Chapter 3

Beef Cattle Production

3.1. Origin, Domestication, Population and Distribution of Beef cattle

Beef cattle have more than one species. There are several genera of beef cattle which will interbreed
with Bos to produce fertile beefy offspring: Bison; Poephagus, the yak; Bibos, the gaurs; Bubalus, the
Indian buffalo; Sunda; and Syncerus, the African buffalo. In the tropics, there may have been another
sequence, from Bos nomadicus (wild ancestors) to Bos indicus (current heat-resistant cattle).  B.
indicus, which may have been derived from B. nomadicus, is now recognized by the following features:
a prominent shoulder hump of muscle supported by dorsal spines of the vertebrae, a long face with
drooping ears, upright horns, small brow ridges, a prominent dewlap, slender legs, and uniform
colouration (white, grey or black). In early settlements, the primary importance of cattle was their ability
to pull a plough or a cart, and they were not normally slaughtered until the end of their working life.
Numbers and distribution of beef cattle different from one place another place that depends on lots of
factors such as climate, topography, culture of the society, production systems etc.

3.2. Beef Cattle Breeds

Breed: refers to a group of animals with distinct shape and color and which produce offspring with similar
shape and color and breeding is the science and art of mating animals with the expectation of better
performance in their offspring. It has main objectives such as:
- To increase the meat productivity per animal
- To improve the quality of meat produced
- To increase the efficiency of production (comparing input versus output).
Classification of Beef Cattle Breeds

beef
cattle

BOS BOS
BOS INDICUS
TAURUS TURUS/INDICUS

Composite Breed
ZEBU
BRITHISH EUROPEAN
Red Grey
Hereford Angus Limousin Charolais Beefmaster Brangus Brahman Brahman

The two divisions of widely exploited cattle are: Bos taurus and Bos indicus
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- Distinguishing characters of the two divisions
Bos indicus Bos taurus
- have hump - humpless
- have large ear and dewlap - smaller
- more pigmented - less pigmented
- have longer legs - shorter legs
- voice more of grant - shrill- piercing sound
- more adaptive and resistant to adverse climate and poor husbandry practices compared to Bos tauras
Importance of knowing beef cattle characteristics:
 To select suitable environment for a given type / breed.
 To introduce disease / parasites resistance in breeds.
 To know the genetic performance.
 To determine their suitability for genetic improvement by grading up.
- Exotic Breeds of Beef Cattle have the following general characteristics: -
 These animals have less degree of heat tolerance.
 Have high nutritional requirements.
 Have high meat productivity.
 Less efficient in digestion of poor quality nutrient feeds.
 They have high conversion efficiency especially of quality roughages and concentrates.
 Have fast growth rate and short generation interval.
 All animals are without hump.
1- Hereford- Originated from Hereford area in the England and it is the most widely distributed breed in the
world. Easily recognized by its white face and deep red coat colour and occasionally white markings over the
chest, brisket, belly and legs. Small to medium body weight but is greater than Angus breed. Extremely hardy
and excellent grazers.
2- Aberdeen Angus: Originated from ABERDEEN and ANGUS areas of Scotland. Black coat colour and
polledness are dominant characteristics with small white patches on the belly and flanks. It is one of the
smallest beef breeds having on an average 800 kg live weight of mature bulls and 450 kg of cows. They are
hardy and excellent grazers. It is reputed for producing superior quality beef with deeply fleshed lean meat
with intra muscular fat. It has high dressing % age due it is small head, hide and feet etc. They cross well with
dairy cows like Holstein Fresian to produce beef cattle.
3- Charollais: Originally from old province Charollais in France and important breed of the place. They are
creamy white horned and have rounded hind quarters. It is second in terms of live weight and height at wither
which is next to Chianilla. Mature bulls and cows weigh about 1200 Kgs and 800 Kgs respectively. The
breed is noted for its rapid growth rate, size and the high. Proportion of lean meat that is produced on the hind
quarters. It’s calves are capable of 1 – 1.5 Kgs daily live weight gain. This breed is used extensively for dairy
and beef to produce excellent quality lean meat.
4 -Chianina: Originated in Italy where they are kept for milk, meat and draught power. The coat colour is
porcelain white with black markings around the eye lids. The breed is claimed to be the largest size breed of

