Department of Natural Resource Management

(From Department of Animal Science)

5. Introduction to Animal Production

5.1. History and domestication of animals
Domestication is the process of hereditary re-organization of wild animals and plants into domestic and cultivated
forms according to the interests of people. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of
wild animals and plants. The fundamental distinction of domesticated animals and plants from their wild ancestors
is that they are created by human labour to meet specific requirements and are adapted to the conditions of
continuous care and solicitude people maintain for them. The most numerous large mammals, apart from humans
are cows, sheep, goats, pigs, horses and dogs.

The earliest known evidence of a domesticated dog is a jawbone found in a cave in Iraq and dated to about 12,000
years ago. Selective breeding affects a species quite rapidly. The first animals known to have been domesticated
as a source of food are sheep in the Middle East. The proof is the high proportion of bones of one-year-old sheep
discarded in a settlement at Shanidar, in what is now northern Iraq. Goats follow soon after, and these two become
the standard animals of the nomadic pastoralists - tribes which move all year long with their flocks, guided by the
availability of fresh grass and water. Humans in western Asia may first have bred the ox. From about 4000 BC
oxen are harnessed and put to work. India and Southeast Asia use another version of the domesticated ox, well
adapted to hot wet conditions - the water buffalo. The pig is probably first domesticated in China.

A natural habitat of the wild horse is the steppes of central Asia. Some 5000 years ago, human’s first capture, tame
and breed the horse. The original purpose, as with cattle, is to acquire a reliable source of meat and subsequently
milk. The first domesticated horses are of a size, which we would describe as ponies. Horses of this kind were still
living in the wild in Mongolia until quite recent times. As beasts of burden and transport, camels occupy an
important place alongside horses and donkeys. In the very hot regions of north Africa and Asia two different
species of camel become the most important beasts of burden - the single-humped Arabian camel (in north Africa,
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the Middle East, India) and the double-humped Bactrian camel (central Asia, Mongolia). Both are well adapted to
desert conditions. They can derive water, when none is available elsewhere, from the fat stored in their humps. It
is probable that they are first domesticated in Arabia some time after 1500 BC. Jungle fowl of this kind are captured
and kept for their eggs and their flesh by about 2000 BC in Asia.

The first reason for herding sheep and goats, or keeping cattle and pigs in the village, is to secure a regular supply
of fresh meat. The herdsman, by contrast, has a living larder always to hand and a supply of dairy products as well.
These animals also provide for almost every other need of Neolithic man. While they are alive, they produce dung
to manure the crops. When they are dead leather and wool for garments; horn and bone for sharp points of needles
or arrows; fat for tallow candles; hooves for glue.

Summary on domestication of farm animals

No. Name of the Year of domestication Place of Domestication Purpose

animal
1 Dog 12000 years ago Southwest Asia-Iraq and hunting, shepherding, herding,
Iran companionship, meat
2 Sheep and Goat 10000 years ago Southwest Asia-Iran wool, meat*, milk*, leather,
vellum
3 Cattle (cow) 10000 years ago Western Asia meat, milk, leather, muscle, soil
fertilization
4 Ox 10000 years ago Western Asia meat, leather, soil fertilization,
draught power
5 Pig 9000 BC Central China meat, leather, companionship
6 Buffalo 5000 Years ago India Drought power, meat, milk
7 Horses 5000 years ago/3000BC Central Asia-Ukraine Transportation, meat & milk
8 Honey bee 4000 years ago Egypt honey, wax, pollination
9 Asses/Donkey 3000 BC Egypt transportation, muscle, meat
10 Chicken 2000 BC Central Asia meat, eggs and feathers
11 Camel 1500 BC Arabia meat, milk, transportation,
leather

5.2. Role of livestock production

The livestock species play very important economic, social and cultural roles or functions for rural households
once they contribute to improve income and wellbeing of the farm family. Livestock helps on:
 Food supply,  transport,
 Family nutrition (animal protein),  agricultural traction,
 Family income or cash income  agricultural diversification and sustainable
 Asset savings or savings accumulation agricultural production,
 Soil productivity (fertilizer)  family and community employment,
 Animal draught power,  ritual purposes and social status etc.

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As household income increases, the consumption of protein increases, principally from animal origin, allowing the
substitution of vegetal by animal protein. Besides milk, eggs and meat used as a source of food, other livestock
products are used for domestic consumption and local sale such as skins, hides and horns.
 Generally, livestock have the following purpose including milk, meat, fiber, transportation, leather, soil
fertilization, draught purpose, companionship, wool, vellum, fur etc.

This livestock asset could be seen as "bank account" and it is an important source of family saving that can be used
in years of low crop production, reducing income insecurity and household vulnerability, being an important source
of risk reduction and security increase. Livestock gives social status to its owners once it is considered a common
mean of demonstrating wealth and provides economic status as it facilitates the access to informal credits and loans
to the households. Livestock is also used in traditional rituals, ceremonies, festivities and is given as a gift in
worships (e.g. installation of ancestral spirits, ritual slaughter, and bride wealth). Then livestock contribute to the
sustainable livelihoods and security of more than 800 million poor smallholders as-
Natural Capital (meat, milk, wool, hide, rangeland, and pasture)
Financial Capital (cash, saving, credit, insurance, gifts, remittance); and
Social Capital (traditions, wealth, prestige, identity, respect, friendship, marriage dowry, festivity, human capital).

5.3. General role of livestock in Ethiopian Agriculture

In Ethiopia, agriculture is the main economic exchange to the country economy activity and more than 85% of
Ethiopian population is dependent on agriculture of which livestock plays a very important role. It is an integral
part of agriculture that contribution of live animals and their products to the agricultural economy accounts for
50%, including the values of draught power, manure and transport of people and products. Ethiopia is a home to
Africa largest livestock population. The recent livestock population of Ethiopia estimates that the country has about
57 million heads of cattle, 29.2 million sheep, 29.6 million goats and 56.5 million poultry.

