Preface

. l'. Social W`ork — Meaning and Concepts

-X History of Social Work
.3/ Fields of Social Work
4. Social Work and Social Sciences
j/. Social Work Philosophy
6. Basic Values of Social Work
7. Humanitarian and Democratic
Matrix of Social Work
8. Principles of Social Work
9. Social Work as a Profession

10. Social Case Work

11. Social Group Work
12. Community Organization
13. Social Welfare Administration
14. Social Action
15. Social Work Research

Index

-lc i

1
 Social Work — Meaning and
Concepts

IN ancient times, the poor, the handicapped and the weak were
looked after by joint families, castes, communities and religious
institutions. But with the process of development and expansion of
urbanization and the growth of industrialization, ancient social
security and welfare system started changing its role in relation to
these needy individuals. Industrial revolution created problems that
were different in types and jvere threatening to society having social
and political significance. Malfunctioning appeared in the area of
interaction between the. individuals, families, group, and their
environment. These problems compelled the society to create social
welfare agencies. Later on_when it was observed that these problems
required scientific outlook for proper and permanent solution, a new
system of scientific assistance came into
 existence, i.e. social work.
Social work, unlike an early charity practice, attempts to help the
individuals, groups and communities to get a clear insight into the
problems that strengthens their ego to face conditions as reality and
then try to improve them. At the same time social work attempts to
mobilize social forces to resolve those social and economic situations
that lead to ill health, mental suffering frustration and social
behaviour. To make the concept of social work more clear, some of
the important definitions given by various authors are quoted here*;
DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL WORK
CHBYNEY, ALICE (1926) ^ ,,
Social Work includes all voluntary attempts to extend benefits in

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10
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

response to needs which are concerned with social relationships and

which avail themselves of scientific knowledge and methods.
WITMER,(1942)
The prime function of social work is to give assistance to individuals
in regard to the difficulties they encounter in their use of an
organized groups service or in their performance as a member of an
organized group.
FINK (1942)
Social Work is the provision of services designed to aid individuals,
singly or in groups in coping with present or future social and
psychological obstacles that prevent or are likely to prevent, full or
effective participation in society.
ANDERSON (1943)
Social Work is a professional service rendered to people for the
purpose of assisting them, as individuals or in groups, to attain
satisfying relationships and standards of life in accordance with their
particular wishes and capacities and in harmony with those of the
community.
CLARKE, (1947)
Social work is a form of professional service comprising-a composite
of knowledge and skills, parts of which are and parts of which are not
distinctive of social work, which attempts on the one hand to help
the individuals satisfy his needs in the social milieu and on the other
to remove as far as possible the barriers which obstruct people from
achieving the best of which they are capable.6
FRIEDLANDER(1951)

Social work is that process which deals directly and differentially

with persons who have problems relating primarily to their social
situation and which endeavours, individual to individual to
understand what help is needed and to
 assist the individual to find
and utilize the help indicated.7
^ FRIEDLANDER(1955)
Social work is a professional service, based on scientific knowledge
and skill in human relations, which assists individuals, alone or in
groups, to obtain social and personal satisfaction and independence.

T il

SOCIAL WORK- MEANING AND CONCEPTS s 11

YOUNGDAHL(1949)
Social work seeks two things for people: economic well-being and the
deeper source of happiness, that is self-realization, the stuff of its
concern is human behaviour and relationship. Its focus of attentiou is
the individual and his self-adjustment to a recognized reality.
KONOPKA (1958)
Social work is an entity representing three clearly distinguished but
inter-related parts: a network of social services, carefully developed
methods and process and social policy expressed through social
institutions and individuals. All three are based on a view of human
being, their interrelationships, and the ethical demands made on
them.10
BOEHM (1959)
Social work seeks to enhance the social functioning of the
individuals, singly and in groups, by activities focused upon their
social relationships which constitute the interaction between man
and his environment. These activities can be grouped into three
functions: restoration of impaired capacity, provision of individual
and social resources and prevention of social dysfunctions.
STROUP(1960)
Social work is the art of bringing various resources bear on
individual, group and community needs by the application of a
scientific method of helping people to help themselves. •
P1NCUS AND MINAHAN (1978)
Social work is concerned with the interaction between people and
their social environment which affects the ability of people to
accomplish their life tasks, alleviate distress, and realize their
aspirations and values.1 ,

i ¦<
fI

INDIAN VIEW POINT

KHER(1947) ? ; \v.
"The aim of social work, as generally understood, is to remove social
injustice, to relieve distress, to prevent suffering and to assist the
weaker members of society to rehabilitate themselves and their
families and, in short, fight the five giant evils of (1)^ Physical want,
(2) Disease, (3) Ignorance, (4) Squalor, (5) Idleness".
14

12 \ SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

SUSHIL CHANDRA (1954)
"Social work is a dynamic activity undertaken by public or private
effort in the implementation of social policy, with a view to raise the
standard of living and to bring about social, economic, political and
cultural well-being of the individual, family and the group with a
society irrespective of its stage of social development"
INDIAN CONFERENCE OF SOCIAL WORK (1957)
Social Work is a welfare activity based on humanitarian philosophy,
scientific knowledge and technical skills for helping individuals or
groups or community, to live a rich and full life.
KIHNDUKA(1962)
Social work, "help an individual in his social functioning. It is based
on certain knowledge foundation, calls for skill in human
relationships on the part of its practitioner, and has a set of values
furnishing its philosophical base."
MIRZA R. AHMAD (1969)
Social work is a professional service based on knowledge of human
relations and skill in relationships and concerned with problems of
intra-personal and or inter-pcrsonal adjustments resulting from
unmet individual, group, or community need.
MOORTHY AND RAO (1970)

Social work is "help rendered to any person or group, who or which

is suffering from any disability, mental, physical, emotional or moral,
so that the individual or group so helped is
enabled to help himself
or itself.18
Thus it can be concluded that a social work is a profession which
provides those services which help in relieving distress, preventing
sufferings, removing social injustice and provide opportunities for
social development.
ANALYSIS OF THE DEFINITIONS
When one looks at the definition given be Alice Cheyney one finds
that she has included only voluntary efforts in the social work
practice whereas social work includes both voluntary and public
efforts. Witmer was of the view that the main objective of social work
is to remove those hindrances which are felt in the process of
receiving group services or in performing the roles. According to

SOCIAL WORK - MEANING AND CONCEPTS

15

2. Emotional security through personal and social adjustment.

3. Social justice through fair and ordered relationships
between groups, with adequate opportunities for all groups.
4. Social achievement through collective endeavour.
5. .Spiritual power through philosophical or religious thoughts.
/
Generally social work has the following objectives:

X/Jjto solve psycho-socian problems,

Z>-To fulfil humanitarian needs,
. *~ 3. To solve adjustmental problems,
4. ^To create self-sufficiency,
v ,5.„ 'Strengthening and making harmonious social relations,
6. Make provision of corrective and recreation services,
v 7. Develop democratic values,
v 8. Provide opportunities for development and social progress,
r
Conscientize the community,
Change the environment in favour of individual's growth and
.. development, *
11. ..Bring change in social system for social development,
'>
12. Provide socio-legal aid.
SOCIAL WORK: SERVICE SYSTEMS

Health

Mental Health-
Community Service
Welfare
Vocational
rehabilitation"
Education
Child Care
Legal Aid
Correctional Help
 Economic and Social
Development.

Above mentioned area are the fields of social work in which it

provide its services to the individual, group and community as a
whole.

J!

16
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OFSOCIAL WORK

Clarke25 has described six major assumptions of social work. These
arc:
1. Social work is a profession, a very new one to be sure but,
nevertheless, a profession. It necessitates intellectual
activities accompanied by great individual responsibilities. It
is not just academic but is also practical in its aims.
2. Basic to the functioning of the professional social worker is
understanding of human personality and of the world he
lives in.
3. Social welfare and social work are not the same thing,
although on many points they are, the former includes social
institutions and the field of practice which are not social
work^TheTatter comprises a body of practices which can be
employed at many places in the large social welfare field.
4. Social work has its own processes and techniques, but it
involves much more than skills. It has a point of view, a
philosophy. It assumes that although personal and social
conflict are inevitable and natural, social change can be
 helpfully directed.
5. The social worker by nature his activities must use many
types of services. This means that he must have extensive
information about the resources of his community.
6. The social worker is concerned with the needs of individuals
and with the environment that cause personal problems. The
person and his environment, or better, the interaction of
person and situation is the focus of the social worker.
 SOCIAL WORK KNOWLEDGE
There are four areas of information with which a social worker is
equipped with:
Knowledge of the availability of the s^tyjees.
Knowledge of ^people their motivations, dynamics and
strengths,
Knowledge of society—its values, traditions, customs,
taboos, problems, priorities, etc.

SOCIAL WORK - MEANING AND CONCEPTS 17

(jffj Knowledge of resources—fiscal, material and manpower.
SPECIALITIES OFTHE AREA OF KNOWLEDGE '
Social worker has the following four areas of specialities of
knowledge: ¦•¦•>;,,; .
(i) He is unique and has special knowledge and skill pf
communication between himself, people and system,
(ii) Social worker has depth in understanding of the person, his
problems And.available resources,
(iii) Social worker has special knowledge and use of
relationships with individuals who need help as well as with
those who can provide help,
(iv) He has different strategies in his command to deal with
various types of problems. ,
SKILLS OF SOCIAL WORK •
Social worker is skilful in interviewing and counselling, relating
himself to individuals, groups and communities, providing
effectiveness as a change agent, self-scrutinizing,' adequate self
awareness and an ability to make professional use of self. He is
skilful in establishing and maintaining stable, useful relationship. He
has ability of problem solving and capacity for programme and
system evaluation and planning.
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF SOCIAL WORK
There are four major toolgjYhich are used in the practice of social
work. These are: *
^/C. Conscious use of self, ¦;¦
2^ Constructive use of relationship,
Vy3-/ Verbal interaction, » • 1 ".
4. Programme planning and its use. >
The social worker has in its command the following techniques,
interviewing, listening, observing, questioning, supporting, educating,
counselling, explaining, advising, agreeing, disagreeing, reviewing,
preparing, reinforcing, confronting, clarifying and reassuring. !
METHODS OF SOCIAL WORK '; '\-/Jj:L - .','
There are six methods of social work: (i) social case work, (ii) social
18
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
group work, (iii) community organization, (iv) social welfare
administration, (v) social action, and (vi) social research.'Social case
work means social treatment of a maladjusted individual involving an
attempt to understand his personality, behaviour, and social
relationships, and to assist him in working out a better social and
personal adjustment.26 Social group work is a method through' which
individuals in groups in socjaLggency_settings are helped by a worker
who guides their interaction in programme activities so that they may
relate themselves to others and experience growth opportunities in
accordance with their needs and capacities to the end of individual
group and community development. Community organization is a
process by which a social worker uses his insight and skill to help
communities —geographical and functional to identify and to work
towards a solution of their problems. Social welfare administration
is the process of transforming social policy intCLSpdaX.services, and
the use of experience in evaluating and modifying policy. Social
action might be described as group .effort to solve mass social
problems or to further socially desirable objectives by attempting to
influence basic social and economic conditions or practices. Social
work research is concerned with the functions of identification and
evaluation of social problems and needs, the development and
evaluation of service delivery systems and client treatment
programmes.
PROFESSIONAL ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKER
Social worker plays various types of roles in serving his clients. As a
care giver he counsels and supports people with problems in a
therapeutic way to promote change. As a consultant he works with
individuals and groups to assist in their problems and programmes.
As a broker he helps people to reach the services they need and
makes the system more useful. As a mobilizer he tries to bring new
resources to the individual and groups. He gathers and analyses
information for programme planning and evaluation working as data
manager. As an evaluator he evaluates the weaknesses and strengths
of individuals and groups, their needs and problems. As an advocate
he works for the improvement of policies and laws in order to make
system more effective. As referral agent he refers the individuals and
groups to use the services available in other agencies.