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 cattle in the world i.e. – Mature bulls and cows weigh about 1500 Kg and 1000 Kg. They are extremely docile
and easy to handle in spite of their enormous size. They have live weight gains of about 2 Kgs per day and
birth weight of male calves around 45 kgs and female calves about 38 kgs ; with little difficulty in calving.
5 – Simmental: Originated from the Simme valley of Switzerland. Numerically, the most important dual
purpose breed in Europe. The breed has white face as colour marking similar to the Hereford. The coat colour
is yellowish brown or red combined with white markings on the shoulder, loin, belly, legs and tail. Fast
growth rate and produces an excellent carcass covered with firm fat. Bulls are generally used for crossing with
the dual purpose breeds to produce beef from a dairy herd. Produces yellow fat which enables the breed to
withstand extremes of temperature. This may be one of the reasons for world outstanding popularity of this
breed.
Local Breeds of Beef Cattle have the following general characteristics of local breeds are:
- High degree of heat tolerance.
- Less nutritional requirements.
- Low meat productivity.
- More efficient in digestion of poorly nutritious feeds than exotic breeds.
An exhaustible survey has not been done yet to distinguish the different breeds of the country but the presence
of certain breeds and their characters have been studied.
• Most of our cattle do not fulfill criteria set either for dairy, beef/ or draft criteria
• Dual purpose cattle
Sanga cattle breeds includes: Danakil, Kereyu, Raya-Azebo, Abigar (Nuer cattle)
Zebu x Sanga (intermidiet): Fogera, Horo, Jidu, Arado (in Afar region)
Zebu cattle breeds: Boran, Abyssinia, Arsi-Bale, Ogaden/Somali/Jijiga, Arab, Begait, Jem-jem-Sidamo
Others: Sheko (Humpless cattle), trypanotolerant breed

Cattle could be grouped in to 3 and even 4 in developing countries. These are:

1. Beef type cattle: characterized by the great width and depth of the body and short legs. Beef cattle were
bred and selected primarily for the production of meat, and many breeds have been developed or adapted for
special conditions. Beef breeds carry considerable muscle especially around the loins and hindquarters, where
it has greatest monetary value. Substantial bones and large frames are needed to carry this. The conversion of
forage in the diet to meat is an important ratio for beef cattle.

a. British beef: These are British- originated breeds used only for beef production. British beef breeds
average medium in body size, low to medium in milking potential and low to medium in lean to fat ratio
Examples: Angus, Hereford, Red Angus, Short horn.

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 b. Continental Beef: These continental European breeds were developed exclusively for beef production they
are part of what often are called “Exotics”. These breeds average medium to very large size, low milk and
very high lean-to- fat. They are used primarily as terminal sires. Examples, Charolais, Chianina.

c. Composite breeds: These are combination beef breeds artificially created, consisting of about ¼ to ½
tropically adapted genetics, mostly Brahaman, along with British Beef or, less commonly, continental Beef or
Dual purpose. They are particularly useful in hot climates for straight breeding. American breeders have
successfully crossed various breeds to create several new breeds. These include the Beef master (from the
Brahman, Hereford, and Shorthorn) and the Brangus (from the Brahman and Angus). Historical records reveal
that Brahman cattle were raised for milk, religious sacrifice, and sport.
2. Dairy type: characterized by triangular form and with well-developed mammary system and their primary
purpose is to convert the feed they consume to milk.
3. Dual/Multi- purpose type: is intermediate both in body form and product between dairy and beef type.
4. Draft type: is usually characterized by their form and is usually of grate size and ruggedness with a
considerable longer leg.
Major differences between types