- It is the source of many social and economic values such as food (meat, milk, eggs, honey, cheese, butter etc.),
draught power (for cultivation, threshing, transportation etc.), fuel, cash income, security, investment in both the
highlands and lowlands/pastoral farming systems and social prestige.
- On the other hand, livestock serve as a source of foreign exchange to the Ethiopian economy and contributes to
15% and 39% of the total and agricultural GDP, respectively and accounts for 12-15% of the total export
earnings.
- Livestock perform a multiple functions in the Ethiopian economy by providing inputs for crop production and
soil fertility management, raw material for industry, promoting saving, social function and employment.
- In the highlands oxen provided draught power in crop production. In addition, dairy production plays significant
role as a source of additional income to the farming community through sale of raw milk, processed milk
products and live animals.
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 - Therefore, policy makers, development agents, farm households and experts should encourage the livestock
sector to bring the required output from the sector.

5.4. Livestock Nutrition

The livestock industry is one of the largest and most influential industries on the planet. With millions of farms
and billions of animals worldwide, its ultimate goal is to “manage production for optimal yields to ensure economic
viability and to supply sufficient volumes to feed large populations”. The health of large animal groups directly
correlates with the operational stability and overall profitability of a farming operation. Every livestock operation
has unique characteristics that lead to distinct livestock nutrition requirements. Because of this, it is essential to
review the ingredients of livestock feed to understand the nutritional effect it will have on different types of
animals. The level at which each nutrient is required by an animal depend on whether the animal is being fed for:
 Maintenance
 maintenance + production
 maintenance + production + reproduction
Requirements for maintenance
- is the amount of feed that must be fed to keep an animal at a particular weight without any significant change in
body composition or it is that amount of feed needed to maintain essential body functions such as respiration, heart
rate, eating, keeping warm, etc.
- includes also the feed needed to replace the nutrients that are excreted daily from the body
- tissue of the body are constantly undergoing breakdown and repair, and nutrients are required to replace this loss.
Requirements for production
- are met after maintenance requirement
- are the amount of feed needed for growth, meat or milk production
- need large quantities of feed
Requirements for reproduction
- the amount of feed needed above maintenance, for the cow to conceive and produce a healthy fetus and calf.
- are very important in a cow-calf operation
Factors determining the level of nutrient requirement:
- breed - overall balance of nutrition
- age and sex - stress from the environments
- level of production - hormonal and physiological activities
However, in order to formulate a balanced ration, you first must know the animal’s nutrient requirements and the
nutrient composition of the feedstuffs to be included in the ration.

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 Feed stuffs: includes Roughages and Concentrate

Roughage feeds Concentrate feeds

 are feeds that are high in fiber and low in TDN  are feeds that are low in fiber and high in TDN
 contain above 18% CF when dry  contain below 18% CF when dry
Livestock nutrition is primarily concerned with six different food groups, all of which serve a specific purpose in
maintaining livestock health, weight and product viability:

Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and provide energy to animals.
Proteins contain nitrogen that supplies rumen microorganism requirements and provides another source of energy
to animals. The protein allowance should be ample fore place the daily breakdown of the tissues of the body
including the growth of hair, horn, and hoofs. In general, the protein needs are greatest for the growth of the young
calf, gestating and lactating cow.
Fats have a higher ratio of calories per unit of weight than carbohydrates and sugars can increase energy density
in feed portions
Water is a basic requirement for all animals to survive and thrive
Vitamins are organic nutrients that increase an animal’s resistance to diseases while also help maintain body
functions
Minerals are inorganic elements that aid in maintaining health, and supporting growth and reproduction. They are
essential for optimal animal health. Minerals are divided in to two parts regard to their use.
1. Major elements – include Ca, P, Mg, Na.
2. Trace elements - Cu, I, Mn & Zn.

5.5. Constraints to livestock production and productivity

The livestock industry in Ethiopia has got the chance that there is an ample production of beef, dairy, mutton and
chevon as the country have a large population of cattle, sheep and goat. However, there are a number of constraints
that limit the development of the industry includes:
1. Shortage of animal fodder and nutrition

2. Shortage of better health services and facilities

3. Absence of good livestock management and policy

4. Absences of sufficient and good animal breeds

A. Feed Resources (Animal nutrition): In the lowland pastoral areas, avail label forage is deficient in quality and
quantity for the number of grazing animals particularly in the dry season. In the mixed crop-livestock farming
system of the highlands increasing population pressure and demand for cropland, diminished areas for crop residues
and agro-industrial by-products become the major sources of feed although they are not adequately used.

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 B. Animal Health: Livestock production is reduced by high incidence of diseases, which cause losses directly from
deaths, reduced growth rate, high costs of control, poor quality and quantity of finished product. The other effects
of diseases are lack of access to export markets and animal product and by product can be condemned due to those
parasite & bacteria. Many of the problems of parasites and other diseases in adapted local animals are being
exacerbate, as un-adapted exotic genotypes are used for crossbreeding to increase productivity. Health management
interventions and extension education approach is also lacking to improve the efficacy of vaccines. Epidemiological
information on the distribution of major cattle diseases and parasites, their seasonal incidence, proportion of animals
affected by age and sex, are not well documented which help in properly planning diseases control strategies.
C. Livestock production and productivity: Although indigenous livestock in Ethiopia are well adapted to the
local environment, their productivity is low, first parturition in cattle occurs at about four years of age, calving
interval at two years while carcass weight at maturity is 110kg.
D. Sociological factors: These include the attitudes of the livestock keepers, which have little or no economic
benefit except prestigious and cultural inclinations. This includes keeping large herds for prestige without
considering productivity. Heavy payments for dowry encourage the keeping of large herds resulting into
overgrazing consequently degrading the land. Livestock keepers have an attitude of banking their wealth as live
animals consequently they are subject to different calamities of nature like deaths.
E. Marketing infrastructure: Proper and profitable marketing of products requires good information on demand
and supply prices, movement of the produces to where the demand is and an organization for the producers so that
they control the market. The infrastructure to send the produce and to get market information is inadequate and
consequently there are losses in weight and live animals in trekking from producing to consuming areas.
F. Technology Transfer: The weakness of linkage between research and extension has been cited repeatedly as
one of the major constraints of under development of Ethiopian agriculture. This weakness became an issue of a
great concern in many of the agricultural for among policy makers, managers, researchers, extension workers and
funding organizations.
Other constraints to development of the sector include:
 Lack of rural infrastructure and services,
 Absence of approved livestock policy
 Inadequate specialist and skilled middle level staff
 Recurrent drought
*Pre-requisites to the future development and success of livestock industry in Ethiopia includes making effort on
the following areas:
 Livestock breeding
 livestock husbandry and management
 livestock marketing
 Production system
 Feed and water especially in arid and semi-arid areas
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 5.6. Livestock improvement

