweet dishes. During the
Crusades, the highly scented damask
The plant rose, the main source of rose oil,
The damask rose is a hardy reached northern Europe. In Victorian
flowering shrub and the main
source of rose flavoring used England, rose-petal sandwiches were
in cooking, although Rosa considered a refined teatime treat.
rugosa is popular in China,
Japan, and Korea.

Petals
BULGARIA

TURKEY
IRAN

INDIA
A bush can be
productive for
up to 40 years

Buds Region of cultivation

The rose is native to temperate regions of the
Petals and buds northern hemisphere, probably originating in
These are available dry for use as a China; the damask rose is native to the Middle
spice, or crystallized for decorating East. It is cultivated in Turkey, India, Iran,
cakes and desserts. Bulgaria, and Morocco.
 Flavor Group | FRAGRANT TERPENES | Rose 121

Kitchen Rose petals add sweet floral aromas to both sweet and savory dishes. The petals
of any unsprayed scented rose can be used, but those cultivated specifically for
creativity consumption have a more potent flavor than garden roses.

BL ENDING SCIENC E F OOD PART NE RS

Rose’s flavor profile is dominated by terpene flavor compounds that have a sweet, floral Cherries Add to stewed cherries and
character, including geraniol, nerol, eugenol, and linalool. The unique rose aroma is produced use instead of jam in a tart.
by potent flavor compounds called “rose ketones,” which provide fresh green notes, herby
spiciness, woody sweetness, and berrylike notes. Vegetables Add dried petals to
harissa and serve with grilled vegetables.

Chicken Sprinkle crushed petals into

ROSE a Moroccan-style chicken stew.

Ro Mackerel Serve grilled mackerel

with couscous scented with ground
rose petals.

Shortbread Add a few crushed

dried rose petals to the dough for
shortbread cookies.

Ice cream Use ground petals or

rosewater to make rose ice cream.

GERANIOL NEROL EUGENOL LINALOOL

floral | sweet | orange blossom | medicinal | floral | woody |
lingering sweet | fresh woody | warming spicy
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
Rose’s most potent flavor compounds are
oil-soluble, but can easily overpower a
dish: this is one spice that benefits from
being used in a water-based way. Even
combine with combine with pair with other combine with so, rosewater contains several hundred
other geraniol- more nerol spices eugenol-rich spices other linalools flavor compounds, which give it a
carrying spices: or those adding to boost penetrating to add floral complex subtle flavor.
complex sweetness: menthol nuances: complexity:
ginger adds
pungent warmth and lemongrass allspice provides cinnamon, cassia
citrus notes, and also lends citrus notes, sweet peppery flavors contributes warming
shares linalool mild pepperiness, sweetness, with a
clove adds
and slight spiciness, touch of bitterness
nutmeg used sweet, astringent,
also shares linalool from cassia
sparingly brings a eucalyptus-like notes
warm, earthy vanilla has rich, coriander provides
spiciness, and also mellow creaminess a powerful citrus
shares eugenol and complex flavors spiciness alongside Make your own rosewater by steeping
that including subtle floral qualities rose petals in water. Allow several days
cherry notes for the flavor compounds to slowly
dissolve into the liquid.

BLE ND TO T RY
Use and adapt this classic blend,
suitable for sweet or savory dishes:
Advieh p.27
122 Spice Profiles

Spice story
CORIANDER The discovery of an 8,000-year-old
stockpile of the spice in the Nahal
Citrus | Floral | Warming Hemar cave in Israel, together
with evidence from Egyptian tombs,
suggests coriander has its origins as
a commercial crop in the Near East.
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION The Greeks and Romans used it as
Coriandrum sativum Grown in fields as an annual crop; the a medicine and a meat preservative,
fruits form on the plant about three
months after sowing. as well as a spice in dishes such as
ALSO KNOWN AS
lentils with chestnuts. The spice
Cilantro; sometimes mistakenly called
Indian, Chinese, or Japanese parsley COMMERCIAL PREPARATION traveled to India via Persia around
Stalks are cut before the fruits are fully ripe. 2,000 years ago, and four centuries
Fruits are threshed, cleaned and dried. later evidence points to its widespread
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
Linalool use from China to Anglo-Saxon Britain.
NON-CULINARY USES
Essential oil in perfumes and cosmetics.
Early European settlers took the spice
PARTS USED
Also used as traditional remedy for ulcers to North America, where it became
“Seeds” (in fact fruits), leaves, and roots
and stomach problems. naturalized and widely cultivated.
By the 18th century, the spice had
fallen out of favor in Europe, and
The plant European its use became largely limited to gin
Coriander is a hardy herbaceous distilling and beer brewing; it is still
annual plant. There are two main European
cultivated varieties: vulgare fruits have a a popular flavoring in Belgian beers.
(Indian) and microcarpum higher essential
(European). oil content

The husk
of each fruit
contains two seeds RUSSIA

Whole
Pink-tinged The small, round EASTERN
European fruits are EUROPE
or white
more citrusy than
flowers
the larger, oval fruits
develop into of Indian coriander,
the fruits of which have a sweet NORTH SOUTHERN
the spice and slightly creamy AFRICA MEDITERRANEAN
taste. Store for up
to a year. Indian

Ground
Powder coriander Region of cultivation
Pre-ground can also act Native to the Mediterranean and southern
coriander loses its as a thickener Europe, coriander is now cultivated extensively
aroma quickly, and throughout the world, for both seed and leaves.
it is preferable to The main centers of production are in India
grind whole seeds and Russia, with large exports from Morocco,
Edible roots are as required. Store for Romania, Iran, China, Turkey and Egypt.
used in Thai cooking up to four months.
 Flavor Group | FRAGRANT TERPENES | Coriander 123

Kitchen Coriander is a versatile spice with a bittersweet taste reminiscent of dried orange peel.
While it can be used on its own, the spice is more frequently paired with earthy
creativity cumin to form the backbone of savory blends the world over.

BL ENDING SCIENC E F OOD PART NE RS

Lilac-scented linalool dominates the flavor profile of coriander, followed by a variety of mildly flavored Celery, fennel, cabbage Toss
terpenes, including pinene, cymene, and limonene, making it a versatile spice for pairing. a few crushed seeds into coleslaw
or when braising.

Citrus, apples, pears Add toasted

CORIANDER and ground to citrus sorbets and to

Co crumble topping or pastry dough for

apples and pears.

Pork, game, chicken Use as a dry

marinade or rub, or in stuffing mixtures.
LINALOOL LIMONENE
floral | orange | citrus | herby | Tuna and shellfish Rub ground over
sweet turpentine tuna steaks before searing, or add whole
to a court-bouillon for poaching shellfish.

PINENE CYMENE Preserves Works well as a

woody | pine | fresh | woody | pickling spice, and in tomato relish
camphor citrus and marmalade.

Sponge cake Add a pinch to plain

sponge; it also works beautifully with
citrus, blueberries, or blackberries.
pair with spices bring out the woody shared cymene add complexity to
that carry floral notes with more underpins this coriander’s citrus
flavors: pinene: classic combination: flavor with other
fruity nuances:
cardamom also black pepper’s cumin’s slightly BLE NDS TO T RY
contributes an herbal woody pinene and bitter earthiness is ginger provides
sweetness limonene mean a great foil for the harmonious zesty notes Try these recipes for classic blends
pepper’s gentle floral citrus nature of featuring coriander, or why not adapt
nutmeg, mace lemongrass
pungency blends well coriander them with some blending science?
bring warming powerfully enhances
sweetness with a anise, allspice floral citrus Zhug p.24
strong floral element contribute woody,
caraway brings Dukkah p.28
warming flavors and
subtle anise-like
add sweetness
peppery flavors
Durban curry masala p.37
Malaysian fish curry paste p.51
Chimichurri p.66

R E LEA S E TH E FL AVOR 266ºF (130ºC) –

356ºF (180ºC)
Coriander’s most flavorful
oils are deep inside the seeds,
and its taste profile changes greatly
when the spice is toasted.

Leave untoasted to allow the Toast to a deep brown color to Crack open or grind seeds to release the
green, floral flavors to dominate. develop nutty, earthy pyrazines. oils, especially for quick-cooking dishes.
124 Spice Profiles

Inspired by the peanut soups and stews of West

WEST AFRICAN Africa, this recipe foregoes the usual fiery Scotch
bonnet chilies for a twist from South Africa’s
PEANUT CURRY WITH Eastern Cape—a Durban curry masala spice blend.
The heat comes mainly from the cayenne pepper,

DURBAN MASALA so use less for a milder kick. For a hearty soup,
simply add more water at the end of cooking.

SPICE
Serves 6–8
Prep time 20 mins
1 For the Durban masala, grind the whole spices and combine with
the cayenne pepper and ginger. Set aside.

IDEA S Cooking time 25–35 mins

For the Durban masala blend

2 Prepare the peanut butter by blending it with a cup of water in a
food processor. Once it is smooth, pour into a pan and stir in the
remaining water. Simmer on a low heat for about 15 minutes, until oil
Blend your own 2 tsp cumin seeds starts to gather on the surface. Set aside.
masala: swap in black 1 tsp coriander seeds
cardamom or grains of
Selim, for smokiness,
or replace ginger or
½ tsp fenugreek seeds
seeds of 5 cardamom pods
3 Chop the carrots, parsnips, and rutabaga or turnip into 1 in
(2–3 cm) chunks. Heat 1 tablespoon of the oil in a large pan. Add
the vegetables and fry over medium–high heat for 10–15 minutes, only
coriander with woody, 1 cinnamon stick stirring occasionally, until the sides brown and caramelize. Remove
balsamic mace.
5 cloves from the pan and set aside.
1 tsp cayenne pepper

4
Toast the whole Heat the remaining oil in the pan and add the onion and masala.
spices to create new ½ tsp ground ginger
Sauté over medium heat for a few minutes, and then add the
toasted pyrazine
flavors, but take care, tomato purée and chopped tomatoes. Increase the heat to the maximum,
For the curry
as they can dominate. add the mushrooms, and fry for 3 minutes.
4 tbsp unsweetened peanut butter

5
21/4 cups (500 ml) water Add the vegetable stock, peanut sauce, and vegetables to the pan.
Add fresh spices to the
frying vegetables for a 3 large carrots, peeled Chop the eggplants (if using) into 1 in (2–3 cm) chunks and add.
deeper base flavor: 2 parsnips, peeled Bring to a boil, then simmer for 15–20 minutes, until the vegetables
the pungency of garlic are tender.
1 rutabaga or turnip, about 1 lb
and ginger will mellow
(500 g)

6
and sweeten with Check for seasoning and add salt and pepper. Remove any large,
prolonged cooking. 2 tbsp oil
whole spices and serve the dish with sticky rice. Alternatively, to
1 medium onion, diced serve as a soup, add water and bring back to a boil.
1 tbsp tomato purée
2 ripe tomatoes, finely diced
12 oz (400 g) mushrooms, wild,
cultivated, or mixed
21/4 cups (500 ml) vegetable stock
4 baby eggplants or white garden egg
eggplants (optional)
salt and pepper to taste
126 Spice Profiles

Spice story
CUMIN Evidence of cumin in Egypt’s
pyramids suggests that it was in use
Earthy | Herby | Woody more than 5,000 years ago. The
Ancient Greeks and Romans used
cumin as a table seasoning alongside
salt. Roman naturalist Pliny the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Elder regarded it as the king of
Cuminum cyminum Grown as an annual crop, plants are cut condiments, and in modern-day
around four months after planting, when
the fruits turn yellow-brown. Georgia and Africa salt combined
ALSO KNOWN AS
with cumin is still a popular
Roman caraway, jeera
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION seasoning. From the 7th century CE,
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
Stalks are dried then threshed to separate Arab traders transported cumin on
fruits, which are then further dried. their spice caravans to North Africa
Cuminaldehyde
and east to Iran, India, Indonesia,
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Essential oil in perfumes and veterinary
and China, and it became a key
“Seeds”, which are technically fruits
medicines. In traditional medicine, taken component of many regional spice
to aid indigestion and relieve flatulence. mixes, including baharat (Middle
East), garam masala and panch phoran
(India), and ras el hanout (Morocco).
Seeds derive Seeds Spanish conquistadors introduced
from umbels of measure cumin to the Americas in the 16th
small, white or around 6mm
pink-mauve (¼in) long century, notably to Mexico, where
flowers the spice became deeply embedded
in the cuisine.

TURKEY CHINA
Whole
The boat-shaped, light brown seeds IRAN
will keep their flavour for up to a SYRIA
year if stored in a sealed container EGYPT
INDIA
somewhere cool and dark. PALESTINE
Multi-stemmed
plant grows to
30–60cm
(1–2ft) tall Powder
Buy ground
cumin in small
quantities, as it Region of cultivation
The plant quickly loses Thought to be native to Egypt’s Nile Valley
Cumin is a drought- its potency; use and the Eastern Mediterranean, cumin is
tolerant, annual within a couple cultivated in India (the largest producer and
herbaceous plant in of months. consumer), China, Syria, Turkey, and Iran.
the parsley family. Palestine and USA are other producers.
 Flavor Group | EARTHY TERPENES | Cumin 127

Kitchen Cumin is an essential component of Indian, North African, Levantine, and Mexican
cuisine. Used alone or in combination with other spices, it imbues a diverse range
creativity of savory dishes with its distinctive, highly aromatic, and pungent flavor.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Cumin’s uniquely musky, earthy, almost burnt flavor derives from cuminaldehyde, Eggplant and root vegetables
a compound found in roast beef and cinnamon but sparingly in other spices. Toast and crush seeds for sprinkling
Oher important compounds include pinene, which gives the spice its dry, over roasted eggplant, a beet dip,
pinewood nuance, and cymene, which has a fresh, turpentine-like aroma. or puréed roots.

Pulses Use as a flavoring for dhal

and other lentil stews, in falafel mix, and
CUMIN scattered over hummus.

Cu Beef and lamb Add a pinch of

ground cumin to minced lamb for
Moorish-style kebabs, or to beef rendang,
Mexican mole, and chili con carne.
CUMINALDEHYDE CYMENE
bitter | herby | woody | citrus | Salt Toast seeds and then grind with
earthy harsh an equal quantity of sea salt, for sprinkling
over roast chicken, tomato salad, avocado
toast, tacos, or roast potatoes.
PINENE
pine | fresh | Yogurt Combine cumin seeds,
conifer wood yogurt, and lemon to make a dressing for
roasted vegetables or a salad of bitter
leaves, such as mustard greens or kale.

pair with sweet spices to bring out woodiness with use cymene to bridge with
complement its tenacious other pinenes: other spices’ flavors:
warming qualities:
black pepper adds coriander provides zesty
cinnamon and cardamom warmth and enhances the citrus and floral flavors,
BLE NDS TO T RY
bring sweet warmth, and carry mild pungency counterbalancing cumin’s bitter
some cuminaldehyde earthiness
Try these recipes for classic blends
black cardamom’s featuring cumin, or why not adapt
nutmeg matches well for smokiness also works with ajwain gives an intensely them with some blending science?
warming muskiness, also cumin’s earthy notes herbal thyme-like flavor
sharing pinene Turkish baharat p.23
nigella adds a charred,
Za'atar p.22
mustard–onion spiciness
Advieh p.27
Dukkah p.28
Hawaij p.29
Chaat masala p.42
R E LEA S E TH E FL AVOR Shandong spice bag p.58
Pyrazines bring Sulfur brings
Cumin is particularly responsive to mainly nutty, flavors of green BBQ rub p.68
toasting: bruise and dry fry the seeds to toasted flavors vegetables and
produce additional flavor compounds of roasted meats
pyrazines and sulfur.
128 Spice Profiles

Spice story
NIGELLA Reputedly found in King
Tutankhamun’s tomb in Egypt,
Mild | Peppery | Herbaceous nigella has been cultivated for
its seeds for more than 3,000 years.
Its name derives from the Latin
nigellus or niger (black). Ancient
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Greeks and Arabs appreciated the
Nigella sativa An annual plant, it produces large seed seed’s curative and preservative
capsules that are harvested as they ripen.
properties; according to an Arab
ALSO KNOWN AS
proverb, nigella is “a remedy for all
Love-in-a-mist, black onion seeds, black COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
cumin, black caraway The capsules are dried, then gently diseases except death.” An ancient
crushed to release the seeds, which are Arab text describes it as habbatul
sold whole or have their oil extracted. barakah, “seed of blessing.” while
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
Nigellone in the Old Testament it is called
NON-CULINARY USES
In natural remedies the seeds are used to
ketzah. The Roman physician and
PARTS USED
alleviate cold symptoms, treat digestive philosopher, Galen, prescribed nigella
Seeds
ailments, and encourage lactation. seeds to treat colds, and they are still
used in this way: a spoonful of seeds
is wrapped in muslin, held to the
Tear-drop nostril, and inhaled to clear a blocked
shaped nose. Nigella has been used as an
seeds are
beige until herbal remedy across southern Europe,
dried in air western Asia, and the Middle East.

Plants reach a
height of about
60cm (2ft)

SOUTHERN EUROPE

MIDDLE EAST
NORTH AFRICA
INDIA

GREECE

The plant
Nigella is a small, Region of cultivation
herbaceous annual plant Whole Native to southern Europe, Turkey, the
from the buttercup family. Seeds will keep for up to two years. Caucasus, and the Middle East, nigella is
It produces pale-blue, They are very hard, so grind them in now cultivated in India—the largest modern-
five-petalled flowers and a spice or coffee grinder rather than day producer—and Egypt, North Africa, and
feathery grey-green foliage. by hand with a pestle and mortar. southern Asia.
 Flavor Group | EARTHY TERPENES | Nigella 129

Kitchen Nigella is a punchy spice that releases a mild heat on the tongue and has a slightly
bitter, herby, charred onion–like flavor. It is widely used in Indian cooking and its
creativity preservative properties make it a fine pickling spice for fruit and vegetables.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Look to the secondary flavor compounds of nigella for effective spice pairings: Vegetables Add to vegetarian
significant concentrations of cymene give the spice its earthy, fresh aroma, and curries made with root vegetables,
smaller amounts of the mild terpenes pinene and limonene are also present. squash, or eggplant.

Grains and pulses Flavor rice and

bulgur wheat with lightly toasted seeds;
NIGELLA fry briefly in oil or ghee and stir into

Ni just cooked dhal.

Eggs Sprinkle over scrambled

or fried eggs.

CYMENE LIMONENE
Breads Combine with white sesame
woody | harsh | citrus | herby | seeds and stir into flatbread dough or
turpentine-like turpentine-like sprinkle on top. Also works well with
rye breads.

PINENE Goat cheese Work the seeds into a

pinelike | woody | cheese dip made with whipped feta or
camphorous other goat cheese.

Lamb Use in a slow-braised Indian

korma or Moroccan tagine.
combine with other cymenes additional pinenes bring pair with the fruity nuances
to enhance the fresh notes: depth to the pine elements: of other limonenes:
ajwain’s thymol tastes like black pepper contributes coriander’s dominant floral
oregano and links to nigella’s mild pungency and bitterness citrus counterbalances nigella’s RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
herbiness, adding bitterness and onion-like bitterness
cinnamon enhances
menthol-like cooling Nigella seeds are hard to break, and their
the woody qualities, introducing caraway brings aniselike,
cumin brings a sweetness peppery pungency flavorful oils are locked away in minute
musky warmth capsules. One way to help the oils escape
is by grinding seeds, then toasting in a dry
nutmeg used sparingly adds
woody, warming spicy notes
frying pan, which also generates
additional pyrazine flavour compounds.
Pyrazines are
formed by the
reaction of
T h e o re g a n o c o n n e c t i o n proteins
with sugars
Nigella’s main flavor compound—nigellone—is almost unique in nature, yet many people detect N N N N N

a similarity with oregano. The explanation is that nigellone forms from the sticking together N
N N N N

of molecules of thymoquinone, a medicinal-tasting compound that is also found in oregano.

O O O CH3
O
CH3

+ = H3C
CH3
BLE ND TO T RY
O O CH3 O
CH3
O
Try this recipe for a classic blend
Oregano Nigella flavor featuring nigella, or why not adapt it
flavors Thymoquinone Nigellone compound with some blending science?
Panch phoran p.43
130 Spice Profiles

Spice story
G RAINS OF SELIM Grains of Selim are a popular spice
across Africa, from Ethiopia to
Musky | Resinous | Bitter Ghana. Like grains of paradise,
during the Middle Ages the spice
was exported north to Europe and
sold as a substitute for scarce and
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION expensive black pepper. However,
Xylopia aethiopica Trees are harvested for their pods, which are its popularity in Europe waned
picked at various stages of maturity.
from the 16th century—by then,
ALSO KNOWN AS
Portuguese sailors and merchants
Uda pod, Ethiopian pepper, habzeli, kimba COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
pepper, Selem kili, Guinea pepper In Senegal, immature fruits are smoked had established sea trade routes
and then pounded; elsewhere, the sun- from Asia to Europe, and this vastly
dried pods are ground or used whole. improved the availability of black
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
Fenchone pepper and other exotic spices.
NON-CULINARY USES
In traditional African medicine: fruit and/or
Outside its indigenous regions, the
PARTS USED
roots are used to treat a variety of complaints. spice is often called Ethiopian pepper,
Pods (fruits) and seeds
Bark extract is used in skin ointments. but it is no relation to Piper nigrum.
It is valued as both a culinary spice
and a medicine in Africa, particularly
The plant southern Nigeria, and deserves to be
Grains of Selim come better known outside the continent.
from an evergreen tree,
which grows in humid
tropical regions of Africa.
Trees can grow to a
height of 98 ft (30 m).

SENEGAL
Whole
Pods can be used whole
and removed from the
Seed pods dish before serving.
form in NIGERIA ETHIOPIA
dense clusters UGANDA
KENYA
Powder GHANA
Grind your own pods and use TANZANIA
immediately, since the flavors
evaporate quickly and for this
reason pre-ground powder is
rarely available.

Region of cultivation
Pods are dark The spice is native to Ethiopia and is cultivated
brown and contain there, as well as in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania,
five to eight seeds Nigeria, Ghana, and Senegal.
 Flavor Group | PENETRATING TERPENES | Grains of Selim 131

Kitchen Whole pods add a raw pepperiness to soups, porridges, stews, and sauces, while the
ground pods make excellent dry rubs for meat and fish. The whole pods are often
creativity tied in a muslin pouch so that they can be removed easily before serving.

BL ENDING SCIEN C E F OOD PART NE RS

The unique flavor of grains of Selim is due to a powerful and unusual compound Drinks Use the ground spice to make
called fenchone. You can also make interesting matches with its less dominating the Senegalese coffee drink café touba.
flavor compounds, such as vanillin, germacrene, linalool, geraniol, and pinene.
Vegetables Add the ground spice
to a vegetable curry of beans, tomatoes,
and zucchini; sprinkle the ground spice
GRAINS OF over a spiced squash soup.
SELIM

Sl
Fish Use the ground spice as a rub for
fish, such as cod, before grilling, baking,
or adding to a richly spiced gumbo.

FENCHONE
LINALOOL AND Meat Make peppersoup, a West
GERANIOL African soup containing grains of Selim,
bitter | penetrating |
floral | sweet | nutmeg, chili, and assorted meats.
camphoraceous
herbal
Rice Add a whole pod to pilaf or
VANILLIN GERMACRENE biryani, or to Nigerian "one-pot" jollof rice.
sweet | fragrant | woody | spicy |
creamy sweet
M AX I M I Z E
T HE S M OKI NE S S
team with other complement enhance woody add a fragrant Dried pods are smoked during drying to
powerful sweetness with notes with similar floral spice to give a musky, wood-smoke aroma. Most
fenchones: fruity, tangy spices: compounds the mix: of the smokiness is in the pods, so for the
fennel has a juniper is an nutmeg and coriander’s floral fullest smoky flavor grind the whole
strong licorice taste excellent sweet mace contain a flavors are sweet pods just before use.
and accentuates match, sharing woody compound and citrus infused
pine flavour pinene and geraniol called myristicin Aroma-laden
cardamom shares fragments embed in
dill carries more sumac brings linalool, while
the skin of the pods
subtle anise flavors mouth-puckering penetrating cineole
and adds hints of sweet-sour notes complements the
citrus lingering camphor
licorice contains
notes
intensely sweet
glycyrrhizin and
shares cineole

Pleasantly fragrant molecules

(particularly phenolics) are deposited
RELEA S E by the rising smoke particles as they
wash over the dry fruit.
T HE F LAVO R
The main flavor compounds
of grains of Selim dissolve BLE ND TO T RY
and mix well in fats and
alcohol, but less so in Cook briefly in fat before adding Add early when cooking in
Use and adapt this classic blend
water-based liquids. to a dish, or add toward the end watery dishes, to allow time for featuring grains of Selim.
of the frying time. flavors to infuse the dish. Yaji p.36
132 Spice Profiles

Spice story
BLACK CARDAMOM Black cardamom has suffered from an
unwarranted reputation as an inferior
Smoky | Camphorous| Resinous substitute for its green cousin, and
until the 20th century was mainly
used for perfumes in the West. The
spice has traditionally been cultivated
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION by the Lepcha community of Sikkim,
Amomum subulatum Grown in forest shade; the seed pods of a state in Northeast India. The
three-year-old plants are hand picked from
near the base, before they fully ripen. Sikkimese themselves use black
ALSO KNOWN AS
cardamom for medicinal purposes
Winged cardamom, large cardamom, brown
or greater cardamom, black gold COMMERCIAL PREPARATION and rarely cook with it, but in China
Pods are dried for 24–72 hours over an its culinary value has been appreciated
open fire in a curing kiln, which gives for centuries. The spice has only been
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
them their dark color and smoky taste.
Cineole cultivated outside Sikkim since the
NON-CULINARY USES
1960s, when it was introduced to
PARTS USED
In perfumes and dental products; in Nepal and Bhutan, then later still
Seeds and whole fruit (“pod”)
traditional medicine for treating sore to Darjeeling in West Bengal. Now
throats, stomach disorders, and malaria.
both areas cultivate it for domestic
use, notably as a key constituent
of garam masala spice blends, and,
The plant Seeds are
Growing in the damp shade of increasingly, for export to the Middle
held in clusters
mountain forests, this frost-tender,
inside the husk East, Japan, and Russia.
herbaceous perennial has broad,
leafy, evergreen shoots

Yellow-white Pods are about

flowers grow three times the
from rhizomes size of green
SIKKIM
at ground level cardamom pods
Black cardamom BHUTAN
HIMALAYAN RANGE
Buy whole black cardamom pods (not ground
seeds) and store in an airtight container for
up to 1 year. Seeds begin to lose their flavor EAST NEPAL
as soon as they are removed from the pods,
so use immediately.
DARJEELING

Reddish pods Chinese black cardamom

contain up Also known as cao guo,
to 50 seeds, these are the much Region of cultivation
surrounded by larger pods of a different Native to the damp, hilly forest areas of
sugary pulp species of Amomum, the eastern Himalayas, from Nepal
but they have a very into China; up to 90 percent of black
similar taste and can be cardamom is still grown in the state of
used interchangeably. Sikkim in Northeast India.
 Flavor Group | PENETRATING TERPENES | Black Cardamom 133

Kitchen Black cardamom is best suited to slow-cooked, savory dishes. It is typically used in
the braised meat dishes of Sichuan cuisine, in pho and other Vietnamese broths and
creativity soups, and in garam masala and pilafs of India and Nepal.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Black cardamom is dominated by the same penetrating cineole compound that Bitter greens Stir in a pinch of
gives green cardamom its flavor, but here the similarity ends. Varied smoky ground seeds when slow cooking bitter
phenols, significant amounts of clovelike eugenol, pinelike pinene, and citrusy leafy vegetables, such as collard greens.
limonene, offer a wide range of pairing opportunities.
Pickled vegetables Whole pods
work well in sweet or savory brines
BLACK when pickling carrots, cucumbers,
or tomatoes.
CARDAMOM

Bl Vegetarian stews The char-grilled

taste makes black cardamom a useful
substitute for smoked bacon in stews
and hot pots.
CINEOLE LIMONENE
penetrating | citrus | herby | Red meat Add the bashed seeds to
eucalyptus-like turpentine dry barbecue rubs for red meat.

Chocolate Sprinkle crushed seeds

EUGENOL
sparingly over dark chocolate mousse or
medicinal | woody | over partially set chocolate when making
warming chocolate bark or truffles.

add complexity to the combine with other pair with more limonene
dominant flavor with eugenols to counter the to bring out fruity notes: BLE NDS TO T RY
other cineole spices: harsher notes of cineole:
coriander also brings its Try these recipes for classic blends
allspice provides a nutmeg used sparingly strong floral flavor featuring black cardamom, or why
sweet, peppery warmth adds warm, spicy notes
caraway brings an not adapt them with some
cardamom gives a cinnamon contributes additional aniselike taste blending science?
sweeter, more floral edge sweet, fragrant qualities that goes well with Garam masala p.40
cardamom’s smokiness
galangal enhances the Shandong spice bag p.58
camphorous flavors
Advieh p.27
Vindaloo paste p.44

REL EAS E T HE F LAVOR

Most of the smoky flavors are in the husk,
so use whole pods if you want to retain the smokiness.

Toast whole pods or ground seeds to Lightly crush whole pods before adding Grind the seeds to release their flavorful oils
create nutty and roasted flavor compounds them early in cooking so that the full for a more intense taste, but use immediately,
that interact with the smoky compounds. flavor can be infused into the dish. as the oils quickly evaporate.
134 Spice Profiles

Spice story
CARDAMOM Cardamom has been used for culinary
and medicinal purposes in India for
Eucalyptus | Citrusy | Floral more than 2,000 years. The spice was
known by the ancient Greeks and
Romans, who valued its qualities as
a perfume and digestive aid. Vikings
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION from northern Europe are reported
Elettaria cardamomum Almost ripe seed pods are harvested by to have encountered the spice during
hand five or six times a year.
their raids on Constantinople in the
ALSO KNOWN AS
9th century ce, and to have taken it
Small cardamom, green cardamom, true COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
cardamom, queen of spices Seed pods are washed and then dried in back to Scandinavia, where it remains
the sun or in heated “curing” rooms. a popular flavoring for breads and
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND pastries. Cardamom began to be
Cineole NON-CULINARY USES grown as a secondary crop in the coffee
Perfumery; cosmetics; in some cough
drops; in Ayurvedic medicine to treat
plantations of British India in the 19th
PARTS USED
depression, skin conditions, urinary century, and in 1914 the spice was
Whole “pods” (fruits) containing seeds
conditions, and jaundice. introduced to Guatemala, which is now
the world’s largest producer. Around 60
percent of all cardamom is consumed
The plant in Arab countries, where it is a key
Cardamom is a tropical ingredient of gahwa, a fragrant coffee
perennial in the ginger
family. Its tall shoots served as a symbol of hospitality.
develop from rhizomes
(underground stems).

Sword-shaped
leaves are very
mildly aromatic.
Seeds
The seeds in good-quality cardamom pods INDIA
should be black and slightly sticky. Avoid
using seeds that are dry and pale.
Fruits contain
SRI LANKA
15–20 seeds
that ripen from Whole pods PAPUA NEW
white to reddish- The papery pods are GUINEA
brown or black normally yellowish Pods are graded
green; white pods are by width, with
bleached for aesthetic the fattest ones
reasons, and have a containing the
weakened aroma. most seeds

Region of cultivation
Flowers are Cardamom is native to southern India and
green with a Sri Lanka, but Guatemala is now the world’s
violet-streaked largest producer, followed by India, Papua
white petal New Guinea, Sri Lanka, and Tanzania.
 Flavor Group | PENETRATING TERPENES | Cardamom 135

Kitchen This highly aromatic spice is sweet, somewhat minty, and penetrating, making it
suitable for both sweet and savory dishes, and more versatile than black cardamom,
creativity which lacks sweetness and has a smoky aroma that may not work in desserts.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Cardamom’s flavor profile is dominated by a powerfully penetrating eucalyptus-like flavor Apples Add a small pinch of
compound called cineole. It also contains a less common flavor compound, alpha-fenchyl freshly ground cardamom to oven-
acetate, which is sweet, minty, and herbal. In addition, there are significant amounts of several baked apples.
pleasant terpene compounds, including lemony limonene and delicately floral linalool.
Rice Sauté a couple of bruised pods
lightly in oil, ghee, or butter before
adding rice for a pilaf or biryani.
CARDAMOM
CINEOLE
penetrating |
eucalyptus | herbal
Cm Meat Add a bruised pod to a creamy
korma chicken curry or a lamb hot pot,
to assuage the richness.