Beef type Dairy type

- have rectangular shape (when viewed from the side) - triangular shaped
- head is short and broad - longer and narrow neck
- have a full, thick and short neck - have a thin and short neck
- chest broad - narrow and slim
- temperament sluggish and quite - active and nervous
3.3. Beef Cattle Production System
Criteria used for the classification beef cattle production systems are
– Spatial characteristics of the production system (or land use intensity e.g. extensive, semi-
intensive and intensive)
– Economic objective of the cattle owner (e. g. subsistence, semi-subsistence, semi-commercial
or entirely commercial nature)
• Geographical considerations (both physical, e.g. climate type, and political )
• The type of crop or animal (e.g. Coffee based semi-intensive beef cattle production system)
• Production objectives (such as milk, meat, fiber or draught)
In general beef cattle production systems are classified based on land requirement, investment capital (labor,
feed and medication), level of technical inputs/use of improved inputs/services/technologies and improved
management.

1. Intensive beef cattle production: It is one in which temporary pastures are rotated with crops, while
livestock utilize the pastures and crop by-products (called lay farming). Pastures are usually grazed for 3-5
years and then ploughed, and the land being cropped for 3-5 years before bring re-sown to pasture species.

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Theoretically, this is an excellent system for the tropics as it helps to prevent soil erosion, maintains fertility
and produces a variety of cash crops and livestock feeds. Integration of livestock and crop production is the
realization that crop/livestock integrated systems can improve productivity per unit area of land.
2. Semi-intensive: The system is characterized by relatively small size of holdings, a mixture of subsistence,
semi-subsistence and cash economies, and emphasis is being placed on their use for milk production in many
countries, particularly in the Indian subcontinent, the use of old working cattle and culled milking cows for
meat production.
3. Extensive: Under this system, there are further sub divisions such as pastoralism, ranching and mixed
agriculture (Crop-Livestock) production systems. Extensive production system is characterized by less
controlled production factors and is generally termed as traditional system of production.
Pastoralism (pastoral production system) is subsistence system based primarily on domesticated animal
production (meat, milk, hides, blood) in large area of land important contributor beef cattle to the country.
The term "subsisting" is intended to exclude those who raise animals strictly for exchange value rather than
direct consumption. It is a system of low lands where shortage of rainfall is common where milk is the major
product.
This is practiced due to the insufficiency of resources especially forage and water and due to temporary
occupation of the land with crops; and also due to swarming insects, parasites and diseases in the area.
There are three different forms of pastoralism which are Nomadism: this is non-cyclical (non-seasonal)
movement of people with their animals from place to place with encampments in vast territories, regulated by
the customs or the force. Transhumance: this is seasonal movement of people with their animals
synchronizing with the rainfall regime in order to use the temporary forage and water resources in the high
lands. Sedentary Agriculture: this is characterized by daily movement of certain animal units to certain
distance from the center habitation of the group.
Crop-Livestock Production: It is also subdivided in to cereal and perennial crop livestock production system
of the highland area.
Veal program: Veal production is specialized system of calf rearing where calves are exclusively given milk
or milk replacer in order to keep them at the pre-ruminant stage and thus avoid the development of the fore
stomach. Veal is calf meat from a highly finished carcass, pale fleshed and weighing around 82 kg (weight
depends on the breed). The demand for veal is specific and restricted to limited markets but where there is a
market it can be a profitable form of production. Calves are reared on a liquid diet from 12 to 15 weeks until
they reach a body weight of 115-135kg. Bull calves are normally used. Generally, fattening is a feeding
practice aiming at accumulation of fat in beef cattle during its finishing stage. Improvement in husbandry was
shown to support a pure zebu reaching slaughter weight of 500 kg in 34-38 months.