Livestock farming is very important in Africa, Asia and the pacific region as a source of livelihood for resource
poor farmers’ provision of food and food products and as a source of income. However, livestock productivity in
many countries is below their genetic potential because of inadequate and imbalanced feeds and feeding, poor
reproductive management and animal diseases aggravate by lack of effective support services, such as animal
husbandry extension, artificial insemination (AI) and/or veterinary services.
 Productivity of the animals is restricted by imbalanced feed e.g. low nitrogen (N) and high fiber content of the
native grasses and crop residues which is exacerbated by the seasonal availability of the feed resources.
 Upgrading of local animals has been undertaken through national cattle breeding programmes, but there is
often a lack of knowledge and lack of procedures to ensure optimum use of the improved offspring from such
programmes.
 Selective breeding has long been used by farmers to improve the quality/potential of livestock. It is the process
of breeding animals for particular physical characteristics, known as phenotypic traits, such as high quality
meat, disease resistance, growth rate, calving interval, increased milk yield and others.
 These traits have a genetic component but are also influenced by environmental factors. The larger the genetic
component of a trait, the higher the chance that desirable characteristics will be passed on from parent to
offspring.
 To meet the ever-increasing human population and their demand, the livestock industry will have to produce
more meat, fish, eggs and dairy products using fewer resources, while protecting animal welfare and reducing
the impact on the environment is the other concern.
 Key challenges for improving livestock includes improving production and efficiency by decreasing the impact
on the environment. Immediate goals for livestock production are similar across sectors, and include:
improving feed efficiency;
improving animal health and welfare;
decreasing the environmental impact of livestock
Modern technologies have also played a role in improving productivity and efficiency in the livestock sector.
Artificial Insemination (AI), semen sexing in the dairy industry, cloning, embryo transfer and cryopreservation is
some of the technologies that improve livestock sector.

6. Livestock Production systems

Criteria used for the classification of livestock production systems are:

– Spatial characteristics of the production system (or land use intensity e.g. extensive, semi-intensive and intensive)
– Economic objective of the cattle owner (e. g. subsistence, semi-subsistence, semi-commercial or commercial)
– Geographical considerations (highland, midland and lowland)
– The type of crop or animal (e.g. Coffee based semi-intensive cattle production system)
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– Production objectives (such as milk, meat, fiber, wool or draught)
In general, cattle production systems are classified based on land requirement, investment capital (labor, feed and
medication), level of technical inputs/use of improved inputs/services/technologies and improved management as
below,

6.1 Extensive production systems

Extensive farming agriculture (as opposed to intensive farming) is an agricultural production system that uses small inputs of
labour, fertilizers and capital relative to the land area being used.
 Extensive production system is characterized by less controlled production factors and is generally termed as
traditional system of production.
 This production system is practiced in most rural areas of the country and objectives of production are for
household consumption and as source of additional income for the household.
 It is not profitable since it is not market oriented. It contains small flock size per household which is
indigenous breed types mostly depend on locally available feed material as supplement with low health
services and other management practices.
 Under this system, there are further sub divisions such as pastoralism, ranching and mixed agriculture (Crop-
Livestock) production systems.
Pastoralism (pastoral production system): It is subsistence system based primarily on domesticated animal
production (meat, milk, hide, skin) in large area of land important contributor milk, beef, sheep and goat to the
country. Pastoral systems are mainly found in the arid and semi-arid zones (with rainfall less than 600 mm per
annum) of West and East Africa. It is a system of low lands where shortage of rainfall is common where milk is the
major product. The term "subsisting" is intended to exclude those who raise animals strictly for exchange value
rather than direct consumption. This is practiced due to the insufficiency of resources especially forage and water;
and due to temporary occupation of the land with crops; and also due to swarming insects, parasites and diseases in
the area.
There are three different forms of pastoralism, which are:
Nomadism: this is non-cyclical (non-seasonal) movement of people with their animals from place to place with
encampments in vast territories, regulated by the customs or the force.
Transhumance: this is seasonal movement of people with their animals synchronizing with the rainfall regime in
order to use the temporary forage and water resources in the high lands.
Sedentary Agriculture: this is characterized by daily movement of certain animal units to certain distance from
the center habitation of the group.
Ranching: is the practice of raising herds of animals on large tracts of land. Ranching systems consist of labour-
extensive enterprises specializing in one or more livestock species and producing mainly live animals for slaughter
(for meat, skins and hides), but also for wool and milk. Management is characterized by grazing within the fixed
boundaries that delimit tenure. Ranches are generally commercial enterprises, with generation of a cash income as
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the primary function of the livestock raised on them. In addition to its management and production objectives,
ranching differs from traditional pastoralism in:
 supporting fewer people per land area, since tenure is generally individual (although not necessarily private),
 providing options for intensifying water and feed supplies. Ranching may take any of the following forms:
o cattle ranching for meat (the most common type),
o dairy ranching,
o sheep and/or goat ranching for wool, meat and skins (e.g. the Karakul breed of sheep)
Ranching systems can either hold both breeding and growing stock or specialize in rearing/fattening animals,
according to environmental and economic conditions. Although found in all the zones of sub-Saharan Africa,
ranching systems are commonest in the arid and semi-arid zones of East and southern Africa and occur only
sporadically in the drier parts of West and Central Africa. A few ranches are also found in the highlands. Ranches
generally exhibit improved herd, pasture and water management. Records are kept, herding patterns are closely
adapted to the needs of different animal groups, and more external inputs are used (labour, purchased feed, inputs
for animal health, etc.). Ranchers commonly raise grazing animals such as cattle and sheep. Ranching is common
in temperate, dry areas, such as the Pampas region of South America, the western United States,
Advantages of extensive system
 animals are healthy since they exercise in the open air freely
 there is minimal infection with parasites if enough space is available,
 Less labour per unit area required.
 Animal welfare is generally improved, since the animals are not kept in stifling and squalid conditions.
 Little damage to the local environment and soils usually caused by overuse of chemicals in intensive
farming
Disadvantages of extensive system
 Difficult to control and manage the animal especially the young are easily exposed for predators and
unfavorable weather conditions
 Yields tend to be much lower, growth late slower, time to maturity much longer.
 Animals may damage field crop when looking for feed,
 High diseases transmission and occurrence of high death,
 Less productive