Drinks Steep a couple of bruised

LINALOOL
pods in black tea, coffee, liqueurs, or
floral | woody | mulled wine.
spicy
combine sparingly
Baking Sprinkle a pinch of freshly
with other cineoles ground cardamom into a gingerbread
or eucalyptus- ALPHA-FENCHYL ACETATE LIMONENE mixture before baking.
scented spices: sweet | minty | citrus | herby |
herbal turpentine
black cardamom
contributes smoky, BLE NDS TO T RY
resinous aromas
bay adds a fresh Use and adapt these recipes for
woodiness and some pair with another give a boost to the enhance the gentle classic blends featuring cardamom:
bitterness spice containing lemon-like nuances: floral qualities with Turkish baharat p.23
alpha-fenchyl other linalools:
grains of Selim fresh ginger Advieh p.27
acetate:
lend peppery notes provides harmonious coriander provides
galangal adds sweet citrus notes pinelike qualities and Hawaij p.29
allspice and powerfully aromatic shares citrus flavors Durban curry masala p.37
nutmeg offer a flavors and enhances
slightly subtler match lemongrass adds Vindaloo paste p.44
the eucalyptus quality
with their eucalyptus a variety of floral flavors Shandong spice bag p.58
through shared cineole
scent and sweetness alongside fresh lemon
Finnish gingerbread spice p.72

REL EA S E T HE F LAVOR
Whole pods give a
subtle flavor and are Crushing also helps
suited to slow cooking, cooking oils and liquid to
but always crush them reach the seeds
before use. For a
fresher, more intense
flavor, and for quick-
cooking dishes,
remove the seeds Toast pods or seeds to add a bouquet Lightly crush pods to open the husk and Cook with fat in the dish, as most of
and grind them. of smoky, nutty, and roasted flavor bruise the seeds, allowing flavorful oils to the flavor compounds are almost
compounds not previously present. seep out from their storage cells. insoluble in water.
136 Spice Profiles

Spice story
BAY The ancient Greeks and Romans
both regarded bay as symbolic of
Resinous | Herbal | Floral victory and high status. The Romans
used bay leaves to flavor roasted
meats, and added ground bay berries
to stews and sauces. They also used
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION bay leaves medicinally, and believed
Laurus nobilis Leaves can be harvested at any time of that garlands of the leaves would
year. Two- to three-year-old leafy shoots
are cut off the main plant by hand. dispel evil spirits. The bay laurel
ALSO KNOWN AS
was introduced from Asia Minor to
Sweet bay, bay laurel
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION all parts of the Mediterranean region
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
Shoots are dried in the shade. Leaves are in ancient times. By the Middle Ages
then collected, graded, and packaged. it had reached right across Europe
Cineole
and continued to be ascribed spiritual
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Perfumery and cosmetics; in traditional
significance. In the 17th century, the
Leaves, and less commonly the berries
medicine as a cough medicine and antiseptic, English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper
and to treat skin and joint problems. wrote that a bay tree would provide
protection from harm, and branches
of the plant were burned in public
The plant spaces in times of plague.
Bay is a fairly
hardy evergreen
shrub in the laurel
family. It grows up
to 23 ft (7.5 m) tall.
PORTUGAL
BELGIUM
Clusters of
yellow-white FRANCE
flowers develop
in warm regions SPAIN
TURKEY

Fresh
Fresh leaves are quite GREECE
edible, but can be leathery, ALGERIA
and have a slight bitterness
that gradually dissipates.

MOROCCO
Dried
Good-quality leaves
remain pale green
in color. They have Region of cultivation
less bitterness and Bay is native to the eastern Mediterranean
little aroma, but the region (Asia Minor). It is cultivated mainly
Shiny, deep green fragrance is released in Turkey, which supplies more than 90
leaves are aromatic, upon cooking. percent of the world market, but also across
particularly when Europe, North Africa, Mexico, Central
crushed or bruised America, and southern US.
 Flavor Group | PENETRATING TERPENES | Bay 137

Kitchen Added at the beginning of cooking, fresh or dried bay leaves yield their fragrant, warm
flavors gradually. Traditionally, bay is an indispensable part of a bouquet garni, tied in a
creativity bundle with thyme and parsley, and removed before serving.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

The flavor profile of bay leaf is dominated by a terpene compound called cineole, which has an Vegetables Thread whole, oiled
unusually penetrating, powerful eucalyptus scent. The next most abundant flavor compound is a leaves onto vegetable skewers for
spicy, sweet, warming phenol called eugenol. There are also small amounts of peppermint-like and barbecuing or grilling.
slightly citrusy phellandrene, pinelike pinene and terpineol, and floral geraniol and linalool.
Apples Add a whole bay leaf to the
filling for an apple pie.
BAY Grilled meat Throw fresh or dried

Ba bay leaves onto barbecue embers before

grilling meat.

Seafood Stuff a few bay leaves into

the cavity of a whole fish before baking,
CINEOLE
PHELLANDRENE
or add to steamed mussels and clams.
penetrating |
minty | piquant |
eucalyptus |
citrus
Cannellini beans Cook soaked
herbal cannellini beans in water with bay leaves
for a ribollita or bean purée.
EUGENOL
medicinal | woody | Chocolate Infuse cream with bay
warming | sweet and combine with melted chocolate
for an aromatic ganache.

combine with other cineoles pair with other eugenol-rich combine with other
to complement the warm, spices to boost sweetness phellandrenes to bring BLE NDS TO T RY
woody pungency: and warmth: out the piquancy:
Try these recipes for classic blends
black cardamom brings clove adds sweetness and a dill adds aniselike aroma featuring bay, or why not adapt
smoky, penetrating flavors woody bitterness while sharing citrus qualities them with some blending science?
from limonene, and mintiness
cardamom enhances citrus cinnamon lends a sweet, Burmese garam masala p.48
from carveol
and floral notes fragrant warmth
black pepper imparts spicy Nanjing spice bag p.59
galangal adds spiciness and licorice strengthens sweet,
enhances the warming quality eucalyptus-like notes
heat and brings in background Mulling spice p.73
notes of pine Khmeli-suneli p.77
through shared eugenol
rosewater adds sweet
nutmeg used sparingly adds floral notes
a warm, woody aroma

RELEAS E 1 small bay leaf

THE F LAVOR to 3 tbsp oil is a
good ratio for
most dishes +
Bay’s flavor oils are deep within
the leaf, which explains why dried
leaves are still effective. Flavor Bay leaf 3 tbsp oil
compounds dissolve well in oil, fat,
and alcohol, but poorly in water. Use in water-based cooking liquids for Extract maximum flavor by adding to
a delicate flavor, and allow time for flavor oil and heating gently before mixing
compounds to spread into the dish. with other ingredients.
138 Spice Profiles

Spice story
GALANGAL The Greek philosopher Plutarch noted
that the ancient Egyptians burned
Warming | Pungent | Peppery galangal as a fumigant, to perfume and
disinfect the air. It was also used
as a medicine by ancient civilizations
from the Mediterranean to China.
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Greek and Roman physicians included
Alpinia galanga Grown as an annual crop, rhizomes the spice, brought from Asia on early
develop clumps of green stalks and are
harvested 3–4 months after planting. trade routes, in their expensive
ALSO KNOWN AS
concoctions for wealthy patients. In
Greater galangal, Laos root,
Thai ginger, Siamese ginger COMMERCIAL PREPARATION the Middle Ages, the German herbalist
Rhizomes are washed, then cut up and Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179)
scraped to be sold fresh, dried, or ground. described galangal as “the spice of
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
Cineole life,” but evidence suggests it was a
NON-CULINARY USES
Essential oil in perfumery; in traditional
different variety, known today as lesser
PARTS USED
Ayurvedic medicine to boost appetite galangal, that became popular in
Rhizomes (underground stems)
and treat heart and lung diseases. European cooking. It appears in a
sauce recipe in The Forme of Cury, a
14th-century English cookbook, and
The plant Dried in many other medieval and Tudor
Galangal is a tropical Galangal can be
dried and either
recipes. Today it is an important spice
herbaceous perennial
in the ginger family, sliced or ground in Southeast Asian cuisine.
growing to 8 ft (2.5 m) into a powder.
tall in large clumps.

Flowers and
buds are edible

Leaves are CHINA

long and Dried slices are
blade-shaped best softened
INDIA
in water before use
SOUTHEAST
ASIA
Rhizomes look
yellow-orange BANGLADESH
Rhizomes after scraping INDONESIA
resemble ISLAND OF JAVA
those of Fresh
ginger, but The flesh is
are darker tougher and more
fibrous than that of Region of cultivation
ginger. Peel it, and Galangal is native to Java, in Indonesia, but is
then grate, slice, or now cultivated throughout Southeast Asia,
pound to a paste. India, Bangladesh, China, and Suriname.
 Flavor Group | PENETRATING TERPENES | Galangal 139

Kitchen Galangal’s flavor is an intriguing mix of cardamom, ginger, and saffron, with
mustard and citrus notes. It has a reputation for heightening other flavors while
creativity retaining its own distinctive character.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Galangal’s trademark lingering pungency comes from penetrating cineole and medicinal Meat Add galangal paste to
camphor, and unusual galangal acetate is responsible for its wasabi-like tang. Similarly your base for a beef rendang, slow-
uncommon methyl cinnamate and fenchyl acetate are often found in fruits, lending subtle cooked beef ribs, or chicken marinade.
notes of balsamic vinegar and fir tree, respectively. Simmer slices in beef or chicken stock
to form a base for pho, the Vietnamese
noodle soup.
GALANGAL Smoothies Swap ginger for a

Gg smaller amount of galangal in your

favorite fruit or vegetable smoothie.

Fish and shellfish Combine

galangal and lemongrass with shallots,
CINEOLE garlic, chili, and fish sauce to make a
FENCHYL ACETATE paste for Thai fish curry.
penetrating |
sweet | minty | herbal
eucalyptus | herbal
Fruit Grated galangal with lime juice,
fish sauce, sugar, chili, and garlic makes
CAMPHOR METHYL CINNAMATE a zingy dressing for green papaya or
pungent | medicinal | balsamic | cherry | other fruit salads.
bitter cinnamon

RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
intensify eucalyptus find a match for this pair with spices on partner with spices Fresh galangal is best grated or pounded
with cineole spices: lingering compound: the sweet spectrum: that complement to a paste; slices release flavor more
bay strengthens coriander’s related cinnamon shares this rare compound: slowly. Oils are essential for fullness of
pine-fir notes, and camphene brings a methyl cinnamate, dill and caraway flavor. Powder is harsher and less complex
complements the cooling camphorous bringing a woody have minty nuances, than fresh spice because subtler flavor
medical character taste, while also sweetness but also add a compounds evaporate with processing.
adding floral and background of lemon
cardamom also clove brings a
citrus flavors and mild anise
brings minty notes heady sweetness and
Fresh
from shared fenchyl more woody spiciness
acetate, as well as from caryophyllene

=
floral citrus aromas

Cineole’s cooling effect Ground

Galangal’s peculiar mouth- Cineole Cineole molecule If substituting ground galangal,

molecule stimulates cold receptor use half as much as fresh.
numbing coolness comes
from cineole. This flavor
compound has a molecular Surface of tongue
shape that directly stimulates
a cold thermoreceptor, called Tongue papilla
BLE NDS TO T RY
TRPM8, which normally Use and adapt these classic blends
senses cold temperatures. Taste buds
featuring galangal:
Cool signal sent to brain Khao kua p.49
Bumbu p.52
140 Spice Profiles

Popular in both Laos and Thailand, larb is a

ASIAN LARB SALAD fiery salad most often made with finely minced
meat or fish, which is flavored with fresh spices
WITH CURRIED DUCK and herbs and topped with roasted rice powder.
This version mixes things up by adding in garam
AND KHAO KUA masala—the warm, aromatic spice mix at the
heart of much Indian cooking.

SPICE
Serves 2–3
Prep time 10 mins
1 Heat the oil in a frying pan over a medium heat. Add the garam
masala and chili flakes and stir-fry for 1–2 minutes, until fragrant.

IDEA S Cooking time 2–3½ mins

1 tbsp vegetable oil

2 Turn the heat to high and add the duck mince. Fry for 1–2
minutes, until the meat is browned on the outside but still pink
in the middle. Transfer to a plate and set aside.
Reinvent the citrus 2 tsp garam masala (see recipe p.40)
sour in khao kua by
replacing or enhancing
lemongrass and lime
1 tsp Thai chili flakes, or any crushed
dried chilis
3 To make the dressing, mix the lime juice and fish sauce with
the sugar in a large bowl. Stir until the sugar has dissolved.

4
leaves with lemon 2 duck fillets, skin removed, then Prepare the lemongrass stalks by trimming the tops and bases
myrtle, sumac, or dried minced and peeling off the woody outer layers. Crush the pale green,
lime powder. juice of 2 limes tender inner stalks using the back of a heavy knife, to release the
2 tbsp Thai fish sauce (nam pla) aromatic oils. Chop the stalks finely.
Instead of lime juice,
1 tbsp palm sugar or muscovado sugar

5
use tamarind water Add the warm duck, shallots, chopped lemongrass, mint, and
in the dressing for a 2 lemongrass stalks
cilantro to the bowl of dressing. Stir until all the ingredients
more lusciously fruity 4 shallots, finely sliced
sweet–sour flavor.
are well combined.
handful fresh mint leaves, chopped

Personalize the
garam masala: create
handful fresh cilantro leaves, chopped
1 tbsp khao kua roasted rice powder 6 Sprinkle the khao kua over the salad and serve immediately.
If you are preparing the salad ahead of time, only add the rice
powder when you are ready to serve, so that it stays crunchy.
a more floral character (see recipe p.49)
with coriander and
green cardamom; add
fennel, dill, or caraway
for underlying aniseed.
142 Spice Profiles

Spice story
DRIED LIME Limes are native to Southeast Asia
and were brought to the Middle East
Tangy | Sour | Musky by Arab traders, though exactly how
and when is unclear, since lemons
and limes were often referred to by
the same name in Arabic texts. By the
BOTANICAL NAMES METHOD OF CULTIVATION 10th century ce, Arab traders had
Citrus x latifolia or C. aurantifolia Trees are grown in orchards and the fruits introduced the fruits to Egypt and
picked when slightly under-ripe.
North Africa, and from there they
ALSO KNOWN AS
spread across southern Europe during
Persian lime, noomi (C. x latifolia); Omani COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
lime, loomi (C. aurantifolia) Fruits are boiled in brine and left to dry in era of the Crusades. Limes first made
the sun until they turn hard, darken, and it to the Americas in the 16th century,
begin to ferment. planted in the West Indies by
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
Citral European explorers. The practice of
NON-CULINARY USES
Used by Arabian Bedouins as black fabric
drying limes first developed in Oman.
PARTS USED
dye; in traditional medicine to stimulate Some believe the idea suggested itself
Dried fruits
digestion and reduce bloating. after unharvested fruits dried on the
trees and began to ferment. Used in
cooking throughout the Middle East,
The plant Powder dried limes are most closely associated
Limes grow on small, Lime powder with Persian cuisine.
evergreen trees in the citrus is made from
family, native to tropical and grinding dried
sub-tropical regions. black limes and
tastes similar
to sumac.

TURKEY

ISRAEL
IRAQ IRAN

EGYPT
SAUDI
ARABIA OMAN

White lime

Peel is
Black lime leathery
Region of cultivation
Fruits are Leaves are Whole The most important lime producers for the
picked when aromatic and Black limes have had longer to ferment and Middle Eastern market are Egypt, Turkey, and
mature, but still sometimes used develop stronger, musky flavors. The paler Israel. The preparation of dried limes is carried
pale green in cooking types are dried for a shorter time. out in Oman, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Iran.
 Flavor Group | CITRUS TERPENES | Dried Lime 143

Kitchen Limes are the most acidic of all citrus fruits, but they carry a fragrant, floral
quality that is unique in the citrus family. The process of drying limes develops
creativity vinegary, earthy qualities, a hint of smoke, alongside mild fermented flavor.

BL ENDING SCIENC E RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R

Some acids break down into sugar, meaning dried lime is less powerfully Unlike the eye-watering hit of fresh limes,
sour than fresh lime, allowing its other flavors to shine. Pair with spices the complex flavors of whole dried limes
that also highlight its subtle woody, camphorous, floral, and sweet notes. need coaxing out, although powder can
offer an imperfect shortcut.

DRIED LIME

Li
FENCHONE
CITRAL, LIMONENE
bitter | camphorous
citrus | herbal Pierce whole limes with a skewer before
| warming
adding to a dish: the flesh gradually
rehydrates to release flavors.
LINALOOL METHOXY-
floral | woody | COUMARIN
spicy sweet | balsamic
use fenchone-
carrying spices for
a tang of camphor:
add more citrus emphasize similarly boost sweetness cassia’s bitterness,
complexity: floral notes: through similar penetrating taste,
Fats and alcohol release fragrant terpenes
coumarin: tannins, and sweet
ginger’s lemony nutmeg adds the in the peel. Methoxycoumarin, acids, and
qualities from shared floral aromas of vanilla’s aromatic coumarin balance the
sugar dissolve in water, hence low-fat dishes
citral synergize with safrole and geraniol sweetness resembles acidity of dried lime
are sweet and tart, but lacking in aroma.
lime, while gingerol coumarin, bringing grains of Selim
allspice’s main
adds zesty heat indulgent flavors also add floral and
compound, eugenol,
to sweet dishes if pine flavors with
cardamom has a has an intensely
balanced well linalool and pinene
eucalyptus flavor and perfumed presence
shares citrus limonene, mahleb intensifies fennel’s subtle
coriander shares
sweetness from herby sweetness with aniseed works well
both limonene and
a-fenchyl acetate, and almond, creamy, with the bittersweet
linalool, echoing lime’s
floral linalool cherry pie nuances qualities of dried lime
citrus/floral balance
Lime powder is best for quick-cook dishes.
If using in slower dishes, add later so the
terpenes have less time to evaporate.

FOOD PARTNERS
Fruit salad Swap lemon juice for ground dried Chicken Pierce a dried lime and place it in the
lime in a syrup for a fruit salad. cavity of a chicken before roasting, or add to the
poaching broth for chicken, along with turmeric,
Vegetables Add a whole dried lime to the base saffron, and onion.
of an Iranian chickpea and vegetable stew, after
softening onions, carrots, and garlic. Grains Use ground dried lime to flavor rice
dishes and pilafs, or sprinkle over a quinoa or
Fish Introduce powdered dried lime to a fish bulgur wheat tabbouleh salad. Grind in an electric grinder, first cutting
curry, or over grilled shellfish or sea bass. in half and removing the seeds.
144 Spice Profiles

Spice story
LEM ON MYRTLE The potent aromatic foliage of the
lemon myrtle tree has long been
Citrusy | Warm | Bitter prized—possibly for millennia—by
aboriginal Australians, who use them in
cooking and to treat cuts. The leaves
were first distilled for essential oil in
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION 1888, and during World War II an
Backhousia citriodora Leaves are harvested all year round, by extract from the lemony leaves was
mechanical harvesters or by hand.
used as a substitute for commercial
ALSO KNOWN AS
lemon essence, supplies of which had
Sweet verbena tree, lemon ironwood COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
The leaves are separated from their stems become scarce. However, it was not
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
and then dried using drying machines. until the early 1990s that lemon myrtle,
They are packaged whole or ground. by then a potentially lucrative crop for
Citral
the food and drink industry, began to
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Cosmetics and perfumery; in herbal
be cultivated as a spice. Demand is
Leaves (fresh or dried)
medicine for its antibacterial and now outstripping supply, and plantations
antioxidant properties; topical antiseptic. have been established outside
Australia. Since 2010, lemon myrtle
has been under attack from myrtle
The plant
Good-quality
rust, a fungal infection, which could
Lemon myrtle is an threaten this species in the long term.
evergreen tree in the powder has a
myrtle family, and is green hue; avoid
related to allspice brown powder
and clove.
CHINA

Flowers and
berries are edible
but not sold
commercially
MALAYSIA

AUSTRALIA

Powder Region of cultivation

Leaves are Lemon myrtle is most readily available Lemon myrtle is native to coastal subtropical
thick, glossy, to buy as coarsely ground or crushed rainforests of Queensland, Australia. It is grown
and strongly dried leaves. It degrades rapidly in in some subtropical areas of Australia (mainly
lemon scented sunlight and warmth, so must be stored in Queensland and northern New South Wales),
in cool, dark conditions. Malaysia, and China.
 Flavor Group | CITRUS TERPENES | Lemon Myrtle 145

Kitchen Lemon myrtle has a bright citrus flavor—more lemony than lemon, but
without the acidity of that fruit’s juice—with green, herbal notes and a subtle
creativity scent of eucalyptus. Add sparingly to both sweet and savory dishes.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

The leaf oil of lemon myrtle consists almost entirely of citral— Garlic and oil Infuse olive oil with
a lemon-scented flavor compound that is up to 30 times more concentrated garlic and lemon myrtle for use in salad
in this spice than in lemon rind. Alongside are small amounts of floral linalool, dressings and marinades.
peppery myrcene, and the green-tasting ketone sulcatone.
Squash Combine with cracked black
pepper and sprinkle over roasted squash.
LEMON Oily fish Mix crushed lemon myrtle
MYRTLE with sea salt and sprinkle over salmon or

Lm
trout before grilling or barbecuing.

Lamb Adapt an Egyptian dukkah (see

p.28) with lemon myrtle and macadamia
CITRAL nuts for seasoning roasted lamb.
citrus | herbal | MYRCENE
eucalyptus peppery | spicy | Baking Drizzle lemon-myrtle–infused
balsamic syrup over a quince, pear, or plum cake,
or use the syrup in a sorbet. Boost the
LINALOOL SULCATONE lemony taste of lemon meringue pie with
floral | woody | green | apple | a pinch of lemon myrtle in the filling.
pair with spices
that heighten or spicy musty
combine with
complement the
spices that
lemon component:
harmonize with the RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
lemongrass adds peppery notes:
mild pepperiness and pair with other enhance refreshing Citral is unstable and breaks down over
Sichuan pepper
slight spiciness linalool-carrying green flavors with time, allowing camphor and eucalyptus
adds warming and
spices to reinforce another leafy spice: notes to dominate. The compound does
wattle contributes tantalizingly tingly
the floral qualities:
sweet, nutty, lightly bay has green notes not dissolve in water.
charred wood flavors cinnamon undertones from
black pepper
with hints of popcorn contributes sweet hexanal and brings
contributes warmth
warming notes in penetrating and
cacao adds notes and woodiness
complex pine and
of bitter chocolate ginger adds sweet
floral aromas allspice lends
pungent warmth and
chili contributes sweet warmth and
citrus notes
mouth-warming also pepperiness
pungency Add toward the end of cooking or
use in recipes with only a short cooking
time. Ensure fats are included in the dish.

C u rdle - f re e c it rus Cream

Acids present in the juice of lemons and other Contains
citrus fruits cause protein molecules in dairy
products, such as milk and cream, to clump
L EMON
acid
+ = C U RDLE S
E AS I LY
together, resulting in curdling. Lemon myrtle
does not contain acids, so can be added to VS
milk- or cream-based sauces and desserts
to give them an intense lemon-lime flavor
without any risk of curdling.
L EMON
MY RTL E Contains no acid
+ = NO
C U RDLI NG
146 Spice Profiles

Spice story
L EM ONGRASS The Latin name for lemongrass,
Cymbopogon, derives from the Greek
Citrusy | Peppery | Refreshing words kymbe (boat) and pogon (beard),
referring to the shape of its flowers,
now rarely present in cultivated
varieties. The spice has been used
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION both medicinally and as a flavoring
Cymbopogon citratus Around three times a year, the whole clump agent in its native Asia for thousands
of leaf bases and young stems are hand-cut
at the base of the plant. of years. In 10th-century China it was
ALSO KNOWN AS
used as an insect repellent, the fragrant
Serai, oil grass,
West Indian lemongrass COMMERCIAL PREPARATION leaves being placed on beds to ward
Stems are separated, cleaned, and trimmed off fleas. By the Middle Ages,
to lengths of 8 in (20 cm), and then bundled lemongrass had made its way to
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
for drying or using fresh.
Citral Europe from Asia via caravan spice
NON-CULINARY USES
routes—the spice appears in several
PARTS USED
In perfumes, soaps, and toiletries; in insect brewing and spiced wine recipes of the
Stalks, leaves
repellents; anti-inflammatory medication; time. In the 19th century, India began
as a fungicide; and to relieve joint pain.
cultivating lemongrass, mainly to
export the aromatic oil for scenting
soaps and cosmetics. However, it was
The plant Powder Southeast Asian rather than Indian
Lemongrass is a member Dried, ground
of the grass family and lemongrass (also cuisine that adopted lemongrass as
grows in warm, tropical called sereh), a staple spice.
climates to a height of imparts only a
5–7 ft (1.5–2 m). fraction of the
spice’s complex
character.

One teaspoon is
roughly equivalent to
Narrow, a stalk of lemongrass
tapering leaves LAOS
INDIA
grow from the
bulbous base THAILAND
The most
tender inner CAMBODIA
part of the VIETNAM
Aromatic oils stem can be MALAYSIA
are concentrated eaten raw SRI LANKA INDONESIA
in the stems

Fresh Region of cultivation

Store well wrapped in the refrigerator for
Lemongrass is cultivated throughout the tropics,
up to 2 weeks. Leaf blades can also flavor
in India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia,
dishes: tie in a knot and gently bruise.
Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia, the
Americas, and West Africa.
 Flavor Group | CITRUS TERPENES | Lemongrass 147

Kitchen Delicate lemongrass enlivens curries, stir-fries, pickles, salads, and soups. Use the
tender inner stalk in curry pastes, marinades, and spice rubs, or bruise the whole
creativity fibrous stalk and use in stocks or soups, removing it before serving.

BL ENDING SCIENC E RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R

Lemon-scented citral makes up 70 percent of the spice’s flavor compounds, but the key to spice pairing Most of lemongrass’s flavor comes from
is to avoid intensifying this dominant citrus with another lemony spice. Instead, bring out lemongrass’s mild oil glands deep inside the grass. The stems
pepperiness from myrcene, and/or its sweet and floral elements from linalool and geraniol. must be crushed to burst open the
glands and release the oils.

LEMONGRASS

Le
LINALOOL AND
CITRAL
GERANIOL Slice, grate, or pound for quicker cooking:
citrus | herbal |
floral | woody | the greater the damage, the faster the oils
eucalyptus
sweet will leak out. Add powder late in cooking.

MYRCENE
spicy | peppery |
turpentine

team with spices where boost the peppery notes harmonize penetrating Gently bruise or bend leaf blades for
citrus is a minor part of with spicy myrcenes: spices through shared lengthy cooking, to prevent too many of
the flavor profile: floral compounds: the flavor compounds evaporating.
black pepper also
coriander contains brings slow-burning heat, cardamom shares
similarly lemony limonene and harmonizing floral and linalool, with complementary
and powerfully magnifies citrus notes from flowery eucalyptus and lemon
floral notes linalool and citrus limonene
Sichuan pepper shares
ginger contains citral and allspice is also sweetly geraniol, linalool, and myrcene
brings in hot pungency fragrant, making it ideal for under its cineole pungency
sweeter dishes
grains of Selim carries
both compounds, plus
Cook with fats, such as coconut milk, to
eucalyptus and bitterness
ensure oil-based citrus and floral flavor
compounds spread throughout the dish.

FOOD PARTNERS BLE ND TO T RY

Fish cakes Make Thai fish cakes by adding Salad Add finely chopped lemongrass to a Try this recipe for a classic
lemongrass, chili, ginger, garlic, and lime leaves to dressing for a Thai noodle salad with slivers of blend featuring lemongrass,
fish and potatoes before frying. carrot, chili, cucumber, and a handful of or why not adapt it with
toasted nuts and herbs. some blending science?
Pork Marinate pork in a paste of finely chopped Khao kua p.49
lemongrass, ginger, coconut, and turmeric before Fruit Instead of adding pared lemon peel to
grilling or barbecuing. the poaching liquid for pears, rhubarb, quince, or
peaches, add a bruised stick of lemongrass for
Granita Infuse a sugar syrup with lemongrass a hint of pepperiness.
and lime zest. Strain to make granitas or ice pops.
148 Spice Profiles

Spice story
AMCHOOR Mangoes have been cultivated in
India for more than 4,000 years, and
Citrus | Herbaceous | Bittersweet are strongly linked to the Ayurvedic
system of traditional Indian medicine.
According to Hindu folklore they also
have sacred properties, and Ganesh,
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION the Hindi elephant-headed god, is
Mangifera indica Unripe mangoes are harvested often shown holding a ripe mango as a
mechanically or by hand.
symbol of attainment. Buddhist monks
ALSO KNOWN AS
took mangoes to East Asia in the 4th
Mango powder, amchur COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Fruits are peeled, sliced, and oven- or and 5th centuries ce, and the fruit was
MAIN FLAVOR COMPOUND
sun-dried to remove 90 percent of their subsequently transported west along
moisture, then packed as slices or ground. trade routes, reaching Africa in around
Ocimene
1000 ce and northern Europe by the
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
In Ayurvedic medicine to treat respiratory
early 14th century. The fruit was
Flesh of unripe fruits
diseases and digestive complaints. introduced to Brazil by Portuguese
explorers in the 17th century, and also
reached Mexico via the Philippines.
In the mid- to late 18th century,
The plant mangoes reached the West Indies,
Mango is a large probably via Brazil.
tropical evergreen tree
in the cashew family.

Cream or
pink flowers
develop into CHINA
fruits
Powder PAKISTAN BANGLADESH
Amchoor powder has a coarse texture
and is light beige in color. It can be stored
for up to a year in a sealed container away INDIA MYANMAR
from sunlight.
THAILAND PHILIPPINES

INDONESIA

Region of cultivation
Whole Mangoes are native to India and Myanmar,
Green, Dried slices are light brown and resemble and over 40 percent of the total world crop is
unripe fruits rough-textured wood. Store in a sealed cultivated in India. Other major producers
have sour, container in a cool, dark place for up to include Pakistan, Bangladesh, China, Thailand,
astringent flesh 4 months, and grind as needed. Indonesia, the Philippines, and Mexico.
 Flavor Group | SWEET-SOUR ACIDS | Amchoor 149

Kitchen Amchoor has a fruity, very tart but slightly resinous taste, with a citrus tang. It is
often used as a souring agent, much like lemon but with the benefit of not adding
creativity moisture. Use it judiciously, as the bittersweet flavor can be overpowering.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

As well as pairing with the following spices that share the same or similar fruity, Fish and prawns Add to a crumb or
herbal, and vegetable-like flavor compounds, take advantage of the sweet and batter coating for fried fish or prawns.
puckering qualities of amchoor by pairing with galangal and ginger, or the
sweetly aromatic nutmeg and cinnamon. Lamb Use amchoor to make a
marinade for lamb chops, shoulder, or
shanks. Rub it over the meat and leave it
overnight before grilling or slow roasting;
AMCHOOR the acidity works as a tenderizer.

Am Lentils Stir into a soothing dhal to

add a touch of piquancy.

Vegetables Sprinkle over roasted

OCIMENE
cauliflower, or add a pinch to stir-fried
CADINENE eggplant or okra.
floral | vegetal |
herbal | woody |
tropical
spicy Tropical fruit Add a pinch to a sweet
tropical fruit sorbet or salad.
CUBEBENE
lemony | fruity |
radishlike
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
pair with other spices enhance woody notes
that share this main with spices that share Many of amchoor’s terpene flavors
compound: combine with other sharply this gentle terpene: quickly evaporate, but the fruit sugars do
fruity spices: not. Citric acid also boils less easily than
nigella lends an onion-like juniper brings a sweet
savoriness sumac has a similarly pinelike woodiness water, which means its sweet–tart effect
sweet-tart citrus profile
carob’s sweet vanilla
will increase with prolonged cooking.
grains of Selim add a
camphorlike sweetness coriander also brings a notes will foreground
floral bitterness amchoor’s fruitiness Add late for Add early for acidity
annatto brings a a fragrant and sweetness
peppery edge asafetida pairs well effect
despite its very different,
bay has penetrating
predominantly sulfurous and
fruit-floral aromas
musky taste

C o n c e n t rat e d s we e t -an d -so ur t as t e

Drying the mango evaporates most of its water, reducing its moisture content from over 80% to
less than 10%. In the process, the acids, sugars, and flavor compounds become highly concentrated,
resulting in a distinctly sweet-and-sour taste profile.

= 65%
BLE NDS TO T RY
One teaspoon of amchoor powder has the acidity Fruit sugars are concentrated Use and adapt this recipe for a
of three tablespoons of lemon juice. during drying to around 65%. classic blend featuring amchoor:
Chaat masala p.42
150 Spice Profiles

Spice story
ANARDANA The pomegranates has been grown for
at least 5,000 years, making it one of
Sweet | Sour | Fruity the oldest cultivated fruits, probably
originating in and around Persia (now
Iran). By the early Bronze Age,
cultivation had spread throughout the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION southern Mediterranean and eastward
Punica granatum The fruit is cut off the tree when fully to India and China. Its abundant seeds
ripe, but before it splits open.
made the pomegranate an enduring
ALSO KNOWN AS
symbol of fertility in many ancient
Pomegranate COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
The seeds and pulp are separated from the cultures, notably Egypt, where
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUNDS
bitter white membrane and dried in the sun. pomegranate motifs can be found in
Citric acid and malic acid temples and tombs. In the Greco-
NON-CULINARY USES Roman period, physicians prescribed
The seeds and rind are widely used in
PARTS USED
Indian, traditional European, and Middle
it to treat tapeworm, and the Roman
Fruitlets (incorrectly called seeds)
Eastern medicine to reduce fever, aid recipe book Apicius contains a recipe
digestion, and as an anti-inflammatory. for a digestive pomegranate drink
supposedly enjoyed by Emperor
Nero. The culinary home of the
The plant
Anardana comes from the fruits of
dried spice in particular remains, as
a large flowering shrub in the it has for millennia, in Indian and
loosestrife family. It is deciduous Persian cuisine.
in temperate climates but
evergreen in some tropical regions.