SOCIAL WORK-MEANING AND CONCEPTS 19

FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL WORK

Social work operates to assist individuals in adjusting to the

institutional framework of society, and attempts to modify the.
SOCIAL WORK AT A GLANCE

Humanitarian
and
Democratic
Philosophy r- Curative

Biological —
needs — Correctional
Sociaj needs S 1 Wnrlr •
So —
—
Cultural needs eo Services -
urc Rehabilitati
— sci Preventive
ve
Psychological a —
needs- Developme
ntal
Methods
1. Case work
2. Group Work
3. Community Organisation
4. Social Action
5. Social Administration
6. Social Research
tools
1. Use of Self
2. Use of
Programme
3. Relationship
" 4. Interaction
Techniques
1. Interviewing
2. Listening
3. Observing
4. Questioning
5. Supporting
6. Education
7. Counselling
8. Explaining
9. Informing

10. Ad vising
11. Agreeing
12. Disagreeing"
13. Reviewing
14. Reinforcing
15. Confronting
16. Clarifying
17. Reassuming
10.
20
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

institutional framework itself in appropriate areas Social work has

four broad functions: curative, correctional^ preventive and
developmental. Under the curative function, the following services
are providcdyMedical services, health services, services relating to
psycho-social and mental health, psychiatric services, child guidance,
child welfare services, services for the handicapped and disabled and
rehabilitative services.
Correction social work has 3 broad areas:
(i) Individual reform services which include prison reform,
probation, parole, other related services, (ii) Services for
strengthening and improving relationship — family welfare services,
school social work, industrial social work, (iii) Services for social
reform — employment services, prevention of prostitution, beggary,
prohibition services and removal of untouchability.

Prevention services include Life Insurance, public assistance,

social legislation, labour welfare, adult
 education and prevention of
diseases.

Development tasks arc socio-economic develop

pmental
activities, education and recreational services, urban and rural
development programmes and the programmes for integration.
IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL WORK
Earlier poverty was known as distress and the material help was
given to the people who did not have food or money or sufficient
clothing and shelter. But in the early twentieth century, the distress
was redefined and was known as intrapersonal and interpersonal
discomfort, with this shift from poverty tr>-psychiatric discomfort
(problem of living), the will to help was assessed inefficient and the
helpers needed training to provide the proper help. This occurred
first in medicine and later on in social work.
Modern man is experiencing an increasing loss of a belief in
God and a life after death, therefore, the distress of the current
experience could not be minimized and seems to require relief.
Further, the philosophy of existentialism tells us that the things that
exist are only concretization of potentials that might also lead to
other concretization. The people are dissatisfied with their
concretizations and find difficult to perceive their real 'Self. It is,
thus natural for dissatisfied person to demand for help.
People find that they do not express the most desirable
potential of their being and thus there is no authenticity in living.

-puiwumi ui uicir uemg^ana thus thereTs no auThlmticiryTnTivmg.

SOCIAL WORK - MEANING AND CONCEPTS 21

—They are forced into concretization which seems to be justifiable

SOCIAL WORK - MEANING AND CONCEPTS 21

They are forced into concretization which seems to be justifiable
to their parents, spouses, employers or society as such who are
powerful than they. For this struggle to relieve stress and tension
social work comes to their rescue.
 Man's awareness of his mortality makes the experience of living
one of running towards one's own death. This results in the
experience of worrying. To alleviate this worry an element of urgent
efforts makes the profession of social work more essential.

Due to economic hardships and industrialization the members

of 'socialization group' have gone away from the scene. The
entrance of women into the labour market and the increasing
participation of women in the professions have separated spouses
not only in time but frequently in geographical space. Under such
conditions many persons experience
 loneliness to an unprecedented
degree. Here social work becomes first and foremost a process
rather than a production. He who gets social work services, comes
out of distress (production) as well as fortifies against new distress
(process). Therefore, what social work can provide is not freedom
from discomforts, rather, it can provide cfiange of discomforts.
MISCONCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL WORK
Social Work as a profession is of recent origin and therefore,
people are not aware about the real meaning of social work. They
define in their own terms and knowledge. The following are the
few areas which are generally known as the fields of social work.

/Social Work as an Aim-giving Activity

It is a traditional concept. The desire to help the needy fellow men
has been present from the very inception of human society. Such a
desire was generated by the feeling of belongingness. It was a
religious duty of a man to provide care and protection to the
people suffering from various kinds of distresses. In India
alms-giving was considered as a path of moksha. Still today alms-
giving to the poorer is considered a social welfare activity and
therefore, it is called social works But alms-giving is not social work
because the aim of help in social work is to solve client's problems
scientifically. Social worker attempts to regenerate self confidence
and self-dependency. Causative factors are investigated and
diagnosis is confirmed. Later on therapeutic models are pushed
into service. ';->.>¦ :' i ••>'•¦

22
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

Shramdan as a Social Work

Voluntarily to provide physical help to any individual, group or
community is known as shramdan, i.e. construction of public roads,
public sanitation, help to flood victims, etc. But this is not social
work because in such activities labour is given without any
remuneration whereas in social work activities, worker is paid.
There is no need of training in Shramdan whereas social worker is
a trained person. Adjustment problems are not taken up in
Shramdan but the basic aim of social work is to solve adjustmental
problems. This is an absence of scientific methodology in shramdan
but in social work problems are solved scientifically.

Leadership Activities are Social Work

Leaders are known as social workers. Even national prizes are
given to them as social workers. The political worker and social
worker have become interchangeable terms. It is detrimental of
social work. The process of clarification is urgently needed. Political
workers are not social workers because they are neither trained in
social work profession nor use social work methodology in their
practice.

Work in Voluntary Welfare Agencies is a Social Work

Few people think that a person working in voluntary welfare
organization is a social worker and his service rendered in such an
institution is social work. But it is not social work because these
services are not based on scientific knowledge and values of social
work.
SOCIAL WELFARE AND SOCIAL WORK
The term social welfare expresses a changing concept. It means not
only to provide financial assistance and other services to the poor
and the disadvantaged but it also refers to the collective
responsibility to meet the needs of all the people in general.
Elizabeth Wickenden defines social welfare as "Including those
laws, programmes, benefits, and services which assure or
strengthen provisions for meeting social needs recognized as
basic to the well-being of the population and the better functioning

SOCIAL WORK - MEANING AND CONCEPTS 23

of the social order. Social welfare is concerned with all those forms
of social intervention that haye_a_pnmary and direct concern with
prompting both the well-being of the individual .and-of the society
as^wJiole^Social welfare includes those provisions and processes
directly concerned with the treatment and prevention of social
problems, the development of human resources, and the
improvement in the quality of life. It involves social services to
individuals and families as well as efforts to strengthen or modify
social institutions.

Changing Concepts of Social Welfare

Here are discussed major concepts of social welfare which have
been recognized in the process of social development. Romanyshyn
has described the following concepts.

l'From the Residual to the Institutional Concept

w Residual concepts of social welfare hold the view that social welfare
activities should come into play only wfien the normal structures
of society. .bie^k_down. Welfare programmes exists to meet the
emergency needs of individuals when they are incapable of
providing for themselves through the normal institutions of the
family and the market. The poor, dependent children, the aged, is
handicapped have been some of the recipient of welfare services.
In such a situation society intervenes through public or voluntary
means to assure some of minimum level of personal well-being and
social functioning. ,
Institutional view of welfare is
 predicted on the assumption that
a modern industrial society requires a variety of services as first line
supports to enable individuals to cope successfully with' a changing
economic and social environment and to assure the stability and
development of social institutions.
/ '¦ ¦ . ¦ -;
/ 2. Charity to Citizen Right
J Charity, philanthropy, relief, and help to the disabled and deviants
have been the traditional way of welfare. But gradually and gradually
this concept got changed and receiving welfare services became the
citizen's right. Social rights make up the dominant theme of the
present century. The notion, of such rights is implicit in the concept
of the welfare state. '"'¦'¦ -¦' "'¦'¦"

24 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

3. Special to Universal
One tends to think of social welfare as consisting of special services
for the poor. Increasingly, however, social welfare programmes are
developed to meet universal needs of the population. Such universal
programmes tend to focus on certain common social contingencies
that arc consequences of living in an industrial society, with such
related risks as unemployment, old age, disability, loss of the bread
winner, the high cost of medical care, and so forth.

4. Minimum to Optimum
Social Welfare services are not restricted now to minimum
capacity and resources to be made available to individuals. Attention
is focused now to make available to all children to those optimum
conditions that may make it possible for them to develop to the
fullest of their capacities.

5. Individual to Social Reform

Now one believe that problems are not due to individual's
weakness or his moral defects but they are structural and result
from defects in institutional arrangement. Consequently reform of
the society is more important than that pf the individual.
6. Voluntary to Public
Social welfare services have been provided since time immemorial
but most of these services were by volunteers and voluntary
agencies. New government have realized its responsibility and public
departments are now more active in this field.

7. From Welfare for the Poor to a Welfare Society

The basic problem of philanthropy has changed from that of caring
for the physical needs of a relatively few destitute people living in a
simple society in attempting to meet the physical, social and
psychological needs of total population in highly complexed
society. The emphasis is now being placed on securing a better,
happier, or healthier world for all.35

Social Functions of Social Welfare

Social welfare programmes may be understood in terms of the

social functions they perform. They are (i)
 social provisions,

SOCIAL WORK-MEANING AND CONCEPTS * Ja

(ii) social services, and (iii) social action. Social provision are
public assistance, social insurance, public housing, medical care, etc.
The ideal goal of social provisions is social security and social
justice, social services may be seen of four types: developmental,
remedial, supportive and substitutive. Education services are
developmental, family counselling and child guidance services are
remedial, day care and nutritional services are supportive and foster
services are substitutive.
Social action is concerned with the system change, while
services are concerned with changing people. Social action seeks to
alter the structure of roles and the distribution of power, prevent
problems, expand opportunity and enhance the quality of life. In
general system change is brought through violence or revolution but
in social welfare, violence or revolutionary tactics are not considered
part of social welfare methods. Social action may be defined as an
organized effort with the aim of securing social progress and of
solving mass social problems by influencing social legislation or the
administration of social services.
Social welfare and social work are historically related and are
sometimes still used synonymously. The distinction between the
two is of recent origin. When Devine wrote about social work in
1922 , he did not make the distinction. He wrote, "Social Work is
the sum of all efforts by society to take up its own slack", to provide
for individuals when its established institutions fail them, to
supplement those established institutions and to modify them at
those points at which they have proved to be badly adapted to
social needs. It may have for its object, the relief of individuals or
the improvement of conditions.'It may be carried on by the
government or by an incorporated society or by an informal group
or by an individual, or it may be temporary growth on some older
institution which exists primarily for some other function It
includes everything which is done by society for the benefit of those
who are not in a position to complete on fair terms with their
fellows, from whatever motive it may be done, by whatever agency or
whatever means, and with whatever result.
Both social work and social welfare have common stages of
development as noted by United Nations Department of social
affairs, Training of Social Work, "... the stages through which
social work has passed in many of the countries in which it is today
fully developed, may be broken down into three major categories:

26 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

(a) social work as individual charity; (b) social work as organized

activity, under governmental and non-governmental auspices,
 directed towards the solution of problems associated with
economic dependency, and (c) social work as professional service,
under governmental and non-governmental auspices, potentially
available to every member of the community, irresponsive of his
means, to assist him in achieving his full potentialities for
productive and satisfying living.
Social work stands in relation to social welfare as the medical
profession stands in relation to the field of health. Social work seeks
to enhance the social functioning of the individuals, singly and in
groups, by activities focused upon their social relationships which
constitute the interaction between man and his environment. These
activities can be grouped into three functions; restoration of
impaired capacities, provision of individual and social resources
and prevention of social dysfunction. Social work is a form of
professional service having composite of knowledge and skills which
attempt on the one hand to help individuals satisfy their needs in
social milieu and on the other hand to remove barriers which
obstruct them from achieving the best of which they are capable.
Social welfare is an organized system of social services and
institutions, designed to aid individuals and groups to attain
satisfying standards of life and health. 4 Social work is a
professional service based upon scientific knowledge and skill in
human relations, which assists individuals, alone or in groups, to
obtain social and personal satisfaction and independence.
Social welfare is specialized work for the benefit of the weaker
and more vulnerable sections of the population and would include
social services for the benefit of women, children, the physically
handicapped, the mentally retarded and those specially
handicapped in many ways. Social work is a professional service
based on knowledge of human relations and skill in relationship and
concerned with problems of intrapersonal and/or interpersonal
adjustments resulting from unmet individual, group or community
needs. 43
Social welfare aims at providing services to the weaker sections
of the population who because of various handicaps physical,
mental, economic and social, are unable to make use of social
services provided by the society or are traditionally denied these

SOCIAL WOKK - MEANING ANU CONCEPTS

services. The aim of social work is to remove social injustice, to

relieve distress, to prevent suffering and to assisTthe weaker
members of society to rehabilitate themselves and their families
and, in short, fight the five giant evils of Jl) Physical want,
(2) Disease.p) Ignorance, (A) Squalor, (5) Idleness.45
^ Social welfare is basically secured through the institutional
organization of society, and its activities are
 directed towards'the
improvement of that organization, while the activities of social
work are directed towards assisting individuals in their use of social
institutions.
Social welfare is a constructive_approach, to assist and aid the
people to understand their ails, acquire necessary skills and
establish or organize productive centres, craft centres, schools, etc.
for the fulfilment of their needs. It is all done on planned lines with
the aid of government machinery. Social work refers to an
occupation and profession^ concerned with improving social
relationships. The activities of the social workers are oriented
towards almost every major social institution. That is, public
assistance is oriented towards the ecofiomic functioning of
individuals; family and child services are, of course, concerned with
the family; probation, parole, correctional social work is directed
to the relationship between the individual and the law, school
social work is concerned with the relationship between the
educational institution and the individual whereas medical social
work is oriented toward the relationship between the individual
and health institutions.
In social work, a pereonaUd&ntity, rather rapport, is established
between social worker and his client whose rapport or identity of
interest is neither required nor relevant in any kind of social
welfare activity.
Social _workJs a professional service, buj _spcial welfare is
general service. Social worker has scientific knowledge and skills
in human behaviour whereas social welfare activities can be carried
on by any individual. The basic aim of social work is to solve
adjustmental problems but social welfare activities are mainly
directed to solve socio-economic problems. The clients in social
work have choice to select their own paths for the solution of their
problems but in social welfare such type of freedom is not given.