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Beef cattle fattening systems in Ethiopia
In line with the general livestock system existing in the country, the major beef cattle production system can
be broadly classified into Traditional highland practices, By-product fattening and Hararghe fattening system.
1. Traditional highland practices: Under rational highland systems, most of the gained weight during the
late dry season and early wet season. Thus, beef cattle rarely become suitably fat enough to sell for high
prices. Farmers who have developed improved forage production can fatten their animals at proper time and
sell their cull oxen for high prices to finance the purchase of a replacement ox/ bullocks or providing money
for other purposes of the enterprise. The traditional system of selling cattle in the mixed crop livestock system
recognizes that beef is a by-product since cattle are primarily kept for traction purposes. Cattle are usually
sold when they are too for this purpose or drought or cash shortages forces people to sell. Cattle find their
own feed by grazing on natural meadows, fallow and marginal lands and crop residue after harvest. Grazing
area is very limited. Oxen are usually sold after ploughing when they are old and in poor condition. The
exception in this traditional system is the “Hararghe highland fattening system” where cattle are profitability
fattened using forages and crop residues.
2. By-product fattening: This system is entirely based on cattle fattening using agro-industrial by products
and crop residues. The parastatal and private based intensive commercial fattening system is a more recent
development; the parastatal, which was mainly based on nationalized private properties by the previous
regime, has operated specialized fattening. It is commonly based on purchased cattle from the pastoral/ agro-
pastoral and mixed crop-livestock production system and to a limited extent on excess crossbred males, culled
cows and bulls from the dairy industry. The smallholder farmers who use old oxen with intensive or semi-
intensive cattle fattening are not appreciable. Shortage of feed, especially industrial by-products and feed
supplements is a major constraint.
3. Hararghe fattening systems: This system gives an excellent example of how to profitably fatten cattle
using forage and crop residues. This is one of the most recommended systems for Ethiopian highlands. The
main features of the system are farmers buy young oxen from the adjacent lowland pastoral areas, use them
for draft/ ploughing for some years (1 – 3 years), and then fatten and sell them before they become old and
lean/weak. The system is based on cut and carries feeding of individual neck tied up cattle. Grazing is rare
under this system. As farm sizes are small, farmers fatten oxen using crop thinning, weeds removed from
crops, leaves stripped from sorghum and maize plants and small amounts of pasture hay. Few concentrates or
supplements are used (for intensive feeding – up to 4 months), but oxen in excellent fat condition can be
consistently produced. These receive premium prices and are keenly sought in the local markets and even
exported by rail to Djibouti. The marketing system is well developed and ensures that there are always buyers
for fat oxen and traders bring in an adequate supply of young replacement stock from the low lands.
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 3.4. Feeding of Beef cattle
The level at which each nutrient is required by an animal depend on whether the animal is being fed for:
 maintenance
 maintenance + production
 maintenance + production + reproduction
Most nutrients can be fed in excess, but if any nutrient is not present in an adequate amount, the performance
of the animal will be limited.

Requirements for maintenance

- is the amount of feed that must be fed to keep an animal at a particular weight without any significant
change in body composition is that amount of feed needed to maintain essential body functions such as
respiration, heart rate, eating, keeping warm, etc.
- includes also the feed needed to replace the nutrients that are excreted daily from the body
- tissue of the body are constantly undergoing breakdown and repair, therefore nutrients are required to
replace this loss
Requirements for production
- are met after maintenance requirement
- are the amount of feed needed for growth, meat or milk production
- need large quantities of feed
Requirements for reproduction
- are very important in a cow-calf operation
- are the amount of feed needed above that for maintenance, for the cow to conceive and produce a healthy
fetus and calf.
Factors determining the level of nutrient requirement:

- breed - overall balance of nutrition

- age and sex - stress from the environments
- level of production - hormonal and physiological activities