Hibiscus-like
flowers can be
bright orange- Slow-dried
red or white fruitlets are
reddish-brown to
black in color
CAUCASUS
Dried fruitlets
Consisting of seeds surrounded by
the fleshy aril (pulp), these are TURKEY
CHINA
slightly soft, sticky, and semi-moist.
MIDDLE EAST
Round fruits are
technically berries INDIA

Leathery skin
protects rubylike
fruitlets separated SOUTHEAST ASIA
by white pith

Powder
Dried fruitlets Region of cultivation
are also available Pomegranate is native to and mainly cultivated
ground into in the Middle East, Turkey, the Caucasus, and
powdered form. India, and also in Southeast Asia and in China.
 Flavor Group | SWEET-SOUR ACIDS | Anardana 151

Kitchen Anardana is popular in northern India, where it is used as a souring agent in curries,
pakoras, and chutneys. Many Iranian dishes—such as fesenjan, a chicken and walnut
creativity stew—combine the spice with pomegranate molasses for a richer flavor.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Pomegranate’s tangy fruitiness primarily comes from its mix of acids, sugars, and tannins. The compounds Tropical fruit Sprinkle ground
giving its appetizing aromas range from “green” hexanal and citrusy limonene to peppery myrcene and anardana over a mango and lime salad.
sweet, turpentine-like carene. These compounds are pivotal when looking for suitable spice partners.
Vegetables Add dried seeds to
braised vegetables; sprinkle whole or
ground over curried carrot or parsnip
ANARDANA soup, or potato and cauliflower curry.

Ar Meatballs Make ash-e anar, an

Iranian soup containing meatballs,
pomegranate (fresh and dried), yellow
split peas, rice, and herbs.
HEXANAL CARENE / SUGARS
green | fruity | sweet | pungent | Chicken Add dried seeds to a spiced
grassy turpentine-like yogurt marinade for chicken before
grilling or barbecuing.
LIMONENE MYRCENE Rice, chickpeas Pair with
citrus | herby | peppery | spicy | dried fruits in a fragrant pilaf, or
turpentine-like woody scatter over fried cooked chickpeas
along with cumin and salt.

Sweet baked goods Stir dried

boost the green notes add complexity bring out more lift the sweetness: seeds into a mix for granola bars or
with another hexanal: to the citrus subtle pepperiness: cookie dough.
vanilla adds a
flavors:
barberry, like black pepper creaminess and
pomegranate, has a ginger contains shares myrcene and complex character
high acid content that lemony citral, adding deepens spicy flavors
mahleb has cherry RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
produces a sour a pungent heat with pungent piperine
and almond notes
fruitiness dimension
cumin is an ideal Anardana’s main flavor profile comes
cinnamon brings
tamarind is an partner, bringing
warmth and from sugars, acids, and tannins, all of
ideal partner, sharing warming, savory
sweetness which dissolve in water.
lemony notes and earthiness
adding bready and
floral ones

S we e t a n d s o u r

The decidedly tart yet fruity flavor profile of anardana is due to a relatively high acid content Add directly to a watery sauce (no need for oil)
balancing out the fruit sugars, while large amounts of tannins provide a mouth-drying finish. to infuse a dish with the spice’s pleasant tang.

Exact proportions
vary depending on
the region of
cultivation; seeds
from North India
= + +
are known for 23% sugar 11% acid 5% tannin
Pound dried seeds for a more intense
their sourness. Anardana content content content flavor, but use a pestle and mortar as
the seeds will stick to a grinder.
152 Spice Profiles

Spice story
SUM AC The name “sumac” is derived from
the Aramaic word summaq, meaning
Sour | Fruity | Woody “red.” Long before lemons reached
Europe, the Romans imported sumac
from Syria to use as a souring agent,
and also as a dye. The Roman
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION naturalist Pliny the Elder celebrated
Rhus coriaria In late summer, just before the fruits fully its astringent and cooling properties.
ripen, the branches are dried in the sun. The
berries are then rubbed off. Sumac has been used in Middle
ALSO KNOWN AS
Eastern cooking since at least the 13th
Elm-leaved sumac
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION century ce in the za’atar spice blend,
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
Berries are cleaned and may be brined alongside sesame seeds and dried
for several days before grinding. Further herbs. The spice is mainly used in
Malic acid
drying may be needed after grinding.
Lebanese, Syrian, Turkish, and Iranian
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES
cuisine. Until the 1980s, sumac was
Dried berries (in fact drupes,
Fabric dye; leather tanning; in traditional almost impossible to obtain outside of
not true berries)
Middle Eastern medicine to treat fever. the Middle East. However, a number
of food writers have championed
Middle Eastern cuisine in the last
The plant couple of decades, and as a result this
Sumac is a deciduous spice is now experiencing a renaissance
shrub in the cashew Coarse powder
family. It grows in among cooks in the West.
uplands and on rocky
is brick-red and
mountains in slightly moist
temperate and
subtropical regions.

Green leaves SICILY

turn red in
autumn
TURKEY
IRAN

Powder
Sumac is not highly scented, so lack of Region of cultivation
Rust-colored aroma need not be a sign of poor quality. Sumac grows wild and is cultivated across
berries are Salt might be mixed in to prevent clumping; the Mediterranean and the Middle East,
borne in avoid buying sumac with this additive. particularly in Sicily, Turkey, and Iran, and
conical clusters Whole dried berries may also be available. in some parts of Central Asia.
 Flavor Group | SWEET-SOUR ACIDS | Sumac 153

Kitchen Sumac has a sharp, acidic taste, reminiscent of lemon balm, and a spicy, earthy,
woody aroma. It can be used in any dish that calls for lemon zest or lemon
creativity juice, or as a seasoning added like salt.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Sumac owes its sharp, mouth-puckering tartness to high levels of organic acids Root vegetables Sprinkle ground
(mainly citric, tartaric, and malic acids) and astringent tannins. Fragrance comes sumac over roasted root vegetables.
from the terpenes caryophyllene, which has a musty, woody aroma, and pinene,
which carries a fresh, pinelike aroma. “Green” aldehydes, such as earthy decenal Tomatoes Garnish sliced ripe
and fruity, floral nonanal, complement the freshness. tomatoes with sumac and a drizzle of
pomegranate molasses.

Chickpeas Sprinkle over hummus

SUMAC or fried chickpeas, or use in falafel.

Su Meat Use sumac to garnish grilled

or roast chicken or quail, with oil as a
marinade for meat, or in lamb kofte.

TANNINS AND
CARYOPHYLLENE
Fish Sprinkle sumac over Lebanese-
ORGANIC ACIDS style spicy baked fish.
woody | spicy |
sharp | astringent |
warming
acidic Yogurt and cheeses Scatter sumac
over a whipped feta and tahini dip, baked
feta, or fresh labneh with herbs, or over
DECENAL AND grilled halloumi.
PINENE
NONANAL woody | spicy |
green | fruity | camphorous
combine with sweet floral pair with spices
or citrus spices that enhance the
to balance the woody, spicy
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
sour acids: warmth:
Much like salt, sumac enhances the
coriander cumin, when flavors of foods to which it is added. Use
contributes harmonizing pair with spices combine with other roasted, produces powder to experience the full intensity of
lemon and shared that complement spices containing flavor compounds that sumac’s dry tartness and aroma.
floral notes, and adds the “green,” fruity, pinene for a closely parallel
eucalyptus floral flavors: complementary caryophyllene, shares
pinene, and brings The strained juice
nutmeg used flavor profile:
cardamom brings roasted, nutty pyrazines has a milder flavor
sparingly brings warm, strong eucalyptus juniper is a very that works well in
earthy spiciness notes and is a great good match, bringing fresh ginger’s jellies and sweet,
match, thanks to its strong pine aromas, sweet lemony flavors summery drinks.
cinnamon and
floral and green, herby slight sweetness, and complement sumac’s
cassia bring warming
profile; limonene adds a gentle bitterness to citrus sourness, while
sweetness and
aromatic depth to contrast with sumac’s developing a subtle
accentuate floral
sumac’s citrus acidic sourness underlying spiciness Sprinkle sumac as a
notes; cassia also
adds bitterness sourness garnish over a finished
dish for maximum
anise balances vanilla adds rich,
impact, rather than at
with sweet licorice mellow creaminess
the start of cooking.
and adds nuances of and subtle cherry notes
cherry, creamy vanilla,
and cocoa
allspice adds BLE ND TO T RY
sweet peppery warmth
Use and adapt this recipe for a
classic Syrian seasoning:
Za’atar p.22
154 Spice Profiles

Spice story
TAM ARIND Tamarind is a well-traveled spice: it
has been used and traded widely for
Sour | Fruity | Sweet thousands of years. The Ancient Greek
botanist Theophrastus described the
plant in his writings on herbal medicine.
Its English name comes from the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Arabic ‘‘tamr hindi,’’ meaning ‘‘date
Tamarindus indica Pods are harvested when fully ripe, of India,’’ because it reminded Arab
and are either picked by hand, or fall
to the ground when the tree is shaken. sea traders of their native date palm;
ALSO KNOWN AS
however, tamarind is in the pea family,
Indian date
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION and is native to East Africa. It probably
MAJOR FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
Pod shells are removed and the pulp is arrived in India more than 2,000 years
compressed into blocks of paste. ago, and became established
Furfural, 2-phenyl acetaldehyde
throughout the subcontinent both
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
In traditional medicine to treat bowel
as an essential cooking spice and as a
Pulp of ripe pods
disorders, jaundice, and nausea. All parts medicine. Traders brought it to Europe
have laxative and antiseptic properties. during the Middle Ages, by which
time India had become the main
supplier. During the 17th century,
The plant Block Spanish explorers carried it to the
The tamarind tree is a large The semi-dried fibrous mass of pulp is New World, including the West Indies,
tropical evergreen tree in the soaked in hot water, then mashed to a
bean family. It can grow to a paste and passed through a sieve. where it became important both in
height of 98 ft (30 m). cooking and as an ornamental plant.
Flowers are
yellow and
grow in clusters
CHINA
(TROPICAL)

INDIA

Soak in hot THAILAND

water to obtain a
flavored liquid SOUTHEAST ASIA
SRI LANKA

Paste
Prepared pastes
Leaves are available for Region of cultivation
convenience. To Tamarind is native to eastern Africa, possibly
and flowers Pods contain up to use, thin the paste Madagascar. It is cultivated in most tropical
are edible 10 seeds surrounded by mixing with regions, with India, Thailand, and Sri Lanka
by a sticky pulp warm water. being among the main producers.
 Flavor Group | SWEET-SOUR ACIDS | Tamarind 155

Kitchen In Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and India, tamarind plays an essential role in
chutneys, sauces, curries, soups, and drinks. Its fruity-sour taste helps to temper
creativity fiery dishes. It is often used as a fruitier-tasting alternative to lemon juice.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

The principal flavor compounds of tamarind are the fruity aldehydes furfural and phenyl acetaldehyde. Having Vegetables Drizzle a little tamarind
scant supply of oil, there are relatively small amounts of rapidly evaporating flavor molecules, so tamarind has juice into a yogurt dip for cauliflower or
only a mild aroma, but citrusy limonene is present in sufficient amounts for its fragrance to be detected. onion pakoras.

Fish Combine with raw sugar and

chilis for a dipping sauce with fish.
TAMARIND

Ta Pork and lamb Mix paste or juice

with soy sauce and ginger as a marinade
for pork or lamb.

Bulgur wheat Make a dressing

TARTARIC ACID LIMONENE
with liquid or diluted paste, pomegranate
AND SUGARS citrus | herby | molasses, olive oil, and Middle Eastern
sour | sweet | acidic turpentine herbs and spices, then drizzle over a
bulgur wheat salad.

2-PHENYL Drinks Make your own "tamarind-

FURFURAL
ACETALDEHYDE ade," combining strained liquid with
sweet | bready |
chocolate | cocoa | sparkling water or soda, adding sugar
almond
honey to taste, and serving over ice.

pair sharp with bring out luscious pair with another accentuate aromas
sweet for spice aromas with similar furfural: with other citrusy RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
harmony: compounds: compounds:
sesame's shared Derived from fruit pulp, the distinctive
cinnamon vanilla is a good furfural makes it ginger shares chemical components of tamarind make
contains sweet match with its an unusual but limonene and adds it an effective flavoring for water-based
cinnamaldehyde, honeyed flavor effective partner, flowery notes, dishes, and give it a long shelf life.
which complements compounds and heady balancing richness especially when fresh
tamarind’s high mix of sweet aromas with tamarind’s
lime shares
sugar content sour fruitiness
limonene and adds a
licorice’s green citrus tang
intensely sweet
black pepper
glycyrrhizin makes
carries limonene,
a perfect sweet-
making it an excellent
sour match
partner in spicy blends
The principal flavor compounds of
tamarind readily dissolve in water—unusual
among spices—so there is no need to fry
in oil to release the flavors.

D o n 't d i tc h th e se e d s!
Acids and
Tough tamarind seeds can, in fact, sugars comprise
be made palatable, and need not 50 per cent of
be discarded after extracting the Remove traces of Soak the seeds in Boil the seed pulp mass
“juice” from a block. They have pulp and roast in water and peel off kernels, or fry
a pleasant peanutlike taste. a dry frying pan. the protective coat. them in oil. High acid and sugar content prevents
the growth of bacteria, so a block
can be stored for a year or more.
156 Spice Profiles

In this innovative ice, warming notes of cumin

DATE AND TAMARIND and garam masala contrast with astringent
tamarind, zesty ginger, and the herbal pungency
GRANITA WITH of fresh green chilis. It is a combination inspired
by South Asian street food, in which these spices

CARAMELIZED PINEAPPLE work together as thirst quenchers in the intense

heat of high summer.

SPICE
Serves 6 as an appetizer
Prep time 2 hours
1 To make the granita, heat a small, heavy-based frying pan over
medium heat and toast the cumin seeds for about 1 minute, until
fragrant. Cool, then pound to a powder using a pestle and mortar.
IDEA S Cooking time 30–35 mins

For the granita

¾ tsp cumin seeds
2 Put the jaggery or palm sugar, liquid glucose, and water in a
saucepan and cook over moderate heat, stirring occasionally, until
the sugar has dissolved. Simmer for 3–4 minutes.
Replace amchoor with
ground anardana in the ½ cup (125 g) jaggery or palm sugar,
chaat masala to bring
a slightly bitter tang
to the fruity sourness.
chopped
¼ cup (50 g) liquid glucose 3 Remove the rind from the lime with a vegetable peeler, taking
care not to include any bitter white pith. Add the lime rind,
chopped ginger, tamarind, dates, and chilis to the pan. Simmer,
3 cups (750 ml) water
uncovered, over medium–low heat for 20 minutes, until softened.
Fans of licorice flavors 1 large lime
Remove the pan from the heat.
could add two whole 1
/3 cup (75 g) fresh root ginger, peeled

4
star anise and a and roughly chopped Reserve a few small mint leaves for a garnish, then roughly chop
teaspoon of toasted 2
/3 cup (150 g) seedless tamarind the remaining leaves and stalks and add to the pan. Cover and
fennel seeds to the
block, broken into pieces leave to infuse for 30 minutes.
date palm syrup.
½ cup (100 g) pitted dates, roughly
Strengthen the
ginger by replacing
chopped
2–3 green chilis, chopped, with seeds 5 Push the pulp through a sieve set over a bowl, discarding anything
left in the sieve. Whisk the garam masala, black salt, and ground
cumin into the syrup in the bowl. Taste for sweetness and add more
fresh root with a large bunch fresh mint
teaspoon of ground; sugar if it is too sharp; aim for a balance of sweet and sour flavors.
½ tsp garam masala (see recipe p.40)
the nutty warmth of

6
cumin will soften any ½ tsp black salt Transfer the syrup to a freezerproof container. Leave to cool
rough aftertaste. completely, and then place in the freezer for at least 1 hour, until
For the caramelized pineapple ice crystals form and it has set.
4 tbsp powdered sugar
2 tsp chaat masala (see recipe p.42)
1 tsp Kashmiri chili powder or hot
7 Now make the caramelized pineapple. Sift the powdered sugar
into a bowl with the chaat masala and chili powder. Add the diced
pineapple and stir to coat with the spice mix.
paprika

8
10 oz (300 g) fresh pineapple, peeled, Heat a large, dry frying pan. Shake off any excess spice mix from
cored, and diced
the pineapple pieces and add the fruit to the pan. Cook over
medium heat, stirring frequently, for 5–8 minutes, until the pineapple
caramelizes. Transfer the fruit to baking parchment and leave to cool.

9 Remove the granita from the freezer and rake it roughly with
a fork. Spoon into small glasses and sprinkle each glass with the
caramelized pineapple and mint leaves.
158 Spice Profiles

Spice story
CAROB The fruit of the carob tree has
nourished humans and animals since
Sweet | Astringent | Chocolatey ancient times. The tree’s ability to fruit
in poor-quality soil made it important
when famine struck, and the Bible
mentions its use as livestock fodder.
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION The common names St. John’s bread
Ceratonia siliqua Trees grow in orchards and ripe pods and locust bean derive from the
are harvested by hand or by shaking
them onto nets. “locusts” that St. John the Baptist was
ALSO KNOWN AS
said to have eaten in the desert, which
St. John’s bread, locust bean, locust seed
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION scholars believed were in fact carob
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUNDS
Pods are partially dried and either left pods (though most now think he was
whole or crushed to remove the seeds. eating grasshoppers). The word “carat”
Pentanoic, hexanoic, and pyruvic acids
originates from the Greek for the carob
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Animal feed; cigarette flavoring; seeds are
tree, keration: Arab jewelers used the
Dried ripened pods (technically fruits)
used to make a gelling agent (locust bean seeds as a unit of weight for gold. The
gum) employed in food and cosmetics. pods were easy to transport, and the
Greeks and Arabs took carob west with
them. Arabs brought it north to Spain
The plant and Portugal, where it was cultivated
Carob comes from an from the 17th century, and from there
evergreen tree in the pea
family, which thrives in it spread to the New World.
Mediterranean climates.

PORTUGAL TURKEY

Powder SPAIN ITALY

Carob powder is usually made with roasted
pod and pulp, but is also available raw. The GREECE
powder will keep almost indefinitely in a MOROCCO
Seed pods sealed container in a cool, dark place. CYPRUS
can grow to ALGERIA
12 in (30 cm)
Whole
Dried pods can be roasted
and/or eaten whole, avoiding
the rock-hard seeds; or use
to make a syrupy liquid by
Ripe pods boiling in water or milk.
Broken pieces are also Region of cultivation
turn from Carob is probably native to the eastern
available as “kibble.”
green to Mediterranean and the Levant. It is now
leathery cultivated mainly in Spain, but also in
brown and Italy (especially Sicily), Portugal, Morocco,
wrinkled Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, and Algeria.
 Flavor Group | SWEET-SOUR ACIDS | Carob 159

Kitchen Sweet and slightly acidic tasting, carob has a rich, warm, almost vanilla-like
flavor that vaguely resembles milk chocolate, but it lacks cacao’s bitterness, and
creativity has an unusual, slightly sour aroma. This spice is a rich source of sugar.

BL ENDING SCIENC E F OOD PART NE RS

Pentanoic and hexanoic acids dominate, giving sour milk flavor and “sweaty cheese” Vegetables Drizzle carob syrup over
aroma, respectively, while pyruvic acid has a brown sugar nuance. Sweet, fruity ketones grilled or roasted eggplant.
are also present, including pineapple ketone, as well as warming, spicy cinnamaldehyde,
and a terpene called farnesene, which has woody and sweet citrus notes. When roasted, Meat Use carob syrup in a barbecue
pyrazines give chocolatey, nutty aromas, but cinnamaldehyde is degraded. glaze for chicken or lamb, or mix the
powder into a rub or marinade.

Baking Add carob powder to coffee

CAROB cake batter and spiced vanilla cookie

Cb dough, or stir into a flapjack mixture

(remember it is sweeter than cocoa).

Desserts Blend frozen bananas with

vanilla extract and a spoonful or two of
PINEAPPLE KETONE, PYRAZINES, the powder or syrup to make carob
PYRUVIC ACID FARNESENE banana ice cream.
sweet | fruity | brown nutty | roasted |
sugar | caramel bready | woody Drinks Blend carob powder with cold
milk and ice to make a refreshing
PENTANOIC ACID, alternative to an iced latte.
CINNAMALDEHYDE
HEXANOIC ACID
warm | sweet |
sour milk | sweaty
fragrant
cheese
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
Whole pods offer most flavor, but should
combine with sweet pair with acidic or found in unroasted pair with nutty, be used according to the nature of the
spices that enhance sour spices to bring carob, highlight woody spices that dish. Roasting causes amino acids and
the background of tangy tartness: it with cinnamon enhance the deep, sugars to react with each other, creating
sugary fruit: flavor: roasted flavors:
tamarind is new nutty, coffee-and-chocolate-like
fenugreek shares strongly sour with cinnamon lends roasted sesame compounds, but reducing sweetness.
brown sugar flavor, underlying sweet, fragrant, spicy, brings harmonizing
with a hint of maple honey-caramel and warming qualities nutty flavors
syrup, while bringing
sumac is tangy cassia is similarly cacao has close For quick-cook
savory tastes
and earthy with plum sweet and warming, harmony due to its dishes, grind pods
reminiscent of clove
nuances but its bitterness is backbone of roasted or soak until soft
fennel seeds carry harsher and it has flavor compounds and mash or blend.
barberry is fresh,
sweetness and a some astringency
green, invigoratingly wattle adds strong
licorice-like aroma,
sour and subtly floral smoky overtones with
bringing floral and
earthiness
citrus elements amchoor brings For slow-cook,
tropical fruit flavors grains of Selim liquidy dishes
cardamom brings
and astringency shares farnesene and whole pods can be
eucalyptus and is a
carries sweet vanilla added directly.
surprisingly good
notes; its penetrating
match thanks to its
smokiness blends with
sweet minty notes
roasted carob
licorice is Roast raw pods
nutmeg is sweetly for 40 minutes at
intensely sweet with
aromatic and has 300°F (150°C).
potent aniseed notes
woodiness, thanks in Reduce the time for
part to farnesene kibble and check to
prevent burning.
160 Spice Profiles

Spice story
BARBERRY The earliest record of the use of
barberry fruits dates back to 650 bce,
Sour | Sharp | Tangy when a description of their blood-
purifying properties was inscribed
on clay tablets in the library of the
Assyrian king Ashurbanipal. The
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION plant’s use in Chinese medicine dates
Berberis vulgaris Fruits are harvested manually, most back over 3,000 years, and evidence of
commonly by hitting the branches with
a stick until the berries fall off. its medicinal use in Europe has nearly
ALSO KNOWN AS
as long a history; for example, the bark
Piperidge, jaundice berry, zereshk
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION from the root and the stem was used as
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
Berries are dried in the sun, in the shade, a purgative and tonic. Throughout the
or in industrial driers; research shows that Middle Ages, barberry was widely used
Hexanal
driers yield the best-quality spice.
in preserves, syrups, and wines in
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES
western Europe. Later, the herbalist
Dried berries
In Iranian traditional medicine to treat John Gerard (1545–1612) suggested
jaundice, inflammation, and toothache. that the berry could be used to season
meat—a flavoring idea that has stood
the test of time! Barberry was first
The plant cultivated in Iran over 200 years ago,
This dense and prickly and the berries have since become
deciduous shrub grows in Use berries whole
scrubland and belongs to or chopped, as they an important part of cooking in the
the berberis family. are or soaked first Middle East and the Caucasus.

Orange-
yellow
flowers are
produced from
late spring to
early summer
IRAN

Oblong red
berries grow in
dense clusters on
spiked branches and
ripen in autumn Region of cultivation
Dried berries Barberry is native to central and southern
Only choose berries that are bright red in Europe, northwest Africa, and western Asia.
color, indicating they have been dried It is now cultivated mainly in Iran (which
Grows up to carefully and are not overly old. Store them produces more than 11,000 tons of barberry
6½–10 ft in a sealed container in the freezer for up fruits every year), but also in northern Europe
(2–3 m) tall to 6 months, and defrost as needed. and North America.
 Flavor Group | FRUITY ALDEHYDES | Barberry 161

Kitchen Barberries tolerate being combined with other strong flavors very well,
and add zing to all kinds of savory and sweet dishes. Their jewellike
creativity appearance also makes them an attractive decoration.

BL ENDING SCIENC E F OOD PART NE RS

Containing high levels of acids and sugars, dried barberries are a versatile flavoring that Salad Crush the dried berries and
straddles the sweet–sour spectrum. The ability of sugars to reduce taste bud sensitivity to sprinkle them over salads.
bitterness and sourness, alongside a bouquet of flavor compounds, including herby
hexanal and floral linalool, offer a wide variety of spice-pairing options. Red meats Crush barberries
with salt and use as a rub for lamb,
beef, or game.
BARBERRY Pilaf Soak the dried berries and then

Ba fry them in butter before adding to rice to

make a pilaf.

MALIC, TARTARIC, SUGARS Preserves Use fresh berries to make

AND CITRIC ACIDS (EG. DEXTROSE, a fruit “leather” by boiling down the fruit,
sharp | sour | FRUCTOSE) straining it, and spreading it out on a tray
lemony sweet to dehydrate.

Drinks Add a syrup made with the

dried berries to refreshing cool drinks.
ALDEHYDES enhance the sweetness of
(HEXANAL AND NONANAL) other sweetly fragranced
pair with other acid- green | grassy | fruity spices, and dampen the
tasting spices for sourness and bitterness:
a potent, sour hit:
cacao’s bitterness can
sumac shares all be tempered, and its sweet RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
three acids aromas enhanced
Berries can be rehydrated before
tamarind shares tartaric add more “green” spices to cinnamon adds floral cooking to dilute their sharpness and
acid and like barberry has a enhance the aldehydes: notes from shared linalool speed up the release of flavor compounds.
sweet and tart profile Soak in cold water for 10 minutes or
bay adds fresh and floral vanilla brings a creamy
galangal’s penetrating notes that complement quality that helps to balance simmer briefly in a little boiling water.
spiciness works well with the barberry’s hexanal and linalool barberry’s sharp acidity
acidity of citric acid
ajwain lends a “green” annatto is sweetly
coriander brings complex quality that blends well with aromatic with an edge
floral and citrus notes through the aldehydes of bitterness from Add half
shared linalool caryophyllene the fruit’s
volume
in water

Pe c t in po we rho us e

Pectin is the chemical glue that holds plant cells Low Medium High
together, and it is present in all fruits in varying
amounts. When fruits are cooked in sugar and
water, pectin seeps out and reforms into a gluey
gel when cooled—the basis for a jam. Barberries
are high in pectin, and their acidity causes it to be
quickly released. Flavoring jams and jellies with Strawberries Apricots Apples (unripe) Barberries
barberries thus helps to achieve a quick, strong 0.4% 1% 1.5% 2.2%
set, particularly for medium- to low-pectin fruits. COMPARATIVE PECTIN LEVELS
162 Spice Profiles

Spice story
CACAO There is evidence that cacao was
being used by the Olmec people of
Earthy | Floral | Bittersweet southern Mexico as early as 1500 BCE.
By 600 BCE, the Olmec had introduced
cacao to the Maya of Yucatan, who
used it as a source of nourishment.
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION They traded cacao to the Aztecs,
Theobroma cacao Ripe fruits are harvested with a special who turned the beans into a thick,
cutting hook mounted on a pole.
unsweetened drink. When the
ALSO KNOWN AS
Spanish invaded Yucatan in the early
Cocoa COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
The bitter raw seeds are fermented to 16th century they recognized that
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
develop palatable flavors, then dried— cacao was a precious commodity,
often next to open wood fires—roasted, and began sweetening it with cane
Isovaleraldehyde
and cracked to release the inner kernel.
sugar. The first recorded shipment of
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES
cacao beans to Europe reached Spain
Seeds (also known as “beans”)
In traditional medicine as a powerful in 1585. Within a century, chocolate
stimulant; in modern medicine reported beverages were being consumed
to protect against cardiovascular disease.
across Europe, long before coffee
and tea. The first ever solid chocolate
The plant bar was manufactured by Fry’s of
Use nibs whole, chop
Cacao is a broad-leaved, tropical
roughly, or grind to a Bristol in England in 1847.
evergreen tree in the mallow
family. It grows up to 23 ft (7 m) coarse powder in a
tall in plantations, and up to pestle and mortar
50 ft (15 m) tall in the wild.
COLOMBIA

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
MEXICO
IVORY
COAST
ECUADOR
BRAZIL
PERU GHANA

Clusters of pinkish-
white flowers are
produced on the main
trunk and branches

Region of cultivation
Fruit is a Cacao is native to tropical Central and South
Nibs America. More than 50 percent of the world’s
green, yellow, Cacao nibs are broken pieces of the total crop is now produced in the Ivory Coast
or brown pod unsweetened inner kernel of the cacao and Ghana, but many other tropical countries
containing large seed. They are available pre-roasted or cultivate cacao, including Ecuador, Brazil,
seeds embedded raw (see Release the Flavor). Peru, Colombia, Mexico, Dominican Republic,
in a white pulp and Indonesia.
 Flavor Group | FRUITY ALDEHYDES | Cacao 163

Kitchen One of the most complexly flavored foods, cacao nibs are earthy, bitter, and fragrant,
but unlike chocolate they do not melt without grinding to a paste. They have a nutlike
creativity crunchy texture and can be used whole, chopped, or ground to a coarse powder.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Cacao contains about 600 flavor compounds, and their relative amounts vary by Fennel, pumpkin Sprinkle nibs over
region, tree variety, and processing method. Bitterness is partly produced by two a fennel and blood orange salad, or grate
stimulant compounds, caffeine and theobromine, which turn into bitter pyrazines on over pumpkin and sage ravioli.
roasting. Cacao also contains sweet-tasting aldehydes and ketones, as well as fruity
alcohols and phenols. Pyrazines also give the spice its roasted, nutty flavors. Squid Add roughly ground nibs to
a tempura batter for squid.

Meat Rub ground toasted nibs

CACAO onto steak before grilling; add to Italian

Cc agrodolce sauce for duck or pork; mix

into a fruity, spicy lamb tagine.

Sweet baked goods Add nibs to

PYRAZINES, banana bread, pancakes, or cookies.
THEOBROMINE, KETONES
CAFFEINE sweet | honey | Cheesecake Add nibs to the
bitter | roasted nut | floral cookie base ingredients for a savory
earthy
or sweet cheesecake.

ISOVALERALDEHYDE
(AND OTHER ALCOHOLS, ESTERS
ALDEHYDES) fruity | herby |
chocolatey | fatty | flowery RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
peach
Unroasted (“raw”) cacao nibs are not
sweet and much more bitter than
chocolate. Roasting them before use
helps to remove some of the bitterness.
pair with woody pair with sweet pair with spices pair with spices
spices that enhance spices to enhance that stand up to that bolster the
the roasted, nutty chocolate flavors: bitterness while sweet honey aroma
flavors: enhancing fruity of cacao:
vanilla is sweet,
and floral notes:
wattle adds unmistakably creamy licorice carries an
roasted-coffeelike rich and aromatic coriander amplifies intense sweetness,
taste with powerful floral and enhances bringing clove taste
mahleb contributes
smoke aroma fruit with lemon notes and strong eucalyptus
bittersweet cherry and
275°F
black pepper almond aroma chilli brings fruity cinnamon (140°C)
lends a woody, slightly and green nuances, contributes sweet
mace brings sweet
bitter, warm pungency adding a mouth- warming qualities
musky and orangey Roasting also
warming dimension
sesame brings flavors (less so with allspice provides a creates nutty
harmonizing nutty nutmeg) bay brings a sweet peppery warmth pyrazine flavors
flavors after roasting penetrating, fresh,
sweet paprika
slightly floral herbiness Roast nibs in an oven at 275°F (140°C)
cumin adds an enhances sweetness,
earthy, smoky ginger brings introducing earthiness for 10–15 minutes.
woodiness and pungent warmth,
introduces an aroma sweet citrus, and
of pinewood floral linalool
BLE ND TO T RY
Use and adapt this classic blend
featuring cacao:
Mole mix p.65
164 Spice Profiles

Spice story
PAPRIKA Capsicum peppers probably originated
in Mexico, where recent cave findings
Bittersweet | Earthy | Fruity suggest they were being eaten as far
back as 7000 bce. In the late 15th
century ce, explorer Christopher
Columbus shipped peppers back to
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Europe from the Caribbean. Spanish
Capsicum annuum Fruits of chili peppers are harvested in monks started drying and grinding the
summer when they are red and ripe.
fruits, and one of the world’s best
ALSO KNOWN AS
smoked paprikas is still made in La
Hungarian pepper, pimentón COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Fruits are dried then ground. Peppers for Vera valley in Extremadura, where ripe
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUNDS
smoked paprika are hung in smokehouses peppers are hung in smokehouses in
before processing. the fields and ground in ancient stone
Pyrazine combinations
mills. The Ottoman Turks introduced
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
In cosmetics and pharmaceuticals for its
peppers to Hungary and by the
Fruits
pigment and the inflammation-reducing mid-1800s Hungarians had adopted
properties of capsaicin. paprika as their national spice and
made it a key ingredient of goulash, a
rustic meat soup. French chef Georges
The plant Escoffier is credited with introducing
Paprika comes from chili Hungarian paprika to the wider culinary world: he
pepper plants, which are frost
tender, herbaceous perennials had it shipped from Hungary to his
in the nightshade family, Monte Carlo restaurant in 1879 and
and grow well in warm,
dry climates. Grades range
put poulet au paprika on the menu.
from erós, the
spiciest, to
különleges,
the mildest
Plants reach THE NETHERLANDS
a height of
around 2½ ft Three main HUNGARY
(80 cm) varieties are
picante (hot),
Fruits are dulce (sweet),
fleshy and and agridulce
hollow (bittersweet) SPAIN
TURKEY

Spanish

Powder
There are two main types of paprika: Region of cultivation
Hungarian, which is bright- or rust-red and Peppers are native to South and Central
Varieties differ; with pronounced fruitiness; and Spanish— America, but peppers for paprika are grown
some have small, known as pimentón—which is darker and and processed chiefly in Hungary, Spain,
round fruits sweeter. Both are available smoked. the Netherlands, and Turkey.
 Toasty Pyrazines 165

Kitchen The various varieties of paprika are appreciated for their earthy and smoky
flavors, spicy heat, and the sweet taste of the fruit’s sugars. Choose very mild
creativity paprika to harness the rust-red pigment without changing the flavor of a dish.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Paprika’s tang derives from sour-tasting citric acid, its sweetness from sugars and the Plums Add smoked paprika to a
rumlike flavor compound ethyl acetate, and its rich earthiness from pyrazines, many of which sweet-sour plum sauce.
develop during the drying and/or smoking. From sweet and fruity, to bitter and smoky, the
range of different types of paprika gives a wealth of pairing opportunities. Roasted roots Serve roasted
Jerusalem artichokes with a smoked
paprika aïoli, or salt-baked new potatoes
with a mojo picón sauce, which includes
PAPRIKA paprika, cumin, chilis, and garlic.