28 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

SOCIAL SERVICE AND SOCIAL WORK

Social services are those organized activities that are primarily

and directly concerned with the conservation, the protection and
the improvement of human resources. One mean by it (social
services) those efforts to restore, maintain, and enhance the social
functioning of individuals and families
through (1) enabling social
resources (e.g. day care and a home-maker services) and (2)
processes that enhance the capacity of individuals and families to
cope with stress and with the normal demands of social life. The
ideal goal of the social services is the enhancement of social
competence. Changes in the individuals are not brought directly
to modify their behaviour but through modification or alterations in
their social environment.
Social work is an entity representing three clearly distinguished
but interrelated parts; a network of social services, carefully
developed methods and processes, and social policy expressed
through social institutions and individuals. 51 Social work is that
process which deals directly and differentially with persons who
have problems relating primarily to their social situation and which
endeavours individual to individual to understand what help is
needed and to assist the individual to find and utilize the help
indicated.52 Thus, helping the helpless in social service, helping the
helpless to help themselves is social work.
Social services are essentially "people changing" institutions
(developmental, remedial, supportive or substitutive). Their main
aim is to equip individuals with the competence and resources
essential for effective social participation. Social work fulfills the
objectives of social services.
SOCIAL REFORM AND SOCIAL WORK
Social reforms by definition entail change or replacement in the
institutions, which have become functionally irrelevant (totally or
partially) to the contemporary social order causing loss of quality of
life, deprivations, unrest and misery to sizeable sections of the
society,. 5 The reforms are initiated by a group of promoters having
the belief that the social improvement can only be accompanied if
the institutional structure is suitably modified or altered as per the
exigency of the situation.55
Social reform is concerned with the change in community that
affects the whole life including values and social institutions. It

SOCIAL WORK
- MEANING AND CONCEITS
31

19. Brown, E L: Social Work as a Progcssion, Russell Sage Foundation, New York,
1942, p. 24.
20. Fricdlandar, A.W: op. cit., pp. 8-9.
21. Witmer, Helen I : Social Work: An Analysis of Social Institution. Farrar and
Rinehart, New York, 1942, p. 121.
22. Youngdahl, D.E : "Social Work as Profession" Social Work Year Book, Russell
Sage Foundation, New York, 19S4, p. 506
„.. 23. Social Commission Economic and Social Council, United Nations : Training
Social Work; An International Survey, United Nations, New York, 1958,
 Mimeo, pp. 18-20.
24. Quoted by Clarke, H.I : Principles and Practice of Social Work
Applcton-Century-Crofts, Inc. New York, 1947, pp. 28.
25. Clarke, Helen I : Principles and Practices of Social Work, Appleton-Ccntury
Crofts, Inc. New York, 1947, pp. 4-5.
26. Taft: The Family, Volume I, N. 5, p. 1.
 27. Trecker, H.B: Social Group Work — Principles and Practices, Association Press,
New York, 1955, p. 5.
28. Ross, M.G : "Conceptual Problems in Community Organisation" 77ie Social
Service Review, June 1956, p. 180.
29. Kidneigh, John C: "Administration of Social Agencies". Social Work Year Book,
1955, p. 76.
30. Hill, John L: "Social Action", Social Work Year Book, 1951, p. 455.
31. Bison, Herbert: The Philosophy of social work, Public Affairs, Washington D.C.
1952, p. 72.
32. Wickenden, Elizabeth : Social Welfare in a Changing World. U.S. Dept. of
Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C 1965, p. VII.
33. Romanyshyn, J.M. and Romanyshyn, A.L. : Social Welfare, Charity to Justice,
Random House, New York, 1971, p. 3.
34. 7fc/<i,pp.34-37.
35. Ross A.D : "Philanthropy* International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences,
Macmillan Co., New York, 1968, p. 80.
36. Solender, S: "Social Action* in Social Work Year Book 1957, pp. 517-518.
37. Devine, Edward T: Social Work, Macmillan, New York, 1922, pp. 21 - 22.
38. U.N. Department of Social Affairs : Training for Social Work, an International
Survey, United Nations, New York, 1950.
39. Boem, W.H. op. cit. p. 54.
40. Friedlander, W.A. op. cit p. 4
41. Ibid.-p.A,
42. Govt, of India, Planning Commission, Social Welfare in India, 1955, Preface.
43. Ahmad, M.R : Samaj Karya Darshan Avam Pranaliyan, (Hindi). British Book
Depot, Lucknow, 1969 p.4
44. Chaudhary, D. Paul: A Handbook of Social Welfare, Atma Ram and Sons, New
Delhi, 1966, p. 194.
45. Kher, B.G : Quoted in United Nations, Training for Social Work; An
International Survey, 1947 p. 108.
46. Witmer, Helen I : Quoted by Modan, G.R. , Indian Social Problems, Allied
Publishers, Bombay, 1973, p. 15.
47. Romanyshyn J.N. & Romanyshyn, A.L. op. cit p. 55.
48. Cassidy, Harry M : Social Security and Reconstruction in Canada, Quoted by
Friedlander, W.A. op. cit, p.4.
24.
32 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
49. Romanyshyn, John. M, & Romanyshyn, Annie L : Social Welfare : Charily to
Justice, Random I louse, New York, 1971, p. 356.
50. Ibid p. 356.
51. Konopka, G : Edward C. Lindcman and Social Work Philosophy. The
University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 1958, p. 83
52. Fricdlander, W.A : Social Work Journal 1951, Vol XXXII, No. I., p. 43.
53. Moorlliy, M.V : Social Work ¦ Philosophy, Methods, and Fields, Karnatak
University, Dharwar, 197-1, pp. 2-5.
51. Srivastava, S.S : "Social Reforms and Social Sciences" Paper presented in a
national Seminar on Reforms and Change in Indian Society. Institute of Social
Sciences. Agra. 19.58.
55. Ibid.
56. Sliarma, M.D : Dynamics of Social Work, Jodhpur, (year not mentioned), p. 5.
57. Romanyshyn, J.M. & Romanyshyn, A. I... op. ciL, 57.
58. Definition given by International Labour Organisation and quoted by
Chaudhary, D. P. in Hand Book of Social Welfare, Atma Ram and Sons, New
Delhi, 1966, p. 194.
59. Stack Mourice : "The Meaning of Social Security" in Rcadingin Social Security,
by William I Iabcr and Wilpur J.C. (cd) Prentice Hall, New York, 1948, p. 41.
55.
2

History of Social Work

HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

SOCIAL Work is an outgrowth of earlier

forms of social activities
going back to the centuries. Though social work in its present form
seems to have no roots prior to I860,* yet the period from
colonization to the civil war played a large role in the development
of social work. For our purpose to understand the historical
development of social work in USA we have di%ided it into the
following stages.

I. The Colonial Period (1620-1776)

II. Civil War and Industrial Revolution (1776-1860)
III. Industrialism - The Human Side (1860-1900)
IV. Social Work seeking Professional Characteristics
(1900-1930)
V. Highly Professionalized Discipline (1930)

Social welfare services have existed in USA since the

establishment of the original thirteen colonies on the eastern sea
board in the seventeenth and eighteenth century. The English people
who settled here, brought with them their customs, laws and ideas.
Elizabethan Poor Law served as the basic pattern for extending
financial assistance to persons in need. Assistance to the poor in
their own homes (outdoor relief) was the initial method followed in
the growing colonial towns. This assistance was provided to the
persons who were in need of temporary of partial -public support,

34
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

generally temporarily unemployed, and disabled members. The

assistance was provided the families to look after them.
The first aim house was established in Massachusetts in 1662.
It started functioning in 1685 both as an aim house for the disabled
and as a work house for the able-bodied paupers. These alms and
work houses also took care of their health problems. Most of the
specialized and advanced general hospitals of USA like Bellevue
Hospital in New York and Philadelphia General Hospital were in the
form of aim houses in its original forms. The former hospitals were
for the poor with physical or mental ailments; for example, the
Pennsylvania Hospital, completed in 1756 and planned primarily to
house the sick poor, admitted the mentally ill who were confined in
the building. After the settlement of New Amsterdam several "Sieck
entroostcrs", minor ecclesiastical functionaries whose duty was to
visit sick persons in their own homes, were sent to the colony.
Orphan masters were appointed to protect the interest and
properties of widows and orphans. The first 'overseers of the poor'
were appointed in 1691 in the city of Boston.
Associations for the function of charitable aid or mutual benefit
were also formed on the basis of national origins and church
affiliations. Scots Charitable Society was the
 first such association
which was established in 1657 in Boston to help the sick aided the
poor and to provide burial for deceased countrymen. The
outstanding Association with welfare activities was the Society of
Friends in Pennsylvania, and other colonies which cared for
members of its own sects but later on extended its services to
others.

The system of poor relief during colonial period in USA

reflected the Elizabethan Poor Laws. The town, the smallest unit of
government, like the Parish was responsible for its inhabitants. The
primary motive of the town was to protect itself against the poor and
destitute. It was not uncommon to auction the poor to the
neighbouring farmers or to send them to privately run aim houses.

Another development during this period was the broadening

of the base of responsibility from the town to the province in
Massachusetts for a special category of the poor. By 1701 there was
provision for reimbursement to the town for relief in all cases of
unsettled dependent persons ill with dangerous infections of
contagious diseases.