6.2 Semi- intensive Production systems

The system is characterized by relatively small size of holdings, a mixture of subsistence, semi-subsistence and
cash economies, and emphasis is being placed on their use for milk production in many countries, particularly in
the Indian subcontinent, the use of old working cattle and culled milking cows for meat production.
Crop-Livestock Production: It is also subdivided in to cereal and perennial crop livestock production system of
the highland area. It is one in which temporary pastures are rotated with crops, while livestock utilize the pastures
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and crop by-products (called lay farming). Pastures are usually grazed for 3-5 years and then ploughed, and the
land being cropped for 3-5 years before bring re-sown to pasture species. Theoretically, this is an excellent system
for the tropics as it helps to prevent soil erosion, maintains fertility and produces a variety of cash crops and livestock
feeds. Integration of livestock and crop production is the realization that crop/livestock integrated systems can
improve productivity per unit area of land.
It has a small house which accommodate feeds and other materials which serves as house for night time. The fence
can be made from mesh wire or other materials and will not allow the animal to escape above on it.
Advantages of semi-intensive production system
 Requires far less land than the extensive system
 Does not require expensive equipment
 Complete control over operations such as useful for record purposes, operational throughout the year,
economic use of land
 Suitable for commercial production (unlike the previous system)
 Animals and their product can be protected against thieves and predators
Disadvantages of semi-intensive production system
 Requires considerable amount of fencing and more elaborate house than extensive system
 Danger of over stocking and exposure for different disease if the barn is not clean and dry
 Possible buildup of parasites and disease germs in the pasture (mortality increases)

6.3 Intensive production systems

This type of production system use more inputs (feeds and feeding, breed, health, housing and other inputs) than
the above two production systems. It is market oriented and the main objective of production is to get better profit.
The number of livestock involved are relatively high. The breeds used is specialized improved breeds. They should
provide the expected product within that time.
Advantage Intensive production system
 land requirement is minimum,
 proper control of diseases and predators,
 good record keeping and high production
 scientific feeding and management,
 high degree of supervision and minimum labour,
 automation is possible and manure value is increased
Disadvantage of Intensive production system
 Require high capital investment,
 problem of diseases outbreak especially in poultry house
 greater chance of worm and tick infestation

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7. Poultry Production and Management
Definition: the word poultry refers to all birds kept for the production of eggs and meat for human consumption.
Examples of poultry species Domestic fowl, Turkeys Ducks, Geese, guinea fowls and other domesticated birds
and economically important species: Domestic fowl (90%), ducks and turkeys.
Poultry science: poultry science deals with the study of principles and practices concerning production,
processing and marketing of poultry and its products. Generally, it deals with management of birds.

Based on purpose of keeping or utility chickens are classified into three groups:-
i. Egg type: - Those breeds of birds that are selected for producing high number of eggs. E.g. White Leghorn
ii. Meat type: - Those breeds of birds that have the capacity to fatten with in short period of time E.g. Broiler
can reach 2 kg with in 60 days (8 weeks) Eg. Sussex, Brahma,
iii. Dual purpose type:- Those breeds which are used for both egg and meat. E.g. Rhode Island Red, New
Hampshire.

7.1. Poultry production systems in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, chickens are the most widespread and almost every rural family owns chickens, which provide a
valuable source of family protein and income. The total chicken population in the country is estimated to be 56.5
million with native chicken representing 96.9%, hybrid chicken 0.54% and exotic breeds 2.56%.
 The most dominant chicken types reared in Ethiopia are local ecotypes, and the economic contribution of the
sector is not still proportional to the huge chicken numbers.
 The chicken production system in Ethiopia has characterized by less market oriented, low input, scavenging
and traditional management system consisting of local breeds.
 The indigenous birds are small in body size and low producers of meat and egg. For example, the productivity
of scavenging hens is 40-60 small-sized eggs/bird/year (average 38 g), while the carcass at 6 months of age
is about 0.5 kg from a live bird of about 1.5kg.
 Low productivity is also due to low hatchability at about 70% and high mortality. Estimated 40-60% of chicks
die during their first eight weeks mainly due to disease and predators.

*Level of poultry (chicken) production systems in Ethiopia: These are free-range production system, semi-
intensive production system and intensive production system.