3.4.1. Classes of nutrients

As feed represents by far the greatest cost items in beef production, it is important that there be a basic
understanding of the nutritive requirement.
Energy
* CHO (constitute about 75% DM of plant) are the chief source of energy in cattle feeds, Next to CHO, fats
are important as energy source.
* A relatively large portion of the feeds consumed by beef cattle is used in meeting the energy need for body
maintenance, for growth, finishing or reproduction.
* Finishing rations contain a considerable proportion of concentrated feeds, on the other hand, when the
energy requirements are primarily for maintenance, roughages are usually the most economical sources of
energy for beef cattle
Protein
*The protein allowance for beef cattle, regardless of age or system of production, should be ample fore place
the daily breakdown of the tissues of the body including the growth of hair, horn, and hoofs. In general, the
protein needs are greatest for the growth of the young calf and for the gestating-lactating cow.
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 * Depressed appetite is the primary symptoms of protein deficiency in beef cattle rations. It may in turn, lead
to an inadequate intake of energy; hence, protein deficiency and energy deficiency often occur together.
Minerals
They are essential for optimal animal health. Minerals are divided in to two parts regard to their use.
1. Major elements – include Ca, P, Mg, Na.
2. Trace elements - Cu, I, Mn, Se, & Zn.
Vitamins
Vitamin A – Good pasture contains adequate levels and grass silage and green hay contain high amount
Vitamin B – Rumen microbes usually synthesize enough B1 and B12 to meet the animals needs if the cobalt
supply is adequate and if anti-vitamin (such as, thiamine) are absent.
Vitamin D3 – Sunlight, interacting with the skin allows animals to synthesize their requirements of Vitamin
D3. A supplement is needed if sunlight is scarce or animals are housed.
Vitamin E- Good pasture usually contains adequate levels of Vitamin E. Wet cereals or grains, bleached hay,
straw, root crops and by products of the sugar industries can be low in Vitamin E.
* High levels of vitamin E reduce Mastitis incidence.

3.5.2. Feed stuffs: includes Roughages and Concentrate

Roughage feeds: Concentrate feeds
are feeds that are high in fiber and low in TDN are feeds that are low in fiber and high in TDN
contain above 18% CF when dry contain below 18% CF when dry
Concentrates includes grain feeds eg. corn, oats, barley, grain sorghum, wheat and supplement feeds
include protein feeds, minerals and vitamins
3.4.3. Feed additives: includes Antibiotics and Hormones
Antibiotics are chemical compounds, which are produced by microorganisms and has an effect on limiting the
growth or reproduction of another microorganisms. In other words, it is a compound synthesized by a living
organism, which inhibits the growth of another. There are different antibiotics utilized as feed additives
especially in poultry and swine diets. Example, penicillin (from bread mold), streptomycin, When antibiotics
are added to the ration of animals they improve feed utilization efficiency, growth rate, hatchability of eggs,
decline in health problems has been observed.
Hormones are produced by the animal body, which will have a positive effect on growth like sex hormones.
Therefore, certain synthetic or natural hormones could be added to the ration of animals to improve animal
performance. Natural hormones like androgen (testosterone), estrogen, growth hormone, progesterone
stimulate growth of animals.

Balancing ration for beef cattle

Feed costs are a major component of the total operating expense for most beef operations. By formulating and
feeding balanced rations, you can conserve feed dollars while allowing for the most efficient level of
production. Ration balancing depends on having accurate and reliable nutrient analyses of feedstuffs in
addition to knowing the animals’ nutrient requirements.

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There are several ways to balance daily nutrient intake with daily nutrient requirements. All of these methods
rely primarily on mathematical computations, which can be carried out by hand or with computer software.
However, in order to formulate a balanced ration, you first must know the animal’s nutrient requirements and
the nutrient composition of the feedstuffs to be included in the ration. Send samples of feedstuffs to a certified
analytical laboratory to determine nutrient composition. If this is not possible, ask your local Extension office
for average values. However, there is no substitute for a lab analysis of your particular feedstuff. Feedstuff
nutrient composition can be greatly influenced by stage of maturity, harvesting, processing, storage
conditions, etc.
Methods of ration balancing
The energy requirements for maintenance of beef cattle can be calculated a part from the fact that the
efficiency of use of energy for live weight gains is not as constant. Two basic information are however,
necessary for making such calculations.
1) Amount of energy stored for any particular level of metabolizable energy, which is available for production
2) Energy concentration of the diet
A variety of different methods may be used to formulate rations. This is because some may be more
appropriate in some situations than others. The three common methods are the trial and error or rule of
thumb method and the linear programming with computer and the Pearson square method.
Although the trial and error may be tedious and time consuming it may be the only alternative in many
situations. The important principle is to make adjustments on the feed allowance following closely the
animal's performance until you are satisfied on the results.
The basic purpose of the computer model is to strike a balance between animal's requirements and cost of the
ration. The mixtures from these models are called least cost rations.
If the ration to be formulated considers only one ingredient say protein. A Pearson square method can be
adopted.
Example. Assume we are asked to formulate a ration that contains 70grams of protein/kg by using cassava
(cp= 18g/kg) and a chosen seed cake (cp= 104 g/kg). Having drawn a square and put the protein values of the
two ingredients by the left hand side corners, the desired result is entered in the middle of the square
Two steps are involved to calculate the proportions of each ingredient
1. Calculate the difference between the desired protein and that of cassava (70-18). The resulting figure 52 is
placed in the opposite corner of cassava so as to appear in the same line as the second ingredient.
2. Calculate the difference between the desired protein and that of seed cake (i. e. 104-70). The resulting
figure 34 is paced in the opposite corner of seed cake (follow the arrows) so as to appear in the same line as
the first ingredient.
Calculating the mixture of two ingredients needed to make a ration:

Cassava Mixture to make: 34 parts (=104 -70)

Protein (g/kg) = 18
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70g/kg
Desired result
 Seed cake
Protein (g/kg) =104 52 parts (=70-18)

This method can be used when there is only one component of the ration (e.g. protein or energy being
considered). These results show that 34 parts of cassava and 52 parts of seed cake are required to produce the
desired final value of the ration. It is worth noting that the parts may be in any unit that one may choose to
use. One choosing to use kg (mixing 34 kg of cassava and 52 kg of the seed cake) will end with 86 kg of the
ration.
3.5. Reproduction in Beef Cattle// Reading Assignment j
Reproduction is the most economically important trait in beef cattle!
3.6. Beef Cattle and Beef Products Marketing
Ethiopia's marketing system is generally poor. While the lack of information and transportation facilities is
the main problems of domestic markets, livestock diseases and absence of well-equipped export market
organizations are the major constraints in the export market. The fact that cattle are not kept for the primary
purpose of producing marketable products, low market prices, the absence of incentives to fatten animals and
the importance of cattle as a sign of wealth and social status are also some of the factors important in the low
production and marketing of beef cattle.
The domestic demand for beef is very high during religions festivals, and export (illegal along the boarders of
the country) prices depend on export demand The majority of the cattle marketed in Ethiopia are mature
(more than four years of age) and intended primarily for slaughter. There are few immature cattle that are
marketed and they have considerable growth potential.
There are various possibilities for disposing beef cattle. These include:
1. Sale of the animal from a farm to a dealer or at a local livestock market
2. Transport to a city market for sale to a whole seller dealer
3. Slaughter at a municipal abattoir
4. Sale of carcass meat to a retail butcher through the wholesale meat market
5. Preparation and sale of retail cuts through a butchers shop
Age and weight at marketing: The age to dispose or marketing the animal depend entirely on the decision
and objective of the enterprises in question. For example, beef cattle slaughter starts from veal production at
the weight of 80 kg and age of 12 weeks old. This is specific and restricted to limited markets and
consideration in the profitability of the marketing system. The decision to dispose can go as high as 480 kg
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live weight to bull animal. On the other hand, the weight of the carcass is important in the beef industry as it
influences the quantity of the various tissues and overall value of the animal in terms of yield and money. The
weight also has an influence on the quality of the carcass because as the animal increase in weight, the
proportion of fat increases. Also heavier animals tend to produce greater weights and hence value of edible by
products which are very important in the tropics. The size of the muscles is also influenced by weight of the
animals.

Figure. Existing beef cattle sources and market channel of livestock trade in Ethiopia.