The rapid growth of manufacturing industries after the civil

HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK

35
'Ml

39
HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK
infant and maternal mortality; public ^"J**^
hygiene and sex education, special state and voluntary
Sutions for crippled children and state W«g-
rehabilitation (the first in Massachusetts in W&).to W20-
 the federal government enacted iU First ^°^f ^
rehabilitation on the basis of matching funds of the state
• programmes in this field. . ,_
5. Improvement in raising funds and programme planning for
voluntary welfare agencies included the rise' « ™
community chest movement beginning with Cleveland
welfare federation's united drive in 1913 and establishment
of federations of charities for consultation of _ coordination
of effort among the numerous welfare agencies.
6. There were improvements in state institutions for the
mentally ill. Social service workers were being added to
the staff of the mental hospitals and outpatient clinics both
established first in Massachusetts in 1913 and 1914.
Facilities for the care of the feeble minded were being
improved and increased. »

7. Juveniles courts were established separately. Only Boston

had probation for adult offenders before 1899 but later on
other states had enacted such
 provisions.
8. Civil liberties and inter-group relations were advanced
through formation in 1909 of the National Association for
the Advancement of Coloured People, followed by the
National Urban League in 1910.
The depression of 1929 may be recognized as the turning point
in the relief policies in the united States, Federal Government
started taking responsibility for the welfare activities. Federal
Emergency Relief Act was approved in 1933. This provided the
first direct federal grants to the states for unemployment relief and
created the Federal Emergency Relief Administration to set
standards of personnel and relief administration.
BEGINNING OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION AND
OF THE PROFESSION OF SOCIAL WORK
The trend toward professionalism of social work can best be
dated with the appointment of full time staff to operate social
welfare programmes and the beginning of recognition of the need for
training for volunteers who worked in such organizations. Mary E.
'AM
40 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
Richmond could be considered the first professional social worker
in the United States of America. She became the assistant treasurer
of Baltimore Charity Organization Society and later on became
practitioner, teacher, and theoretician of the charity organization
Movement. la 1897 in the National Conference of Charities and
Corrections in Toronto, she advocated for the establishment of a
training school for professional social workers. In 1898 when
Charity Organization Society of New York started training course
for perspective workers, Mary Richmond was appointed as one of
the teachers. Later on New York School of Philanthropy was created
which today is Columbia University School of Social Work.
The other group of social workers was associated with the
Settlement House Movement. Hane Addames, Florance Kellay,
Edith, etc., felt that the legislation be made to improve working
conditions and organization of neighbour house in slum areas to
demand more amenities. This group focussed mainly on the reform
of society as against the focus of Charity Organization Society of the
reform of the individual and his family. The Chicago School of
Civics and Philanthropy was established in 1901 and soon affiliated
with the University of Chicago. It was thus first recognized that
education for social work should be a part of general University
education. The third school of social work was established at
Simmons College in Boston. This school was the pioneer in the
development of medical social work. Dr. Robert Clot did pioneer
work in relation to medical care.
The American Association of Schools of Social Work was
founded in 1919 with the purpose to facilitate communication
among the schools of social work.

HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN ENGLAND

In the medieval period in England like other European countries, it
was the pious duty of the church to help and protect the poor.
People were helping and giving alms to the destitutes,
handicapped, blinds, and poors out of religious sentiments. The
basic objective behind this charity was the purification of soul of
aim givers and therefore, there was no relationship between them
with the result that churches did not make any effort to provide
any permanent remedy for improving the conditions of the poor.
In the beginning of the fourteenth century, poors were divided

HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK 41

into two categories: able-bodied and destitute. In 1349, King

Edward III issued the Statute of Labourers which compelled the
able-bodied to work for their livelihood.
 Under this statute, the
provision was made that able-bodied labourers having no means of
livelihood must take up job from any master who should be
willing to employ them. They were directed not to leave the parish
to which they belonged. Rigorous punishment was given to those who
violated this law.
The first creative work in the direction of assistance to the
poor was done in 1531 when Henry VIII made a law known as
Statute of Henry VIII. The law directed the judges and parish
incharge to scrutinize the applications of poors and the aged who
were unable to do any work. Under the law these destitutes had to
register themselves and take the licence to beg in certain specified
areas. In 1563 Parliament passed a resolution which was made
compulsory for householders to provide funds weekly for the relief
of the poor. In 1572 Queen Elizabeth signed en a statute which
levied a general tax for the financing of poor relief programme. It
also made provisions for the appointment of overseers of the poor.
Through this statute, it was made clear that the government was
totally responsible for the maintenance of poor.
THE ELIZABETHAN POOR LAW, 1601
The Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 also known as "43 Elizabeth",
which was to remain in the basis of handling relief for the next 233
years, spelled out the existing practices in a more logical system of
poor relief. The law divided the poor in three categories:
1. The able-bodied poor There were sturdy poors who were
forced to work in the House of Corrections or in Work Houses.
People were not allowed to give them alms.
2. 77ic impotent poor or unemployable poor: They were placed in
alms houses or given outdoor relief for their livelihood. There were
sick, old, blind, deaf and dumb, orthopaedically handicapped,
invalid and mentally sick,
3. 77ie dependent children: Orphans and parentless children
and such children who were deserted by their parents or children
from very poor families whose parents were unable to bring them
up, were known dependent children. These children were given to
persons willing to take them without any charge. If such persons
and 'free have' were not available, they were given to the lowest
1.
42 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
bidder for whom they had to work upto the age of 24 years in case
of male and upto 21 years in case of female. Apprentice was given
to those dependent children. 'Overseers of the poor' were
responsible for the execution of Poor Law. The finances were
collected by imposing poor tax which was assessed on the basis of
property.

The Law of 1601 has been very significant because it made the
government accept positive obligations for the help of people who
 could not provide for themselves and realise the presence of
destitution among the poor that punishment could not' abolish it
and that could be relieved only by the application of public
resources to individual need.

Charles II passed the Settlement Act in 1662 which empowered

the justice of the peace to return to free place from where he had
come and any such new comer who in the opinion of the overseers
of the poor could become a liability in future. In 1696, the Work
House Act was passed which made provision for the training of
inmates of the work houses.
CHARITY ORGANIZATION SOCIETY, 1869
The middle of the nineteenth century was a period of scientific and
humanitarianism awakening. Thomas Chalmers, a Scottish minister,
and his associates criticised the methods and the administration of
Poor Law. He suggested that the investigation should be made of
each case under the direction and supervision of non-governmental
agencies. His efforts did not go waste though it took time to
implement such scheme. London Charity Organization Society was
formed in 1869. The leading ideas of that organization at the time of
its initiation were such: the giving of doles should be stopped, relief
giving should be coordinated, and each applicant for assistance
should be carefully studied to determine what he needed to put him
on his feet.11 The Charity Organization Society's particular part in
the work would be to interview the applicants, draw up plans for
the treatment of their social disabilities, and secure the needed
funds from already established organizations. Historians of social
work generally agree that in the scheme lie the beginnings of the
present system of organized social work activities. Community
organization and Social Case Work Methods were applied in the
Charity Organisation Society's activities. COS workers helped the
poor for assistance to utilize the existing relief services effectively.

HISTORY OP SOCIAL WORK

43

Nobody was getting assistance without investigation. This followed

from the COS to study carefully the needs of each applicant in order
to try to find a way of putting him in the position in which he could
dispense with charity. Attempts were made to find (1) a job, (ii)
medical treatment, (iii) education, (iv) counselling for financial
gain and (v) encouragement for creative plans.
Public welfare administration was represented by the efforts at
establishing order and efficiency in the distribution of relief. Social
action was contemplated and to some extent carried out in
attempts to influence poor relief legislation and otherwise to ajter
social and economic conditions that handicapped the
 poverty-stricken classes.13
SETTLEMENT HOUSE MOVEMENT
Edward Edison was the first volunteer who in 1867 thought that the
distribution of aim or relief had no meaning in the context of the
solution of the problem. Cannon Samuel Augustas Barnet put this
idea forcefully with his effort and in his memory his friends founded
University Settlement House which was named as Toynbee Hall. It
has three objectives:-© Educational and cultural development of
poor, (ii) to provide information to the students and other inmates
of the settle house regarding the poor for the improvement of
their conditions for social reform, (iii) to develop consciousness
towards social and health problems and the need for enacting
legislation.
THE POOR LAW COMMISSION OF 1905
In the beginning of twentieth century England faced a big
unemployment problem. Most of the workers of coal mines became
unemployed and started begging for relief. Thus, it became difficult,
rather impossible to solve the problem of poverty through the
existing Poor Laws. Royal Commission on the Poor Law and Relief
of Distress was appointed in 1905 to solve the present crisis. Lord
Gorge Hamilton was its chairman.
The Commission made four recommendations: ~-

if

It

1. Country councils should be established in place of poor Law

union and Board of Guardians, so that the local
administration could be reduced upto three-fourth. ""-':,
2. To abolish the punishable nature of poor welfare and
1.
44 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
beginning of public welfare programmes on humanitarian
basis.
3. Mixed orphanages should be stopped. Mentally retarted
and sick should be treated in hospitals. Children should be
 kept in foster homes or in local schools.

4. National pension for the aged, free treatment facilities for

 the poor in the hospitals, public employment services and
insurance for the unemployed and invalids be started.
On its recommendations, very important acts were enacted.
The provision of Meals Act was passed in 1906. The facility of
free school benches was provided under the Act. The education Act
was passed in 1907. Provision for medical examination of school
children was made under the Act. Prevention of Crime Act was
passed in 1908 which made provision for the establishment of
special courts for children. The Children Act was passed in 1912
which led to the creation of special courts for the trial and
probation services for reformation of juvenile delinquents. The
Juvenile Court Metropolis Act was passed in 1920 which empowered
the secretary to select qualified and experienced magistrates to deal
with the cases in the juvenile courts. Labour Exchanges Act was
passed which led to the establishment of employment exchanges to
help the unemployed in getting employment. National Insurance Act
was passed in 1911 to provide for compulsory health insurance of
workers of lower income groups. The Widows', Orphans' and Old
Age Contributory Pension act was passed in 1925. Local
Government Act was passed in 1925 which abolished the Poor Law
Unions and Board of Guardians and gave responsibility of
administration of poor relief to the county councils. In 1931, National
Economy Act was passed which made provision for the payment of
unemployment assistance. Old age Pension Act was passed in 1940
which made provision for the payment of need-based additional
pensions to the aged, especially for medical treatment.
TIIEBEVERRIDGEREPORT
An Inter-Departmental Commission on Social Insurance and Allied
Services was appointed under the chairmanship of William
Beverridge in 1941. The objective of this commission was to make
survey of the structure and efficiency of social services of England
and to recommend the proper course of action. The commission
found that there were five giant evils viz; physical need, disease,

HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK 45

ignorance, squalor, idleness; which were responsible for all the
human miseries. The commission recommended (i) social insurance,
(ii) public assistance, (iii) Children's allowance, (iv) Comprehensive
free health and rehabilitation services, (v) maintenance of full
employment. The Report laid down 6 basic principles for these
programmes: (i) united administration, (ii) comprehensive coverage,
(iii) flat rate of contribution, (iv) flat rate of benefits, (v) adequacy of
all benefits to meet basic needs of recipients, (vi) classification of
population.

British social insurance programmes are based on Beveridge

 Report. Various legal enactments were made after the submission
of the report. Disabled Persons (Employment) Act was passed in
1944 which made provision for the employers of commercial or
industrial enterprises to compulsorily employ the disabled persons.
In 1945, The Family Allowance Act was passed. National Insurance
Act was passed in 1946 which provided a scheme of health, invalidity
and old-age insurance. The Industrial Injuries (workman's
compensations) Act was enacted in 1946. The National Assistance
Act was made in 1948. „

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK IN INDIA

Social work is no new thing; it has always been done, as it still is, as
an act of friendship and in the ordinary course of duty by the priest,
the teacher, the doctor and the lawyer. The systematic study of
development of social work in India may be seen in different
periods.
v.. _ SOCIAL WORtf IN ANCIENT INDIA
In ancjeat-India, the nature of social service was that of charity.
The earlier, reference to charity is to be found in the Rigveda
(chap. I, XIII, 2) which encourages charity by saying "May the one
who gives shine most." Upanishads like Brihadaraiiyaka, Chhandogya
and Taittiriya, prescribe that every householder must practise charity.
In Mahabharat we find that when Bhishma talked to Yudhishthir, he
described the essence of eternal religion, non-violence, truth, the
conquest of anger and charity.
In ancient India, the social welfare activities were performed
by Y5g7tas,\ Yagiias being the most popular mass rituals known in
vedic days, fn a great grand shed erected for the purpose on the
banks of a flowing river, people assembled in an utter spirit of