7.2 Importance of chicken production

Chicken production and consumption provide different functions for the producer as compared to the other
livestock production. Among the different functions, the following are the main ones:

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a. Immediate source of cash income and create job employment: The demand for poultry meat and eggs is
permanent. Eggs are also collected every day and income obtained from sale of eggs comes every week. So in one
obtained is continuous (distributed through out the year). Poultry provide jobs to all categories of people.
b. Poultry meat and egg are essential foods (used for source food): Meat of chicken is higher in protein content
than beef and other meat (like mutton). Poultry meat contains less fat and is highly digestible and palatable. Eggs
are natural, complete and balanced food which contains all nutrients in the correct proportion. Egg is also contain
vitamin especially vitamin A, D, E, K which is fat soluble vitamin, minerals like Iron and some energy.
c. Requires low initial capital investment, small land and low labour input: The land requirement is always
less than the requirement of other farms.
d. By-products of poultry have industrial usage: Fertile eggs are used for preparation of vaccine and albumen
part of egg is used for parametrical use (medicine). The eggs also can be used for paints, adhesive, glue (gums) for
leather tanning, for preparation of cake and soaps since used as additive.

7.1. Poultry Reproduction

The avian reproductive system is designed to accommodate the risks associated with being a bird.
Another reproductive strategy of birds is to produce offspring that develop outside the mother's body in
eggs. All the nutrients needed for an embryo to fully develop are provided in the egg before it is laid. It
is for this reason that eggs are so nutritious for humans. Poultry lay eggs in clutches. A clutch is a group
of eggs laid by a hen on consecutive days. The reproductive system of a male chicken, or rooster, includes
testicles that produce the sperm and seminal fluid necessary for reproduction. In this system, the vas
deferens carries the seminal fluid and sperm cells to the cloaca. The cloaca is an enlarged part where the
large intestine joins the end of the alimentary canal. The alimentary canal is the food-carrying passage
that begins at the mouth and ends at the vent. The papilla is the organ in the wall of the cloaca that puts
the sperm cells into the hen’s reproductive tract.
The reproductive system of a chicken hen is made up of two parts: the ovary and the oviduct. Ova
(yolks) develop in the ovary. When an ovum (singular of ova) has matured, it is released from the ovary
into the oviduct. This release of the ovum is ovulation. In the oviduct, glands secrete substances that
form other parts of the egg, such as the albumen (egg white) and the shell. The total time a hen's body
takes to transform a yolk into a fully developed egg and lay that egg is about 25 to 26 hours. Typically,
about 30 to 75 minutes after a hen lays an egg, the ovary releases the next ovum.

Parts of the Female Chicken Reproductive System

As stated, the female chicken reproductive system is made up of the ovary and the oviduct. In almost all
species of birds, including poultry, only the left ovary and oviduct are functional. Although the female
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embryo has two ovaries, only the left one develops. The right one typically regresses during development
and is nonfunctional in the adult bird.

Fig. 1. Location of the reproductive tract in a female chicken and reproductive track in female chicken

Ovary
The ovary is a cluster of developing ova, and is located midway between the neck and the tail of the bird
and attached at the back. At hatch, a pullet chick has tens of thousands of ova, or potential eggs that
theoretically could be laid, although most never develop to the point of ovulation. The maximum number
of eggs a hen can lay is determined when it hatches because no new ova form after the chick hatches.
Each ovum starts as a single cell surrounded by a vitelline membrane. As the ovum develops, additional
yolk forms. The color of the yolk comes from fat-soluble pigments, called xanthophylls, contained in
the hen's diet. Hens fed diets with yellow maize (field corn) or allowed to range on grass typically
produce eggs with dark yellow yolks. The ovum is enclosed in a sac that ruptures along the stigma, or
suture line, during ovulation.

Oviduct
When ovulation occurs, the ovum (yolk) enters the oviduct. The oviduct is a twisted tube that is 25 to
27 inches long when fully developed and is divided into five major sections. These sections are the
infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, shell gland, and vagina. The first part of the oviduct, the infundibulum

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 (or funnel) is 3 to 4 inches long and engulfs the ovum released from the ovary. Instead, the released yolk
stays in place, and the muscular infundibulum moves to surround it. The yolk remains in the
infundibulum for 15 to 17 minutes. Fertilization takes place in the infundibulum. The next section of the
oviduct is the magnum. It is the largest section of the oviduct, as its name implies (magnum being the
Latin word for "large"). The yolk remains here 3 hours, during which time the thick albumen (egg
white) forms. The third section of the oviduct is the isthmus. The isthmus is where the inner and outer
shell membranes form. The developing egg remains here for 75 minutes. The next section of the oviduct
is the shell gland (uterus). In this section, the shell forms on the egg. The shell largely is made of
calcium carbonate. The hen's body mobilizes 8 to 10 percent of body calcium from its bones to make the
egg's shell. Bone calcium provides 47 percent of the calcium required to make a shell, and the hen's diet
provides the remainder. Pigment deposition, if there is any, occurs in the shell gland. The egg remains
here for 20 or more hours. The last part of the oviduct is the vagina. The vagina does not really play a
part in egg formation but is important in the laying of the egg. The vagina is made of muscle that helps
push the egg out of the hen's body. The bloom (cuticle) forms on the egg in the vagina which is the
natural coating or covering on the eggshell that seals the eggshell pores. It helps to prevent bacteria from
getting inside the shell and reduces moisture loss from the egg. The egg travels through the oviduct small
end first but turns in the vagina and comes out large end first.

7.2. Reproductive Differences of Poultry from Other Livestock

Reproduction in poultry differs from reproduction in mammals, yet the differences are small. The
reproductive system of a rooster includes testicles housed inside the body cavity instead of inside a
scrotum. Other important parts of the male reproductive system are the vas deferens, the cloaca, the
papilla. The female reproductive system houses two ovaries and two oviducts, but only the left ovary and
oviduct produce eggs. The oviduct of the hen is composed of the funnel, the isthmus, the magnum, the
uterus, and the vagina.

Reproduction in Poultry Reproduction other livestock

- Embryo of poultry develops inside the egg -Embryo develops inside the female’s body
-poultry only have left ovary and oviduct when mature - other livestock have both right and left ovary and oviduct
-chicken incubation is 21 days -gestation period of other livestock is more than 3 month
-male testis is located inside the body -male testis is outside the body or in the scrotum

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7.3 Incubation and hatchery operation

There are two methods of chick brooding. These are natural and artificial brooding.