Pa Squid, octopus Sprinkle hot paprika

into the batter for fried squid or add to a
PYRAZINE Moroccan chermoula (herby marinade)
CITRIC ACID
COMBINATIONS for grilled octopus.
tart | citrusy
earthy | smoky
Meat Sprinkle smoked paprika and
chopped herbs onto roasted marrow
bones; add to pork or duck rillettes; rub
into beef brisket before slow-cooking;
pair with other SUGARS, ISOVALERALDEHYDE, boost paprika’s make an offal paprikash.
pyrazines and ETHYL ACETATE ACETOINE tanginess with
related compounds: sweet | fruity fatty | buttery other acidic or
citrus spices:
wattle’s pyrazines RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
and other smoke tamarind’s tartaric
compounds bring acid, fruity aldehydes, Paprika is high in carotenoids (similar to
notes of wood smoke enhance the sweet give prominence to and limonene bring a carrots’ orange pigment), which, along
and chocolate side of paprika: the rich flavors: sweet-sour hit with its most fragrant flavor compounds,
black cardamom cinnamon lifts the cacao shares a raft coriander makes dissolve well in oil. Hence frying with oil
has an earthy flavor sweetness and adds of flavor compounds, a good match through at the start of cooking helps spread color
and smoked aroma fragrant warmth including pyrazines, limonene, its cymene and flavor through a dish.
ketones, esters, and enhancing earthiness
sesame brings allspice brings
rich, nutty, caramel isovaleraldehyde ginger’s citrus
clovelike sweetness Keep stirring
flavors when toasted and floral nuances saffron when notes, sweetness, and and control
combined with milder hot pungent elements the heat
ajwain in toasted caraway has
paprika brings in a can be drawn out by
form has an herbal well-matched citrus
distinctive haylike mild, sweet, and hot
earthiness and slight and bittersweet
richness while gently paprika respectively
citrus notes flavors, alongside
enhancing earthiness
subtle aniseed The powder’s small particle size means
it burns easily. Smoked varieties are already
slightly bitter and prone to develop acrid
bitterness from scorching.
Mild or hot?
Capsaicin-containing oil glands
Chili heat comes from capsaicin molecules, most
run along the inner boundary
of which reside in the whitish pith. The degree of
heat or mildness in paprika depends on capsaicin
between pith and flesh BLE NDS TO T RY
levels in the chili variety used and how thoroughly Use and adapt these classic recipes:
the pith has been removed in processing. Poor
quality hot paprika is often made from whole dried Jamaican jerk rub p.68
fruits, including stems, pith, and bitter seeds. Chimichurri p.70
BBQ rub p.72
166 Spice Profiles

Spice story
WATTLE Wattle has been used as a staple food
by the aborigines of Australia for at
Roasted | Woody | Musty least 4,000 years. Only a few of the
hundreds of acacia species that grow
in Australia have edible seeds, and
some others are toxic. Over a period
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION of thousands of years, the indigenous
Acacia victoriae Ripe pods are dislodged using a mechanical population identified the edible
(most commonly used species) tree shaker or beating by hand with a stick.
species. They either ate the seeds
fresh, straight from the pod, or dried
ALSO KNOWN AS COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Gundablue wattle Seeds are separated from pods by threshing and roasted or baked them, crushing
and sieving, then dried and roasted. them between grinding stones to
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUNDS produce flour. Increasing commercial
Pyrazine compounds NON-CULINARY USES interest in the seeds has led to the
Has been used as animal feed; fruits, seeds,
and gum from wattle trees used in traditional
development of small-scale plantations
PARTS USED
Aboriginal medicine for many ailments. in Australia, although a significant
Seeds
proportion of the crop is still harvested
from wild trees. As “bush food”
Wattle is both
increasingly features on Antipodean
The plant
Edible wattle seeds are flavorful restaurant menus, wattle’s importance
produced by a small number and high in as a culinary spice has grown.
of evergreen shrubs or small protein (about
trees in the bean family. 20 percent)

Cream-
colored
flowers are
edible and
sometimes
used as a
culinary
decoration
AUSTRALIA
(SEMI-ARID AND ARID
REGIONS)

Powder
This robust spice is usually Region of cultivation
Green pealike
bought ground as a coarse, dark Acacia victoriae and other edible species
pods turn brown brown powder that resembles of wattle are native to arid and semi-arid
or yellow and ground coffee. It can be stored in regions of Australia. They are cultivated
become papery and a sealed container in a cool, dark in South and Western Australia, Victoria,
brittle as they ripen place for up to two years. and New South Wales.
 Flavor Group | TOASTY PYRAZINES | Wattle 167

Kitchen Wattle has a unique nutty, roasted coffeelike taste with a lightly charred woody and
smoky aroma, plus notes of popcorn and sweet citrus. The complex flavors of this
creativity spice work well with both sweet and savory recipes.

BL ENDING SCIENCE RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R

The flavor profile of wattle is dominated by a water-soluble pyrazine with a bitter, musty, Wattle does not need to be fried or
earthy, roasted-coffee flavor with hints of cocoa, and an oil-soluble pyrazine with a sweet, toasted as the nutty, roasted flavors
nutty, charred wood taste with hints of popcorn. Some intensely lemon-flavored citral and have already been released during
bitter-tasting phenols are also present. processing. The flavor depends
instead on the balance of water
and fats within a dish.
WATTLE

Wa Bitter

+ =
Wattle Fat Lemon + Nuts
WATER-SOLUBLE
CITRAL
PYRAZINE Cooking in fats decreases the levels of
citrus | fresh |
bitter | earthy | bitter phenols, and releases lemony citral
lemon peel
coffee and the nutty, oil-soluble pyrazines.

OIL-SOLUBLE PYRAZINES
AND PHENOLS Bitter
roasted | charred wood |
sweet citrus
+ =
Wattle Water Coffee + Cocoa

Cooking in water-based liquids releases

pair with spices that pair with spices that foreground the the water-soluble pyrazine and some of the
enhance the roasted, complement the sweet lemony component: bitter-tasting phenols, resulting in bitter, earthy,
earthy, bitter flavors: woody aromas: roasted-coffee flavors with hints of cocoa.
lemon myrtle brings a
sumac lends a sharp, cinnamon enhances eucalyptuslike aftertaste
sweet acid tang sweet woody warmth,
lemongrass adds
without bitterness
tamarind contributes mild floral pepperiness
caramel notes and paprika contributes a and slight spiciness
cheeselike aroma sweet, woody pungency
dill gives herbal, minty
and smokiness
juniper adds herbal pine notes and mild woodiness
notes and citrus spiciness cacao adds bitter
caraway lends aniselike, Stovetop espresso
chocolate notes
carob enhances the spicy notes
coffee and cocoa notes, cumin has a musky, Maximize water-based flavors while
particularly when roasted earthy, almost burnt flavor reducing bitterness by using ground wattle
like coffee in an espresso machine and
cooking with the liquid extract.

FOOD PART NE RS
Potatoes Sprinkle wattle over roasted Meat Add wattle to a dry spice rub Tuna Include wattle in a spice crust for
sweet potato chips or potato wedges. or marinade for chicken, lamb, or beef. tuna before pan searing.

Custard Infuse custard with wattle, and Breads Add a sprinkle of wattle to Chocolate Wattle works well in anything
then turn it into ice cream or serve it warm give a nutty sweetness to bread doughs chocolatey—try adding it to chocolate mousse
over sweet sponge pudding. and sweet yeast breads. or a chocolate ganache.
168 Spice Profiles

Spice story
SESAME Sesame was first cultivated more
than 4,000 years ago and was prized
Nutty | Bittersweet | Rich by many ancient civilizations. The
Babylonians and Assyrians used
sesame both in cooking and in
religious rituals—in Assyrian
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION mythology, the gods drank sesame
Sesamum indicum Whole plants are cut just before the seed wine the night before they created the
capsules (technically fruits) are fully ripe.
world. Ancient Egyptians used the oil
ALSO KNOWN AS
as a medicine, and ground the seeds
Benne, sesamum, gingelly, sim-sim COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Stalks are dried, threshed, capsules split for flour. Seed remains were found in
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUNDS
open, and the seeds shaken out. Tutankhamun’s tomb. In Rome,
Pyrazine combinations soldiers carried the energy-giving
NON-CULINARY USES seeds as emergency rations, and cooks
Sesame oil is used as a base in cosmetics
PARTS USED
and perfumery. The mildly laxative seeds
ground them into a pastelike
Seeds
are used in traditional Asian medicine to condiment flavored with cumin. In the
treat indigestion and arthritis. famous Arabian folk tale, when Ali
Baba cries “Open, sesame!” a cave is
unsealed to reveal a stash of jewels.
The plant This probably alludes to the way ripe
Sesame is a tropical, annual seed pods burst open at the slightest
plant in the pedalium
family. It grows to a height touch, scattering their seeds. Sesame
of 3–6ft (1–2m). traveled to North America and Mexico
with the slave trade, and was being
grown in colonial America by 1730.
Flowers are
trumpet-shaped
and can be White
white, pale pink, These are sold hulled or unhulled,
or purplish and toasted or untoasted. Raw seeds
have almost no aroma; roasting
brings out their nutty taste. NORTH AFRICA CHINA

Seed capsules
are oblong and
contain 50–100 INDIA
flat seeds SUDAN

Black Region of cultivation

This type of unhulled seed Sesame plants originated in sub-Saharan
is popular in Chinese and Africa. Sesame is cultivated in China, India,
Japanese cookery, and sold North Africa, North America, Central
toasted or untoasted. and South America, and Sudan.
 Flavor Group | TOASTY PYRAZINES | Sesame 169

Kitchen Sesame is used in everything from sweets such as Indian til laddoos and Middle
Eastern halva to savory dips and dressings such as tahini and hummus. The Japanese
creativity sprinkle gomashio, a sesame-and-salt condiment, over rice and noodles.

BL ENDING SCIENC E F OOD PART NE RS

Untoasted sesame seeds carry very subtle flavors from compounds such as furfural and hexanal. Bananas and apples Sprinkle
When roasted or toasted, proteins and sugars on the outer layers of the seed react with one another toasted seeds over apple or
to form hundreds of new compounds, including nutty, flavorful pyrazines. banana fritters.

Vegetables Sprinkle black seeds

over a noodle and vegetable salad with
SESAME a spicy Szechuan dressing, or scatter

Se over roasted kale or asparagus.

Oily fish Coat tuna or salmon

PYRAZINES AND in seeds before pan frying.
2‑FURYL‑
METHANTHIOL HEXANAL Chicken Coat chicken legs in a
nutty | coffee | green | grassy | ground black sesame, soy, and honey
roasted meat leafy glaze before baking or grilling.

Pulses Roll falafel in raw seeds

FURFURAL before cooking.
sweet | bready |
caramel Baking and sweets Sprinkle raw
seeds over bread dough before baking,
or make sesame brittle with honey,
butter, and white seeds.
emphasize the nutty pair with more furfural complement the
flavors of toasted seeds: spices to intensify baked green aromas:
bread flavor:
paprika adds sweet poppy seeds are
earthiness tamarind brings packed with similar grassy
caramel-like furfural flavor aldehyde compounds
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
wattle’s pyrazines
overlap with toasted sesame vanilla’s complex mix bay’s green, fresh When sesame seeds are toasted, proteins
seed, bringing in notes of of compounds adds depth flavor is heightened by and sugars on the outer layers react to
wood smoke and chocolate to sweet flavors shared hexanal form new compounds, including
roasted-nut pyrazines and the
sulfurous, coffee– and roasted
meat–like 2-furylmethanethiol.

B l ac k o r wh i t e ?

Darker seeds carry heavier, spicier aromas and are better suited for savory recipes. Pale 266ºF (130ºC)–
varieties are ideal for mixing with milder spices and for cooking with butter. Unhulled seeds 356ºF (180ºC)
have a faint bitterness, due to oxalates in the external layers, designed to deter pests.

work best for strongly used to make pastes

flavored recipes and added to sweets

Higher concentrations of phenolic defence Pale sesame seed varieties have slightly less oil Proteins and sugars react together at
compounds alongside the pigments convey a and more moisture, giving them gentler flavors temperatures above 266°F (130°C). Fats inside
stronger, slightly bitter flavor. of honey, caramelized milk, and vanilla. the seeds burn and produce acrid flavors at
around 356°F (180°C), so toast with care.
170 Spice Profiles

This recipe blends three spices to create a

BLACK SESAME, creamy, subtly aromatic ice cream that is
flavorful and not too sweet. Its nutty, toasted-
LICORICE, AND sesame taste is enhanced by a hint of licorice
and floral cardamom. Adding alcohol makes the

CARDAMOM ICE CREAM ice cream softer straight from the freezer, but
you can omit it if you prefer.

SPICE
Serves 4
Prep time 20 mins
1 Toast the sesame seeds in a dry frying pan over medium heat
for about 5 minutes, then leave to cool.

IDEA S Freezing time 20–30 mins

in ice-cream maker 2 Using a spice grinder or small food processor, grind the seeds
until they form a powdery paste—this will take about 1 minute.
(remember to pre-freeze the
Use white sesame
seeds instead of black
bowl, if applicable); 3–4
hours minimum in freezer
3 In a large bowl, whip the double cream until it forms soft peaks.
Set aside.
for less bitterness, and
leave untoasted to
allow honeyed, more
floral flavors to gain
3 heaped tbsp black sesame seeds
3/4 cup (300 ml) heavy whipping cream
4 In another bowl, beat together the yogurt, condensed milk,
ground cardamom, licorice powder, and sesame paste. Gently
fold this mixture into the cream. Stir in the alcohol, if using.
greater prominence. 3/4 cup (300 ml) Greek yogurt

Replace a proportion
of sesame seeds with
3/4 cup (300 ml) condensed milk
seeds of 30 cardamom pods, ground
5 Pour the mixture into an ice-cream maker and churn according
to the instructions. Transfer the ice cream to a freezerproof
container and freeze until ready to serve. Alternatively, pour the
wattle to bring in 11/2 tsp licorice root powder
mixture into a freezerproof container and freeze for 3–4 hours,
notes of chocolate and 11/2 tbsp white rum or other lightly
wood smoke.
stirring at regular intervals to break up the ice crystals and ensure
flavored spirit (optional)
a smooth ice cream.
Pick up on leafy green
hexanal in sesame and
eucalyptus-like cineole
in cardamom by using
ground bay leaves in
place of licorice.
172 Spice Profiles

Spice story
GARLIC This most potent spice has been
prized for over five millennia, by
Pungent | Sulfurous | Sweet virtually every civilization—the Greek
physician Galen praised it as “the
great panacea.” An Egyptian medical
papyrus from about 1550 bce features
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION 22 different garlic formulas for various
Allium sativum The bulbs are harvested when around half ailments. The slaves who built the
the leaves have turned yellow.
Egyptian pyramids were given garlic
ALSO KNOWN AS
to sustain them and prevent disease.
Camphor of the poor, stinking rose METHOD OF PREPARATION
Bulbs are stored in a cool, shady place The Chinese cultivated garlic for its
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
for 10–20 days so that they lose about stimulating and healing properties,
one-fifth of their water content. while Roman soldiers ate it before
Allicin
battle for courage and strength. In
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Modern research shows garlic improves
folklore, garlic has been seen both as a
Bulb
cholesterol levels and slightly reduces protector from evil spirits or vampires,
high blood pressure. and as a symbol of the Devil. As a food,
its popularity has waxed and waned; it
was shunned at Roman and Greek
The plant Powdered feasts because of its powerful odor,
Garlic is a bulbous but over time, garlic became integral
perennial herb in the
onion family that to many regional cuisines, including
grows to a height of Indian and Mediterranean.
2 ft (0.6 m). Bulbs are
ready to harvest 5–9
months after planting.

Flaked RUSSIA
Dried
Dried garlic can be flaked, powdered, or
granulated, but all lack the pine and citrusy
subtleties of the fresh spice, leaving only
the main garlicky sulfur flavors.
CHINA

Skin of the bulb Store in a cool,

can be white, dark place, but
INDIA
yellow, pink, no need for
or mauve refrigeration SOUTH
KOREA

Region of cultivation
Bulbs consist Fresh Probably native to Central Asia, China is
of up to 24 Mature bulbs tend to have more potent now the largest producer and exporter
segments known flavor, but avoid any that are showing of garlic, followed by India, South Korea,
as cloves green shoots (see right). Russia, and the US.
 Flavor Group | SULFUROUS COMPOUNDS | Garlic 173

Kitchen Garlic amplifies and unites other flavors while having its own distinctive taste
that gives depth to many savory dishes. Essential to many cuisines, with onions
creativity and ginger it forms the “trinity” at the heart of much Asian cooking.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Garlic’s pungency derives mainly from its sulfur-containing flavor compounds; Roasted lamb Before roasting,
these have significant crossover with cooked meats, which also contain sulfur make slits all over the joint and insert
compounds. Smaller amounts of gently aromatic terpenes are also present, slices of fresh garlic.
including limonene and sabinene. Toasting creates nutty-flavored pyrazines.
Soup Roast a foil-wrapped garlic
head in the oven, then squeeze out the
sweet pulp and add to pumpkin or other
GARLIC vegetable soups.

Ga Prawns Add to an oily marinade for

grilled or barbecued prawns.

Raw vegetables Pound garlic with

ALLICIN
PYRAZINE anchovies and olive oil to make the
COMBINATIONS Provençal paste anchoïade, and serve
sulfurous |
nutty | toasty | with crudités.
spicy | hot
savory
Chickpeas Add roasted or raw
SABINENE cloves to the mortar or blender when
LIMONENE making hummus.
woody | orangey |
citrus | herby
piney

BLE NDS TO T RY
add depth with team with other boost piney notes pair toasted or fried
similar compounds: citrusy compounds: with sabinene: garlic with other Use or adapt these recipes for classic
pyrazine-laden blends featuring garlic:
asafetida has a ginger has citral, black cardamom
spices: Niter kibbeh p.32
potent range of similar which shares garlic’s shares sabinene and
sulfur compounds lemony sweetness, adds a nose-filling toasted sesame Mbongo mix p.35
and also carries heat camphor quality and intensifies garlic’s
chili’s capsaicins Nuoc cham p.50
smokiness nutty accents
give depth to garlic lemongrass
Shichimi-togarashi p.57
heat by stimulating adds citrus, a sweet, nutmeg, mace wattle brings
the tongue’s floral aroma and bring notes of earthy charred wood aromas BBQ rub p.68
temperature receptors gentle pepperiness sweetness and hints of popcorn

Bit t e r s pro ut s

When garlic cloves sprout, they

REL EASE THE FL AVO R become more bitter. The plant
has begun stockpiling defensive
A damaged garlic clove releases chemicals that react together to create allicin, bitter-tasting substances, such
the pungent compound we most associate with a “garlicky” flavor. Chopping, as phenols and sulfur compounds.
crushing, and puréeing produce progressively higher amounts of allicin. Reduce bitterness by cutting out the
green shoot before cooking.
Below 350°F
(180°C)
Green shoot
has bitter
Leave for 60 seconds after Uninjured cloves do not Vegetable oils spread the Avoid cooking garlic compounds
crushing or chopping, so contain allicin. Cook whole strongest compounds while above 350°F (180°C)
allicin levels rise to a peak. for mild, sweet flavors. butter aids its gentler flavors. to prevent bitterness.
174 Spice Profiles

Spice story
ASAFETIDA Asafetida was discovered in Persia
in the 4th century bce by Alexander
Sulfurous | Oniony | Garliclike the Great’s soldiers, who mistook it
for silphium, a widely used ancient
spice from a similar, and now extinct,
plant. They took it to Asia and the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Mediterranean region, where it
Ferula assa-foetida In spring, the stalk base is cut to expose became very popular with the
the top of the taproot, which is “milked”
every few days for its sap. Greeks and Romans as a substitute
ALSO KNOWN AS
for silphium. Asafetida was prized
Devil’s dung, stinking gum, hing
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION both as a seasoning and for its health-
MAIN FLAVOR COMPOUNDS
The sap is dried to form a dark resin, most giving properties, and is cited in many
of which is ground to a powder and mixed of the recipes in Apicius, a Roman
Sulfides
with rice flour and gum arabic.
cookbook from the 1st century ce.
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES
After the fall of the Roman Empire,
Taproot: a resin is produced
In traditional medicine to relieve it never regained popularity in
from the coagulated sap
flatulence and to treat lung conditions. Europe, but its use was recorded
again, centuries later, in the Baghdad
Cookery Book (1226). In the 16th
The plant century, the Mughals are reported to
Asafetida is derived have taken the spice to India, where
from several giant
fennel species of it became an indispensable element
the genus Ferula, of vegetarian and Ayurvedic cuisine
in the carrot family.
The plant emits throughout the subcontinent.
a distinctly
foul smell.

Ground
Commercial powders are mixed with rice
flour, both to prevent the starch-rich spice
from clumping and to dilute the flavor for AFGHANISTAN
Leaves and greater control when using the spice. TURKEY
stems are
IRAN
edible, and
occasionally Whole PAKISTAN
In its purest form, asafetida can be
eaten as a bought as small pieces of dried resin,
vegetable which may be ground or used with
in Iran water or steam to impart flavor.

Brittle chunks
of pure resin are
Huge, carrot- known as “tears”
like roots can
Region of cultivation
be 6 in (15 cm) Asafetida is native to the mountains of Central
in diameter Asia, from Turkey, Iran, and Afghanistan to
Kashmir. It is cultivated mainly in Afghanistan,
but also in Iran, Pakistan, and Kashmir. Most
of the world’s crop is imported by India.
 Flavor Group | SULFUROUS COMPOUNDS | Asafetida 175

Kitchen When asafetida is heated in fat, it develops a similar flavor to fried onions and
garlic. Because traces of the same sulfurous flavor compounds (sulfides) are found
creativity in meat, asafetida can also bring a meaty depth to vegetarian cooking.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Asafetida’s flavor-carrying oils are dominated by sulfides, which provide its Beans and pulses Fry asafetida
fried onion smell, making it a suitable partner for similarly flavored spices, in ghee with other warm spices for
such as garlic. Minor compounds contribute more subtle hints of flavor but a moong lentil dhal.
serve as a helpful guide for further pairings.
Chicken and lamb Add asafetida
to a yogurt marinade for baked or
barbecued chicken or lamb.
ASAFETIDA

As Fish Sprinkle asafetida over fish

kebabs before grilling.

Vegetables Add a small pinch

of ground asafetida to give depth to
SULFIDES PHELLANDRENE
a slow-cooked onion soup; sprinkle a
sulfurous | oniony | peppery | minty | little ground asafetida into cooling oil
garlic-like turpentine-like when making a cauliflower, mushroom,
or potato curry.

Preserves Add a pinch of asafetida

ACIDS, OCIMENE and turmeric to a pineapple, tomato,
sour | citrus | floral or mango pickle or chutney.
enhnce the piquancy with
peppery partners:
peppercorn also shares
ocimene for fresh heat
foreground the sulfurous draw out the underlying
and oniony notes: acidity with fresh, tart spices:
cumin’s bitter taste and BLE NDS TO T RY
pepperiness from myrcene
garlic shares several barberry contributes a match those of asafoetida Try these recipes for classic blends
sulfur-containing flavor fruity sharpness featuring asafetida, and why
grains of Selim add a
compounds
coriander adds citrus complementary penetrating not adapt them with some
mustard has a flavor and floral notes character due to cineole blending science?
profile dominated by Chaat masala p.42
bay highlights fresh woody
sulfur-containing compounds
notes from shared pinine Gunpowder p.45
nigella has a similar
onionlike taste profile

CONTR OL T HE F LAVOR
Asafetida’s potent
use a string to asafetida-tinged
oil-based sulfur tie to the pan
compounds dissolve water
very slowly in water,
rising steam
a fact that can be condenses on
exploited to control piece of
the muslin bag asafetida
the strength of flavor
when using whole
chunks of resin. Place a “tear” in a muslin bag and tie it to the Steep a “tear” of the spice in water for several
underside of the pan lid. Drops of asafetida-tinged hours to give a flavored water that will be much
water will drip down into the cooking liquid. milder than the raw spice.
176 Spice Profiles

Spice story
CURRY LEAF Curry leaf has a special place in the
cuisines of southern India, Sri Lanka,
Meaty | Warm | Floral and Malaysia. When the Dravidians
of northwest India moved south in
around 1000 bce, they brought with
them rice, mustard seeds, and pulses
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION to plant in their new home, and then
Murraya koenigii Leaves are harvested in early summer, started combining them with the
before flowering, from trees that are at
least three years old. indigenous curry leaves. The use of
ALSO KNOWN AS
curry leaf as flavoring for vegetables
Karapincha, meetha neem, kari patta. Not to
be confused with the inedible “curry plant”. COMMERCIAL PREPARATION is documented in early Tamil
Fresh leaves are vacuum-packed on their literature from the 1st century ce.
stems and chilled or frozen, or washed and The botanical name, Murraya koenigii,
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
air-dried for 4–5 days.
1-phenylethanethiol refers to two 18th-century botanists,
NON-CULINARY USES
Johann Andreas Murray and Johann
PARTS USED
In cosmetics and in traditional medicine Gerhard König, rather than in tribute
Leaves (more accurately leaflets)
as a digestive aid. to the “kingly” aromatic qualities of
the plant. It is grown prolifically in
southern India as an ornamental and
The plant kitchen garden plant.
Curry leaves come from a
small, deciduous tropical
tree in the citrus family.

Black berries Dried

are borne at the Although some recipes say dried leaves
can substitute for fresh if double the
ends of branches
quantity is added, they really have very
little flavor and are best avoided.

INDIA

Fresh SOUTHEAST ASIA

Leaves are best
bought fresh, on
the stem. Store
in a sealed bag
Leaves are for a week in
divided into the fridge, or
pairs of leaflets near indefinitely
in the freezer.
AUSTRALIA

Leaves
should be
bright green Region of cultivation
without dark Native to the foothills of the Himalayas,
blotches but spread over millennia to naturalize across
Leaflets are India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Myanmar.
dark green, shiny, It is cultivated mainly in southern India, but
and strongly also across southeast Asia, in northern Australia,
aromatic and in the Middle East.
 Flavor Group | SULFUROUS COMPOUNDS | Curry Leaf 177

Kitchen Picked when fresh, curry leaves have a mild, citrusy fragrance that erupts into
a musky, floral aroma when bruised or sliced—not at all like curry powder!
creativity The flavor is subtle, so the leaves can be used liberally.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Sulfurous compound 1-phenylethanethiol dominates the flavor, which conveys a meaty Eggplant, okra Fry fresh curry
taste, hyacinth aroma, and sulfurous bite. Smaller amounts of terpenes include floral leaves with mustard seeds, cumin, and
linalool, pine-scented pinene, penetrating cineole, and peppery myrcene. “Green” hexanal ginger before adding eggplant or okra
and limonene provide citrusy flavors, present especially in fresh leaves. and coconut milk, cooking until tender
for a simple vegetable side dish.

Lamb Add fresh curry leaves to

CURRY LEAF a garlicky yogurt marinade for lamb

Cy before slow-cooking.

Seafood Stir curry leaves into a

tomato-based prawn or crab curry; swap
European aromatics for curry leaves in
1-PHENYLETHANETHIOL moules marinières.
CINEOLE
sulfurous | meaty |
penetrating | eucalyptus Eggs Fry fresh leaves in oil or ghee
floral
and drizzle over scrambled eggs.

PINENE LINALOOL Pulses Fry fresh leaves in ghee or

pinelike | woody | floral | citrus | butter with mustard seeds before stirring
herbal rosewood into a red lentil dhal.
combine with hot or pair with other
sulfurous spices:
Baking Add chopped leaves to
penetrating spices:
flatbread dough before baking.
asafetida adds grains of paradise
complementary meaty, pair with pinene foreground the floral has fruity pepperiness
garlicky tastes spices to enhance with other linalool- and lingering qualities
woody aromas: carrying spices: compatible with cineole
garlic contributes
heat, a sulfuric tang, nutmeg has an coriander is highly cardamom shares
and some sweetness undercurrent of floral with a pinelike eucalyptus qualities BLE ND TO T RY
pinene, bringing a aroma and citrus edge
mustard brings black cardamom Use and adapt this classic
bittersweet warmth
heat from sulfur lemongrass has adds smoky layers south Indian spice blend featuring
compounds and black pepper has floral aromas from
bay has a herby curry leaves:
shares subtle pine both punchy heat and linalool and nerol; its
aroma, bitter notes, Gunpowder p.45
an aroma underpinned woody myrcene also
chili brings heat and penetrating tastes
by pinene complementing pinene
and fresh fruitiness

REL EAS E T HE F LAVOR

Fresh curry leaves are best
plucked from the stem and
lightly bruised just before
adding to hot oil. If using
dried leaves, they can be
ground to increase flavors
from this less aromatic form.
Cook immediately in oil or ghee For slow-cook dishes, pluck out the For quick-cook dishes, finely slice
to ensure all the flavorful oils leaves after frying and add later to ensure or pulverize leaves to ensure the
can escape. lighter floral notes don’t entirely evaporate. flavor is imparted faster.
178 Spice Profiles

Spice story
M USTARD Mustard seeds have been found in
prehistoric sites from China to Europe.
Pungent | Earthy | Sharp First records of the use of mustard as
a condiment date back to the ancient
Greeks and Romans, who chewed the
seeds whole, pulverized and sprinkled
BOTANICAL NAMES METHOD OF CULTIVATION them over food, or steeped them in
Brassica alba (white), B. juncea (brown), The green seed fruits (“pods”) are harvested wine. By the Middle Ages, white
B. nigra (black) about 4 months after sowing, when full-size
but not quite ripe, so they don’t split open. mustard had made its way to India and
China via the Arab trade routes, and
ALSO KNOWN AS
Indian mustard (brown mustard) COMMERCIAL PREPARATION brown mustard had traveled overland
Fruits are stacked in sheaves to dry for from its native India to Europe. One
about 10 days, then threshed and graded. method of transporting the powder was
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUNDS
Seeds for grinding will have their bitter,
Isothiocyanates to mix it with flour and other spices and
papery seed coats stripped off.
form it into balls using honey, wine, or
PARTS USED
NON-CULINARY USES vinegar. The term mustard is thought
Seeds; leaves are also edible,
raw or cooked.
Mustard oil is applied topically to treat to come from the Latin mustum, the
muscle aches and arthritis.
name for the young wine used to mix
the ground seeds to a paste.
The plant Whole
Mustard is a fast-growing White mustard seeds are light brown
annual plant in the rather than white. Brown and black
cabbage family. It grows mustard seeds are smaller.
up to 2 ft (60 cm) tall.

UNITED
KINGDOM
BELARUS
IRELAND POLAND
GERMANY

FRANCE ROMANIA
ITALY

Powder
Yellow mustard powder is often
Yellow
made from a mixture of white and
flowers turn brown seeds. Once moistened,
into green flavor develops within 10 minutes,
seed fruits but loses its potency after Region of cultivation
an hour or so unless White mustard is probably native to
Each vinegar is added. the Mediterranean region. It is cultivated
fruit in most temperate regions of Europe
contains and in North America, mainly in Canada.
around Brown mustard is probably native to the
6 seeds foothills of the Himalayas. It is cultivated
throughout India.
 Flavor Group | SULFUROUS COMPOUNDS | Mustard 179

Kitchen White mustard seeds have a mild taste and are used in pickling and to make
American yellow mustard. Brown mustard seeds are much hotter, often featuring
creativity in Indian cuisine. Black seeds have a fine aroma but are less common.