46 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

dedication. Each tried to contribute his bit towards the'Yagna. Their

intention was the common welfare of all. There was no personal
desire to be fulfilled. Yagiiashalas were class rooms where men and
women were taught the spirit of_working together without the ego
and egocentric desires. TFe spirit underlying the most popuiafvedic
' rituals is brougnt to bear in all actions, not only in the Yagiiashalas
but also in the home, the market place, the factory, and the field.
Bhagwalgccta enunciates the principle by saying "Cherish the Devas
with the Yagim spirit and those Devas shall in turn cherish you"; thus
cherishing each other, you shall gain the highest good (Chapt. 3,
11). When men in a community strive cooperatively without ego and
egocentric desires, the cosmic forces that constitute the
environment, shall cherish them in turn. Bhagwatgeela advises that
when any profit accrued as a result of the total dedicated efforts of /
the many, is misappropriated by a man, than he is a thief. No single /
 member has a right for a larger share. The community is sure to /
succeed in progress and welfare when it has learned to live and
strive as one entity. The privilege^ class hasfrnoral duty to serve the
lo r. such persons who~Iel:ve^thesociety with all their ability are
fpMJro^an^ns {Geela ChaptTlTTs), but those who cook for(
Themselves or "produce for their own gains, they are eating sin.
The Aswalayana Griha Sutra says that one must daily perform
Pancha Yagnas - giving service to God, ancestors, animals, one's
ownsclf and one's fcllowmen. The Chhandogya Upanishad says that
life is a succession of Yagiias or services for others^Charityis not
merely a social duty but it is like prayer. One does^t for its~own
'? atie'"DCcause one Jeels it is a priviiegeTbeeauSe Tffle is &»rvmg""t?ie"
Lord through it. The habit of giving alms was common and no house-
holder turned away a beggar empty handed as to do so was
considered a sin. According to Mamishutra, it was his duty to feed
his guests firsl, then his servants, he and his wife might eat last of
all.
Hindu scriptures say that the man who helps other or gives
chanty docs not show the sense of superiority. The Taittiriya
Upanishad declares that it is better not to help at all rather than help
without showing due respect to the recipient of charity. ^
Shastri has depicted the/ communitarian repubTics/ofThe early (%J
Ygfkc period. "In this_cflmmunitartati^ociety whichTunctioned like —
an extended family, everbody's needswere catered to by everybody.
There was a life of complete mutuality and reciprocal assistance

HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK

47

whether the needs were basic or special, generic or arising out of

vulnerable situations like disease and external danger. In knowledge
and skill people differed only in quantity and everybody did for
others in need what others did for him in similar circumstances.
The whole business of helping people in need was everybody's
business mainly handled in a collective way. Thus everybody was
client and agent both on different occasions o7TbT--tlifrercnT
piSposSir —--—¦—r ^ " ~~
With the development ofagrarian socielywwth.private.gIQ.up
ownership of land, the concept~df~Crranty came into existence.
"Earlier when there was common ownership of property by the
tribe, ^ffHa^as^a protection^as of right, againsTstarvation, for the
^property. But when private property and class~ru1ecarne across
(during the late vedic period and after), dana was converted from
an instrument of social insurance to a privilege of the ruling class
and became now a voluntary virtue and charity of the kings and
Kshatriyas.
By the later vedic period, dana became •institutionalized^nd
acquired the characteristics of charity with religious ideology. Dana
wa3Tg1verr*to acquire^w/iv^rnentj. it was no longer given merely in
celebration of an event or a heroic personality or in connection with
a ceremony.
The evolution of Buddhism during the Magadhan empires
changed the character of Indian society. It was changed from tribal
agricultural settlement to a class-based agrarian economy. Buddhism
accepted the Karma theory which se/ved the purpose of explaining
the origin of social inequality. Buddhism laid great emphasis on
pfinya alidrfg«fl (charity^) Charity waTseen not Only as aTheaniiPbf
alleviating the sufferings of the materially poor, but also as the
giving of gifts (dana), especially to the /tfj«gfigw San^has were the
centres of shelters and learning and were responsible for the spread
oflifceraeyr-j
<q. jGuildsjwere important corporate organizations which
( *9) performed a variety of economic and welfare functions in ancient
r India.19 Guilds were playing important role during Buddhist period.
Apart from economic and political functions, these ^uildswere
providing social security to the oppressed class of the society/'some
part of the funds was utilized foFthe refef-ef^deserving persons

48 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

such as the distressed, the diseased, the blind, the idiotic, the
infirm, the orphans and helpless women.
With the development of agrarian society, a new type of polity
developed in the form of early Kosala and Magadha States.
Bimbsara became the king of Magadha about 300 B.C. He was the
earliest of Indian kings to lay the foundation of an efficient
administrative system. He paid special attention to the development
of roads and development of agriculture. Severe punishment was
inflicted on cruel and corrupt officers. His son Ashok succeeded
him in 273 B.C. Social and political activities of the king during
Maurya's period have been recorded by Kautilya in his book.

Kautilya in his book Arthasaslra had mentioned the duties of the

king^owards his subjects. "In the happiness of his subjects lies his
happiness, in their welfare his welfare, whatever pleases himself he
shall not consider as good; but
 whatever pleases his subjects he
shall consider as ftnnri-"- 1 It was the, duty of the king to provide
help for maintenance to the minor, aged, afflicted, helpless and

women.

A wide range of social welfare activities were undertaken

during the reign of Ashpka, Superintendents of women (Ithighaka
Mahamattas) were appointed to look after the welfare of the
women including prostitutes. High commissioners of Charity
(Dhammamahamatas) were appointed for the recording of
charitable donation by the royal family and regulation of charity.
The commissioners of equity were to look after the welfare of the
prisoners. The welfare programmes were under the overall charge of
Dhamma Mahamattas.

I rt.shoka^developed a comprehensive system of social^ welfare

wj^uc^lh^IudecFwomen's welfare, rehamiitation_oi prisoner^rural ^\
development, free~"me~dicai care, regulation of prostitujifln_Jand \_JJ
provision oTp^licjjjj^tjes like roads, rest houses for traveller, wells,
etc". The creationof separate cadre of state officials to irnplerSent
tTiese programmes is an accomplishment that compares very
favourably with the social welfare system of some of the modern

, sociaLdejnocracies of Europe.

Canishka)ascended the throne in 78 A.D. Like Askoka, the/cJ

Great, he took an active interest in the welfare of the society. He^
gawjiberal donations and grants for the construction of Buddhist

^harsTmonasIeries, stupas etc. These weretlr- ranrres for learning,

and help to the needy people.

1IISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK

49
 The period of the Gupta ruie is one of the brightest in the
history of India. The Gupta dynasty included a succession of brilliant
rulers like Chandra Gupta, Samudra Gupta, who established a
well-governed empire and people were happy and prosperous.
'Welfare of the people* was the main task of the king who devoted
his like for the same.
--^ piarsaverdhani who occupied the throne in 606 A.D. was an
| ^Jfcnlightened and benevolent ruler. The welfare of his subjejrts__always
^^dominated his thoughts and acTioT\STtfer^gsT1Sr5SEedhospitaIs,
dispensaries, orphanage^l^^a^-Jxoxr^IlQrTEe^dgf?tuTgsT~He
distributed presents_among men^oXidigiQn, the poor and the needy.
In" one of the five-yearly assemblies at Prayag~(73IaEaMH) he is
believed to have given everything he had in charity and had to
borrow clothes from his sister.
SOCIAL WELFARE DURING SULTANATE
The Sultanate was an Islamic state. The dut'igs of the kingjasluded
/^^maintenance of peace, porte^uo^ and

V__yrealization of taxes, providing justice tothe_Jsjilyects^BesKJej4_the

rutcT^I3TItTIe~Trjr~trs~gCrIerat welfare of the masses^ Malik-Ali, a
noble of balrJaTiTwSOrcire-gencreuTlrT]^ He always gave
a gold or silver coin to the beggar. Ghias-ud-dinJIughlak was a
charitable king. Mohammad Gawan spent all his wealth on the poor
and himself ate the coarse food of a peasant and slept on the ground
with a straw mat for a bed. Sufi Sheikhs use to distribute gifts to
the needy Muslim masses who came to their Klianquahs. Usually
one of the disciples of the sheikh was appointed as the manager to
look after the needy.
SOCIAL WELFARE DURING MUGHAL RULE
VHjimayunjwas the first Muslim king who made a bold attempt to
\pTohibit'"tn"e Sati system/^b>ar)was the great ruler who, not only
'brought many reforms inlndian" society but also abolished slavery in
| 15g5~fle~ introduced equalityamohg the people irrespective their
"ctasT^nd religion. His was a policy of religious equalltylancjThe
granteH~l'uU freedom to the subjects in matters of reli^ious^beliefs
-iiadlpHcfieEsrffg^vvas libeTaTin granting money and land for the
\ benefit orHTndus, Jains, Parsees etc. Akbar had a comprehensive
I system of poor relicf.fEejief Tof the pgoTwas ot two types. The'first
^was granting relief in cash and Kind to any and everyneedy person

*
50
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

{*>

if is
.i
-*

who. appeared before him at his daily court. The second type was a
systematic and_grganized assistance which was provided regularly.
 BVazifas (stipends! were also given to the student. He constructed
Three houses for the poor in order to control beggary.
CONTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUALS
fcjlaja Ram MoliajiRoy was the greatest Indian of the nineteenth
century who sowed the seeds~of religious and social reforms. Hds,' *>
invested most of his talents and power towards the ajzojiupn of Sgti.
He was in favour of wdpjw_rcrnaxriage and female education. Raja
Ram Mohan Roy's opinion was that only by ffeeing women aiicf by ^
treating them as human beings'Indian society would free itself (romi^hj
social stagnation. .Iswar Chandra Vidya Sagar was the_second great
social reformer of the nincteenth_century. He advocated for widow
remarriage, economic self reliance, women's education and
prohibition of polygamy. It waTwith IrTtrfoiht eiloTFts^of Ram
TvTohan Royjmd Vidya SngarTliat the '^VidowJRemarriage Act waiT
passed in Bal ShastriJambhekar,~"who was the first professor
at Elphinstone College, Bombay, condemned the evil customs of
Sad and female infanticide as well as trafficking in female children.
He tried for the framing of laws to abolish these customs. But he
believed that these evils could be removed only through social
reforms and by searching for s'ome sanction in the Shastras so that
they would be acceptable to the people. Gopal Hari Deshmukh of
Bombay promoted modern education for the establishment of .
dispensaries, maternity homes, orphanages, etc.
^asipada^Banerjce was a notable reformer of Bengal who
worked (or the cause of women's education and widow remarriage. ( c \
He himself married a widow when his first wife died. He arranged
several marriages of widows and gave shelter to widows in his home.
He was pioneer in taking up the welfare work for labourers^jotiraoT d.)
Phulc. contemporary of Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, was an active
reformist in Poona. He was working for the cause oFfemale and
low caste people education. He also worked towards improving the
condition of Maharashtrian peasants. He established the Satya
ShodhakSamaj in 1868 for the social and economic uplift of the
low caste people. ^-Ranade, Tclang, Lokahitawadi Deshmukh,
jBhandarkar and D.K. Karve were the prominent leaders of sociaT
reform movement in the west, expecially in Poona. Tilak and
Gokhale also worked for the cause of upliftment but they were more

HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK

!51

engaged in political activities. V. R. Shinde initiated welfare work

among the tribal people N.M. Joshi and N.G. Chandavarkar
established Bombay Social Service League which organized night
classes and recreational programmes
 among mill workers in ,
Bombay.
iandhiji became active,, in political as well-as social figM in
920". Hesy^bolisecyHelntegration of political refona-With-social x
rr^nrm TT^nrVpH f^thp »pimmp^fpf w"r"?4VTJ^rijn"'i nndfnpght
the equality between men and women. Gandhiji always argued
thatror lhe~development of the country it was not ^nly essential that
iPshouid be tree from foreign rule, but It should also be free from
many social evils which hinder and sometimes block the process of
development. f) - ~^ Q S Q 6 3
.CONTRIBUTION OF ORGANIZATIONS
The important organizations which played significant role in the
development of social work are Brahmo Samajr-PrartharnrSamai,
Arya Samaj, Theosophical Society, Ram Krishna Mission""
foluhammedan Literacy Society. 'l he Bombay Widow Remarrrago^
Association. Bengal Hindu Widows Association, Indian National
Social Conference and the Servants of India Society. Brahmo Samaj
was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who started thetAtmija
Samaj in 1815 which grew into thc_ Brahmo Samaj. It worked for the
abolition of Salt, widow remarriage and women's welfare. Arya_^
Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875. He
"opposed the caste system ana chTtdTrratffege.TEebsophicarS6ciety
was founded in 1881 in Madras by Madame Blavastsku and Colonel
Olcott. Swami Vivekanand foundecf Ram Krishna Mission in 1897,
started its programmes with education, treatment and general help.,
Indian National Social Conference came into being in 1887 for the
thorough discussion and implementation of social welfare
programmes. Gopal Krishna Gokhle who had deep interest in the
work of social services,,established the Servants of India Society in
1905.
|W - 3 -PUS
-CjlODERN SOCIAL WORK
Modern Social work was introduced in India by. Christian
©
Missionaries at thebeginning of the nineteenth century when they~~~
started making houses tor orphan children and_destitute^Srrand ..
women. Indian social reformers . likej SasfoadaBanerjecrT:'fiOfct-

DSLHl PUBLIC LIBRARY^ A)

52 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

Karve, etc., started building homes for the widows. Some social
organizations like Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Ram Krishna
Mission began to provide a variety of social welfare services to the
needy. Religious associations also played
significant role in
providing institutional welfare services in India. The role of State in
the field of social welfare commenced during the second and third
decades of the twentieth century though earlier measures were taken
like that of the Apprentices Act of 1850 for the employment of
orphans and destitutes, Reformatory School Act of 1870 which
provided the training to destitute children and treatment of juvenile
delinquents, Children Act 1920 (Madras) Abolition of Sad 1829,
Abolition of Slavery 1843, Abolition of Female Infanticide and
Human Sacrifice 1870, Widow Remarriage Act 1856, Factory Act,
1881.
The year of 1936 jmarks a watershed in the history of
professional social work in India when for the teaching and training
of social work, the first school of social work was established in
Bombay. It was named Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social
Work. Now it is known as 'Tata Institute of Social Sciences'. After
Independence many Universities in India have social work as a
subject in their courses.