1. Natural incubation (using broody hen): Incubation of eggs with the use of broody hens which is capable of
hatching 8-12 eggs at the same time with hatchability up to 80% and more economic than artificial incubators, as
they only need to be given feed and water.
Local breeds of poultry are good incubators and good mothers. However, modern breeds of poultry are selected
for egg production or are selected against broodiness.
A hen sitting on eggs will provide exactly the right temperature, humidity and ventilation for the eggs to develop
well.
Broody hens have the following signs of broodiness: produce broody sound; her comb shrivels up; she occupies
her nest and refusing to leave it and she may try to gather other eggs from neighboring nests and pushing them
into her own, and if this behavior lasts for two days you can assume that the hen is ready for brooding.
She should not leave the nest for more than about 15 minutes.
She will often stand up and shift or turn the eggs. This is because the eggs need to be moved about, as the best
and warmest place is in the middle under the hen.

2. Artificial incubation methods: The incubators imitate a hen’s natural brooding abilities by providing an
artificial micro-climate with the proper temperature, humidity, and ventilation, as well as by allowing the eggs to
be turned regularly. It involves the use of an artificial incubator. Incubator has different parts such as heater,
ventilation openings, water container, egg trays, and fans. An incubator is basically a box that holds eggs while
maintaining appropriate environmental conditions. Hatcheries are specialized facilities that receive fertilized eggs
from poultry breeder operations and care for them through storage, incubation and hatching. Egg must store and
incubate them carefully for a successful hatch and environmental conditions, handling, and sanitation are all
important factors when it comes to incubating and hatching eggs. It is best to incubate eggs within 7 to 10 days of
their being laid. Hatchability decreases rapidly when eggs are stored for more than 10 days.

Physical conditions Necessary for incubation: The hatchability of eggs depends on:
1. Temperature: To develop healthy embryo the optimum incubation temperature is found between 37.0-38.0°C,
which is temperature of hen. When temperature high embryos will begin to develop abnormally, weaken, and die.
2. Relative humidity levels: The relative humidity in the incubator between setting and three days prior to hatching
should remain at 58-60%, when hatching, the humidity is increased to 65% relative humidity or more. High
humidity can cause condensation to form on the eggshell that clogging the pores can suffocate the embryo. Low
humidity during storage can make the egg lose internal moisture and kill the embryo.

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3. Ventilation: Gas exchange during incubation plays a fundamental role in the development and viability of the
embryo, hatch results, growth and physiology of the chick. While the embryo is developing, oxygen enters the egg
through the shell and carbon dioxide escapes in the same manner.
4. Orientation and turning of eggs during incubation: Set the eggs in the incubator with the large end up or
horizontally with the large end slightly elevated. This enables the developing embryo orients the head toward the
air cell, which is in the large end of the egg. If eggs set with the small end upward, a chick’s head can orient away
from the air cell of the egg and not hatch. Turning keeps the embryo centered in the egg and prevents it from
sticking to the shell membrane prevents embryo death and unhealthy hatches. Eggs must be turned at least five
times every 24 hours. Do not turn eggs during the last three days before hatching.

7.4 Poultry houses

Housing is essential to protect against predators, thieves, and rough weather (rain, sun, very cold winds, dropping
night temperatures). Preconditions to be considered before chicken house construction:-
i. The site should not be swampy
ii. The soil should be water absorbent
iii. The site should have access to transport, water, electricity and other infrastructures
iv. It should be far from homesteads
v. It is preferable where there is trees in the surrounding which serve as wind break and as a shade
vi. The site should be good for future expansion
Even though there are different types of chicken house around the world, the following are the main types.
1. All side open chicken house
2. One side open chicken house
3. All side closed chicken house

5.3. Poultry management

Poultry management is the art and science of combing resources, capital and labour to produce and market poultry
meat and eggs. It also includes the profitability of the farm.

Brooder management: Newly hatched chicks need a source of heat that will prevent their body temperature from
falling too low, because chicks do not have feathers; therefore, they cannot maintain body temperature till the
feathers grow. Body temperature of chicken is 42°C which is more than that of other animals and humans (37.8°C).
To maintain the chickens’ heat, brooder is use as heat source for the period of growth of chicks from 0 day (Day
old) to 4 weeks and after 5 week they maintain their body temperature. Under natural brooding mother hen will
ensure that they are kept warm by protect them against the cold. However, in artificial brooding, heat sources for
chicks are brooders/Heaters. Distribution of chicks around and under the brooder indicates status of heat
conditions. Accordingly, when the temperature is too cold, the chicks chirp sharply and huddle together under the
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brooder. If the chicks move away from the brooder, pant, and are drowsy, the temperature is too warm. Feed placed
on a few feeder lids under each brooder encourages the chicks to start eating sooner.

Grower management: Growers are chickens at the age of 8-18 weeks for egg type of chickens and broiler parent.
Grower chickens need good quality food, even better than that of the hens. If the weather is good and the place is
safe from predators like rats, large birds and dogs, it might be a good idea to let them pick at some vegetation in
addition to their normal concentrated feed. Protein is needed for growth, keeping up a good health status, for
maintenance, production, to grow feather, etc. Protein source feeds are obtained from both animal origin (grounded
blood, grounded meat and bone, and fish by product such as fish meal) and plant origin (oil crop by products
(contain high fat and protein nutrients), oil factory by products such as cakes). Major energy source feeds include
cereal grains such as maize, sorghum, rice, wheat, barley, finger millet, industrial/cereal by products such as wheat
bran and wheat middling.