3.7. Managements of Beef Cattle

There are a number of routine management activities in beef cattle farming

a. Castration: is the removal of the testicles for a purpose of culling or fattening the male animal. Castration
of beef calves is normally done when the calf is two to four months old because at this stage of growth they
are small and easily handled.
b. Dehorning: is best done to claves at an age below three months by use of a cylindrical red-hot iron pressed
for two seconds on the rim of the horn bud. Dehorning of yearlings and adults is done by sawing horn tissue;
it is essential to cut away about 1 cm of skin around the base of the horn. The advantages of dehorning that it
reduces bruising in cattle and makes the animal docile. Dehorned animals require small spacing in yards than
horned animals. Methods used in dehorning: includes:

i) Use of chemicals like iii) Electrical dehorner

caustic soda iv) Use of special metal wire
ii) Hand saw
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 c. Identification: it is an essential part of management to the livestock keeper, breeders, researchers and
others who keep records on herd performance. Identification is done by marking which can be temporary or
permanent. Temporary marking can be for heat detection, disposal or treatment and others. This can be done
by dyes that persist for the required time or use of a hair bleach solutions for semi-permanent marking. The
most common methods of permanent making are branding, tattooing, notching and tagging.
i. Branding
In this method a number, letter or designs seared on the skin or on appendage using a hot iron, caustic soda, or
special irons for freeze branding. The suitably fashioned iron is heated to bright red and is applied to skin with
light pressure for not more than three seconds. The number should be sufficient big to see from a distant. Sits
of branding should on sites like the cheek, the forearm or the hind limb below the level of the stifle so that the
quality of the skin is not impaired.
ii) Tattooing
Tattooing is making permanent marks on the skin of animal by sue of special ink; this type of identification is
suitable for animals that are continuously handled. Special equipment for tattooing is required and the tattoo
imprints are most on the inner side of the ear or on the undersurface of the root of the tail.
iii) Notching
Notching is identification by making small V cuts on the ear of an animal. Notches can be easily read and is a
satisfactory way of identification but the disadvantage way of identification but the disadvantage of this
method is that it can easily be corrupted for theft. Notches in the ear can usually be made with a pair of
special pliers.
iv) Tagging
Tags are made of metal or plastic on which numbers are printed, tags are usually fixed on the ear of the
animal. Tags are ideal under intensive managerial conditions but not good for extensive situations.
Dipping and spraying: using of chemicals and some treatment to protect and cure some ticks, external and
internal parasites.
Age determination by dentition
Age is an important part of livestock trading as many markets have age limits. Counting the number of
permanent incisor teeth is the most common method of determining approximate age in live cattle. Two
sets of teeth develop in a cow during its lifetime i.e. a set of temporary or milk teeth that are replaced later by a
set of permanent teeth. When a cow is about 18 months of age it has a full set of temporary teeth, i.e. 20 teeth.
The numbers of teeth in a set are usually written in Dental formula for a full set of permanent teeth:

Teeth in one half of upper jaw I (0) C (0) P (6) M (0)

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 Teeth in one half of lower jaw I (4) C (0) P (6) M (0); i.e 16 x 2 =32
Where I=incisors, C=canines, =P=pre-molars and M=molars
When the animal has reached the age of about 1 year 9 months, the two broad teeth (permanent incisors) push
out and replace the first two milk teeth in the lower jaw.
At six-monthly intervals, the milk teeth on each side are shed and replaced by broad teeth. Thus, the age of the
cow can be assessed as follows:
 4 broad teeth means age about 2 years 3 months
 4 broad teeth well up means age about 2 years 6 months
 6 broad teeth means age about 2 years 9 months to 3 years
 8 broad teeth means age about 3 years 9 months to 4 years