REFERENCES

1. Luric, II.L: The Development of Social Welfare Programmes in United Stales.

Social Work Year Book 1957, p. 20:
2. Cohen, Nathan E : Social Work in the American Tradition. The Dryden Press,
New York, 1958, p. 66.
3. Watson, Frank D : The Charity Organization Movement in tlie United States. Mac
Millan, New York, 1922, p. 94.
4. Cohen, op. cit., p. 67.
5. Ibid., p. 68.
6. Kellogg, Charles D : Charity Organization in the United Slates, Proceeding of the
National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1893, p. 52.
7. Slcincr, J.F : Community Organization: A Study of its Tlicory and Practice.
Century, New York, 1930, p. 155.
8. Dillick, S : Community Organization for Neighbourhood Development: Past and
Present, Women's Press, New York, 1953, pp. 37-38.
9. Luric, II.L: op. cit. pp. 32-33
10. Schwcinitz, Karl de : England's Road to Social Security, University of
Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1943, p. 29.
11. Winner. II.L.op. cit., p. 142
12. Ibid pp. 142-143.
13. Ibid. p. 157.
2.
HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK
53

14. Central office of Information, London: Social Work and die Social Worker in
Britain, 1951, p. 5.
15. Shashtri, R.R : Social Work Tradition in India, Wetfare forum and Research
 Organization, Varanasi, 1966, p. 4.
16. Ibid. p. 6.
17. Thaper, R: Ancient Indian Social History. Orient Longman, Delhi, 1978, p. 115.

18. Ibid p. 127.

19. Pathak, S: Social Welfare. Mac Millian Ltd. 1981, p. 32.
20. Tirumalachar, B : Economic Organization in Ancient India, Indian Journal of
Economics, Vol. 22,1941-42, p. 380.
21. Kautilya Anhasastra, Translated by R. Shamasastiy, Wesleyan Press, Mysore,
1929., p. 38.
22. Ibid p. 47
23. Pathak, S. op. tit, p. 38.
24. Pathak, S. op. cit, p. 48.
•
 3

Fields of Social Work

SOCIAL work functions to find solutions for problems of social

adjustment. Its aim is not only to help the individual, the family and
the group in their relationships but it is also concerned with the
improvement of general social conditions. This goal is achieved
tlirough social welfare institutions like schools, hospitals, welfare
centres, etc. They arc the societal means to assist people who face
psycho-social and economic problems in meeting the demands of
their environment or in their personal relations. Social work is
practised in these welfare institutions.
In general, the following are the fields in which social work is
practised:

1. Child Development
2. Rural Development
3. Industrial Development
4. Health
5. Mental Health
6. Education
7. Social Defence
8. Family Planning
9. Mental Retardation
10.,Social Development
II. Environment

^HILD DEVELOPMENT
Children are the treasure of a nation. They are the foundations of

FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK 55

any nation on which progress of that country depends. Therefore,

their physical, mental, psychological,
emotional and social
development is an essential task of the nation. The following services
have been organized by the Central Social Welfare Board for the
Welfare of Children in India.
/1. Institutions for the protection, education and rehabilitation
/ of the socially handicapped children.
¦ 2. Temporary Homes for the sick children suffering from T.B.
¦ and skin diseases.
: 3. Children's Home, Infant's Home, Balbari, Nursery or
Pre-primary schools, Day care centres, etc
4. Recreational and cultural centres and Holiday Homes for
the children of the families of economically weaker sections.
5. Child Health Centres
6. Child Guidance Clinics
7. Schools for mentally retarded, deaf and dumb children.
Social worker works in these institutions and tries to solve
their problems. He tries to strengthen the path for the
development of their personality. He also develops
functional abilities and capabilities in them.
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Development of the rural areas has been one of the major concerns
of the successive Five Year Plans in India. An increase in the
productive potential of the rural economy is an esssential condition
for finding effective solutions to the problems of rural poverty. The
following antipoverty programmes have been launched by the
government: Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP),
National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), Rural Landless
Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP), Training of Rural
Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM), Development of Women
and Children in Rural Area (DWCRA), Minimum Need Programme
(MNP), Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Desert
Development Programme (DDP), 20-Point Programme, Jawahar
Rojgar Yqjna, etc.
Social worker takes up the following activities in respect of the
removal of poverty in rural areas.
1. He disseminates knowledge of various developmental
programmes of the government including actual benefits

56 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

available under them, their conditions of eligibility,
procedural requirements, etc. as also of various social
welfare laws protecting and promoting the interests of
weaker and vulnerable sections of society;
2. He helps the poor in actually getting the full benefits of
these developmental programmes without any share of the
administrative machinery or of the locally influential
 persons;

3. He persuades and sometimes

 pressurizes the government to
take up such measure immediately as may be instrumental in
controlling the loss to public being caused as a result of
inadequacies of the developmental programmes.
4. He provides sufficient knowledge to the poor with the subtle
ways in which their exploitation is done in the name of
providing assistance to them. He finds out alternative
sources of financial and other types of helps, provides legal
aid if required, and organizes them to jointly fight against
oppressors.
5. He helps in the implementation of laws directly helpful in
removal of poverty such as Minimum Wages Act, the
Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, etc.
6. He promotes the value of self-employment in place of
service, makes provision for their training and assists in
mobilizing of required resources including credit for starting
self-employment.
7. He disseminates necessary knowledge regarding new tools,
equipments, methods, techniques, varieties and ways of
using them and persuades people to adopt them for
speedier and better economic development.
S. He helps in changing the attitudes and beliefs of rural
people to attribute everything concerning them including
poverty to their destiny by convincing them that without
kanna (action) nothing can be attained, let alone betterment
in their life and living conditions.
It is supposed to be performed a number of roles by the social
worker depending upon requirements of the situation prevailing in a
community. The following are the major roles:

FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK

57

1. The Enabler
Helps people to understand their needs and problems, and
knowledge of resources. He arouses in them the discontent with the
existing situation and develops the capacity to deal with this
situation.

2. The Guide
He brings people in contact with resources of the community which
they need but do not make them aware about their existence.

3. The Advocate

He pleads for his clients against injustice in the distribution of

benefits and services. He makes contacts with the concerned
authorities and challenges the unjust stance taken by such
organizations. He raises the voice
against the grievances of people in
order to bring necessary change in policies, programmes, plans and
procedures.

4. The Experts
He provides an expert advice to people in time of need, analysis and
makes diagnosis for effective functioning of the programmes.

5. The Therapists
He deals with the deep-rooted problems and makes people
conscious about the disruptive forces operating in his life. He takes
all measures to build their ego strong.

6. Social Changer
He tries to change the old habits of people, methods of working and
passimistic attitudes towards life which are harmful in the process of
socio-economic development.

7. The Informer
He disseminates knowledge regarding various developmental
programmes and actual benefits available with them.

58 SOCIAL WORK - PI IILOSOPHY AND METHODS

8. The Helper
He helps the poor in getting the full benefits of the developmental
plans and advises them for its proper utilization.

9. The Promoter
He promotes the value of self-employment and arranges training
facilities for the same and mobilizes required resources.

10. The Preacher

He preaches to them the theory of karma and pressurizes them to
realize that their betterment is in their hands.
SOCIAL WORK IN INDUSTRY

The development of factory system of production with its

concentration of men and machines, and the accelerated pace of
industrialization have resulted in the gradual ascendency of
machinery over men, leading to human neglect and misery. This
evolved the concept of labour welfare programmes with the object of
looking after the interests of the workers who had been overlooked
for long. The Oxford dictionary defines labour welfare as "efforts to
make life worth living for workmen". A paper submitted on behalf of
the Latin American countries to the International Conference of
Social Work held at Munich in 1956, described labour welfare as
"Services rendered to workers and their families by an industrial
enterprise with the purpose of raising their normal material, social
and cultural levels and tc adjust to a better life." At the ILO (SEA)
session held at New Delhi in 1947, labour welfare was understood "as
meaning such services, facilities and amenities, which may be
established in, or in the vicinity of undertakings to enable persons
 employed therein to perform their work in healthy, congenial
surroundings and to provide them with amenities conducive to good
health and good morals." Social worker as a Labour Welfare Officer
is responsible for the welfare of the workers in the industry. It is a
statutory responsibility of an employer to appoint a Labour Welfare
Officer in his organization if the number of employees exceeds 500 in
case of factories and 300 in plantations. Labour Welfare Officer is
required to perform the following functions in the industry.
1. He advises and assists management to secure welfare

FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK

59

amenities like canteen, creche, rest room, recreation hall,

etc. for the workers.
2. He establishes liaison with government agencies on health
and safety of workers.
3. He attempts to provide those facilities which help them in
raising the level of education and standard of living.
4. He sees that various enactments are enforced in the
establishment.
5. He tries to strengthen satisfactory and productive
relationship between the management and the workers.
6. He helps workers to adjust to their working environment.
7. He advises them against going on an illegal strike.
8. He also advises management against declaring illegal
lock-out. v
There are two sets of functions of labour welfare. These are:
Industrial social services and Industrial social work.

1. Industrial Social Services

(a) Compliance of various provisions of basic Acts pertaining to
health and welfare of workers, preparation and submission
of required reports, returns and statistical data;
(b) Management of industrial health services—first aid,
dispensary, ambulance and hospitalization;
(c) Management of company schools and workers' education
classes;
(d) Management of canteens and mid-day meals, etc;
(e) Administration of housing estates and worker's housing
schemes;
(f) Promotion and management of recreational measures—
sports, tournaments, welfare centres, cinema shows, tours,
etc.;
(g) Supervision of provident fund and E.S.I. Scheme work; and
(h) Administration of financial benefit schemes — loans, grants,
etc., and cooperative societies.
2. Industrial Social Work
(a) Orientation and induction of new employees;
(b) Communicating company policies to workers individually
and providing them with correct interpretation, ; and
(a)
60 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
communicating workers' opinions and feelings to the
management;
(c) Exit interviews;
(d) Care of young persons, women and workers nearing
superannuation;
(e) Helping workers in making use of the grievance procedure,
joint committees and other tripartite agencies in the plant;
(f) Helping workers for better adjustment to working hours,
working conditions and work groups and to help
management in evolving suitable working hours, working
conditions and work groups;
(g) Helping workers in their personal and family difficulties to
act as a source person to community services and to become
a liaison between the plant and community services; and
(h) Doing all work that requires help mainly in
socio-psychological environment of the plant.

IIEALTII AND SOCIAL WORK

The sick and the hungry child cannot learn, the sick and the hungry
adult cannot produce. Good health is important both to the
individual and nation. It is in reality the health and happiness and if
health is not satisfactory and normal, all the happiness and joys are
useless for him. It is the yardstick of measuring his progress and
development. Due to this fact man's health and health problems have
occupied a priority among the social values of all the civilizations.
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-
being and not merely an absence of disease or infirmity.
Among other factors, social factors create or favour a
predisposition to disease, directly cause disease, transmit the cause
of disease, and influence the course of disease. Not only do social
factors determine the origin, but the disease may, in turn, exert an
influence on social conditions, largely through the end results of
disease. Medicine plays an active and important role in the
alleviation of sufferings of mankind due to disease but it is not always
fruitful. It cannot be said that the patient will be alright after being
recommended the specific prescription because the patient has also
his individual reactive attitude having a complex of social,
psychological and emotional factors in his personality. Therefore,
social work is required to deal with patient's personal and social
barriers to health.

FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK

61
 Social worker helps the patient from the moment, he enters the
hospital, upto the adjustment with the past normal lifeJHe helps in
registration, getting card, locating actual place of\ treatment,
describing full complaints, meeting senior doctors, understanding
prescription, giving patient simple instructions with appropriate
message, sustaining interest of patient in treatmentXHe helps the
patient in restoration of health and to prevent family and personal
deterioration as a result of the disease. He is perhaps the only person
in medical team, who can provide emotional satisfaction to the
patient.
The long illness makes the patient isolated. Family relations,
sometimes, become less cordial. Friends circle forget him and in
such a situation patient becomes neurotic. Social worker always tries
to gain confidence of the patients family in continuing the treatment
and makes family as a part of therapeutic programme.
Treatment is nearly completed with the discharge of the
patients from the hospitals. Domiciliary care is an important aspect
of hospital treatment. Besides, patients may have problems of
adjustment. The patient may have difficulty in adjusting himself with
his family, employment place and his community. Social worker, if he
is there, helps the patient with the help of other social welfare
agencies. He works between the patient and his family and patient
and his community.
Rehabilitation is an essential step in the total treatment plan. It
is the combined and coordinated use of medical, social, educational
and vocational measures for training or retraining the individual to
the highest possible level of functional ability. Social worker tries to
assess the strength and weakness in the patient whether he has
emotional capacity to go under vocational training. After this he
plans for his vocational guidance, training and employment.
The social work also helps in medico-social research as he is
trained in research methodology.

Social Work in the Prevention of Disease and Promotion of Health

The social worker helps the patients in hospitals in their treatment
and in community tries to prevent the occurrences of diseases and
organizes programmes for their health promotion.
He performs the following activities:

62 SOCIAL WORK - PI IILOSOPHY AND METHODS

1. Nutrition Education
He provides the information regarding the selection of food, diet,
value of rich food, food poisoning, diseases due to malnutrition,
nutritional needs of children and pregnant mothers, facilities
available for them.

2. Water Sanitation
He tells them the importance of safe drinking water, types of water
borne diseases, sources of pollution, how to make water safe and
chlorination of water.

3. Waste and Extra Disposal

He tells the methods and importance of disposal of wastes properly.
He also makes them aware about the diseases due to wastes and
excreta.

4. Control of Insects
He explains the disease due to biting of insects and how to control
these diseases. He emphasizes to follow the principles of
environmental sanitation.

5. Personal Hygiene
Personal hygiene is a science which helps the man in keeping him
healthy. Social worker tells them to follow healthy habits like
cleaning of teeth and mouth, food, body, hands, hair, nails, eyes,
clothes and keeping the food safe.
6. Health Education
He provides education' concerning diseases and their causes, control
methods, treatment procedures, etc.
7. Immunization Campaign
He educates the mothers about the importance of immunization and
mobilizes resources for the needy.

8. School Health Services

He helps in screening of the school-going children and provides
them necessary instructions for keeping their health normal.

9. Marriage Counselling
He explains to the families about the role of heredity, need of marital

FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK

63

adjustment, causes of stresses and strains and effects of family

conflicts.

10. Recreation Facilities

Recreation is an important factor in maintaining proper health. He
organizes recreational programmes for the children, youth and old
persons separately.
MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL WORK
Mental health is not mere absence of mental illness. A mentally
healthy person has three main characteristics: (1) He feels
comfortable about himself, that is, he feels reasonably secure and
adequate. He neither underestimates nor overestimates his own
ability. He accepts his shortcomings. He has self respect. (2) The
mentally healthy person feels rightly towards others. This means that
he is interested in others to love them. He has friendships that are
satisfying and lasting. He is able to feel as a part of a group without
being submerged by it. He is able to like and trust others. He takes
responsibility for his neighbours and his fellow men. (3) The mentally
healthy person is able to meet the
demands of life. He does
something about the problems as they rise. He is able to think for
himself and to take his own decisions. He sets reasonable goals for
himself. He shoulders his daily responsibilities. He is not bowled
over by his own emotions of fear, anger, love or guilt.
To maintain proper mental health is becoming a serious problem
at present due to fast changing attitudes and environmental
conditions. iys_s£limated that there areJLrjdUiQnsjsevereiy.jnentally
ill and ten times that number mildly ill perspns^Jljs-alsaJioted-that
nearly 15 to 20 per cent of people who^eeJuneJicjiLhdrijn-primary
healthy centres, general hospitals or private clinics, have mild mental
disorders. While there are millions of people suffering from various
types of mental illness, there are only 42 mental hospitals in the
country with about 20,000 beds. Therefore, both curative and
preventive steps are urgently needed to overcome the problems.
Researches in the field of mental health and illness have proved
that generally abnormality appears when one fails to adjust oneself in
the community. This concept has helped in the emerging of the role
of social work in this field. Social worker as a member of the team in
the hospital tries to find out interests and attitudes of the mentally
sick and finds out unconscious mind operating behind the present

64
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

problem. He investigates the real problem of the patient and studies

his outer and inner realities. His efforts are always towards the
solution of his adjustment problems by analysing his relationship in
the family and community. He finds out the level of cooperation of
family members, close groups and community people and tries to
strengthen this in favour of the patient.
There are a number of problems in the hospital with which a
patient is encountered. Social worker always tries that the patient
may avail all the available facilities in the hospital. He strengthens his
ego and educates him for making proper adjustment. He prepares
the background and helps in the rehabilitation of the mentally sick.
In short, social worker in mental hospital prepares case records for
the diagnosis, helps in treatment, strengthens ego, provides
educational and counselling services and participates in the
rehabilitation programme.
Social worker performs the above mentioned jobs by using the
techniques of environmental manipulation, counselling.
psychological support, clarification, interpretation, directions, insight
development, transference, etc. He uses these techniques as per
requirement of the patient's personality and problems.
'HIE SCHOOL AND SOCIAL WORK
Social work has a major role to play with regard to school problems
of children. This is one of the best place for
preventive work which
requires closer cooperation between teachers and social workers.
Although the school as an institution has assumed increasing
responsibility for the total development of the students, yet there are
a number of occasions where maladjustment of children may be seen
in schools.
Going to school for the first time is the first long separation
from the parents. Till now the child's world was home and his
parents. The school to him is a different type of world; a new
experience to which he is called upon to make an adjustment. Thus
going to school itself is a critical period in the life of every child. In
such situations, social worker helps the child to adjust to the school
environment.
After the home, the next most important factor in the
environment is the school. The child spends at least eight to ten
hours of his formative and most impressive years in schools. It is
found ..that conditions in the school contribute to the child's

FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK

67

century, advances in medical sciences, public health, agriculture, and

overall improvement in the general standard of living of people have
outstripped the natural resources. The problem of population is
socio-economic disease which has an everlasting effect on the
present as well as on the future generations. If we fail meeting this
challenge, it will be a pathetic jeopardy and, the future generation will
not excuse us.
Family planning is not synonymous with birth control. A WHO
Expert Committee (1970) has stated that family planning includes in
its purview (1) the proper spacing and lim'tation of births, (2) advice
on sterility, (3) education for parenthood, (4) sex education,
(5) screening for pathological conditions related to the reproductive-
system (e.g. cervical cancer), (6) genetic counselling, (7) pre-marital
consultation and examination, (8) carrying out pregnancy tests,
(9) marriage counselling, (10) the preparation of couples for the
arrival of their first child, (11) providing services for unmarried
mothers, (12) teaching home economics and nutrition, and (13)
providing adoption services. *

Family planning at present is the trigger that sets off the new
emphasis on developmental social welfare. It is intrinsically positive
in its objectives as its basic purpose i% to provide an oportunity to
every child to become a balanced human being. Family welfare
planning which is the fundamental source of social development,
comes under the purview of social work profession. The major tasks
of the social worker in the field of
 family planning can be
enumerated as follows: ,
1. Applying the principle of 'individualization' social worker
contacts the client in such a way so that purposeful
relationship can be established and the client accepts him as
his well wisher. ;
2. He provides an opportunity to the client to express positive
and negative feelings about the family planning.
3. He allows his client to make his own choices and decisions
concerning his own life. The client does not want to be
pushed around, 'bossed' or told what to do. ,
4. Social worker creates an atmosphere of friendliness., ,,-.•
5. He treats each case as a separate entity and tries to relate
according to his economic, social, religious and educational
1.
6S
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

background. He gives due respect and weightage to his

feelings, sentiments and other related attitudes.
6. He explains various devices with its positive and negative
aspects.
7. He removes the misconceptions and misgivings of the
couples which they express in discussion.
8. He maintains regular contact with the client.
9. Follow-up work is the life of the whole programme. Clients
develop various problems of psycho-social nature before
and after the sterilization. Social worker deals with these
problems.
In the field of family planning, social group work practice is
essential because the client is not only an individual but he
represents a group as a whole. Family planning is a programme of
delicate nature, needs/social approval and this can only be achieved
through group work practice. He performs the following activities in
groups:
1. He discusses religious and cultural attitudes towards social
and health problems.
2. He describes population problems including its effects on
socio-economic development.
3. He explains the impact of harmonious marital relationship
upon the physical, mental and emotional well-being of the
family members.
4. He discusses the effects of family size on the social aad
economic conditions.
5. He explains the methods of natal care and child's protection
from major diseases.
Social worker as a community organizer uses films, posters,
distribution of literature, group discussions,
 community meetings for
the mass publicity of the family planning programme.
MENTAL RETARDATION AND SOCIAL WORK
The American Psychiatric Association (1968) has defined mental
retardation as "subnormal general intellectual functioning which
originates during the developmental period and is associated with
impairment of either learning and social adjustment or maturation,
or both." There are three main Categories of mental retardation. The
children who have below 25IQ are called idiot, between 25 to 45IQ

FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK

69

are imbeciles and with 50 to 69IQ are morons. The rate of incidence
of mental retardation in India is not known but it is estimated that
about one per cent of the population suffers from mental
retardation. 9
Social work has been increasingly interested in both prevention
and treatment of mental retardation. The social worker takes the job
of performing genetic counselling, family control, prenatal and
post-natal care, nutrition and health care, etc. He also takes part in
the institutional care of the mentally retarded. He is actively involved
in educational and vocational activities, as well as rehabilitative
programmes. 'A
Social worker takes part in the following activities for the
pre-adolescent mentally retarded children.
1. Habit formation personal cleanliness, toilet habits, food
habits, health habits etc.
2. Social experiences — strengthening his relations with
parents, siblings, school-mates, neighbours, visitors and
others.
3. Sense training—names, colours, size, sound, recognition of
objects etc.
4. Speech training emphasis given on clear enunciation,
correction of broken language and removal of speech
defects.
/5. Muscular coordination—walking, marching, playing games
etc.
6. Manual training—knitting, weaving, basket making, cutting
paper, etc. *
For the adolescent group, the social worker provides
opportunities to them for participation in social and civic activities,
provides training in shop, kitchen, laundry, carpentry, metal work
and other handicrafts, according to their interest and capacity,
prepares for house making and teaches them.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL WORK .
Social development is a comprehensive concept which implies
 major
structural changes, political, economic and-culturaV-which are
introduced as part of deliberate action to transfonnjsociety. 10 Social
development consists largely of' efforts to improve the social
situation in regard to social development, housing, health and

^~ *.' „. ^ns*z&**&«!35&r0f%K~ ~JgJw sss^s^yas^ **- «&**m$4m'

70 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

nutrition, education and training, employment and working
conditions, social security, social stability and social welfare. Social
development has been defined as a micro-strategy of planned
intervention to improve the capacity of existing social systems to
cope with demands of change and growth.
Social development has two basic objectives—social justice and
human welfare. Justice is a condition of just and fair to all human
beings in getting what is due to them.13 Social justice includes the
attempts like equitable distribution of physical objects, proper
opportunities for mental, social and spiritual development,
availability of proper resources for development, equal opportunity
in utilizing the available resources etc.