Layer management: Layers are these poultry between the age of 20-80 weeks and lay eggs during this time. The
intake of dietary energy by laying hens is related to their rate of egg production. Laying hens consume 20% more
food on egg forming days than days when eggs are not formed. Laying hens should have easy access to calcium
rich food that may be supplemented by calcium-rich sources such as crushed snail or egg shells. Provide nests in
the hen house for laying makes it easier to collect eggs and they can be kept clean. Nests should be placed inside
the chicken house and preferably above the ground. A nest box will typically measure 30 x 30 x 30 cm. The laying
nest prepared by this size is enough for 5 layers. It is advisable to place the laying nests in the dark part of the
house to prevent exposure to the sun.

Broilers management: Broilers are chickens that are raised (reared) for meat production. If the broilers become
too hot or chilled, growth will be retarded. If the heat is above the optimum then broilers the broilers try to lose
more heat through panting. Provide all-night light for broilers. Making light (natural and artificial) available 24
hours a day allows broilers access to feed at all times and increases their body weight. It is absolutely essential that
broilers be fed a high-quality broiler feed containing at least 20 percent protein. Broilers must have access to clean,
fresh water at all times. Good sanitation program prevents parasite problems. Remove the litter after each flock of
broilers. The beak of broilers should be trimmed (removed) 1/3 of the top beak and a small part of the bottom at
6-8 days old usually by mechanically operated blade. Beak trimming is used to reduce the incidence of serious
physical injuries or cannibalism.

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8. Apiculture
Apis is Latin word for bee and culture means cultivation or keeping, and therefore apiculture is the science and
practice of bee keeping.

8.1 Beekeeping in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is home to some of the most diverse flora and fauna in Africa. Its forest and woodlands contain diverse
plant species that provide surplus nectar and pollen to foraging bees. Ethiopia, having the highest number of bee
colonies and surplus honey sources of flora, is the leading producer of honey and beeswax in Africa. Ethiopia
produces about 60,000 metric tons of crude honey per year, thus shares 23.5% of Africa and 2.5% of world's
honey production. This makes the country rank 1st in Africa and 10th in the world. Honey and beeswax play a big
role in the cultural and religious life of the people of Ethiopia. Another very important contribution of beekeeping
is through plant pollination and conservation of the natural environment. Beekeeping is environmentally
sustainable activity that can be integrated with agricultural practices like crop production, animal husbandry,
horticultural crops and conservation of natural resources.
Why we need to beekeeping?
 It helps for pollination  It requires little land or it is exclusively
 It does not compete with other non land activity, So land less farmers
agricultural activities for resources can practice beekeeping
 It requires low investment  It requires low technological inputs
 It can be done by any age and sex  The products are not perishable if kept
 It serves as source of supplementary properly
food  It creates job opportunity
 It is source of income
8.2 Types of bee castes
Bees that produce enough honey to make harvesting worthwhile belong to two sub- families honeybees (Apinae)
& stingless bees (Meliponinae). The three (3) castes (see the picture below) in a honeybee colony each member
have their own specialization for particular function and differs in morphology, physiology and behaviour.

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(1) The queen: is a fully fertile female specialized for producing eggs. The queen affects the colony by producing
chemicals called “Pheromones” that regulate the behaviours of other bees. She is the mother of all other
individuals in the colony. A queen honeybee is readily distinguished from both worker and drones. Her curved
sting used only in battles against the rivals queen (when there is more than one queen in the colony). Her movement
is slow under normal condition. Queen has well developed spermatheca, which holds sperm from drone.
(2) The worker bees: are reproductively underdeveloped females that do all the work of the colony. A colony
may have 50,000 - 80,000 worker bees. The only difference between workers and queen is the quality of the larvae
diet i.e. a special food called “Royal jelly”. They are female honeybees and obtained from fertilized eggs. As their
name implies, the workers perform almost all the tasks in the colony, only reproduction that is beyond their task.
The activities that worker honeybees perform are related with their age.
1. Nurse Bees / House bees/: are those workers bees who spent most of their time by performing activities inside
the hive. This starts from the first day of emergency up to 21 days. Body cleaning, cleaning nest, brood feeding,
Comb construction, Queen Tending /Taking attention for queen/, cell capping and colony defence. Defensive
mechanisms includes stinging. E.g. Man, cattle; biting with their mandibles. E.g. Ants. fanning their wings. E.g.
ants; kicking with legs. E.g. Ants
2. Forager bees/Field bees: Forager bees are those worker honeybees, which perform their activities outside the
hive. This high labour has an effect on their age and the age of worker honeybees is shorter than queen and drone.
The maximum age of worker bees is 42 days. But they can live up to 60-90 days even up to 10 months (these are
exceptions). The age of worker bees is determined by the activities they perform.
(3) The Drones: -are male honeybees, which are bigger than the workers but not as big as the queen. Produced
from unfertilized eggs. Exists only to mate queen. Performs no works for the colony and is feed by the worker.
Drone mate only once in his life time and die soon since much of endophallus break off from drone is left in the
queen during copulation.

8.3 Beekeeping systems

There are three different types’ beehives i.e., Traditional, transitional and Modern hive.
Traditional (local) hive: are hives made from locally available materials. Traditional hive is one of the oldest
and primitive hives in the history of beekeeping. It is not clearly known where and when it was started. However,
traditional bee keeping is an intermediate between honey hunting in forest and keeping bees in totally managed
environment. It is also said to be a fixed comb hive. There are different types hives based on locally available
materials used to construct it,
Log hives: - it is made up by splitting the log in two pieces first and then chop out the inner stuff thus finally
forming a hollow or cylinder when they are put together
Bark hive: - it is mainly made up of barks of big trees, eucalyptus and others plants can be used, but finally
plastered with either straw or animal dung.

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Bamboo hive: - the main material is bamboo. In general the bamboo strips webbed first and finally plastered with
either straw or animal dung. It is commonly used local hive in every place of the country.
Woven straw hive: - it is made up straw and webbed by rope finally plastered with animal dung
Clay hive: - made up of clay with only one opening however covered with other material leaving a small bee
entrance
False banana hive :- The whole hive is made up of false banana leaves put together in a cylindrical form
Animal dung hive :- It is made up of Animal dung completely it has one opening, but narrower at neck.