3.8. Constraints of Beef Production

The beef industry in Ethiopia has got the chance that there is an ample that can be used for beef production
and there is a large population of cattle and there are local animals like Horro and Boran that have proved for
their best beef performance. However there are a number of constraints that limit the development of beef
industry.
The major technical constraints to livestock development are
 Animal nutrition
 Health
 Low genetic quality of most indigenous breeds of cattle
A. Feed Resources: (Animal nutrition)
In the lowland pastoral areas, avail label forage is deficient in quality and insufficient for the number of
grazing animals, particularly in the dry season. This situation is further aggravated by the low outtake of
livestock. In the mixed crop-livestock farming system of the highlands increasing population pressure and
demand for cropland has diminished areas for dropping and crop residues and agro-industrial by-products
become the major sources of feed although they are not adequately used.
B. Animal Health:
Livestock production is reduced by high incidence of diseases which cause losses directly from deaths,
reduced growth rate, high costs of control and poor quality and quantity of finished product. The control of
these diseases reduces returns a farmer can expect from beef production. The other effects of diseases are lack
of access to export markets and meat can be condemned due to tuberculosis. Generally a number of attractive
markets in the developed world don’t accept beef from our country due to the potential hazards of diseases.

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Many of the problems of parasites and other diseases in adapted local animals are being exacerbate, as un-
adapted exotic genotypes are used for crossbreeding to increase productivity. Health management
interventions and extension education approach is also lacking to improve the efficacy of vaccines.
Epidemiological information on the distribution of major beef cattle diseases and parasites, their seasonal
incidence, proportion of animals affected by age and sex, are not well documented of epidemiological data
which help in properly planning diseases control strategies.
C. Livestock production and productivity:
Although indigenous livestock in Ethiopia are well adapted to the local environment, their productivity is low,
first parturition in cattle occurs at about four years of age, calving interval at two years while carcass weight at
maturity is 110kg.
D. Sociological factors
These include the attitudes of the livestock keepers, which have little or no economic benefit except
prestigious and cultural inclinations. This includes keeping large herds for prestige without considering
productivity. Heavy payments for dowry encourage the keeping of large herds resulting into overgrazing
consequently degrading the land. Livestock keepers have an attitude of banking their wealth as live animals
consequently they are subject to different calamities of nature like deaths.
E. Marketing infrastructure
Proper and profitable marketing of products requires good marketing information on demand and supply
prices, movement of the produces to where the demand is and an organization for the producers so that they
control the market. The infrastructure to send the produce and to get market information is inadequate and
consequently there are losses in weight and live animals in trekking from producing to consuming areas.
F. Beef Cattle economics
Ethiopia’s first rank in African livestock population is a good indicator of its high potential from livestock
production. In spite of this potential, the supply of products from the sub-sector is highly in short of fulfilling
the ever-growing demand due to a number of bio-economic constraints. Adequate resource allocation,
provision of new technology to improve productivity, the existence of suitable institutions (research
extension, marketing credit, etc.) and the implementation of appropriate policies are some of the essential
conditions for the satisfactory progress in beef production. There has been limited research conducted in beef
production. As a result, there is little attempt done in analyzing the economic feasibility and on-farm
experimentation of technologies.
G. Beef Technology Transfer
The weakness of linkage between research and extension has been cited repeatedly as one of the major
constraints of under development of Ethiopian agriculture. This weakness became an issue of a great concern

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 in many of the agricultural for among policy makers, managers, researchers, extension workers and funding
organizations.
Research cannot be target oriented if it is not designed and implemented with the users of its outcome.
Unavailability of sound producer implement able packages in conjunction with the weakness of the existing
extension system, there has been little technology transferred to farmers.
H. Beef processing technology
Meat will continue to be a major food commodity and an essential component of the human diet despite the
high cost of production of meat animal and their lower efficiency of protein synthesis compared with plants.
In countries like Ethiopia, high ambient temperature and high humidity make it difficult or expensive to sore
and transport meat. Inadequate services such as water, electricity, and rods add to the problem of processing
and marketing problems of meat and meat by-products.
Other constraints to development of the sector include:
 Lack of rural infrastructure and services,
 Absence of approved livestock policy
 Inadequate specialist and skilled middle level staff
 Recurrent drought
Pre- requisites to the future development and success of beef industry in Ethiopia are the development efforts
on the following areas:
 Feed, nutrition and Beef cattle health
 Beef breeding and Beef cattle reproduction
 Beef husbandry and management
 Beef marketing / economics/ extension
 Production system
 Feed and water especially in arid and semi-arid areas

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