BL ENDING SCIENCE RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R

Mustard’s heat is produced by sulfur-containing isothiocyanates, which, unlike other pungent compounds, Whole seeds are bland: the hot spicy
vaporize at body temperature to have a nose-filling pungency. The complex flavour profile also includes isothiocyanates are only formed when
pine-like pinene, ground-coffee-like furanmethanethiol, malty, peachy 3-methylbutanal, and popcorn-like a defensive enzyme called myrosinase
2-acetyl-1-pyrroline. Nutty, roasted pyrazine flavors are produced by toasting the seeds. breaks out of damaged cells to act on
specific molecules – sinalbin in white
mustard, stronger singrin in black and
brown. However, myrosinase only
MUSTARD functions when water is present.

Mu
ISOTHIOCYANATES
hot | peppery | VARIOUS
penetrating COMPOUNDS Create a rich variety of nutty and roasted
coffee | peach | pyrazine flavor compounds by toasting
chocolate the seeds before use.

PINENE PYRAZINES
combine with other woody | pine | nutty | roasted |
hot, penetrating herbal sweet
spices for rounded
pungency:
chili adds varying
degrees of heat from combine with other pair with spices add deep, complex Damage mustard seeds to release
capsaicinoids pinene-containing that complement flavor spices: the myrosinase enzyme by crushing
spices for more the roasted, nutty or cooking them.
garlic brings cacao and mustard
woodiness: flavors:
pungency from allicin, seed complement
with sweet citrus cumin has pine nigella adds each other remarkably
and slightly bitter earthy, woody flavors well, in both sweet
ginger delivers
earthiness with some with notes of oregano and savory dishes
zesty pungency,
peppery aroma and charred onion
adding earthy and
floral citrus notes bay brings fresh, sesame seeds
slightly medicinal contribute harmonizing
black pepper
herbiness to the mix nutty flavors when
brings woody warmth
roasted Soak cracked mustard seeds in water
for several minutes before cooking to
allow the myrosinase enzyme to work and
so obtain maximum flavor and heat.

FOOD PARTNER S BLE NDS TO T RY

Parsnips Add a spoonful of whole grain mustard Fish Fry brown mustard seeds in ghee with Try these recipes for classic
to a creamy parsnip bake. other warming spices, adding tomatoes and onion blends featuring mustard, or
to make a sauce for fried or steamed fish. why not adapt them with some
Navy beans Combine English mustard powder blending science?
with molasses and add to a navy bean casserole. Cheese Sprinkle mustard seeds over strips Panch phoran p.43
of puff pastry with grated strong cheese to make
Rabbit Add a spoonful of mustard to braised Vindaloo paste p.44
cheese straws.
rabbit with tarragon.
180 Spice Profiles

Spice story
GRA INS OF PARAD ISE Grains of paradise originated in
West Africa. The spice was first
brought to Europe by Arab, Berber,
Peppery | Pungent | Fruity-floral or Jewish merchants, via trade
caravan routes across the Sahara
Desert. In Europe, it reached its
peak of fashionability during the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION
Aframomum melegueta Seed pods (fruits) are harvested when
14th and 15th centuries, when
the fruit has turned from green to red. merchants gave it the heavenly
ALSO KNOWN AS epithet as a marketing ploy to
Guinea pepper, Melegueta pepper, ossame COMMERCIAL PREPARATION increase sales. It was used as a
Seed pods are typically dried in the sun. less expensive substitute for black
Pods are then opened and the seeds are
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND pepper, to spice wine, beer, and as a
removed for further drying.
Paradol
seasoning for food. Production of
NON-CULINARY USES the spice was so important that the
PARTS USED
Seeds
To relieve flatulence, freshen breath, and area of West Africa where it was
as a stimulant. Gerard’s Herbal states that
grown became known as the Grain
the seeds “rid the body of infection.”
(or Pepper) Coast. The spice’s
popularity in Western cuisine had
dwindled by the 19th century, but
The plant
This herbaceous, perennial, in its native West Africa it remains
reedlike plant is a member an important spice in ritual and food;
of the ginger family. It grows
to a height of 5 ft (1.5 m). in the Nigerian Yoruba culture it is
used as an offering to the spirits.

Fruits are
fig-shaped
and contain
60–100 seeds
The tiny seeds
are milky-
Whole GUINEA
Seeds are a reddish-
white inside
brown color and
pyramid-shaped. IVORY
COAST GHANA

SIERRA
Seeds inside LEONE
the fruits
are similar
in size to
cardamom Region of cultivation
seeds Powder Grains of paradise are native to the coastal
Ground seeds regions of West Africa, where they grow in
are grayish forest margins. Ghana is the main producer
in color. of the spice.
 Flavor Group | PUNGENT COMPOUNDS | Grains of Paradise 181

Kitchen This spice, with its heat and fragrant, herbaceous notes, is often used in seasoning
blends for meat stews and soups in North and West Africa. It can be used instead of or
creativity combined with black peppercorns—try adding a few seeds to your pepper grinder.

BL ENDING SCIENCE RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R

The slowly developing heat of grains of paradise comes mainly from the pungent compound The flavor compounds in these small
paradol, and to a lesser extent from gingerol, which gives heat in ginger. Bitterness derives seeds evaporate very quickly and most
from an acid called humulone, and fragrance from the terpene molecule caryophyllene. dissolve poorly in water.

GRAINS OF
PARADISE

Pr Fat Alcohol
Cooking with oil is essential—most of the
flavor and pungency compounds dissolve
PARADOL CARYOPHYLLENE well in oil and/or alcohol.
hot | spicy | woody | earthy |
pungent hints of clove

GINGEROL HUMULONE
warm | pungent | bitter | hoppy |
spicy earthy
Grind seeds immediately before use and
add them toward the end of cooking to
minimize loss of flavor from evaporation.

match with other add bite with highlight bitter enhance earthiness
peppery compounds: another gingerol: notes with related with other BLE ND TO T RY
humulene: caryophyllenes:
black pepper ginger brings a raft Use and adapt this classic blend
has a similar heat of flavor compounds celery seed adds cinnamon featuring grains of paradise.
to paradol from the from sweet to citrusy, warmth and earthy intensifies woodiness
piperine compound, and its own pungency aromas, and a and adds warmth with Mbongo mix p.35
and also brings adds depth to the heat savory quality cinnamaldehyde
floral notes
allspice
curry leaf makes brings sweetness
Pe ppe r s ubs t it ut e
an excellent pairing and clovelike
as it also shares penetrating eugenol
If using grains of paradise as an
caryophyllene alternative to black pepper, add two
to three times more than you would
of pepper.
3% < 1%
flavor flavor
oils oils
F OO D PARTNERS Lamb Toast and grind the seeds and =
sprinkle them over Moroccan-style stewed
Vegetables Sprinkle ground seeds over an lamb just before serving.
eggplant and tomato stew; grind liberally over
root vegetables after roasting. Oily fish Sprinkle crushed seeds over Black Grains of
salmon or tuna steaks before grilling. pepper paradise
Apples Grind a couple of seeds and add to
apple compote for a citrusy, herbaceous flavor. Drinks Steep a few seeds in a warm Black pepper contains three times
sugar syrup with other aromatics such as more flavor-containing oil than
Rice Add plenty of ground seeds to the cooking pared lemon peel. Allow to cool, then use in grains of paradise.
liquid for jollof rice, a West African dish. gin or vodka cocktails.
182 Spice Profiles

This beguiling take on a popular pastry treat

SWEET AND SPICY is inspired by the sweet and peppery flavors
of East and West African spiced teas. The
APPLE PASTRY sweetness of the apples balances the lingering
heat supplied by Scotch bonnet chilis; if you

ROSETTES can’t find them, use African or Thai bird’s eye

chilis instead.

SPICE
Makes 6 pastries
Prep time 30 mins
1 Remove the puff pastry from the freezer or fridge and allow it to
thaw or come to room temperature, so that it is pliable. Preheat the
oven to 410°F (210°C).
IDEA S Cooking time 35–40 mins

13 oz (375 g) sheet ready-rolled puff

pastry
2 Cut the apples in half and remove the cores. Cut each half into
1
⁄8 in (3 mm) thick, half moon–shaped slices.
Substitute a different
pungent spice for the
heat of chilis: try black
pepper for floral
2 red apples, such as Empire, Jazz,
or Pink Lady 3 Put the apple slices in a saucepan with the lemon juice, cover
with water, bring to a boil, and simmer gently for 2–3 minutes
until the slices are just soft enough to roll up. Drain and dry the
juice of ½ lemon
woodiness, or Sichuan slices, then set them aside to cool. Alternatively, place the apple slices
pepper for a tingling 3 tbsp apricot jam
in a microwave-safe bowl with the lemon juice and 2 tablespoons of
citrusy heat. ½ Scotch bonnet chili, seeded and
water. Cover with cling film and pierce a hole to let the steam escape.
thinly sliced
Heat for 2–3 minutes on high, until the slices are softened.
Experiment with the 1 tsp grated fresh ginger

4
spiced tea flavors by
½ tsp ground cinnamon Place the apricot jam with the chili and spices in a small saucepan,
introducing other
sweet and warming ¼ tsp ground cloves and heat gently until melted.
spices, such as allspice ¼ tsp ground grains of paradise
and nutmeg.
¼ tsp ground cardamom seeds
butter, for greasing
5 On a lightly floured surface, roll out the pastry into a rectangle
measuring about 12 x 14 in (30 x 36 cm). Slice the dough
lengthways into six equal strips.
Introduce toasted,
nutty, smoky notes by
adding dried chili
flakes to the apricot
jam in place of fresh
6 Spread the spiced jam over each strip. Arrange the apple slices
lengthways along each strip, overlapping a little, with the skin
side of the slices slightly extending beyond the top edge of the strip.
Scotch bonnet chili.

7 Fold the bottom edge of each strip up to meet the top edge.
Now roll up the strips to make rose shapes, taking care to keep
the apple slices in place.

8 Grease a cupcake tin with butter and place the roses in the holes.
Bake for 35–40 minutes until crisp and golden. Serve immediately.
184 Spice Profiles

Spice story
B LACK PEPPER Black pepper is native to southern
India and has been cultivated and
Hot | Spicy | Citrusy traded for over 3,500 years. In the 4th
century bce, after Alexander the Great
had reached India, black pepper was
brought to Europe along newly
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION established trade routes. The highly
Piper nigrum Berries are harvested from vines at valued spice quickly became
different stages of maturity.
commercially important, and Arab
ALSO KNOWN AS
traders established a monopoly on its
Peppercorn COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Underripe berries are either blanched transport to Europe. By the Middle
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
and left to darken and dry for black Ages, black peppercorns had not only
pepper, or picked earlier and preserved become a culinary status symbol, but
Piperine
without darkening for green pepper. Pink
pepper is picked after fully ripening. were also accepted as currency. The
PARTS USED Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama
Dried berries, known as “peppercorns”
NON-CULINARY USES set off to find and take control of the
In traditional medicine as a digestive aid. source of this costly spice, and
discovered a sea route to southwest
India in 1498. For the next century
The plant the Portuguese controlled the black
Peppercorns come pepper trade. In the 17th century they
from a perennial tropical
climbing vine in lost their monopoly to the Dutch, who
the pepper lost it to Britain in the 18th century,
family.
when the British Empire took control
of the spice trade in the tropics.

Vines are
pruned to
10–13 ft
(3–4 m) in Whole black
cultivation Black peppercorns are dried with their INDIA VIETNAM
browned, aromatic outer layer intact.
Green pepper is less fiery and has more MALAYSIA
abundant herbaceous flavors.

INDONESIA
Whole white
The outer layer of white pepper is stripped
by bacterial fermentation, leaving it harsher,
less aromatic, and with dunglike nuances.

Region of cultivation
Black pepper is native to the Malabar coast of
Berries develop from southwest India. It is now cultivated mainly
whitish green flowers in Vietnam, but also in India, Indonesia,
borne on spikes Malaysia, and Brazil.
 Flavor Group | PUNGENT COMPOUNDS | Black Pepper 185

Kitchen Black pepper produces a pungent heat that is neither flavor nor fragrance,
but a painlike sensation very similar to chili heat. The spice also has a woody
creativity aroma with floral, fruity, and citrus elements, and some bitterness.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

The warming quality of pepper is produced by a pungent alkaloid called piperine. Preserved vegetables Add whole
The spice’s more subtle flavors are created by terpene compounds, including black or green peppercorns to a brine
woody rotundone, pine-scented pinene, lemony limonene, spicy myrcene, floral for preserving roasted bell peppers or
linalool, and phellandrene, which has fresh lime and green notes. fresh cucumber.

Fruit Sprinkle ground pepper over

BLACK peaches or melon, or macerate
strawberries with sugar and a few
PEPPER grinds of black pepper.

Pe Steak Swap black pepper for dried

or pickled green peppercorns for a
fruitier bite to steak au poivre.
PIPERINE MYRCENE
hot | pungent | piquant | Shellfish Add white pepper to a clam
spicy turpentine-like chowder or moules marinières.

Ice cream Grind black pepper

PINENE LIMONENE into vanilla custard before churning to
woody | spicy | citrus | herby | make ice cream.
camphorous turpentine

RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
create rounded, foreground combine with other spices containing To enjoy pepper’s full complexity it is vital
complex heat with coniferous notes in sources of limonene myrcene make to preserve subtle terpene compounds,
other spices in the other pinene or spices that excellent matches, which quickly break down and evaporate
pungent group: scented spices: enhance the citrus particularly sweet when exposed to air.
component: spices with pink
chili offers fruity, bay brings a
peppercorns:
grassy, or toasted floral-herbal aroma, cardamom is
flavors, depending penetrating eucalyptus sweet, minty, and cinnamon, anise Grind whole
on variety and if flavor, and slight penetrating both have sweet, peppercorns
fresh or dried bitterness warming fragrance immediately before
lemon myrtle use to minimize
and, surprisingly, are
mustard adds black cardamom brings intensity to the flavor loss.
among the best
bitter warmth and, if contributes meaty lemon flavor and
pairings for pepper
toasted, nutty flavors and smoky aromas, lingering eucalyptus
clovelike taste and allspice brings
Sichuan pepper turmeric gives Pre-ground spice is only
eucalyptus sweetness and
has a mouth-tingling earthy warmth with good for adding heat.
clovelike tastes
quality as well as heat, nutmeg adds hints of ginger and
and also shares sweetness, musky citrus from citral anardana adds tart
citrus-floral elements aroma and a strong, fruitiness, sharing both
coriander adds floral
ginger brings a
woody earthiness
and spicy citrus notes
myrcene and limonene BLE NDS TO T RY
characteristic heat juniper offers
and additional sweet, strong pinelike flavour Use and adapt these classic blends
citrus notes with fruitiness and featuring black pepper:
overtones of citrus Turkish baharat p.23
Chaat masala p.42
Nanjing spice bag p.59
Quatre épices p.74
186 Spice Profiles

Spice story
SICHUAN PEPPER Sichuan pepper has long featured
in the culture and cuisine of China.
Pungent | Citrusy | Floral More than 2,000 years ago, during
the Han Dynasty, it was reportedly
mixed into plaster to perfume the
walls of “pepper houses”—buildings
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION that housed the Emperor’s
Zanthoxylum simulans Fruits are picked in autumn when they are concubines—to warm the rooms and
mature and the leaves begin to redden.
perfume the air. It has also been found
ALSO KNOWN AS
in tombs in northern China dating
Chinese coriander, Chinese pepper, COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
mountain pepper, fagara The fruits are sun-dried until they split back to a similar period. The pepper
open. The bitter seeds are discarded, and was used to spice luxury foods and
then the fruits are dried further. wines; Hanshan, an 8th century
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUNDS
Sanshools Chinese poet, described lavish dishes
NON-CULINARY USES
Used in Chinese herbal medicine as a
of “roast duck tinctured with Sichuan
PARTS USED
stimulant to promote digestion. Also used pepper and salt.” It was also key in
Fruits, leaves
as a diuretic and to treat rheumatism. foods prepared as offerings to the gods.
Perhaps because the plant bears many
fruits and seeds, it was adopted as a
The plant Seeds are slightly fertility symbol, and in some rural
Sichuan pepper comes bitter but harmless,
and need not areas of China the spice is still thrown
from a shrub or small tree
in the citrus family. be discarded over newlyweds, like rice or confetti.

Fruits are
small and
rust-red

MONGOLIA

Surface is
prickly, with
bits of stalk CHINA
attached
Whole KOREA
The spice flavor comes from the
Leaves are BHUTAN
fruit’s dried husk, rather than
used as a spice from the black seeds inside it.
in Japan NEPAL

Powder
Seeds Ground Sichuan Region of cultivation
are black pepper is available Sichuan pepper is native to the Sichuan
to buy, but is best region of China. It is now cultivated
and shiny avoided as the flavors throughout China, Korea, Mongolia, Nepal,
quickly degrade. and Bhutan.
 Flavor Group | PUNGENT COMPOUNDS | Sichuan Pepper 187

Kitchen Sichuan pepper is an essential ingredient in Chinese cooking. It comprises two of

the five key flavors of Chinese food, namely hot (or pungent) and bitter (or
creativity numbing), the others being salt, sweet, and sour.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Sichuan pepper contains a group of compounds called sanshools, which act on nerves in the mouth and Vegetables Fry crushed pepper
lips to cause numbing, tingling sensations. Fragrance is added by a combination of flavor compounds: in oil before using it to stir-fry green
linalool, geraniol, limonene, and terpineol. Its sharp qualities come from myrcene and cineole. beans, asparagus, or cabbage. Sprinkle
with ground, toasted pepper.

Citrus Sprinkle toasted, crushed

SICHUAN pepper over a tart blood-orange sherbet
PEPPER or lemon sorbet.

Si Pork, beef Add whole to slow-

cooked pork belly or oxtail with ginger,
spring onions, star anise, sugar, and soy.
CINEOLE
SANSHOOLS
hot | numbing |
eucalyptus | Squid Add crushed pepper to
mildly medicinal | the batter for deep-fried squid.
tingling
penetrating
Noodles Combine cold cooked
noodles, roasted peanuts, spring onions,
LINALOOL LIMONENE stir-fried greens, and chili, then drizzle
floral | woody citrus | herby with a pepper- and sesame-infused oil.

round out the heat play up floral notes: add complexity to enhance eucalyptus
with warming or the citrus profile notes with spices
RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
coriander shares
sweet compounds: containing cineole:
limonene, plus linalool lemongrass’s The thick husks of the peppercorns can
star anise’s mix and peppery myrcene powerful citrus bay also adds impede the release of flavors. Toasting
of penetrating, woody, and myrcene clovelike eugenol helps the compounds to escape. They
cinnamon shares
and sweet compounds components make can also be ground in a pepper mill and
linalool and adds spicy galangal also adds
adds complexity it an ideal pairing used as a condiment.
woody caryophyllene powerful camphor notes
nutmeg’s
cardamom pairs
penetrating eugenol
excellently, sharing
Toasting also develops
and camphene pack
linalool and limonene, nutty pyrazines
enough power to make
as well as cineole
a match with sanshool

Z an t h o x y l u m vari at i o ns Avoid over-roasting, which can cause the

loss of the limonene molecules and mask
There are regional variants of Sichuan pepper, which come from slightly different tree species. subtler scents with strong pyrazines.
They have the same core features but can have significantly different flavor profiles.

Sanshō Timur Andaliman Tirphal BLE NDS TO T RY

(Zanthoxylum piperatum) (Zanthoxylum alatum) (Zanthoxylum (Zanthoxylum rhetsa)
is the milder version from comes from Nepal acanthopodium) is from is grown in the coastal Use and adapt these classic blends
Japan, with pronounced and has distinctly Indonesia and has notes rainforests of India and featuring Sichuan pepper:
citrus flavors. grapefruit notes. of lime and mandarin. has a lingering bitterness.
Timur ko chhop p.41
Shichimi-togarashi p.57
188 Spice Profiles

Spice story
GINGER Ginger was one of the first Asian
spices to reach Europe, from around
Hot | Citrusy | Woody the 4th century BCE, when Arab traders
transported dried and preserved ginger
to ancient Greece and Rome. The
Greeks prescribed it for stomach
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION complaints, and the Romans used it in
Zingiber officinale Rhizomes are harvested 2–5 or 8–10 sauces and to make aromatic salt. By
months after planting if they are to be
sold fresh, or are to be dried, respectively. the 9th century CE, dried ginger was
ALSO KNOWN AS
regarded as an everyday condiment
Ginger root, Canton ginger
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION in Europe. By the Middle Ages it
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUNDS
Fresh: Young rhizomes are cleaned, was being widely used in savory and
sometimes bleached, and dried for sweet cooking (notably gingerbread),
Gingerol, shogaol, and zingiberene
a day or two. Dried: Mature rhizomes
are peeled, dried, and ground. and for flavoring beer and ale. By the
PARTS USED 13th century, ginger was being grown
Rhizomes (fleshy underground stems)
NON-CULINARY USES in East and West Africa, and by the
Perfumery and cosmetics; in traditional 16th century it was being cultivated
medicine for indigestion and nausea.
in Jamaica, which still has a reputation
for producing quality ginger.

The plant Powder

Ginger is a tropical, Do not use ground
rhizomatous flowering dried ginger in place
plant, in the same of the fresh spice, as
family as turmeric and it has a different
cardamom. It grows flavor profile (see NEPAL
up to 3 ft (1 m) tall. Dry heat, opposite).

CHINA JAPAN

Flowers consist of
cone-shaped clusters INDIA
of yellowish bracts. THAILAND PHILIPPINES

SRI
LANKA
INDONESIA
Shoots are a BANGLADESH
series of tightly
overlapping
leaf bases
Region of cultivation
Ginger is native to tropical Asia, possibly India.
Today it is mainly cultivated on India’s Malabar
Fresh Coast (which produces 50 percent of the
Avoid older rhizomes with world’s fresh crop) and throughout tropical
signs of shriveling, which and subtropical Asia, but also in parts of Africa,
can mean the flesh is fibrous. Jamaica, Mexico, North America, and Peru.
 Flavor Group | PUNGENT COMPOUNDS | Ginger 189

Kitchen Ginger has a hot-spice, citrusy, woody taste. The dried form has a stronger, more
aromatic flavor than fresh ginger, and is commonly used in baking and in spice blends.
creativity Fresh ginger is widely used in Asian cuisine.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

The terpene compound zingiberene carries the characteristic aroma of ginger, but Squash and coleslaw Mix grated
the taste is made more complex thanks to a cornucopia of other compounds, fresh ginger into Asian-style coleslaws, or
including spicy-hot gingerols, as well as floral linalool and geraniol, herbal fry with the onion base of a squash soup.
curcumene, lemony citral, and eucalyptus-like cineole.
Mango, pears, rhubarb Pair with
mango in creamy puddings, and poach
fresh slices with pears and rhubarb.
GINGER

Gi Pork Add slices of fresh ginger

to slow-cooked pork dishes to offset
the fattiness.

Fish Use julienned ginger with

GINGEROLS
CINEOLE shredded leek or spring onions when
eucalyptus | steaming fish.
hot | pungent |
mildly medicinal |
spicy
penetrating Baking Try adding ground ginger to
carrot cake, lemon cake, and coconut or
LINALOOL AND dark chocolate cookies.
CITRAL
GERANIOL
citrus | herbal |
floral | sweet |
some eucalyptus
herbal
BLE NDS TO T RY
Use and adapt these classic
combine with other pair with spices enhance the zesty draw out blends featuring ginger.
pungent spices for that overlap flavor with other penetrating Advieh p.27
added depth: the floral qualities: citrusy spices: freshness with
Yaji p.36
cineole-rich spices:
chili adds varying cinnamon lemongrass Leche de tigre p.69
degrees of heat from shares linalool shares citral and adds bay adds a
capsaicinoids and brings sweet, mild pepperiness lingering, clovelike
warming qualities background
black pepper lemon myrtle Dr y he at
brings a woody nutmeg shares brings intense lemon, cardamom
warmth from piperine, geraniol and cineole sharing citral and provides sweet and When fresh ginger is dried, its heat
and some citrus for warm spicy notes lingering eucalyptus herby hints of mint pungency increases and a fifth
cacao adds strong coriander of the flavor molecules evaporate.
bittersweet and harmonizes with O OH
roasted flavors lemony notes
HO
Fresh OCH3 Gingerol

R E L EA S E TH E FL AVOR HO
OCH3
Powder Shogaol
Peel fresh ginger shortly
before use in order to retain the The drying process converts
complex flavor profile. Heat breaks both gingerol to shogaol, which has twice
gingerols and shogaols into mild Stripping the skin bursts open Cooking converts ginger’s the heat. The dry spice also has fewer
zingerone, so the longer that ginger is the outer layer of cells, allowing mouthwarming flavor compounds citrus notes.
cooked, the gentler its spicy-heat. fragrant oils to evaporate. into the much milder zingerone.
190 Spice Profiles

Spice story
CHILI Evidence suggests chilis were being
cultivated as early as 5000 bce in South
Hot | Pungent | Fruity America. According to the Spanish
conquistador Hernan Cortez, the
ancient Aztecs cultivated a vast range
of chilis for use in rituals and adding to
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION chocolate beverages. Columbus
Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens, and several Green chilis are harvested unripe, about 3 brought the newly discovered spice
other species months after planting. Chilis for dry spice are
usually harvested when red and fully ripe. back to Spain at the end of the 15th
century ce; he wrongly assumed chilis
ALSO KNOWN AS
Chili pepper, chile, red pepper, hot pepper COMMERCIAL PREPARATION were related to peppercorns because of
Chilis are washed and either sun- or their heat and the name has stuck.
oven-dried, pickled, or sold fresh. Portuguese traders transported the
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
Capsaicin spice to their colony in Goa, India,
NON-CULINARY USES
In creams and ointments to reduce
and to Asian and African trading posts,
PARTS USED
muscle pain; in Ayurvedic medicine to where chilis rapidly replaced black
Fruits (which are in fact berries)
stimulate digestion. pepper as the hot spice of choice.
In 1912, the pharmacologist William
Scoville devised a way of measuring
The plant Powder chili pungency, which became known
Chilis are borne Grinding causes
many flavor
as the Scoville Heat Index, but this is
by annual or
perennial plants compounds to now being replaced by more accurate
in the nightshade evaporate, and lab-based measures.
family. Around powders are
32 species are best used for
cultivated for adding heat.
their fruits.
ROMANIA
TURKEY
Whole dried PAKISTAN
Some fragrant substances CHINA
are lost through the
drying process, but new EGYPT
compounds are created, INDIA
ranging from sweet
aniselike flavors SOUTHEAST
ETHIOPIA ASIA
to nutty, woody, and
roasted nuances.

Fresh
Fruity, citrus, Region of cultivation
green flavors and Chilis are native to Mexico and Central
Unripe fruits sweetness are and South America. Production of the dried
often prominent spice is concentrated in China, South Asia,
are green; ripe
in fresh chilis, mainland Southeast Asia, Egypt, Ethiopia,
fruits range Turkey, and Romania. Indonesia, North Africa,
depending on
from yellow to type and ripeness. Spain, Mexico, and the US are more noted
almost black for growing fresh chilis.
 Flavour Group | PUNGENT COMPOUNDS | Chili 191

Kitchen Chilis appear in countless cuisines across the world and are used as much for
their flavor as for their heat, particularly in Mexican cooking. Some powders are
creativity actually spice blends; “chile” powder and cayenne pepper are generally pure.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Capsaicin is responsible for the heat pungency that can numb the mouth to more subtle flavors. Tropical fruit Dust chili powder over
The latter are best appreciated in milder and/or fresh chilis and are produced by plentiful fruity sliced tropical fruit.
esters, and less common floral undecanol, grassy aldehydes, and citrusy limonene. Drying and smoking
chilis creates new flavor compounds, notably earthy, toasty pyrazines and nutty, breadlike furfural. Tomatoes Sprinkle smoked chili
flakes over chilled gazpacho.

White fish Blend soaked, dried chilis

CHILI and add them to a cherry tomato sauce

Ch for grilled or fried white fish.

Chicken, tofu Combine dried red

chili and Sichuan pepper in a fragrant
CAPSAICIN
PYRAZINES,
chicken stir-fry, or substitute tofu.
fiery | numbing |
FURFURAL
pungent
nutty | roasted |
Cheese Mix small amounts of ground
earthy chili into dark chocolate desserts, tarts,
cookies, or ganache.
UNDECANOL,
ESTERS
LIMONENE
fruity | sweet |
create rounded, citrus | floral |
waxy
complex heat with herby complement the
other pungent earthy, roasted
compounds: flavors of dried
and smoked chilis:
BLE NDS TO T RY
mustard adds
enhance the fruity draw out citrus and
sharp, penetrating
side of mild and
cacao nibs add Try these blends featuring chili and
floral sides of mild
pungency and bitterness
fresh chilis: and fresh chilis:
toasted, nutty adapt them with blending science:
flavors, with floral
black pepper adds Harissa p.33
cinnamon brings coriander offers and citrus notes
a woody, lingering heat Yaji p.36
sweet, penetrating strong, floral citrus
and citrus notes cumin adds slightly
fragrance and warmth Timur ko chhop p.41
ginger brings bitter earthiness
grains of paradise
allspice brings sweet citrus notes and Vindaloo paste p.44
bring hints of tropical sesame seeds
sweet pepperiness refreshing pungency
fruit beneath a share furfural and, Gunpowder p.45
peppery warmth cardamom has lemongrass has when toasted, bring Shichimi-togarashi p.57
penetrating mintiness similar citral and slight harmonizing nuttiness
Sichuan pepper Chili black bean sauce p.61
pepperiness
offers citrus, woody, caraway adds turmeric adds a
and floral notes, and bittersweet, aniselike, ajwain offers musky, earthy flavor Mole mix p.65
causes a tingling citrus flavors strong, herbal, with hints of ginger BBQ rub p.68
sensation thyme-like flavor Arrabiata sauce p.76

CONT ROL T HE HE AT
Don’t underestimate chili heat:
add with caution! Less fat in a Dried chilis have more Seed Remove the inner white

=
dish will curb heat as capsaicin heat than their fresh pith (or placenta) to reduce
dissolves in oil, though some equivalent: capsaicin Pith heat. “Seeding” is effective
related capsaicinoids do concentration roughly only if the pith is removed in
dissolve in water. doubles after drying. the process.
192 Spice Profiles

F RE S H C HI LI S

CHILI
varieties

Chilis come in many shapes, sizes,

and colors. As a rule of thumb, the
smaller and riper a chili is, the hotter Pith tends to
it will be. Mexico is unique in having fill the interior
distinct uses for their many chili of jalapeños
varieties. Mexican dried chilis should Jalapeño
be pliable, not brittle. Wipe them Medium-hot jalapeño chilis are harvested green for
using fresh, roasting, or pickling, or left to ripen further
clean, remove the stems and bland for smoke-drying. In Mexico, jalapeño refers to pickled
seeds, dry-roast, then soak before use. chilis; fresh they are known as cuarescmeno.

D RIED CHIL IS

Dried version
of the Mexican
poblano pepper

Medium heat
variety with
a smoky,
nutty taste

Cascabel Ancho
This cherry tomato–shaped Mexican chili— A sweet, fruity, and mild dried chili, with a
nicknamed the “rattle chili” because its seeds hint of tobacco, it can be soaked and stuffed,
rattle when shaken—is prized for its tropical or blended and added to mole sauce. Goes well
sweetness without excessive heat. with pulled pork in a burrito.

Use crumbled
or ground in
cornbread or
pork stews

Guajillo Arbol Kashmiri

This is the dark, sun-dried form of the mirasol This slender, sun-dried chili is widely used in The dried Kashmiri chili has an attractive
chili. Its smoky sweetness—with just a little Mexican cuisine to add a bright, fiery flavor deep crimson color, and unlike many Indian
heat—peps up classic Mexican tamales, with smoky notes. Fry in oil and finely chop, chilis it is only mildly spicy. An essential part
enchiladas, and salsas. or crush and use as chili flakes. of rogan josh and Kashmiri biryani.
 Flavour Group | PUNGENT COMPOUNDS | Chili 193

Also known as G ROU ND C HI LI S

Thai chilis

Ripe color ranges

from yellow
to orange-red

Smoked chipotle
Chipotle is the name given to smoke-
dried ripe jalapeños. In addition to
Scotch bonnet Bird’s eye smokiness, they have a chocolate-like
Related to the habanero, Scotch bonnet is also Available fresh or dried, this fiery chili is sweetness. Use ground for fast intensity
extremely hot—it is known in Guiana as “ball ubiquitous in Asian cooking, especially in the or whole in slow-cook stews.
of fire”—and has a deep, fruity flavor. It is the soups, salads, and sambals of southeast Asia
preferred chili of the Caribbean. and in Chinese stir-fries.

Resembles a
mini bell pepper
but is one of the
hottest chilis

Meaty texture
and pliable flesh Cayenne
The clean, sharp heat of cayenne
pepper is typically enjoyed dried
Mulato Habanero and ground. It is an inportant
Closely related to ancho, the mulato chili has a Bright orange with an intensely fruity aroma, ingredient in Indian and South
smokier taste. Seeded, toasted, soaked, and habaneros are an essential part of cochinita American cuisine.
ground into a paste, it adds intense ripe fruit pibil, a slow-cooked pork dish from Mexico’s
flavors and a rich, dark color. Yucatán peninsula.