The advantages of traditional hive The disadvantage of traditional hive

 It is very cheap  It is small in size
 It can be constructed easily from  High tendency of swarming and
locally available materials absconding of bees
 It does not require skilled man  Low quality and quantity of
power products (except wax)
 There is high production of wax  can be easily destroyed (less
from local hive durability)
 It helps to trap swarm  It is not water proof – It allows
moisture bulled up
 It harbors insect
 No possibility of supering

Transitional hives: is one of the methods of keeping bees using top bar hive. It is an intermediate between
traditional and modern beekeeping.
Types of top bar hive 1. Kenyan top bar hive (KTBH) 2. Tanzanian top bar hove (TTBH) 3. Mud hive and others.
Generally, top bar hives are any size or design in which the bees build their comb from top bar (on the bars)
instead of attaching comb on the ceiling of the hive. Each hive accommodates specially designed 27-30 pieces of
bars 3.2 cm wide and 48cm. long and are arranged across the hive. The line of bar is smeared with bees wax at
the centre (mid rib) for the purpose of Right positional construction and for good smell.
The advantage of top bar hive
 It can be opened easily and quickly
 The bees are guided in building parallel combs which does not break usually
 The top bars are easily removable and this enables the bee keeper to work fast
 The top bars are easier to construct than farms
 Honey combs can be removed from hive for harvesting with out disturbing brood combs in the hive
 High production of wax and honey
 The hive can be suspended with wires / ropes this gives protection a against predators
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 The disadvantage of Transitional hive
 They are more expensive than traditional hives
 Combs suspended from top bars are more apt to break off than those, which are built with frames and this
makes transportation difficult on bad roads
 Less quality honey than frame hives; as honey, pollen &broods are filled on the same comb.
 It can simplify stolen by thief
Improved (modern) hives: These are the movable frame hives such as Langstroth, Zander hive etc.
The advantages of modern hives
The amount of honey produced is high 15-20 kg per hive on averag. The quality of honey is much better than
honey from tradition and transitional beekeeping this is due to Queen excluder, centrifugal honey extractor and
honey strainer are used.

8.4 Bee products and their uses

Beekeeping is the maintenance of honey bee colonies by humans commonly in hives for their honey and other
product such as beeswax, pollen, propolis, venom, bee brood, bee bread , royal jelly etc.
a. Honey: is a natural food made by the bee with nectar, pollen and other substances. It is considered natures
most completely nourishing food as it contains nearly all nutrients required by humans. Proteins, free amino acids,
vitamin B complex and folic acids are some of the major nutrients found in honey.
 Honey, when mixed with eggs and some  Immune System Booster and
flour, is an effective skin moisturizer and  Sore Throat treatment
facemask.  Colon Damage Prevention
 Honey contains Hydrogen peroxide  Parasite Remover
facilitates your wound’s healing faster,  Remedy for Burns
 Honey’s glucose content will be absorbed by  Relaxant for Anxiety and Nervousness
the brain and in the bloodstream, reducing  Cancer and Heart Disease Prevention
fatigue in the process and boost energy,  Diabetic Ulcer Remedy

b. Beeswax: The wax is formed into scales by wax-producing glands in the abdominal segments of worker bees,
which discard it in or at the hive. The hive workers collect and use it to form cells for honey storage and larval
and pupal protection within the beehive. It uses for cosmetic and skin care products such as moisturizers Lip balm,
Eye shadows, eye liner, hair pomade/hair sleek. Beeswax are used to prevent moisture lose and pathogen attacks
in fruit and vegetable, used in controlling bleeding from bone surface, to making of Candles, tooth paste, crayon
and water prove leather.
c. Propolis: Honeybees collect sticky resins that ooze from the buds of some trees and conifers. It is used in
ointment for healing wounds and cuts, prevention of constipation, prevents mouth and gum disorder such as gum
recession; and decrease blood sugar level in patience with type two diabetes.

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d. Royal jelly: is a blend of secretions from the salivary glands of the worker bee and contains a high
concentration of vitamins B5, B6, and amino acids and is believed to be a potent antioxidant, a special rejuvenating
substance that promotes tissue growth, muscle and cell regeneration and it is believe to be anti-ageing product.
e. Pollen: is considered by many health experts to be a perfect food due to its high levels of nutrients, vitamins,
protein, and amino acids. In fact, bee pollen contains more protein, high in vitamins A, B1, B3, and B12, as well
as fatty acids, carbohydrates, trace minerals, and at least 22 amino acids essential for muscle growth. High levels
of vitamins, antioxidants, and essential minerals give the body a needed boost to ward off infections, and increase
immune system functioning. In addition, high levels of antioxidants help repair cellular damage caused by foreign
pathogens and other free radicals, Cardiovascular Health, An antioxidant found in bee pollen known as Rutin, has
been shown to increase the strength of blood vessels, capillaries, and improve circulation, it proven effective in
lowering cholesterol and triglyceride levels, both which contribute to good heart health. Other uses of bee pollen
include Cancer Fighting Properties, Allergy Inhibitor, Energy and Strength Enhancement, and Weight Loss.
f. Venom: It is used in therapy against bee sting allergy. It use in apitherapy , especially for treatment of
rheumatism and arthritis.
g. Bees brood: the bees brood is made up of the eggs, the larva and the pupae. In a few world areas, people eat
the brood (eggs, larvae and pupae) of honeybees. It is feed to all larva except those that are selected to become
queens; the queen larvae are fed royal jelly instead. Comprised of all essential amino acids, high contents of
vitamins especially vitamin K, enzymes, and flavonoids; bee bread is made of pollen mixed with bits of honey,
bee wax, and bees' digestive enzymes which is known to be useful in treating anemia, hepatitis, insomnia, stress,
failing memory, cholesterol and digestive tract disorder. Nowadays, in the shop you can find bee bread specially
made for promoting kids' physical and mental growth. Bee bread helps children in improving memory, weight
gain and fights obesity.

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