Used in African
cuisine to spice
meat dishes

Also known as
“little raisin”
Espelette
Pasilla Piri piri A legally-protected variety only
This Mexican staple spice is medium-hot, The tiny piri piri chili (also known as African cultivated in the commune of Espelette
with a complex, sweet flavor resembling bird’s eye) is milder than the true bird’s eye in France, it has a citrusy flavor and
licorice. Works well in sweet recipes, such but still intensely spicy. Essential to molho de medium heat. Used in Basque cuisine
as chocolate cake. piri-piri, a Portuguese sauce. in meat cures, piperade, and fish stew.
194 Spice Profiles

Spice story
SAFFRON Grown since the Early Bronze Age,
saffron has been prized for millennia.
Grassy | Bitter | Honeyed Cleopatra is said to have bathed in
saffron-scented mare’s milk, China’s
Buddhist monks used it to color their
robes, and it was adored by Greeks,
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION Romans, and Indian emperors as food
Crocus sativus Harvesting takes place over two weeks in and medicine. As trade routes opened
late autumn. Flowers are hand-picked
pre-dawn, before they open for the day. up in medieval times, Arabs took it to
ALSO KNOWN AS
Spain and Crusaders to France and
Red gold
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION England. Britain cultivated it in the
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
The stigmas are laid out on a sieve, dried, Middle Ages, and the Essex town of
and then transferred to airtight tins. Saffron Walden is named after the
Picrocrocin
spice that grew there. Owing to its
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Cosmetic coloring agent and fabric dye;
value, saffron has been adulterated
Flower stigmas (female pollen-
in Ayurvedic medicine as a sedative and to for as long as it has been traded, and
catching reproductive parts)
treat coughs and asthma. imitations (turmeric, marigold petals,
and safflower) are rife even today.
Kashmiri saffron is particularly prized,
Look for vibrant red as is saffron from La Mancha in Spain,
Each flower strands—duller red-brown
contains three red
which has been granted EU Protected
or pale stigmas may be stale
stigmas and three Designation of Origin (PDO) status.
yellow stamens Saffron’s modern name derives from
(the flower’s male the Arabic for yellow: asfar.
sexual organs)

GREECE
SPAIN
Up to five pale
mauve flowers MOROCCO IRAN
are produced by
each corm
Strands readily absorb
moisture from the air, so keep
The plant dry in a sealed container
Saffron is a bulbous
perennial crocus plant in Whole strands
the iris family, which More than 6,000 flowers and over 12 hours Region of cultivation
grows to around 6 in (15 cm) labor makes just 1 oz (30 g) of saffron, so if Native to parts of the Mediterranean and
high and blooms in it’s cheap, be suspicious. Imitation saffron originally cultivated in Greece, saffron is now
autumn. The six-petaled is often odorless and may taste sweet, mainly grown in Iran, which accounts for 90
flowers sprout from a corm rather than bitter. Ground saffron is easily percent of world production, as well as Kashmir,
(swollen stem base). adulterated and best avoided. Spain, Greece, Afghanistan, and Morocco.
 Flavor Group | UNIQUE COMPOUNDS | Saffron 195

Kitchen Warm, musky, with the distinctive aroma of cut hay and a slightly metallic tang,
saffron’s flavor comes in part from compounds unique among the spices. With
creativity correct handling, just a pinch will transform a meal.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Picrocrocin gives saffron its lingering, slightly bitter taste, and safranal produces Vegetables Saffron has a particular
much of its distinctive aroma. Both picrococin and safranal are unique to saffron, affinity to earthy vegetables, such as
but their qualities help to determine pairings, as do the small amounts of pinene carrots, leeks, mushrooms, squash, and
and the tenacious eucalyptus-like compound cineole. spinach. For rich color and depth of flavor
to roasted potatoes, parboil in
saffron-infused water then roast with oil
SAFFRON mixed with ground saffron.

Sa Lemon Pair saffron and preserved

lemon in a Moroccan-style tagine.

Rice Essential to Spanish paellas,

PINENE saffron also enriches Iranian pilaus,
PICROCROCIN
pinelike | woody Indian biryanis, and Italian risotto.
musky | earthy |
warm | bitter Lamb Use to flavor a yogurt
marinade for slow-roasted leg of lamb.

SAFRANAL CINEOLE Fish, shellfish Poach fish in

honeyed | penetrating | draw parallels with saffron-infused milk, or add steeped
the bitterness haylike | floral eucalyptus-like other pine and/or fir strands to a crab or lobster bisque,
aromas: moules marinières, or Marseille
withstands other
potent compounds: garlic cooked bouillabaisse.
gently has sweetness
caraway Milk Infuse into milk to make Indian
that, combined with
harmonizes through harmonize with the cineole provides a custardlike puddings, ice cream, or
piney, orange-hinted
shared pinene, and aroma of safranal: crucial flavor link: reduced-milk candy.
sabinene, make this
its S-carvone has
coriander’s ginger is a potent, an important spice for
parallels to picrococin
flowery aroma from warming match, savory saffron dishes
paprika brings lilac-scented linalool sharing cineole along
sumac carries a
earthy, smoky aromas complements the hay with pinene, floral
notable pinelike and
that combine with notes of safranal linalool, and sweetly
saffron’s muskiness scented geraniol
woody flavor, and its BLE ND TO T RY
cinnamon, vanilla, high tannin content
black pepper allspice, nutmeg bay has great mirrors musky, Use and adapt this classic blend
has gentle pungency, are all sweet spices synergy thanks to earthy aromas featuring saffron:
slight bitterness, and that work beautifully shared cineole and
shares pinene with the hints of honey other complementary
Paella mix p.75
in safranal minor compounds

REL EAS E T HE F LAVOR

The key flavor compounds
(safranal and picrocrocin) and
pigments (crocin) dissolve in
water better than in oil, but
need time to escape and
benefit from steeping; adding Grind in a pestle and mortar Steep in warm or hot water Add alcohol to the soaking Use milk to help dissolve the
directly may leave much still before steeping to speed the for at least 20 minutes or up water to draw out the lesser flavor molecules through
trapped in the threads. release of compounds. to 24 hours. lesser compounds. the presence of fat.
196 Spice Profiles

Kashmiri cooking is often characterized by the

SPICED SCALLOPS contrast of warm roasted fennel seeds, astringent
ginger, and sweet saffron. This trio that travels
WITH SAFFRON well across global cooking styles, and is a great
match for mushrooms and seafood—both feature

BEURRE BLANC in this indulgent dish of scallops in a vibrant take

on French butter sauce.

SPICE
Serves 6 as an appetizer
Prep time 30 mins, plus
1 Grind the saffron strands to a powder using a pestle and mortar,
and leave to soak in 2 tablespoons of warm water for 1 hour.

2
IDEA S 1 hour soaking For the spiced mushroom seasoning, heat the oven to 250°F
Cooking time 2 hours 25 (120°C). Thinly slice the mushrooms and spread out in a single
mins, plus cooling layer on a baking tray lined with baking parchment. Bake for
Make a more earthy, 2 hours, or until the mushrooms are crisp. Remove from the oven
South Indian–style For the mushroom and spice and leave to cool.
spice seasoning by seasoning
replacing the fennel
and ginger with curry
leaves and mustard
7 oz (200 g) button mushrooms
2 tsp fennel seeds 3 Heat a small frying pan over medium heat and toast the
fennel seeds for 1 minute, until fragrant. Grind the toasted
seeds to a powder.
and cumin seeds. 1 tsp ground ginger

4
1 tsp salt Put the mushrooms in a small food processor and add the fennel,
Use a Mediterranean ginger, and salt. Process until coarsely ground, and set aside. The
spice palette and pair
For the beurre blanc mix will keep for 2–3 weeks in a tightly lidded jar.
fennel seeds with cumin
small pinch saffron strands
and hot paprika—
smoked if you prefer—
instead of ginger.
3 tbsp white wine vinegar
4 tbsp white wine 5 For the beurre blanc, pour the vinegar and wine into a small pan
and add the diced shallot and peppercorns. Bring to a boil, and
then simmer for 4–6 minutes, until it has reduced to 1–2 tablespoons
1 shallot, finely diced
For stronger pepper and looks syrupy.
6 black peppercorns
notes, lightly crack
the whole peppercorns,
to release more flavor
oils, before adding to
3/4 cup (175 g) unsalted butter, cubed
½ lemon 6 Strain the liquid and discard the shallots. Whisk in the saffron
and its soaking water. Return the liquid to the rinsed-out pan
and cook for about 15 minutes over a low heat, whisking in the butter
the beurre blanc. gradually, one cube at a time. The sauce will emulsify and thicken so
For the scallops
12 large scallops, roe removed that it just coats the back of a spoon. Season and sharpen the sauce
2 tbsp extra virgin olive oil
with a squeeze of lemon, and keep it warm.

7
4 tbsp mushroom and spice mix Heat a dry frying pan over medium heat. Brush both sides
2 tbsp chives, snipped of each scallop with olive oil and lightly coat with the spiced
mushroom mix. Cook the scallops for 1–2 minutes on each side,
depending on their size. Take care not to overcook—they are ready
when they are opaque but still tender.

8 Divide the beurre blanc between six shallow bowls and top each
with two scallops. Sprinkle with the chives and serve immediately.
198 Spice Profiles

Spice story
POPPY Poppy seeds were cultivated as early
as 3500 BCE by the Sumerians of
Nutty | Mild | Green modern-day southern Iraq, and later,
in around 2000 BCE, the Hittites of
Anatolia used them in bread making.
In a first-century novel by Petronius,
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION a wealthy Roman serves dormice at his
Papaver somniferum Seed pods are harvested mechanically in banquet, glazed in honey and rolled
the fall when the petals fade and the seed
heads turn from green to yellow-brown. in poppy seeds. Through Arab traders,
ALSO KNOWN AS
poppy cultivation spread along the
Opium poppy, maw seed
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION Silk Road from Arabia and Persia
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
The pods are dried, then cracked open to India and China. Although its use
to collect the seeds. declined after the fall of the Roman
2-Pentylfuran
Empire, the spice regained popularity
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Poppy seed oil is used in the cosmetics
in Europe in the Middle Ages. The
Seeds
industry. Several painkillers and sedatives botanical name “somniferum”
are manufactured from the plant’s unripe translates as “sleep bearing,” and
seed pods.
refers to the use of the plant to
produce the drug opium. However,
The plant Seeds appear opium is made from the “sap” of
Opium poppy is a round at first unripe seed pods rather than from the
summer-flowering annual glance, but
herbaceous plant that can ripe seeds used for cooking, which do
are in fact
grow to 4 ft (1.2 m) high. kidney-shaped not have the same effect.

Ripe pods
make a
rattling sound
NETHERLANDS
when shaken
Black
The blue-black variety of seeds CZECH
CHINA
is the most widely cultivated. REPUBLIC
The hard raw seeds have a mild TURKEY
taste and almost no aroma.
FRANCE IRAN

INDIA
Seed pods have
a ribbed outer 1 gram
shell containing contains
several chambers about 3,300
holding hundreds tiny seeds
of tiny seeds

Region of cultivation
White Native to the western Mediterranean
Leaves can The pale variety of seeds is and southwest Asia, poppy is cultivated
be cooked popular in Indian cooking and is in the Netherlands, France, the
and eaten most often ground to add richness Czech Republic, Turkey, Iran, India,
like spinach and as a thickener for sauces. China, and Canada.
 Flavor Group | UNIQUE COMPOUNDS | Poppy 199

Kitchen Poppy seeds lend themselves to a variety of dishes, from pickles and kormas to cakes,
bagels, and buns. The blue-gray seeds are used in central and eastern European and
creativity Middle Eastern cuisines, and the creamy-yellow seeds are used in Asian cooking.

BL ENDING SCIENC E RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R

Poppy seeds are rich in linoleic acid, which makes the taste buds more sensitive to sweet, Poppy seeds contain a particularly
salty, and savory tastes, while dampening down bitterness. The seeds are also packed with green diverse range of amino acids, which
and grassy aldehyde flavour compounds, in particular 2-pentylfuran and hexanal. Other important means that, when toasted, they produce
flavor compounds include balsamic vinyl amyl ketone, and citrusy limonene. a remarkable mix of sweet, earthy, nutty,
onionlike, and smoky flavors.

POPPY 266ºF (130ºC)–

347ºF (175ºC)
Po
VINYL AMYL
PYRAZINES
KETONE
nutty | caramel |
earthy | creamy | Temperatures over 266°F (130°C) are needed
smoky
musty to create new compounds, but burned, bitter
flavors will predominate over 347°F (175°C),
HEXANAL AND due to the small seed size and fragile oils.
LIMONENE
2-PENTYLFURAN
citrus | herby |
fruity | green |
grassy
turpentine Amino acid

Sugar

pair with spices enhance underlying pair with another emphasize the
that contain vinyl green notes: limonene to sweet nutty flavors
amyl ketone or enhance the of toasted seeds: Pyrazine
chilis, particularly
enhance its flavor: zesty side:
mild varieties, contain sesame seeds
mahleb carries the freshness of coriander also contain hexanal
vinyl amyl ketone and hexanal, and add also brings gentle and, once toasted,
Microscopic ridges
adds cherry notes warmth floral qualities harmonize with
the pyrazine flavors increase surface area
licorice is bay is a good to produce more
strongly sweet with match thanks to it paprika brings new compounds
penetrating aniseed also carrying some earthy sweetness;
leafy hexanal smoked varieties work
cinnamon
particularly well with When heated, amino acids and sugars
contributes sweet,
toasted poppy seeds in the seeds react with each other to
warming qualities
produce new flavor compounds, most
importantly pyrazines.

FOO D PART NE RS
Vegetables Sprinkle the black seeds over potato purée or Pastry Add a spoonful of seeds to savory shortcrust pastry dough
celeriac remoulade to add visual and textural contrast. Scatter for a quiche or a cheese and leek tart.
over carrots before roasting.
Fruit Add to a honey and citrus dressing for fruit salad.
Sweet baked goods Give the moist crumb of an almond and lemon
or orange cake a nutty crunch by adding a spoonful of seeds to the batter. Oily fish Ground white seeds work well with Indian spices
Combine with honey and drizzle over baklava. to make a sauce for trout or salmon.
200 Spice Profiles

Spice story
AJWAIN Ajwain was valued as a medicinal spice
from ancient times, and was probably
Bitter | Herbaceous | Peppery first cultivated in Egypt. The Romans
believed it to be a variety of cumin—
hence the common name “Ethiopian
cumin.” It is believed to have reached
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION India, where it became popular, via the
Trachyspermum ammi The stems are cut when the seeds are spice caravans at around the same time
ripe, around two months after flowering.
as cumin seed, soon after 750 ce. It was
ALSO KNOWN AS
given a number of misleading names—
Ajowan, ajave, carom, Ethiopian COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
cumin, omum, bishop’s weed Stems are dried, threshed, and sieved; “celery seed” and “lovage seed” were
seeds are then graded and grouped by size. the most common ones—which persist
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND to this day, even though the taste is
Thymol NON-CULINARY USES very different. For centuries, regions of
In perfumes; as an antiseptic agent in
toothpastes; in Ayurvedic medicine to
India practicing Ayurvedic medicine
PARTS USED
treat digestive disorders, rheumatism, have been making a cure-all tonic
Seeds (technically fruits)
arthritis, and fevers. “omam water” from ajwain seeds.
Although the plant is now mainly
cultivated for its potent essential oil,
The plant ajwain is one of the defining spices
Ajwain is a small annual plant in of the vegetarian cuisine of the west
the parsley family, and is closely
related to caraway and cumin. Indian state of Gujarat.

Flat heads
of small white
flowers appear,
which later
develop into Powder AFGHANISTAN
tiny “seeds” Ground ajwain is available to buy and is less
bitter than whole or fresh ground seeds, but
adds a much weaker flavor to a dish. IRAN

EGYPT
PAKISTAN INDIA
Oval seeds
are greyish-
green and
resemble those
of caraway

Whole Region of cultivation

South Indian seeds have the highest levels Ajwain is probably native to the Middle
of thymol (up to 98 percent of the flavor East, possibly Egypt. It is now cultivated
compound molecules). Whole seeds retain a mainly in India and Iran, but also in Pakistan,
strong flavor for a very long time. Afghanistan, and Egypt.
 Flavor Group | UNIQUE COMPOUNDS | Ajwain 201

Kitchen The flavor of ajwain has been described as a mixture of anise, oregano, and
black pepper. Its bitterness can be reduced by toasting or frying it. Ajwain is
creativity highly aromatic and pungent, so use it cautiously.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Ajwain and thyme have similar taste profiles: they both share the same main flavor Fish Combine bruised ajwain seeds
compound, thymol, which is also found in oregano. This powerful phenol works with chili powder and turmeric to make
alongside equally penetrating or herbal spices, while the lesser terpene compounds a dry rub for whole or filleted fish. Then
provide opportunities for bringing out citrus and woody, spicy flavors. fry or oven bake.

Vegetables Add lightly crushed

ajwain seeds to a chickpea flour batter
AJWAIN for vegetable fritters or onion bhajis.

Aj Lentils Add whole seeds to melted

butter or ghee for an aromatic tempering
for lentil soup or dhal.
CYMENE AND
THYMOL Breads Fry ajwain seeds in oil, ghee,
TERPINENE
thymelike | or butter and drizzle over flatbreads,
turpentine-like |
penetrating | cooling chapatti, or naan.
limelike | woody

Eggs Fry a pinch of seeds in butter

MYRCENE or ghee, and add gently beaten eggs to
peppery | balsamic | make Parsi-style scrambled eggs.
celerylike
boost the citrus and woody
notes of these less
abundant compounds:
pair with other penetrating complement the peppery coriander shares cymene
and/or herbal compounds: notes with another myrcene: and terpinene, along with
citrusy limonene
bay contains sweetly black pepper also adds
herbal terpineol and slow-burning pungency and cardamom shares RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
penetrating eugenol floral notes terpinene and brings a cool
edge of eucalyptus For a more rounded taste, dry roast
nutmeg features cooling
neolignans as well as eugenol cumin brings musky the whole seeds to create compounds
nigella contains
warmth from shared cymene with nutty, roasted flavors, particularly
thymoquinone, which has caraway adds a similarly pyrazines. This also dampens the
similar aromas to thymol citrusy flavor from limonene penetrating icy quality because some of
the thymol will evaporate and degrade.

Proteins and
Thymol’s cooling effect sugars react at
Thymol molecule around 284°F
As well as having an herbal flavor, stimulates cold receptor (140°C) to form
thymol has a bitter, cooling new flavor Thymol begins
Tongue becomes compounds to degrade at
effect because its molecules
slightly numb 194–212°F
chemically disturb cold-sensing (90–100°C)
pain fibers in the mouth, tricking
Tongue papilla
the brain into registering a
sensation of iciness. Taste bud

Thymol also activates Painful cold signals

bitterness in taste buds are sent to the brain
202 Spice Profiles

Spice story
CELERY SEED Wild celery has been cultivated for
over 3,000 years, and was widely used
Bitter | Savory | Lemony by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and
Romans as a panacea, and was grown
in most of their herb gardens. The
Romans also added the bitter seeds
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION and leaves to bread, wine, soups,
Apium graveolens The plant is cut at ground level when the cheese, and other foods. By the 6th
seeds are mature and gray-brown in color.
century CE, wild celery had been
ALSO KNOWN AS
introduced to China. Meanwhile in
Smallage, wild celery COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
The seeds are left to dry for a few days, and Europe its use spread north to France
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND
then threshed, cleaned, and further dried. and England. In medieval Europe
Sedanolide it was believed to cure every kind
NON-CULINARY USES of illness, and was reputed to be an
Perfumery; in herbal medicine for water
PARTS USED
retention, arthritis, and gout; in Ayurvedic
aphrodisiac. By the 17th century, a
Seeds (which are technically fruits)
medicine as a nerve stimulant and tonic. new, sweeter form of the plant was
being cultivated in Italy for use as a
vegetable; this is the celery we know
today. Its wild relative—smallage—
The plant Whole was relegated to seed production,
Wild celery is a Use whole seeds and grind them and is still the main source of
biennial herb. It has as required. They can be stored in
a thinner, less fleshy a sealed container in a cool, dark celery seed.
stem than cultivated place for up to 2 years.
celery. It grows up Ridged seeds
to 1m (3ft) tall. are up to 5mm
(¼in) long

FRANCE

CHINA

EGYPT
INDIA

Tiny cream
flowers are
produced Powder
in clusters Ground
celery seed
called umbels is available
to buy, but Region of cultivation
quickly loses Wild celery is thought to be native to
Feathery,
its flavour. temperate regions of Europe and western Asia.
yellow-green It is cultivated specifically for its seed mainly in
leaves are India (which produces more than 50 percent
aromatic of the world’s total crop), but also in China,
Egypt, and France.
 Flavor Group | UNIQUE COMPOUNDS | Celery Seed 203

Kitchen Celery seeds are more intensely flavored than the stalks and leaves, with a warm,
concentrated, earthy taste, lingering bitterness, and hints of grassiness, but without the
creativity freshness of the vegetable. Use them judiciously in soups, sauces, and vegetable dishes.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

The most abundant flavor compound in celery seeds is citrus-scented limonene, with lesser Tomatoes Sprinkle seeds
amounts of herbal-tasting selinene and woody, spicy humulene. However, the unique herbal sparingly over grilled tomatoes or
taste of this spice is produced by unusually potent lactone compounds called phthalides, a tomato tarte tatin.
which are present in only trace amounts but have a profound effect on the overall flavor.
Potatoes Toss celery seeds in melted
butter and drizzle over new potatoes.
CELERY Fish Add the seeds to a fish chowder,
SEED or to the batter for fish goujons.

Ce Beef Add a few seeds to pepper as

a spice rub for beef brisket.

Savory baked goods Add to savory

PHTHALIDES HUMULENE
bread dough, cheese biscuits, or oat
herbal | sweet | woody | spicy |
grassy bitter
biscuits for serving with cheese.

Eggs Sprinkle lightly toasted seeds

LIMONENE over scrambled or deviled eggs.
citrus | herby |
turpentine

pair with spices pair with other spices pair with other spices
Ho me made
that contain traces of that carry some limonene containing humulene,
these flavour compounds: to balance the bitterness: or with spices that also c e le r y s alt
have woody nuances:
caraway brings complex, black pepper gives Not just for a Bloody Mary, celery salt
aniselike, peppery flavors lingering pungency and grains of paradise is a flavorful alternative to ordinary salt
woody notes enhance the spicy bitterness
cardamom adds that works well with soups, cold
eucalyptus notes and a coriander brings its allspice provides sweet, salads, and dips. Use a ratio of 1 part
sweet mintiness distinctive floral qualities, clovelike warmth celery seed to 6 parts salt.
with lemon and pine aromas
cumin lends an bay has woody bitterness
earthy warmth with complex eucalyptus,
lemon, and floral scents
ajwain contributes
a strong thyme flavor

Toast the celery seeds lightly in a dry

frying pan to remove moisture.
REL EASE THE FL AVOR
Flavors dissolve best in oil, but several of the flavor compounds in celery seed are
sensitive to temperatures at either end of the hot–cold spectrum.

Crush the toasted seeds with sea salt

using a pestle and mortar, adjusting
the quantities to taste.
Bitter substances are destroyed by heat. Toast seeds Phthalides turn to vapor when seeds are ground, but
at the start of cooking to mellow the bitterness. chilling beforehand helps to slow the rate of evaporation.
204 Spice Profiles

Spice story
TURM ERIC The flavor and properties of turmeric
were first appreciated by the ancient
Woody | Floral | Bitter Vedic culture of India over 3,000 years
ago. The spice still forms a major part
of many Indian masala blends, and is
used in Hindu rituals to symbolize the
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION sun. Turmeric’s influence on Persian
Curcuma longa This annual crop is grown in heavily and North African cooking dates back
manured furrows; rhizomes are harvested
when the leaves turn yellow. to the pre-Christian era, when it first
ALSO KNOWN AS
reached these regions via the caravans
Indian saffron, false saffron
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION and ships of the Spice Routes. Ottoman
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUNDS
Rhizomes are boiled and dried; they are traders introduced turmeric to Europe
then sold whole or ground to a powder. in the early medieval period, although
Turmerone and ar-turmerone
it was mainly used as a cheap alternative
NON-CULINARY USES
PARTS USED
Fabric dye; coloring agent in cosmetics;
to saffron. The spice gained popularity
Rhizomes (fresh, dried, or powdered);
in traditional medicine as an anti- in Britain during the era of Imperial
occasionally fresh leaves
inflammatory and antimicrobial agent. India, when returning colonial officers
recreated the flavors of the Raj with
an all-purpose “curry powder,” of
The plant Ground which turmeric was (and still is) a
Turmeric is a leafy tropical major constituent.
turmeric
plant in the ginger family,
which grows as a perennial is less
in the wild. staining
than the
fresh spice

Fresh leaves
can be used to
wrap foods CHINA
or as an herb

Powder INDIA
There are two main types: Madras (above)
is brighter yellow and sweeter in taste than
the pungent, earthy, ocher-colored
Alleppey turmeric, which is more prized.
SOUTHEAST
ASIA

Fresh
Zesty flavors
are more
Rhizomes look prominent in
Region of cultivation
like smaller, raw rhizomes.
Turmeric is thought to be native to India. It is
thinner versions Peel and then
cultivated mainly in that country (which
of ginger chop or grate
produces 90 per cent of all tumeric powder),
them, like
but also in China, Thailand, Cambodia,
ginger.
Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines.
 Flavor Group | UNIQUE COMPOUNDS | Turmeric 205

Kitchen Turmeric works well in complex blends, where its pungent earthiness acts as
a base to help to bind other flavors together. Add sparingly if it is to be used
creativity on its own, so the bitter notes do not overwhelm.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Turmeric’s dominant earthy notes are produced by the flavor compounds White fish Stir together turmeric,
turmerone and ar-turmerone (“ar-” for “aromatic”), which are found in few other yogurt, and crushed garlic, and then
spices. The minor compounds provide more opportunities for effective pairing. spoon over fish fillets before grilling.
Focus on one compound for a particular taste effect, or mix and match several.
Lamb and pork Combine with
paprika, lightly crushed cumin, and oil
for a meat rub, and massage into the
TURMERIC skin before roasting.

Tu Squash and cauliflower Mix a

teaspoonful with oil and honey, and toss
with the vegetables before roasting.

TURMERONE AND
ZINGIBERENE
White chocolate Add a good pinch
AR-TURMERONE to cupcake batter along with chunks of
pungent | sharp |
earthy | musky | white chocolate.
spicy
woody
Pickles Include thin slices of fresh
CINEOLE CITRAL rhizome in fish and vegetable pickles.
penetrating | citrus | herbal |
eucalyptus eucalyptus
add depth with boost the heat with
other earthy spices: more zingiberene
cumin gives a rich,
or spices with RE LE AS E T HE F LAVO R
different pungency:
warming earthiness use more cineole enhance fresh notes
ginger also adds Frying in fat causes flavor compound
paprika brings spices for floral and with more citral:
complexity due to molecules to disperse and form new
toasted, smoky, menthol notes:
cardamom also shared zingiberene compounds. This only happens above
and sweet notes anise, star anise adds penetrating 266°F (130°C), so does not occur in
from pyrazines easily overpower, so camphorous accents black pepper
boiling water.
use sparingly adds pungency due
black cardamom coriander brings to piperine, which
brings smokiness and nutmeg will also zesty fruit and floral complements the
penetrating menthol help to develop the aromas, and can be pungency of turmeric’s
from shared cineole musky flavors added generously zingiberene 266°F
(130°C)

C o o k i n g wi t h c u rc u m in

The incredible staining power of ground turmeric is due to a pigment called curcumin, but you
may be surprised to discover that its hue can vary according to how it is used and stored.
BLE NDS TO T RY
Use and adapt these recipes for
classic blends featuring turmeric:
Acid effect Alkaline effect Iron reaction Photosensitivity Hawaij p.29
Acids, such as lemon Alkaline substances, Toasting or frying in an Exposure to light
juice, help to retain the such as baking soda, iron skillet will darken destroys the pigment, Niter kibbeh p.32
yellow color. turn it orangey-red. the spice. so store it in the dark. Malaysian fish curry paste p.51
Bumbu p.52
206 Spice Profiles

Spice story
FENUGREEK The oldest fenugreek seeds were
found at an archaeological site in Iraq,
Bittersweet | Warm | Musty and date back to 4000 bce. Seeds were
also found in the 3,000-year-old tomb
of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen:
the Egyptians regarded fenugreek as
BOTANICAL NAME METHOD OF CULTIVATION a panacea. By Roman times, the plant
Trigonella foenum-graecum, When the seed pods are ripe, plants are was such a common crop that it was
T. caerulea (blue fenugreek) pulled up, bundled together, and dried for
about a week. used as fodder for cattle—its name
comes from the Latin for “Greek hay.”
ALSO KNOWN AS
Goat’s horn, Greek hayseed, COMMERCIAL PREPARATION Its use as a spice crop was mentioned
Greek clover The stems are threshed to release the in the 1st century ce by the Greek
seeds, which are then dried and graded. physician Dioscorides in De Materia
MAJOR FLAVOR COMPOUND Medica. At athletic games held by
Sotolon NON-CULINARY USES
As a dye; in herbal medicine as a digestive
the Syrians a century later, it was a
aid and stimulant; in Ayurvedic medicine component of a ritual perfume with
PARTS USED
Seeds; young leaves
for hair loss and skin complaints. which participants were anointed. By
the Middle Ages, fenugreek was being
cultivated as a medicinal herb in
The plant Europe. Today it is frequently used
Fenugreek is an in Iranian, West Asian, Indian, and Sri
herbaceous annual
plant in the bean Lankan cuisine, and has spread around
family, and is a the world via commercial curry powder,
relative of licorice.
of which it is a key ingredient.

Young leaves
can be eaten as a
vegetable, or dried
and used as an herb

Whole
The angular, brownish-yellow seeds have a SPAIN
TURKEY
furrow running across one side.
MOROCCO
INDIA
Pods develop Blue fenugreek powder LEBANON
from pealike The ground leaves and seeds of blue
flowers, are fenugreek have a milder, less bitter flavor
about 4 in than ordinary fenugreek and are used in
Georgian cuisine (see p.77).
(10 cm) long,
and contain
10–20 seeds
Region of cultivation
Fenugreek is native to the eastern
Mediterranean region and southwest Asia.
It is cultivated mainly in India, but also in
Mediterranean countries and North Africa.
 Flavor Group | UNIQUE COMPOUNDS | Fenugreek 207

Kitchen Fenugreek seeds have a sweet, strong taste, with hints of caramel, maple syrup,
burned sugar, and coffee. While its musty aroma is not to everyone’s liking, the
creativity spice provides a savory, bittersweet background for many dishes.

BL ENDING SCIENCE F OOD PART NE RS

Fenugreek’s flavor is dominated by sotolon, a sweet lactone compound with a taste like brown sugar Pumpkin, sweet potato Soak
with hints of cotton candy. This spice also has woody caryophyllene, with some buttery diacetyl, and fenugreek seeds and add to the base of
mushroomlike vinyl amyl ketone. Pyrazines give toasted seeds roasted, smoky flavors. The sweaty, a pumpkin or sweet potato stew.
rancid, musty aromas are produced by a trio of fragrant acids, which some people dislike.
Walnuts Use blue fenugreek to make
the Georgian spiced walnut paste satsivi,
which can be enjoyed as a dip or used
FENUGREEK for flavoring meat stews.

Fg Beef, lamb Add toasted and soaked

fenugreek seeds to add depth to a rich
beef or lamb curry.
SOTOLON PYRAZINES Fish Fry toasted, ground fenugreek
sweet | maple syrup nutty | roasted | seeds in ghee or coconut oil before
| caramel smoky mixing in fish chunks and coconut milk
for a Keralan-style curry.

CARYOPHYLLENE Baking Add soaked and pounded

woody | spicy | seeds to savory yeasted breads.
bitter
Preserves Add the ground seeds
to fruit chutneys and relishes.
pair with spices that pair with earthy or woody
enhance the sweet flavor: spices that complement
use other caryophyllene- the roasted flavors:
licorice has anise- and
eucalyptuslike flavour carrying spices to enhance cacao adds bittersweet
the woody aromas: toasted flavors from roasting,
carob has rich vanilla
sweetness, with a similar clove adds astringent, alongside fragrant acids BLE NDS TO T RY
sweaty aroma from acids distinctive floral woodiness cumin when toasted has
warm, earthy, bitter flavors Use and adapt these classic blends
allspice brings peppery annatto contributes gentle featuring fenugreek:
sweetness and also shares earthiness and a mild flavor turmeric adds harmonizing
caryophyllene muskiness with hints of ginger Niter kibbeh p.32
curry leaf adds warming,
meaty, sulfurous complexity Durban curry masala p.37
cinnamon has penetrating paprika shares smokiness
sweetness and warmth, as black pepper has mild and adds sweet warmth Panch phoran p.43
well as shared caryophyllene pungent heat as well as woody Vindaloo paste p.44
qualities and citrus notes Khmeli-suneli p.77

REL EAS E T HE F LAVOR

Fenugreek seeds can
Oil droplets
help diffuse flavors suspended
throughout a dish and in water
thicken sauces by the
action of a special
emulsifier called Galactomannan in seeds Extract galactomannan Grind the seeds so galactomannan Lightly toast seeds to create
galactomannan. forms a gel in a liquidy dish, by soaking seeds in water releases faster. Ground fenugreek nutty, coffee-and-chocolate
allowing oil and water to mix. overnight or by simmering. can be added directly to a dish. roasted pyrazine flavors.
208 Spice Profiles

This spicy take on the usually mild Filipino dish

SPICED FILIPINO imagines what it might taste like had the nation
embraced more influences from the spice trade.
ADOBO WITH A classic adobo is made with pork and chicken,
but you could use just one or the other—or

CHICKEN AND PORK make a meat-free version with sturdy vegetable

chunks, such as butternut squash.

SPICE
Serves 4–6
Prep time 25 mins
1 Place the cardamom seeds, star anise, cinnamon, chili flakes, and
peppercorns in a pestle and mortar, and grind vigorously until the
spices have been pulverized. Add the garlic and ginger, and pound
IDEA S Cooking time 1 hour to a rough paste.

Replace the first

three sweetly
seeds of 5 cardamom pods
1 star anise 2 Put a heavy-based pan or wok on medium heat, add the oil and
spice paste, and stir-fry for 2–3 minutes, until the garlic and ginger
become fragrant and begin to color.
1 in (2.5 cm) piece of cinnamon
fragranced spices with

3
a more earthy mix ½ tsp roasted chili flakes or chili Stir in the spring onions and sugar, then add the chicken and
of cumin, paprika, powder
pork. Stir to coat them with the spice mix.
and turmeric. 1 tsp black peppercorns

Use sulfurous spices,

such as mustard, curry
6 garlic cloves, peeled
2 in (5 cm) piece of fresh root ginger,
roughly chopped
4 Pour in the vinegar, soy sauce, and chicken stock. Add the bay
leaves and bring to a boil.

5
leaves, and asafetida, Reduce the heat and cover the pan—use foil if your pan does not
to emphasize the 2 tbsp coconut oil or vegetable oil
have a lid. Simmer gently for 1 hour, until the meat is tender and
meatiness of the dish. 6 spring onions, chopped
the liquid has reduced. Serve with steamed rice and stir-fried greens.
2 tbsp palm sugar or muscovado
Alter the citrus-sour sugar
profile by replacing
2 lb (1 kg) chicken thighs and
the vinegar with
drumsticks
tamarind water and
adding lemongrass to 10 oz (300 g) pork tenderloin, cut into
the paste mix. chunks
½ cup (100 ml) coconut vinegar or
white wine vinegar
½ cup (100 ml) dark soy sauce
1 cup (250 ml) chicken stock
3 bay leaves
210 World of Spice Further Recipes

The following recipes for classic dishes from

WORLD OF SPICE around the world are as delicious as they are
authentic; each features one of the traditional
FURTHER RECIPES spice blends or sauces from the World of Spice
chapter (pp.18–77).

L AMB KOF T E P E RS I AN RI C E P U DDI N G S

Makes 12 Serves 6
Prep time 20 mins, plus 20–30 mins soaking Prep time 15 mins, plus up to 1 hour infusing
Cooking time 8–10 mins Cooking time 45–50 mins
1/4 cup (50 g) bulgur wheat ½ cup (150 g) short-grain white rice, washed
1/4 cup (50 g) apricots, roughly chopped 2½ cups (600 ml) full-fat milk
½ cup (100 ml) boiling water 11/4 cups (300 ml) heavy whipping cream
1 lb (500 g) lamb mince 2 tbsp honey
1 small onion, finely chopped strip of zest from 1 orange
1 tbsp pine nuts 2 tsp orange flower water
2 cloves garlic, peeled and crushed 1 vanilla pod, split and seeds scraped out
1 tbsp chopped fresh mint, plus extra leaves to serve pinch saffron strands, ground to a powder
3 tbsp baharat spice (see p.23) 1 tbsp advieh spice mix, plus extra to serve (see p.27)
salt, to taste 6 Medjool dates, pitted and roughly chopped
flatbread, red onion, tomatoes, and plain yogurt, to serve 1 tbsp pistachio kernels, cut into slivers
1 tbsp dried rose petals
1 Put the bulgur and apricots into a small pan.
Pour over ½ cup (100 ml) boiling water, cover, 1 Preheat the oven to 325˚F (160˚C).
and set aside for 20–30 minutes, until all the
2 Divide the rice between six 7 fl oz (200 ml)
liquid is absorbed.
ramekins.
2 Put lamb, onion, pine nuts, garlic, and mint in
3 Combine the milk, cream, honey, orange zest,
a bowl with 1 tbsp of baharat spice and a pinch
orange flower water, vanilla pod and seeds, and
of salt, and mix together with a fork. Add the
ground saffron in a large, heavy-based
bulgur and apricots and knead the mixture
saucepan. Set over medium heat, stirring until
until it forms a paste and holds together well.
the honey dissolves and the saffron turns the
3 Divide the lamb mixture into 12 portions and milk pale yellow.
roll each portion into a ball.
4 Heat to just below boiling point, then turn off
4 Sprinkle the remaining 2 tbsp of baharat the heat and allow to infuse for at least 10
spice onto a plate, and then roll each ball to minutes, or up to 1 hour.
coat it evenly with the spice.
5 Strain the milk, discarding the zest and
5 Thread a skewer through the center of each vanilla pod, and divide between the six
ball, and squeeze the ball into a sausage shape ramekins, pouring it over the rice. Sprinkle the
about 3–4 in (8–10 cm) long around the skewer. advieh spice mix over the surface of each pot.
6 Preheat a grill or a griddle pan to medium– 6 Cook for 45–50 minutes or until the rice is
high heat. Cook for 8–10 minutes, turning completely soft and the spice has formed a thin
until crisp and evenly browned on the outside brown skin on top.
and cooked through in the center. Cook in
7 Remove the pots from the oven and allow to
batches if necessary.
cool a little.
7 Serve with flatbread, topped with sliced red
8 Top each pudding with chopped dates,
onion, diced tomatoes, fresh mint leaves, and a
pistachios, and dried rose petals. Sprinkle
dollop of yogurt.
over a little more of the advieh and serve
warm or cold.
 World of Spice Further Recipes 211

D U RBA N BEEF BUNNY CHOW CHANA M AS ALA W I T H S W E E T M AS OR T E NG A F I S H CU R RY

Serves 4 POTATO AND S P I NAC H Serves 4
Prep time 30 mins Serves 4 Prep time 10 mins, plus 10–15 mins
Prep time 20 mins marinating
Cooking time 40–50 mins
Cooking time 30–35 mins Cooking time 30 mins
2 tbsp olive oil
2 black cardamom pods 1 tbsp vegetable or coconut oil 4 sea bream or gray mullet fillets, de-scaled, with skin on
2 small cinnamon sticks 1 tsp cumin seeds ½ tsp salt
1 tsp fennel seeds 1 large onion, roughly chopped 1 tsp ground turmeric powder
1 large onion, chopped 2 garlic cloves, crushed 2 tbsp oil, such as coconut or rapeseed
2 tbsp Durban curry masala (see p.37) ¾ in (2 cm) fresh root ginger, peeled and grated 1 tsp yellow mustard seeds, coarsely ground
2 tsp fresh root ginger, grated 2 tsp ground coriander 1 tbsp panch phoran (see p.43)
4 garlic cloves, peeled and crushed 1 tsp paprika 1 onion, sliced
2 tbsp tomato purée 1 tsp ground turmeric 2 green chilis, seeded and halved lengthways
2 ripe tomatoes, roughly chopped 1 medium sweet potato, peeled and cut into ¾ in 2 ripe tomatoes, roughly chopped
1lb (500 g) lean stewing beef, cut into ½–¾in (1–2 cm) (2 cm) chunks 1 tbsp yellow mustard paste
pieces 1 (14.5 oz) can chopped tomatoes 1–2 tsp red chili flakes
1 large potato, cut into ½–¾in (1–2 cm) pieces 2 (14.5 oz) cans chickpeas in water, or ¾ cup (200g) ½–¾ cup (150–200 ml) water
12 fresh curry leaves, or 6 dried curry leaves dried chickpeas or chana dhal, soaked overnight then juice of 1 lime
11/4 cups (300 ml) water cooked in fresh water until tender, cooking water reserved handful of fresh cilantro leaves, to garnish
salt and freshly ground black pepper, to taste 1–2 green chilis, cut into chunky pieces rice, to serve
handful fresh cilantro, chopped, plus extra to garnish salt, to taste
½ lime 2½ oz (75 g) baby spinach, washed 1 Place the fish on a plate and rub with the
2 small white crusty bread loaves (a 5½ x 3 loaf pan is 1–2 tsp garam masala, to taste (see p.40) salt and turmeric. Cover, and set aside for
perfect), halved and hollowed out ½ lemon 10–15 minutes.
naan bread, to serve
1 Heat the oil in a large pan, and then fry the 2 Melt half the oil in a frying pan over
cardamom, cinnamon, and fennel seeds for a 1 Heat the oil in a large, heavy-based pan over medium–high heat and add the mustard seeds.
minute or so, until aromatic. medium–high heat. When the oil is hot, add Stir for a few minutes until they become
the cumin seeds. Fry for a minute or so until fragrant. Lay the fish in the pan, skin side
2 Add the onion, and soften for 5–8 minutes down, and leave to cook for 3–4 mins. Once the
over medium heat. aromatic, add the onion, and then reduce the
heat. Cook for 5–8 minutes until softened. skin is crisp and golden, turn and cook for
3 Sprinkle the masala and stir to coat the another 2–3 minutes until the fish is just cooked
onions, then add the ginger, garlic, and tomato 2 Add the garlic and ginger and stir for a through. Transfer the fried fish to a plate, cover,
purée, and cook for 1 minute. minute or so, then add the ground coriander, and set aside.
paprika, and turmeric, stirring for a further
4 Add the tomatoes, stir, and cook for 4–5 2 minutes. 3 Heat the remaining oil in the pan over high
minutes, until the mixture becomes saucelike. heat, and add the panch phoran. Let the seeds
3 Add the sweet potato and turn it to coat it splutter and pop for 1 minute.
5 Stir in the beef, potatoes, curry leaves, and well with the spices.
water. Season with salt and pepper. 4 Turn the heat down to medium and stir in the
4 Stir in the tomatoes and chickpeas with onion and chilis. Fry gently for 3–4 minutes,
6 Bring to a simmer, cover, and cook for 40–50 their liquid. Alternatively, if using dried until they are just softened and golden.
minutes, stirring occasionally, until the meat is chickpeas or chana dhal, add about 11/4 cups
tender and the potatoes are soft. (300ml) of the reserved cooking water. Stir 5 Now stir in the chopped tomatoes and cook
in the chili pieces (include the seeds for extra for 4–5 minutes until they soften.
7 Stir in the cilantro plus a squeeze of lime
heat), bring to a simmer, then turn the heat to 6 Add the mustard paste with the chili flakes
to taste. Remove and discard the cinnamon,
low, cover, and cook for 25–30 minutes, until and cook for another 4–5 minutes, stirring.
cardamom, and curry leaves before serving.
the potatoes are tender and the sauce has
8 Divide the curry between the four half loaves thickened. Season with salt. 7 Pour in water, and then add lime juice to
of bread, spooning it into each hollowed-out taste. Bring to a gentle simmer.
5 Add the spinach, and stir for 3–4 minutes
half. Garnish with the extra cilantro and 8 Carefully add the fried fish pieces back into
until it wilts.
serve immediately. the sauce, skin side up, and heat through for
6 Stir in the garam masala, and squeeze in some 2–3 minutes.
lemon juice to taste. Adjust the seasoning, then
serve immediately with warmed naan bread. 9 Garnish with chopped cilantro leaves and
serve with rice.
212 World of Spice Further Recipes

G OA N V IN DA LO O PRAWN S U M M E R ROLLS NANJ I NG S ALT E D DU CK

Serves 4 Makes 12 Serves 4
Prep time 30 mins, plus 1 hour or overnight Prep time 45 mins Prep time 20 mins, plus overnight
marinating marinating
4 oz (100 g) dried vermicelli rice noodles or bean
Cooking time 30–40 mins thread noodles, or use a 10 oz (300 g) pack of cooked Cooking time 15 mins, plus 2 hours cooling
rice noodles
2 tbsp olive oil 12 round rice paper wrappers, 8 in (20 cm) in diameter 2 tbsp salt
1 lb (500 g) skinless, boneless chicken thighs or pork handful Thai basil 2 tbsp whole Sichuan peppercorns, lightly crushed with a
shoulder, cut into 1 in (3 cm) chunks 24 cooked prawns, cut in half lengthways pestle and mortar
1 medium eggplant, cut into ¾ in (2 cm) chunks 2 or 3 large iceberg lettuce leaves, torn into 12 pieces 2 whole duck legs, about 7 oz (200 g) each
1 batch vindaloo paste (see p.44) 1 carrot, grated 2 duck breasts, about 6 oz (175 g) each
2 large garlic cloves, peeled and crushed ½ cucumber, cut into 2 in (5 cm) long matchsticks 1 Nanjing spice bag (see p.59)
2 in (5 cm) fresh root ginger, peeled and grated 2 spring onions, cut lengthways into strips 2 in (5 cm) fresh root ginger, sliced, and then pulverized
2 tbsp coconut oil handful cilantro leaves using a pestle and mortar
1 large onion, roughly chopped handful mint leaves 3 spring onions, trimmed and cut into large segments
2 ripe tomatoes, cut into chunks 4 tbsp salted peanuts, roughly chopped ½ cup (125 ml) Shaoxing wine
1–2 green chilis, thickly sliced 1 lime, halved 2 tsp sesame oil
1 cup (250 ml) chicken stock nuoc cham dipping sauce, to serve (see p.50)
1 tbsp jaggery or soft brown sugar, plus extra if needed 1 Heat a frying pan over medium heat. Add the
1 tbsp coconut or cider vinegar 1 Soak the dried rice noodles, if using, in a salt and Sichuan peppercorns and toast them,
salt, to taste bowl of hot water for 3 minutes, then drain and stirring, for 5–8 minutes until the salt turns
handful cilantro leaves, to garnish rinse with cold water. They should be just yellow/brown. Let the pan cool.
rice, yogurt, and lime pickle, to serve
tender, but not too soft.
2 Lightly score the skin of the duck pieces with
1 Put the chicken or pork and eggplant in a 2 Lay out all the ingredients ready to make the a sharp knife. Rub the salt and peppercorns
bowl, and stir in the vindaloo paste along with rolls. Dip one of the rice papers in a bowl of into the skin and flesh, cover loosely with foil,
the garlic and ginger. Mix well, cover, and hot water, moving it around for 10–15 seconds and then marinate overnight in the fridge.
marinate for at least 1 hour, or refrigerate and until the whole wrapper is pliable but not
leave overnight if preferred. 3 When you are ready to cook the duck, lay all
completely soft. Lay it on a board and pat dry
the pieces in the bottom of a large pan with the
with a tea towel.
2 Preheat the oven to 375˚F (190˚C). salt and peppercorns. Cover with 6–8 cups
3 At the bottom edge of the wrapper, place (1.5–2 liters) of water. Add the spice bag, ginger,
3 Heat the oil in an ovenproof pan and fry the and spring onion. Bring to a boil, then add the
three Thai basil leaves face down, side by
onion over a low heat for 10–15 minutes, until Shaoxing wine. Reduce the heat, and simmer
side, and then lay four prawn halves on top in
soft and golden. gently for 15 minutes.
a horizontal row.
4 Add the meat and eggplant, along with the 4 Turn off the heat and allow the duck to cool
4 Place a piece of lettuce on top of the prawns,
marinade, and cook, stirring, for 4–5 minutes to in the liquid, with the pan covered.
followed by some noodles, a few strips of
brown all over.
carrot, cucumber, and spring onions, then
5 Transfer the duck to a cutting board and
5 Now add the tomatoes, chilis, and stock, some cilantro and mint leaves, and finally
discard the cooking liquid, or strain and reserve
and bring to a simmer. Stir in the jaggery and the nuts. Squeeze a little lime juice over the
it for use as stock.
vinegar until the sugar has dissolved. vegetables. Do not overfill the rolls or they will
be hard to shape. 6 Drizzle the sesame oil over each piece of
6 Cover and transfer to the oven. Cook for duck. Cut the breast into thick slices, and
30–40 minutes, until the chicken is tender, the 5 Lift the edge of the rice paper wrapper
divide the legs in half between the joint to
eggplant is soft and melting, and the sauce has nearest to you over the filling and, holding the
separate the leg and thigh. Eat warm, or leave
thickened. Taste and adjust the seasoning. filling in position with your fingers, tuck it
to cool. Serve 1 piece of leg and some sliced
under and start rolling tightly.
7 Sprinkle with cilantro and serve immediately breast per person.
with rice, yogurt, and lime pickle. 6 When you are about halfway, fold the ends of
the rice paper in and over the filling. Continue
rolling the filling as tightly as possible so that it
is completely enclosed, and press lightly to
ensure that it has stuck.
7 Repeat with the other wrappers and the
remainder of the fillings. To serve, cut the rolls
in half on the diagonal, and serve at room
temperature with the nuoc cham dipping sauce.
8 If you are making the rolls in advance, cover
them with cling film or a damp tea towel to
prevent them from drying out.
 World of Spice Further Recipes 213

P R AW N AN D V EGETABL E PIPARK AKU T PAE LLA

S T I R- F RY Makes about 40 Serves 6
Serves 4 Prep time 20 mins, plus cooling, chilling, Prep time 30 mins
Prep time 10 mins and resting
Cooking time 50 mins
Cooking time 10 mins Cooking time 10–12 mins
4 tbsp olive oil
9 oz (250 g) fine egg thread noodles 1 tbsp (60 g) honey 10 oz (300 g) chicken thighs, cut into chunks
2 tbsp peanut oil 1 tbsp (60 g) blackstrap molasses 2
/3 cup (150 g) diced pancetta
1 onion, peeled and cut into chunks ½ cup (125 g) unsalted butter 2
/3 cup (150 g) chorizo, cut into thick slices
1 red pepper, seeded and cut into chunks ½ cup (100 g) dark brown sugar 1 large Spanish onion, roughly chopped
1 in (2 cm) fresh root ginger, peeled and cut into 2¼ cups (350 g) all-purpose flour, plus extra for dusting 1 red pepper, seeded and cut into chunks
matchsticks 1 tsp baking soda 1 green pepper, seeded and cut into chunks
2 large garlic cloves, peeled and sliced 1 tbsp Finnish gingerbread spice (see p.72) 1 tbsp paella mix (see p.74)
9 oz (250 g) large, raw prawns, peeled and de-veined ¼ tsp ground white pepper 1 cup (250 g) Calasparra (Spanish short-grain) rice, or
4 oz (100 g) baby corn cobs, sliced in half on the 1 egg other paella or risotto rice
diagonal 2 tbsp chopped crystallized ginger, to decorate (optional) 3/4 cup (150 ml) Fino sherry, or dry white wine
2 tbsp light soy sauce 3¼ cups (750 ml) hot fish or chicken stock
2 tbsp Shaoxing wine, or similar rice wine 1 Put the honey, molasses, butter, and sugar 1 cup (200 ml) tomato paste
juice of half a lime into a saucepan, then place on low heat, and 5 oz (150 g) prepared squid, sliced into rings
4 oz (100 g) fresh snow peas melt all the ingredients together. juice and zest of 1 lemon, plus extra wedges to serve
1 tbsp five-spice powder (see p.60) salt and freshly ground black pepper, to taste
2 tbsp black sesame seeds 2 Once melted, set aside to cool for at least 12 clams, cleaned
2 tbsp toasted sesame oil 10 minutes. 6 mussels, scrubbed and with beards removed
6 cooked shrimp or whole, large, shell-on prawns
3 Sift the flour, baking soda, spice mix, and handful fresh flat-leaf parsley, roughly chopped
1 Put the noodles into a saucepan and pour pepper into a large mixing bowl, and stir them
boiling water over them. Cover and leave to together.
stand while you make the stir-fry. 1 Heat 2 tbsp of the olive oil in a paella dish
4 Pour the molasses mix into the flour mix. or heavy-based saucepan. Add the chicken,
2 Heat the oil in a large frying pan or wok, pancetta, and chorizo, and stir over medium–
and stir-fry the onion and pepper over a 5 Crack in the egg, then stir the ingredients high heat for 8–10 minutes, until browned all
high heat for 2 minutes, until softened and together to form a smooth, dark paste. over. Remove with a slotted spoon and transfer
slightly charred. to a plate.
6 Cover and place in the fridge for at least 1
3 Add the ginger, garlic, and prawns, stirring hour to rest. It can be left overnight if preferred. 2 Add the remaining oil to the chorizo oil in the
constantly for 2 minutes until the prawns are pan, then cook the onion and peppers over
7 Take the dough out of the fridge and allow it
just pink. medium heat for 5–8 minutes, until softened.
to reach room temperature. Then gently knead
4 Add the baby corn to the pan with the soy it into a ball. 3 Stir in the paella spice mix along with the
sauce and wine. Simmer for 1 minute. rice. Stir for a minute or so, until all the grains
8 Preheat the oven to 375˚F (190°C), and line a
of rice are well-coated and glossy.
5 Stir in the snow peas and five-spice powder, cookie sheet with parchment paper.
then remove from the heat. 4 Now add the sherry and turn up the heat,
9 On a lightly floured surface, roll out the
allowing the liquid to bubble and the rice to
6 Drain the noodles, and stir in the sesame dough to 1⁄8 in (2–3 mm) thick.
absorb it. Pour in the hot stock and the tomato
seeds and oil. Serve immediately with the paste, and reduce to a simmer for 10 minutes,
10 Cut the cookies out to any shape you
hot stir-fry. stirring occasionally.
like, rerolling any trimmings. Then space
them slightly apart on the lined cookie sheet.
5 Return the meat to the pan, stir, and cook
If decorating with crystallized ginger, push
gently for another 10 minutes.
a few pieces into each cookie. Bake for
10–12 minutes. 6 Now stir the squid rings into the rice, along
with the lemon zest plus juice, and season to
11 Cool on the tray for 10 minutes, and then
taste. Ensure that all the clams and mussels are
transfer the firm cookies to a cooling rack.
tightly closed, then push them into the rice and
They can be stored in an airtight container for
cover with a lid or foil. Steam for 4–5 minutes
up to 1 week.
until all the mussels and clams have opened
(discard any that have not).
7 Now sit the shrimp on top, cover, and steam
for a further 5 minutes, until everything is
cooked through, the rice is tender, and most of
the liquid has been absorbed. Do not stir at this
point—this will help a crust to form—but keep
the heat low so it does not burn.
8 Sprinkle the chopped parsley over the paella
and serve immediately with the extra lemon
wedges on the side.
214 Table of Spices and their Flavor Compounds

TABLE OF SPICES This table provides an at-a-glance visual reference for identifying the
principal flavor compounds of all the profiled spices, and will help you
AND THEIR FLAVOR to make connections between spices through their compounds. Spices
are color-coded in their flavor groups (see pp.12–15), and major and
COMPOUNDS secondary compounds are highlighted by the shading of the tiles.

Grains of Selim

Cardamom
Cardamom
Cinnamon

Star Anise

Coriander
Caraway
SPICE

Nutmeg
Licorice
Allspice

Annatto

Juniper
Mahleb
FLAVOR

Nigella
Mastic
Fennel
Cassia

Vanilla

Cumin

Black
Clove

Anise

Mace

Rose
COMPOUND

Dill
ACETOINE
2-ACETYL-1-PYRROLINE
ANETHOLE
ANISALDEHYDE
ANISYL ALCOHOL
AZULENE
CADINENE
A-CADINOL
CAMPHENE
CAMPHOR
CAPSAICIN
CAPSAICINOIDS
CARENE
CARVACROL
CARVEOL
D-CARVONE
S-CARVONE
CARYOPHYLLENE
CEMBRENE
CINEOLE
CINNAMALDEHYDE
CITRAL
CITRIC ACID
CITRONELLAL
CITRONELLOL
COPAENE
COUMARIN
CUMINALDEHYDE
CURCUMENE
CYCLOCITRAL
CYMENE
CUBEBENE
DIALLYL DISULPHIDE (FROM ALLICIN)
DIALLYL TRISULPHIDE (FROM ALLICIN)
DIMETHOXYPHENOL
DIMETHYLPYRAZINE
DIOXOLANE
ELEMENE
ELEMICIN
ESTER COMBINATIONS
ESTRAGOLE
ETHYL ACETATE
EUDESMOL
EUGENOL
FARNESENE
FENCHONE
A-FENCHYL ACETATE
FERULIC ACID
FURANMETHANETHIOL
FURANEOL
FURFURAL
2-FURYLMETHANTHIOL
GALANGAL ACETATE
GERANIOL
GERMACRENE
 Table of Spices and their Flavor Compounds 215

FL AVOR GROU P S T YP E OF C OM P O U N D
Sweet Warming Earthy Sweet-Sour Sulfurous Major Secondary
Phenols Terpenes Acids Compounds compound compound
Warming Penetrating Fruity Pungent
Terpenes Terpenes Aldehydes Compounds
Fragrant Citrus Toasty Unique
Terpenes Terpenes Pyrazines Compounds
Lemon Myrtle

Black Pepper
Lemongrass

Celery Seed
Dried Lime

Fenugreek
Curry Leaf
Anardana

Tamarind

Asafetida
Amchoor

Grains of

Turmeric
Galangal

Barberry

Paradise
Mustard

Sichuan
Sesame
Paprika

Saffron
Pepper
Sumac

Ajwain
Ginger
Wattle
Cacao

Poppy
Carob

Garlic

Chili
Bay
216 Table of Spices and their Flavor Compounds

Grains of Selim

Cardamom
Cardamom
Cinnamon

Star Anise

Coriander
Caraway
SPICE

Nutmeg
Licorice
Allspice

Annatto

Juniper
Mahleb
FLAVOR

Nigella
Mastic
Fennel
Cassia

Vanilla

Cumin

Black
Clove

Anise

Mace

Rose
COMPOUND

Dill
GINGEROL
GLYCOSIDE COMBINATIONS
GLYCYRRHIZIN
HEPTANONE
HEXANAL
HEXANOIC ACID
HUMULENE
HUMULONE
4-HYDROXYBENZALDEHYDE
ISOTHIOCYANATES
ISOVALERALDEHYDE
LANIERONE
LIMONENE
LINALOOL
MALIC ACID
METHOXYCOUMARIN
METHOXYETHYL-CINNAMATE
3-METHYL BUTANAL
METHYL CINNAMATE
METHYL HEPTENONE
METHYL SALICYLATE
MYRCENE
MYRISTICIN
NEROL
NONANAL
OCIMENE
PARADOL
PENTANOIC ACID
PENTANOL
2-PENTYLFURAN
PHELLANDRENE
PHENOL COMBINATIONS
PHENYL ACETALDEHYDE
2-PHENYLACETALDEHYDE
1-PHENYLETHANETHIOL
PICOCROCIN
PINENE
PIPERINE
PIPERONAL
PYRAZINE COMBINATIONS
ROSE KETONES
ROTUNDONE
SABINENE
SAFRANAL
SAFROLE
SANSHOOLS
SEDANOLIDE (PHTHALIDE)
SELINENE
SESAMOL
SHOGAOL
SOTOLON
SULCATONE
SULFIDE COMBINATIONS
TANNIN COMBINATIONS
TARTARIC ACID
TERPINENE
TERPINEOL
TERPINYL ACETATE
THYMOL
THYMOQUINONE
AR-TURMERONE
VANILLIN
VINYL AMYL KETONE
ZINGIBERENE
Bay

Galangal

Dried Lime

Lemon Myrtle

Lemongrass

Amchoor

Anardana

Sumac

Tamarind

Carob

Barberry

Cacao

Paprika

Wattle

Sesame

Garlic

Asafetida

Curry Leaf

Mustard
Grains of
Paradise
Black Pepper

Sichuan Pepper

Ginger

Chili

Saffron

Poppy

Ajwain

Celery Seed
Table of Spices and their Flavor Compounds

Turmeric

Fenugreek
217
218 Index

Index
Page numbers in bold refer
to main entries
cumin 126
dried limes 142
ginger 188
C
cacao 14, 63, 162–163
Spiced Filipino Adobo with
Chicken and Pork 208
chickpeas: Chana Masala with Sweet

A
adobo 52
poppy seeds 198
saffron 194
tamarind 154
flavor compounds 163, 215, 217
mole mix 65
Cambodia 47, 48–49, 146, 204
Potato and Spinach 211
chilis 10, 15, 21, 190–193
aji limo 68
adobo marinade 53 Arabian Peninsula 21, 29 Canada 178, 198 Amazon basin 67
Spiced Filipino Adobo with Arabic baharat 26 capsaicin 13, 165, 190 the Andes 66
Chicken and Pork 208 arbol chilis 192 caraway 14, 108–109 arrabiata sauce 76
advieh 27 arrabiata sauce 76 flavor compounds 109, 214, 216 baklouti chili 31
Persian Rice Puddings 210 asafetida 10, 15, 174–175 harissa 33 BBQ rub 68
Afghanistan 174, 194, 200 chaat masala 42 cardamom 11, 14, 134–135 bird’s eye chilis 51, 193
Africa 30–37 flavor compounds 175, 215, 217 advieh 27 bumbu 52
Central Africa 31, 35 gunpowder 45 black cardamom 14, 39, 132–133, chili black bean sauce 61
East Africa 31, 34–35 Ashanti pepper: yaji 36 214, 216 chimichurri 66
Horn of Africa 31, 32 Ashurbanipal 160 Black Sesame, Licorice, and Chinese Steamed Salmon with
The Maghreb 30–31, 32–33 Asian Larb Salad with Curried Duck Cardamom Ice Cream 170 Chili and Star Anise 92
Southern Africa 31, 36–37 and Khao Kua 140 Burmese garam masala 48 cumari chilis 63
West Africa 30–31, 36 Australia 144, 146, 166, 176 Durban Beef Bunny Chow 211 dried chilis 192–193
aji limo 68 Aztecs Finnish gingerbread spice 72 Durban curry masala 37
ajwain 10, 15, 200–201 annatto 114 flavor compounds 12, 133, 135, 214, espelette chili 70
flavor compounds 201, 215, 217 cacao 162 216 flavor compounds 13, 191, 215, 217
aldehydes, fruity 13, 15, 160–163 chilis 190 garam masala 40 France 74
Aleppo pepper 21, 22 vanilla 100 hawaij 29 fresh chilis 192–193
Ali Baba 168 pilau masala 34 ground chilis 193
allspice 10, 14, 17, 63, 86–87
Arabic baharat 26
Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with
B
baharat 22–23, 25, 126
Shandong spice bag 58
Sweet and Spicy Apple Pastry
Rosettes 182
gunpowder 45
harissa 33
khmeli-suneli 77
Seven-Spice 104 Arabic baharat 26 Turkish baharat 23 leche de tigre 69
flavor compounds 87, 214, 216 Lamb Kofte 210 vindaloo paste 44 Malaysian fish curry paste 51
Jamaican jerk rub 64 Bangladesh 39, 42–43 zhug 25 Masor Tenga Fish Curry 211
mulling spice 73 amchoor 148 Caribbean 63, 64 mole mix 65
almonds: dukkah 28 curry leaves 176 carob 14, 158–159 mulato chili 63
Amazon basin 63, 67 galangal 138 flavor compounds 13, 159, 215, 217 nuoc cham 50
amchoor 14, 39, 42, 148–149 barberries 14, 21, 160–161 caryophyllene 10 piri piri chilis 31
chaat masala 42 flavor compounds 13, 161, 215, 217 cascabel chilis 192 shichimi-togarashi 57
flavor compounds 13, 149, 215, 217 bay 14, 136–137 cassava: tucupí 67 Spain and Portugal 75
the Americas 62–69 adobo marinade 53 cassia 10, 14, 55, 82–83 Sweet and Spicy Apple Pastry
Amazon basin 63, 67 Burmese garam masala 48 flavor compounds 83, 214, 216 Rosettes 182
the Andes 63, 66–67 flavor compounds 137, 215, 217 garam masala 40 timur ko chhop 41
the Caribbean 63, 64 khmeli-suneli 77 vindaloo paste 44 tucupí 67
Mexico and Central America 63, mulling spice 73 cayenne 193 vindaloo paste 44
64–65 Nanjing spice bag 59 BBQ rub 68 zhug 25
North America 63, 68 BBQ rub 68 Durban curry masala 37 chimichurri 66
Pacific South America 63, 68–69 beef: Durban Beef Bunny Chow 211 paella mix 74 China
see also individual countries Bhutan 132, 186 yaji 36 amchoor 148
anardana 14, 150–151, 215, 217 bird’s eye chilis 51, 193 celery seed 10, 14, 202–203 anardana 150
ancho chilis 192 biryani: Chicken and Eggplant celery salt 203 anise 88
mole mix 65 Biryani with Seven-Spice 104 flavor compounds 203, 215, 217 barberries 160
the Andes 63, 66–67 bitter orange powder 73 Central America 63, 64–65 black cardamom 132
anethole 11, 12, 17 Finnish gingerbread spice 72 chaat masala 42 cassia 82
anise 14, 88–89 black beans: chili black bean sauce chana dhal: gunpowder 45 celery seed 202
flavor compounds 89, 214, 216 61 Chana Masala with Sweet Potato and chilis 190
mole mix 65 bobimbi: mbongo mix 35 Spinach 211 cloves 84
annatto 14, 47, 114–115 Brazil 148, 162, 184 Charlemagne, Emperor 94 cumin 61, 126
flavor compounds 12, 115, 214, 216 Bulgaria 120, 122 cheese: Ejjeh with Zucchini, Feta, East China 58–59
apples: Sweet and Spicy Apple Pastry bulgur wheat: Lamb Kofte 210 and Dill and Black Lime Harissa galangal 138
Rosettes 182 bumbu 52 112 garlic 172
apricots: Lamb Kofte 210 Burmese garam masala 48 chicken ginger 55
Arab traders 20 butter Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with lemon myrtle 144
black pepper 184 niter kibbeh 32 Seven-Spice 104 lemongrass 146
carob 158 Spiced Scallops with Saffron Beurre Goan Vindaloo 212 licorice 96
cinnamon 80 Blanc 196 Paella 213 mustard 178
 Index 219

North China 55, 58

poppy seeds 198
Licorice, and Cardamom Ice
Cream 170 D Southeast Europe 71, 77
Spain and Portugal 70, 74–75
rose 120 coriander 14, 17, 122–123 Date and Tamarind Granita with
saffron 61, 194
sesame 168
Sichuan pepper 61, 186
Arabic baharat 26
bumbu 52
Burmese garam masala 48
Caramelized Pineapple 156
dill 10, 14, 110–111
dill pickles 111
F
fennel 14, 39, 94–95
Silk Road 21 chaat masala 42 Ejjeh with Zucchini, Feta, and Dill Durban Beef Bunny Chow 211
South China 55, 60–61 Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with and Black Lime Harissa 112 five-spice powder 60
star anise 90 Seven-Spice 104 flavor compounds 111, 214, 216 flavor compounds 12, 95, 214, 216
turmeric 204 dukkah 28 Dioscorides 206 Malaysian fish curry paste 51
West China 54, 61 Durban curry masala 37 duck panch phoran 43
Chinese Steamed Salmon with Chili flavor compounds 12, 123, 214, 216 Asian Larb Salad with Curried fenugreek 11, 15, 206–207
and Star Anise 92 harissa 33 Duck and Khao Kua 140 blue fenugreek 71
Chios 71, 116 hawaij 29 Nanjing Salted Duck 212 Durban curry masala 37
chipotle powder 193 khmeli-suneli 77 dukkah 28 flavor compounds 207, 215, 217
Jamaican jerk rub 64 leche de tigre 69 Durban 36, 37 khmeli-suneli 77
chorizo: Paella 213 Malaysian fish curry paste 51 Durban Beef Bunny Chow 211 niter kibbeh 32
cineole 10, 12, 17 taklia 25 Durban curry masala 37 panch phoran 43
cinnamon 10, 14, 39, 80–81 Turkish baharat 23 West African Peanut Curry with vindaloo paste 44
advieh 27 zhug 25 Durban Masala 124 feta cheese: Ejjeh with Zucchini,
Arabic baharat 26 Cortés, Hernán 100, 190 Feta, and Dill and Black Lime
Burmese garam masala 48
Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with
Seven-Spice 104
cream
Black Sesame, Licorice, and
Cardamom Ice Cream 170
E
earthy terpenes 12, 15, 126–129
Harissa 112
Filipino Adobo with Chicken and
Pork 208
Durban Beef Bunny Chow 211 Persian Rice Puddings 210 East Asia 54–61 Finland 108
Durban curry masala 37 Culpeper, Nicholas 136 East China 58–59 Finnish gingerbread spice 72
Finnish gingerbread spice 72 cumin 11, 14, 20, 28, 126–127 Japan 55 Piparkakut 213
five-spice powder 60 advieh 27 North China 55, 58 fish
flavor compounds 81, 214, 216 Arabic baharat 26 South China 55, 60–61 Chinese Steamed Salmon with
Jamaican jerk rub 64 BBQ rub 68 South Korea 55, 56–57 Chili and Star Anise 92
mole mix 65 black cumin 41 West China 54, 61 Malaysian fish curry paste 51
mulling spice 73 Burmese garam masala 48 Ecuador 63, 162 Masor Tenga Fish Curry 211
pilau masala 34 chaat masala 42 eggplants: Chicken and Eggplant five-spice powder 60, 91
Shandong spice bag 58 dukkah 28 Biryani with Seven-Spice 104 Prawn and Vegetable Stir-Fry 213
Sweet and Spicy Apple Pastry Durban curry masala 37 eggs: Ejjeh with Zucchini, Feta, flavor compounds 10–11, 12–13
Rosettes 182 flavor compounds 12, 127, 214, 216 and Dill and Black Lime Harissa vs spice 214–217
Turkish baharat 23 garam masala 40 112 flavor groups 12–15
citrus terpenes 12, 15, 142–147 harissa 33 Egypt 28 flowers 11
Cleopatra 194 hawaij 29 ajwain 200 fragrant terpenes 12, 15, 116–125
cloves 14, 31, 84–85 Malaysian fish curry paste 51 anardana 150 France 70–71, 74
Arabic baharat 26 mole mix 65 anise 88 anise 88
bumbu 52 niter kibbeh 32 caraway 108 celery seed 202
Burmese garam masala 48 paella mix 74 celery seed 202 licorice 96
Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with panch phoran 43 chilis 190 poppy seeds 198
Seven-Spice 104 pilau masala 34 cinnamon 80, 82 fruits 10
Durban curry masala 37 Shandong spice bag 58 coriander 28, 122 fruity aldehydes 13, 15, 160–163
East Africa 35 Turkish baharat 23 cumin 20, 28, 126
Finnish gingerbread spice 72
five-spice powder 60
flavor compounds 11, 12, 85, 214,
vindaloo paste 44
za’atar 22
zhug 25
dill 110
dried limes 142
fenugreek 206
G
galangal 10, 47, 138–139
216 curcumin, cooking with 205 galangal 138 bumbu 52
garam masala 40 curdling, citrus fruit and 145 garlic 172 flavor compounds 13, 14, 17, 139,
Jamaican jerk rub 64 curry nigella 128 215, 217
mole mix 65 Asian Larb Salad with Curried sesame 168 khao kua 49
mulling spice 73 Duck and Khao Kua 140 Ejjeh with Zucchini, Feta, and Dill Malaysian fish curry paste 51
Nanjing spice bag 59 Chana Masala with Sweet Potato and Black Lime Harissa 112 Galen 128, 172
paella mix 74 and Spinach 211 Escoffier, Georges 164 Gama, Vasco de 184
pilau masala 34 Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with espelette 193 Ganesh 148
quatre épices 74 Seven-Spice 104 Ethiopia garam masala 40, 91, 126
Shandong spice bag 58 Durban Beef Bunny Chow 211 chilis 32, 190 Asian Larb Salad with Curried
Sweet and Spicy Apple Pastry Goan Vindaloo 212 fenugreek 32 Duck and Khao Kua 140
Rosettes 182 Masor Tenga Fish Curry 211 grains of Selim 130 Burmese garam masala 48
Turkish baharat 23 West African Peanut Curry with korarima 31, 32 Chana Masala with Sweet Potato
vindaloo paste 44 Durban Masala 124 eugenol 11, 12, 17 and Spinach 211
coconut: gunpowder 45 curry leaves 15, 176–177 Europe 70–77 garlic 25, 63, 172–173
coconut vinegar: adobo marinade 53 Durban Beef Bunny Chow 211 France 70–71, 74 Georgia 71, 77, 126
Columbus, Christopher 63, 86, 164, flavor compounds 177, 215, 217 Great Britain 70, 73 Gerard, John 160
190 gunpowder 45 Italy 71, 76–77 Ghana 130, 162, 180
condensed milk: Black Sesame, Scandinavia 71, 72–73 ginger 10, 15, 55, 188–189
220 Index

advieh 27
chaat masala 42
Hinduism 148, 204
Hungary 71, 77, 108, 164
pomegranates 21
poppy seeds 198 M
Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with Israel 21, 24–25, 142 mace 14, 106–107
Seven-Spice 104
chili black bean sauce 61
Durban Beef Bunny Chow 211
I
ice cream: Black Sesame, Licorice,
Italy 71, 76–77
carob 158
celery seed 202
flavor compounds 12, 107, 214, 216
garam masala 40
Madagascar
Durban curry masala 37 and Cardamom Ice Cream 170 juniper 118 cloves 32, 84
Finnish gingerbread spice 72 India licorice 76, 96 tamarind 154
flavor compounds 189, 215, 217 ajwain 42, 200 vanilla 31, 100, 101
Goan Vindaloo 212
Jamaican jerk rub 64
leche de tigre 69
amchoor 42, 148
anardana 150
anise 88
J
jalapeño chilis 192
The Maghreb 30–31, 32–33
mahleb 14, 98–99
flavor compounds 99, 214, 216
Nanjing Salted Duck 212 annatto 114 Jamaica 63, 86, 188 makrut lime 46
niter kibbeh 32 asafetida 174 Jamaican jerk rub 64 khao kua 49
quatre épices 74 black pepper 184 Japan 55, 57 Malaysia 46–47, 51
Sweet and Spicy Apple Pastry cardamom 39, 134 anise 88 black pepper 184
Rosettes 182 celery seed 202 fennel 94 curry leaves 176
yaji 36 Central India 39, 42 juniper 118 lemon myrtle 144
Goan Vindaloo 212 cloves 84 star anise 57, 90 lemongrass 146
gochugaru: yangnyeomjang 56 coriander 122 Java 47, 138 Malaysian fish curry paste 51
grains of paradise 30, 35, 180–181 cumin 126 John the Baptist, St. 158 turmeric 204
flavor compounds 15, 181, 215, 217 curry leaves 44, 176 juniper 14, 71, 118–119 Maluku (Moluccas) Islands 47, 84,
mbongo mix 35 dill 110 flavor compounds 12, 119, 214, 216 102, 106
Sweet and Spicy Apple Pastry East India 39, 42–43 mangoes 148–149
Rosettes 182
grains of Selim 14, 30, 130–131
flavor compounds 12, 131, 214, 216
fennel 94
fenugreek 44, 206
galangal 138
K
kala namak: chaat masala 42
marigold: khmeli-suneli 77
marjoram: khmeli-suneli 77
Masor Tenga Fish Curry 211
yaji 36 garlic 172 Kashmir 174, 194 mastic 10, 71, 116–117
granita: Date and Tamarind Granita ginger 188 kashmiri chilis 192 flavor compounds 14, 117, 214, 216
with Caramelized Pineapple 156 lemongrass 146 khao kua 49 Maya 86, 114, 162
Great Britain 70, 73 licorice 96 Asian Larb Salad with Curried mbongo mix 35
mace 73, 106 mustard 178 Duck and Khao Kua 140 Mexico 63, 64–65
nutmeg 73, 102 North India 39, 40–41 khmeli-suneli 77 allspice 86
rose 120 poppy seeds 198 kokum 45 amchoor 148
saffron 73, 194 rose 120 König, Johann Gerhard 176 bay 136
turmeric 204 saffron 194 korarima 31 cacao 162
Greece 71, 77 sesame 44, 168 niter kibbeh 32 chilis 65, 190, 192–193
asafetida 174 South India 39, 45 kuli-kuli: yaji 36 cumin 126
bay 136 star anise 45, 90 ginger 188
cardamom 134
carob 158
celery seed 202
tamarind 154
turmeric 204
vanilla 100, 101
L
Lamb Kofte 210
vanilla 100, 101
Middle East 20–29
Arabian Peninsula 29
coriander 122 West India 39, 44–45 Laos 46, 48–49 Egypt 20, 28
cumin 126 Indonesia 47, 52 lemongrass 146 Iran 21, 26–27
dill 110 amchoor 148 star anise 90 Iraq 26
fennel 94 black pepper 46, 184 larb: Asian Larb Salad with Curried Israel 21, 24–25
galangal 138 cacao 162 Duck and Khao Kua 140 Lebanon 25
ginger 188 chilis 190 Lebanon 25 Syria 21, 22
licorice 96 cinnamon 80 leche de tigre 69 Turkey 20, 22–23
mastic 116 cloves 84 lemon myrtle 14, 144–145 milk
mustard 178 galangal 138 flavor compounds 12, 145, 215, 217 Persian Rice Puddings 210
nigella 128 lemongrass 146 lemongrass 10, 14, 47, 146–147 mole mix 65
saffron 194 nutmeg 102 flavor compounds 12, 147, 215, 217 molle 63, 67
Grenada 102, 106 turmeric 204 khao kua 49 Morocco
guajillo chilis 192 vanilla 100 Lepcha community 132 carob 158
Guatemala 86, 134 Iran 26–27 licorice 10, 14, 55, 96–97 cumin 126
gunpowder 45 ajwain 200 Black Sesame, Licorice, and rose 120
asafetida 174 Cardamom Ice Cream 170 saffron 33, 194

H
habanero chilis 193
barberries 21, 160
cumin 126
dried limes 142
flavor compounds 97, 214, 216
Nanjing spice bag 59
Shandong spice bag 58
mulato chilis 193
mulling spice 73
Murray, Johann Andreas 176
Hanshan 186 mahleb 98 limes mustard 11, 39, 178–179
harissa 31, 33, 109 poppy seeds 198 black limes 21 flavor compounds 13, 15, 179, 215,
black lime harissa 112 rose 120 black lime harissa 112 217
hazelnuts: dukkah 28 saffron 21, 26, 27, 194 dried lime 14, 142–143, 215, 217 Masor Tenga Fish Curry 211
hemp seeds: shichimi-togarashi 57 sumac 152 khao kua 49 panch phoran 43
hibiscus flowers 24 Iraq 26 makrut lime 46 vindaloo paste 44
Hildegard of Bingen 138 dried limes 142 linalool 12, 17 Myanmar 46, 48
Himalayan belt 39, 41, 178 fenugreek 206 lotus seeds 58 amchoor 148
 Index 221

cinnamon 80 chimichurri 66 pilau masala 34 flavor compounds 121, 214, 216

curry leaves 176 flavor compounds 165, 215, 217 pimentón: paella mix 74 Russell, John 82
tamarind 46 Hungarian paprika 71, 77, 164 Pineapple: Date and Tamarind Russia
Jamaican jerk rub 64 Granita with Caramelized allspice 86

N
Nanjing spice bag 59
parsley
chimichurri 66
zhug 25
Pineapple 156
Piparkakut 213
piperine 10, 13
coriander 122
garlic 172
juniper 118
Nanjing Salted Duck 212 pasilla chilis 193 piri piri chilis 31, 193 licorice 96
Nepal 132, 186 pastries: Sweet and Spicy Apple Pliny the Elder 126, 152
Nero, Emperor 150
The Netherlands
caraway 108
Pastry Rosettes 182
peanuts
mbongo mix 35
Plutarch 138
Poivre, Pierre 84
pomegranates 21, 150–151
S
saffron 11, 33, 75, 194–195
juniper 118 West African Peanut Curry with poppy seeds 15, 198–199 flavor compounds 13, 15, 215, 217
nutmeg 102 Durban Masala 124 flavor compounds 199, 215, 217 Iran 21, 26
paprika 164 pectin 161 pork: Spiced Filipino Adobo with paella mix 74
poppy seeds 198 penetrating terpenes 12, 15, Chicken and Pork 208 Persian Rice Puddings 210
nigella 14, 128–129 130–141 Portugal 38, 70, 74–75, 158 Spiced Scallops with Saffron Beurre
flavor compounds 12, 129, 214, 216 peppercorns prawns Blanc 196
panch phoran 43 adobo marinade 53 Prawn and Vegetable Stir-Fry 213 salad: Asian Larb Salad with Curried
niter kibbeh 32 Arabic baharat 26 Prawn Summer Rolls 212 Duck and Khao Kua 140
njangsa: mbongo mix 35 BBQ rub 68 Puerto Rico 154 salmon: Chinese Steamed Salmon
noodles black pepper 10, 15, 46, 130, pungent compounds 13, 15, with Chili and Star Anise 92
Prawn and Vegetable Stir-Fry 213 184–185, 215, 217 180–193 sansho 187
Prawn Summer Rolls 212 bumbu 52 pyrazines, toasty 13, 15, 164–171 shichimi-togarashi 57
North America 63, 68 Burmese garam masala 48 savory: khmeli-suneli 77
see also individual countries
nuoc cham 50
nutmeg 11, 102–103, 106, 107
chaat masala 42
Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with
Seven-Spice 104
Q
quatre épices 74
scallops: Spiced Scallops with Saffron
Beurre Blanc 196
Scandinavia 71, 72–73
Arabic baharat 26 five-spice powder 60 Scotch bonnet 193
bumbu 52
calabash nutmeg 31
Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with
flavor compounds 13, 185, 215, 217
garam masala 40
grains of paradise as substitute 181
R
Réunion 100, 101
Scoville, William 190
Scoville Heat Index 190
seafood: Paella 213
Seven-Spice 104 hawaij 29 rhizomes 10 seeds 11
flavor compounds 12, 14, 103, 214, Jamaican jerk rub 64 rice sesame 15, 55, 168–169
216 Kerala 38 Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with Black Sesame, Licorice, and
garam masala 40 khmeli-suneli 77 Seven-Spice 104 Cardamom Ice Cream 170
Jamaican jerk rub 64 Malaysian fish curry paste 51 khao kua 49 dukkah 28
mbongo mix 35 mole mix 65 Paella 213 flavor compounds 169, 215, 217
mulling spice 73 Nanjing Salted Duck 212 Persian rice puddings 210 gunpowder 45
quatre épices 74 paella mix 74 Romania 108, 190 mole mix 65
Turkish baharat 23 pilau masala 34 Romans 20 shichimi-togarashi 57
quatre épices 74 ajwain 200 yangnyeomjang 56

O
Olmec people 162
sanshō 187
Shandong spice bag 58
shichimi-togarashi 57
anardana 150
anise 88
asafetida 174
za’atar 22
shajiang 61
Shandong cuisine 58
Oman 29, 142 Sichuan pepper 15, 55, 61, bay 136 Shandong spice bag 58
omelette: Ejjeh with Zucchini, Feta, 186–187, 215, 217 caraway 108 shichimi-togarashi 57
and Dill and Black Lime Harissa Turkish baharat 23 cardamom 134 Sichuan pepper 15, 55, 61, 186–187
112 Venice trade 71 celery seed 202 five-spice powder 60
orange peel: shichimi-togarashi 57 vindaloo paste 44 cloves 84 flavor compounds 187, 215, 217
oregano 129, 201 peppers, Capsicum 164–165 coriander 122 Nanjing Salted Duck 212
chimichurri 66 perilla seeds 55, 57 cumin 126 Shandong spice bag 58
Mexican oregano 64 periodic table of spices 14–15 fennel 94 Sikkim 132
za’atar 22 Persia fenugreek 206 Silk Road
asafetida 174 galangal 138 Africa 31

P
Pacific South America 63, 68–69
cassia 82
dried limes 142
Persian Rice Puddings 210
garlic 172
ginger 188
licorice 96
Calcutta 39
China 21, 61, 96
East Asia 54–55
see also individual countries rose 120 mastic 116 Europe 71
Paella 213 turmeric 204 mustard 178 Iraq 26
paella mix 74 Peru 162, 188 nigella 128 poppy seeds 198
Pakistan 84, 148, 200 Petronius 198 poppy seeds 198 Singapore 46–47, 51
pancetta peverino 77 rose 120 South Asia 38–45
arrabiata sauce 76 phenols, sweet warming 12, 80–101 saffron 194 Central India 39, 42
Paella 213 Philippines 47, 52–53 sesame 168 East India and Bangladesh 39,
panch phoran 42–43, 126 amchoor 148 sumac 152 42–43
Masor Tenga Fish Curry 211 annatto 47, 53, 114 roots 10 Himalayan Belt 39, 41
pandan leaves 48 star anise 90 rose 14, 21, 120–121 North India 39, 40–41
paprika 15, 63, 164–165 turmeric 204 advieh 27 South India and Sri Lanka 39, 45
222 Index

West India 39, 44–45

South Korea 55, 56–57
Spice Route 26, 31, 39, 204
spice wars 47
thyme 201
timur 187 W
garlic 172 spinach: Chana Masala with Sweet timur ko chhop 41 warming terpenes 12, 15, 102–115
Sichuan pepper 186 Potato and Spinach 211 toasty pyrazines 13, 15, 164–171 wattle 15, 166–167, 215, 217
Southeast Asia 46–53 split urad dhal: gunpowder 45 tomatoes West African Peanut Curry with
Indonesia 47, 52 Sri Lanka 39, 45 arrabiata sauce 76 Durban Masala 124
Malaysia and Singapore 46–47, 51 annatto 114 Chana Masala with Sweet Potato
Myanmar 46, 48
Philippines 47, 52–53
Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia
cardamom 134
cinnamon 39, 45, 80
cloves 84
and Spinach 211
Durban Beef Bunny Chow 211
Goan Vindaloo 212
Y
yangnyeomjang 56
46–7, 48–49 curry leaves 176 Masor Tenga Fish Curry 211 yogurt: Black Sesame, Licorice, and
Vietnam 47, 50–51 lemongrass 146 Totonac people 100 Cardamom Ice Cream 170
soy sauce: adobo marinade 53 mace 106 tucupí 67
Spain 70, 74–75
carob 75, 158
chilis 190
nutmeg 102
vanilla 100, 101
star anise 11, 14, 17, 90–91
Turkey 22–23
asafetida 174
bay 136
Z
za’atar 22
licorice 96 Burmese garam masala 48 carob 158 Zanzibar 31, 35, 84
paprika 164 Chinese Steamed Salmon with chilis 190 zhug 24, 25
saffron 75, 194 Chili and Star Anise 92 cumin 126 zucchini: Ejjeh with Zucchini, Feta,
spice five-spice powder 60 dried limes 142 and Dill and Black Lime Harissa
definition of 10–11 flavor compounds 91, 214, 216 fennel 94 112
periodic table of spices 14–15 Nanjing spice bag 59 licorice 96
vs flavor compounds 214–217 Shandong spice bag 58 mahleb 98
spice blends 16–17 stems 10 nigella 128
adobo marinade 53 stir-fry: Prawn and Vegetable Stir-Fry paprika 23, 164
advieh 27 213 poppy seeds 198
Arabic baharat 26 sulfurous compounds 13, 15, rose 120
arrabiata sauce 76 172–179 sumac 20, 152
baharat 22–23 sumac 10, 14, 20, 152–153 turmeric 10, 15, 204–205
BBQ rub 68 flavor compounds 13, 153, 215, 217 bumbu 52
bumbu 52 za’atar 22 flavor compounds 13, 205, 215, 217
Burmese garam masala 48 summer rolls: Prawn Summer Rolls hawaij 29
chaat masala 42 212 Malaysian fish curry paste 51
chili black bean sauce 61 sweet potatoes: Chana Masala with Masor Tenga Fish Curry 211
chimichurri 66 Sweet Potato and Spinach 211 niter kibbeh 32
dukkah 28 sweet-sour acids 13, 15, 148–159 turpan 54
Durban curry masala 37 sweet warming phenols 12, 15, Tutankhamen 206
Finnish gingerbread spice 72 80–101
five-spice powder 60
garam masala 40
gunpowder 45
Syria 22
chilis 21
cumin 126
U
unique compounds 13, 15, 194–209
harissa 33 fenugreek 206 United States of America
hawaij 29 mahleb 98 chilis 190
Jamaican jerk rub 64 sumac 152 dill 110
khao kua 49 fennel 94
khmeli-suneli 77
leche de tigre 69
Malaysian fish curry paste 51
T
Tahiti 100, 101
garlic 172
pepper 63
vanilla 63
mbongo mix 35 taklia 25
mole mix 65
mulling spice 73
Nanjing spice bag 59
tamarind 14, 46, 154–155
Date and Tamarind Granita with
Caramelized Pineapple 156
V
vanilla 10, 14, 31, 100–101
niter kibbeh 32 flavor compounds 155, 215, 217 flavor compounds 101, 214, 216
nuoc cham 50 gunpowder 45 vegetables
paella mix 74 Tanzania 34, 130, 134 Prawn and Vegetable Stir-Fry 213
panch phoran 42–43 terpenes 12 West African Peanut Curry with
pilau masala 34 citrus terpenes 12, 15, 142–147 Durban Masala 124
quatre épices 74 earthy terpenes 12, 15, 126–129 Venice 71, 76, 77, 84
Shandong spice bag 58 fragrant terpenes 12, 15, 116–125 Vietnam 47, 50–51
shichimi-togarashi 57 penetrating terpenes 12, 15, black pepper 50, 184
taklia 25 130–141 cassia 82
timur ko chhop 41 warming terpenes 12, 15, 102–115 cinnamon 80
tucupí 67 Thailand 46–47, 48–49 lemongrass 47, 146
vindaloo paste 44 amchoor 148 star anise 90
yaji 36 lemongrass 146 vindaloo paste 44
yangnyeomjang 56 makrut lime 46 Goan Vindaloo 212
za’atar 22 tamarind 154
zhug 24, 25 turmeric 204
Spice Islands 47, 84 Theophrastus 154
 About the Authors 223

About the Authors

DR. S T UART FARRIM OND
Specializing in food science, Dr. Stuart Farrimond is a science and health writer, presenter,
and communicator. He makes regular appearances on TV, radio, and at public events. He is a
trained medical doctor and teacher, and his writing appears in the national and international
press, including New Scientist, The Independent, the Daily Mail, and The Washington Post.
Dr. Stuart presents a weekly radio science show, and his widely publicized food research has
addressed a broad range of topics. He is the author of DK’s The Science of Cooking.
Stuart oversaw all scientific aspects of the project, and wrote the Spice Science chapter and all
science-based content in the Spice Profiles chapter, including information on blending science
and getting the most flavor from spices.

Laura Nickoll is a writer and food editor based in Kent. She is a member of the Guild of
Food Writers and specializes in food and eating out for online and print restaurant guides. She
also edits cookbooks and has worked with many influential food writers and chefs, including
Mary Berry, Rachel Allen, Ed Smith, Marcus Wareing, Signe Johansen, and Rosie Birkett.
Laura wrote all the non-science content of the Spice Profiles chapter.

Jan Fullwood is a home economist who believes she has the Anna Kibbey is a food and drink writer and cofounder of food
perfect job. Her varied career involves working for major food copywriting agency 2Forks.co.uk. As a journalist and editor at
brands; magazines including Good Housekeeping and delicious; Square Meal, she reviewed restaurants for many years, and writes
and books, notably for Mary Berry. Jan is constantly creating, food features, recipes, and reviews for Time Out, Food & Travel,
evaluating, and eating food, and always learning something Men’s Health, and Mr & Mrs Smith. Anna is an eager cook, consumer,
new; she lives with an overstuffed larder and her well-fed and student of Middle Eastern food, particularly Lebanese and
family in Hertfordshire. Persian cuisine, and the owner of an encyclopedic—and
ever-expanding—collection of spices. She most often reaches for
Jan wrote the World of Spice Further Recipes.
cumin, coriander seeds, cinnamon, and (always) chili flakes.
Anna wrote on the Middle East in the World of Spice chapter, as well as
Roopa Gulati is a chef, food writer, and broadcaster, who worked the recipes for Chicken and Eggplant Biryani with Seven-Spice and
in India for two decades before returning to London in 2001. Ejjeh with Zucchini, Feta, and Dill and Black Lime Harissa.
As a Consultant Chef to the Taj hotel group, she honed her
expertise in regional cooking styles across South Asia. Back in
Sorrel Moseley-Williams is a British freelance journalist and
the UK, she was deputy editor for UKTV’s Good Food Channel,
sommelier who has been based in Argentina since 2006. She
and is now a freelancer, writing editorial features, recipes, and
focuses on Latin American food, travel, and wine, and can be
restaurant reviews for leading food brands and magazines such
found on the pages of Wine Enthusiast, Monocle, Condé Nast
as BBC Good Food, Time Out, and delicious. Assignments include
Traveller, Travel + Leisure, Decanter, and Lugares in Spanish, among
cooking demonstrations at London’s Borough Market, scoping
other publications; she translated the Mirazur, Tegui, and La
Rick Stein’s BBC series in India, and joining the judge’s panel
Cabrera books. She co-runs the pop-up wine bar “Come Wine
for BBC Radio 4’s Food and Farming Awards.
With Us” in Buenos Aires and can be found on
Roopa wrote on South Asia in the World of Spice chapter, as well as the Instagram as @sorrelita.
recipes for Date and Tamarind Granita with Caramelized Pineapple
Sorrel wrote on the Americas in the World of Spice chapter.
and Spiced Scallops with Saffron Beurre Blanc.

Freda Muyambo is a food writer with expertise in African

Thomas Howells is a London-based journalist. He works as a
cuisine and a passion for sharing African culture through food.
freelance food editor and writer for Time Out London, and has
She often describes herself as having a pan-African palate; born
written for The Guardian, the Financial Times, and Wallpaper*.
and raised in Botswana to Ghanaian parents, she currently lives
Tom wrote on Europe in the World of Spice chapter. in Nigeria, and has traveled extensively across the continent.
224 Acknowledgments

Freda resides in the Nigerian city of Lagos where she is acquiring Yolanda Zappaterra is a food, travel, and design writer. Born
primary knowledge in the use of local spices, from fermented to Italian parents in South Wales, Yolanda’s early introduction
locust beans to a vast array of chilis, pipers, and cubebs. to “spicy” cooking was Vesta curries, her mother’s misguided
attempts to anglicize the repertoire of Neapolitan cuisine that
Freda wrote on Africa in the World of Spice chapter, as well as the
she had brought with her, as a way of fitting in. None of this
recipes for West African Peanut Curry with Durban Masala and
deterred Yolanda’s palate or food-writing ambitions, and she has
Sweet and Spicy Apple Pastry Rosettes.
since worked as a food writer and editor for Time Out, Lonely
Planet, and The Independent, among many others. Her home
Annica Wainwright is a food and drink writer and cofounder cooking has broadened out from the regional Italian dishes she
of food copywriting agency 2Forks.co.uk. She has traveled learned in her mother’s kitchen to include her in-laws’ Chinese
extensively in Southeast Asia and is a self-confessed Thai food and Caribbean dishes, so dinner at her house could be a multi-
geek. Her favorite spices are garlic, ginger, star anise, and the layered parmigiana, a spicy mapo tofu, or Trinidad doubles.
highly addictive endorphin-producer known as the red hot chili
Yolanda wrote on East Asia in the World of Spice chapter, as well as
pepper. Annica never leaves home without sriracha sauce
the recipes for Chinese Steamed Salmon with Chili and Star Anise
(she’s got a mini bottle attached to her key chain) and will
and Black Sesame, Licorice, and Cardamom Ice Cream.
forever be grateful to the Portuguese traders who brought
us the hot stuff.
Annica wrote on Southeast Asia in the World of Spice chapter, as well
as the recipes for Asian Larb Salad with Curried Duck and Khao Kua,
and Spiced Filipino Adobo with Chicken and Pork.

Acknowledgments
FROM T H E A UT H ORS

Dr. Stuart Farrimond

Cataloging the flavorful science behind our diverse world of spices is quite an undertaking. I am indebted to family and friends for
their understanding and tolerance of the many days I have spent in the writer’s “cave,” surrounded by boxes, bags, and tubs of spices.
My wife, Grace, been steadfastly supportive throughout this ambitious project; even enduring the (mis)fortune of being subject to a
barrage of spice blending experiments. As she was to discover, culinary scientific endeavors are fraught with taste bud peril!
As with last year’s publication, The Science of Cooking, I am once again awed by the talents of DK’s designers, artists, and photographers,
who have woven their magic to help bring the science of spices to life so beautifully. Thanks go to Dawn Henderson and Mary-Clare
Jerram for inviting me back to crack open this truly tasty topic, and to editor Alastair Laing who slaved over a hot computer to bring
all the ingredients of this book together harmoniously. My literary agent Jonathan Pegg has also been a dependable support, for which
I am hugely grateful. A final word of thanks goes to Winston, our Patterdale terrier, whose insatiable appetite for long walks has helped
keep body and mind healthy throughout.

Sorrel Moseley-Williams would like to thank Anthony Vásquez of La Mar Buenos Aires, Leonor Espinosa of LEO in Bogotá, Virgilio
Martínez of Central in Lima and Mil in Moray, Jaime Rodríguez Camacho of Proyecto Caribe in Cartagena de Indias, Pedro Miguel
Schiaffino of ámaZ in Lima, and Tom Le Mesurier of Eat Rio in Rio de Janeiro.

FROM T H E P UBLIS H E R
We would like to acknowledge the help of the following in the production of this book: special thanks to Rona Skene and Megan Lea for
stepping in and working well beyond the call of duty; thanks to Jo Hargreaves and Jane Simmonds for copy editing, Jan Fullwood for recipe
testing, and Vanessa Bird for indexing. We would also like to thank Sean @ kja-artists for artworks on pages 12, 13, 20, 21, 30, 31, 38, 39, 46,
47, 54, 55, 62, 63, 70, 71, 82, 102, 110, 116, 142, 144, 164, 174, 184, and 206.
DK Delhi would like to thank Anukriti Arora for design assistance.