Social work seeks two things for people—economic well-being

and the deeper source of happiness, that is self-realization. The
aim of social work ... is to remove social injustice, to relieve distress,
to prevent suffering and to assist the weaker members of society to
rehabilitate themselves and their families and, in short, fight the five
giant evils of (1) physical want, (2) disease, (3) ignorance,
(4) squalor, (5) idleness.1 Social worker working as a case worker
strengthens the ego of the clients, boosts up morale, increases
efficiency and motivates them to take part in social action
effectively. As a group worker he develops the capacity in individuals
to lead happy group life. He determines both the short and long term
objectives, removes misgivings, develops organizational strength and
leadership qualities in groups, helps to follow democratic principles
in achieving its goals, and thus achieves the objectives of
development. Through community organization methods attempts
are made to maintain adjustment between social welfare needs and
social welfare resources. Informations regarding community are
collected, its needs and problems are studied, priorities are made,
resources are mobilized to meet these needs, programmes are made
for the development of the community. Programmes are organized
on the basis of community participation, and interaction process is
directed to achieve desired goal. Social
 welfare administration
transforms social policies .into services, through planning,
organization, staffing, direction, coordination and feedback.
Attempts are made to extend the services upto each and every
member of the society. Through social action, attempts are made to
change the social environment in ways which make life more
satisfactory. Its aims is to effect not the individual but social

FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK

71

institutions, laws, customs and communities. Immobilizes public

opinion, legislation and public administration in favour of the
objectives believed to be socially desirable. ,
ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIAL WORK
Man is living in a highly complex environment. The environment is
defined as an aggregate of all externa! conditions and influence
affecting the life and development of an organism, human behaviour
or society.1 Thus environment is a multidimensional field that
includes both internal and external factors. The whole
environment includes intra-psychic processes, metabolic and organic
functioning, adaptive capacity and the physical conditions. All the
environment together forms a dynamic matrix of interaction that
shapes an individual's behaviour.
Environment is continuously being exploited by us for the
purpose of raising our material conveniences but this has resulted
in (i) change in the physical constitution of environment;
(ii) disturbance in different links in life chain; (iii) depletion of
natural resources; (iv) degradation of iife support system; and
(v) pollution of different types — water, air, noise, soil, etc.

During the last few decades, a considerable amount of

scientific research has been done to explore various facets of
environment and problems that originate from them. Now it is
widely recognized that some mechanisms will have to be evolved to
bring about a minimal degree of integration between a person and
his environment in order to develop, maintain and even enhance his
problem solving capacity and to ensure his proper growth and
development in his own habitat. It requires proper education.
Social work can provide scientific knowledge concerning the
delicate relationship of human beings to the rapidly changing
physical and social environment. Social work can enable people
to understand varied kind of events and behavioural patterns in
the context of various types of influences and variables that play a
determining role in creation of these events and behavioural
patterns,, can motivate them to focus on the adaptive balance that
may exist between living beings,
 and their environment; andean
assist them to appraise consistencies, strengths and complementaries
as also various inconsistencies, discrepancies and conflicts as they
affect the quality of life.19 '
In order to develop a healthy relationship between man and his

72 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

environment, social work can play a very significant role by creating
and strengthening the right kbd of thinking, attitudes and
behavioural patterns among people. The specific functions that
social work can perform in this regard are;
1. Social work can provide information required for correct
understanding cf different aspects of environment as also
the problems that emanate from it and the measures that
can be adopted to tackle them.
2. Social work can present facts before people to enable
them to take righf decisions.
3. Social work can develop such attitudes and values in the
personality of the people. as may develop and sustain the
feeling of respect for environment for various types of gifts
that it has made available to mankind and refrain them
from taking any such action that may lead to exploitation
and abuse of environment.
4. Social work can substitute the existing harmful values of
materialism and hedonism leading to environmental
degradation by propagating and developing the values of
plain and simple living.
5. Social work can motivate man to adopt a friendly behaviour
towards environment.
6. Social work mobilizes and organizes people to give, a united
challenge to those who indulge in varied kinds of activities
detrimental to the conservation and development of
environment.
7. Social work can persuade and prepare people to take all
such steps like promotion of afforestation and restraint on
deforestation, restriction on emission of various pollutants
that pollute water, air, soil etc.
8. Social work can impress upon the policy-makers to
formulate such policies and enact such laws as may be
conducive to promotion of cordial relationship between
man and his environment.
9. Social work can urge and motivate the people associated
with enforcement of various policies and legal enactments
to implement their various provisions sincerely and to
ensure that penalties stipulated for their violation are
imposed upon those whd glaringly violate them.
1.
FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK
73
10. Social work can help in fixing the responsibility of those
 employees of the enforcement machinery who deliberately
ignore the infringement of legal provisions or show
slackness in dealing with the law breakers and can ensure
that suitable action is taken against such irresponsible and
recalcitrant employees.
11. Social work can appeal and prepare people in general in
the community to lend their maximum possible
cooperation in the task of environmental conservation and
development not only by observing various 'dos' and 'donts*
in their personal lives but also by initiating all sorts of
suitable organized social action including specific
work-oriented projects in a sustained manner that may be
required in this regard.
12. Social work in collaboration with other disciplines may
undertake scientific researches to explore various
unexplored aspects of environment, especially to highlight
its realities and their impact upon mankind and to suggest
measures that ought to be taken to recreate a friendly
relationship between man and environment.

REFERENCES

1. Jacob, K. K : Methods and Fields of Social Work in India. Asia Publishing

House, Bombay, 19S5, p. 192.
2. Vaid, K.N: "Labour Welfare/E Encyclopedia of Social Work in India, Vol. I. The
Planning Commission, Government of india, 1968, p. 457.
3. Chairman's Address, Panel on Sorial Work in Medical Setting, Proceedings of
the Annual Conference, 1954, p. 342.
4. W.H.O.1948.
5. Crew, F.A.E : Health, its Nature and Conservation, Pergamon Press, London
1965, quoted by Misra, P.D. Social Medicine to Social Work; Pragati Publishing
House, Lucfcnow, 1979, p. 2,.
6. Lay Cock, Samuel, R: Canadian Journal of Public Health 33,1962, p. 413.
7. Isaac, Mohan K. Chandrashekar, C.R. Murthy, R. S : Manual of Mental Health
for Medical Officers. National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro-Sciences,
Bangalore, India. 1985, p. 2.
8. Johnson, E H: Crime, Correction and Society. Dorsey Press, Illinois, 1978.
9. National Mental Health Programme for India, 1986, p. 6.
10. Pathak, S : "Social DevclopmentE Encyclopaedia of Social Work in India, Vol.
3 New Delhi, 1987.
11. Rao, M. S : "Statistics for Social Developments in Gokhale, S.D. {ed.) Social
Welfare; Legend and Legacy Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1974, p. 92.
1.
74
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

12. Sharma, P. N. and Sliastri, C : Social Planning Concepts and Techniques, Print
House, India, 1984, p. 18.
13. Rao, K. Subha : Social Justice and Law. National Publishing House, Delhi,
1974.
14. Youngdahl, BE : 'Social Work as a Profession' Social Work Year Book 1949,
Sussell Sage Foundation, New York, 1949, p. 408.
15. Ouolcd in Unjted Nations, Training for Social Work—An International Survey,
p. 108.
16. Lcavcll, II.R. and Clark, E. G : "Preventive Medicine for the Doctor in his
Community" McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1965, quoted by Park,
J.12. Text Book of Preventive and Social Medicine, Banarsidas Bhavot, Jabalpur,
1972, p. 25.
17. Balgopal, P.R. and Vassil, T. V : Group in Social Work : An Ecological
Perspective. Mac Millan Company, New York, 1983, p. 20.
IS. Germain, C.G :"Ecolog\> and Social Work" in C.G. Germain (ed.) Social Work
Practice, People and Environment, Columbia University Press, New York, 1979,
p. 17.
19. Ibid p. 326.

Social Work and Social Sciences

Modern age is called an age of cooperation, co-relation and co-

ordination. Nothing can east in isolation. Every branch of knowledge
is co-related, interdependent and has genesis of development and
growth. This is true in case of social work and social sciences because
social work deals with the problems of human beings and problems
cannot be understood without the knowledge of psychological,
sociological, political and ethical nature of human beings and its
society. It is becoming increasing evident to the social workers that
the problems of personality and human adjustment require the
integration of our knowledge of biological organism, society and
culture. No social worker can ignore the significance of sociological,
psychological, anthropological and economic data in the study and
the solution of their problems.
Social sciences form an integral part of social work knowledge as
well as practice. Its importance to social work is immense in as much
as they provide fundamental knowledge about man, culture and
society. A theoretical understanding of these social elements is of
great significance to social workers. Social science knowledge
provides basic knowledge about the socio-economic and cultural
environment of the people as a factor affecting the behaviour and
relationship of the people. This knowledge is essential for social
worker to deal with his clients.
Social work in its attempt to find a body of knowledge about man
and society for its professional task, has had necessarily to draw from
a variety of sources. Efforts are being made to test these borrowed
ideas and concepts against the practical situation encountered in
 .I

76 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

working with people, but much success has not been achieved and
hence social science still have significance in the practice of social
work.
I. SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL WORK
Sociology is concerned with the study of the social life of man and its
relation to the factor of cultural, natural environment, heredity and
the group. It may be defined as the study of the ways in which social
experiences function in developing, maturing and representing
human being through inter-personal stimulation. Sociology is the
study of social situation. A social situation is an interplay of a number
of persons meeting or attempting to meet a want or a need. As soon
as the want or need is met, the temporary coming together of
individuals is dissolved and the individuals will presently regroup
themselves in other social situations.
Sociology is 'about' social relationship, the network of social
relationship we call society. 4 The subject matter of sociology is (i)
social morphology—population, its qualities, social groups, social
institutions, and organizations, (ii) social processes—cooperation,
competition, conflict, accommodation, adaptation, assimilation,
adjustment, socialization, etc., (iii) social control—religion, tradition,
folklore, morality, beliefs, laws, etc., (iv) social pathology—crime,
juvenile delinquency, suicide, unemployment, corruption, cultural
deviation, etc. Thus, we can say that sociology is the scientific study
of human organizations, groups and their interactions.
Social work derives most of its knowledge from sociology
because the psycho-social problems of an individual cannot be
diagnosed and solved without having the knowledge of his social
environment. The study of sociology is essential for social workers
because of the following factors.

1. The study of social organizations is essential for treatment.

Sociology studies the interactions of groups and individuals
whereas social work is responsible for the solution of the
 problems of these groups. If a social worker does not have
the knowledge of individual and group, he can neither
diagnose nor can take any corrective measure.
2. The study of individual and group interaction is essential in
social work. Heredity and environment affect the
individual's behaviour and hence without having the
knowledge of interactions in the environment, change
1.
SOCIAL WORK AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
77

cannot be brought in man. Social workers have to study

sociology.
3. The knowledge of social relations is essential in soda! work,
whatever the individual be and the type of personality he
has. When social relations are not satisfactory, only then he
realizes the problem. Therefore, without understanding the
nature of social relations, problems cannot be understood.
Social relatioas are the subject matter of sociology.
4. Social work lays emphasis on the study of culture.
Individual's behaviour is mostly conditioned by traditions,
customs, folk ways, values, norms, beliefs, etc. These are the
constituents of the culture which is studied in sociology.
5. Social work always tries to have knowledge of social roles
and expectations. One has to perform many roles like that of
the role of son, father, mother, employees, husband, wife,
etc. When one fails to perform any of these roles one feels
maladjusted. Social worker, therefore, always tries to
understand the roles and thus studies sociology.
6. Social work studies life, community relations and its
characteristics for social development. The function of
social work is not only to solve psycho-social problems but it
also enters into the field of social development. This work is
possible only when the characteristics of group and
community are studied. This knowledge we derive from
sociology.
All this does not mean that social work is a branch of sociology.
It differs in many ways.
1. Sociology studies principles of social organizations and
groups whereas social work studies mutuaT interactions
among individuals and groups.

2. Sociology is concerned with theory and it has no concern

 with practice. Social work provides practical shape to the
theoretical concepts.
3. Sociology explains problems, it does not try to solve them
but the basic aim of social work is to solve these problems.
4. Sociology presents the developmental model for the
development of society but which model will be suited is
determined by social work.

78 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

Industrial Sociology and Social Work
Industrial sociology is a branch of sociology that studies conditions
and characteristics of industrial society. It attempts to explain the
inter-relations among labour and industrial organizations. This
aspect of social science studies the following:
1. Industrial conditions and its effects,
2. Conditions of labour and their adjustment,
3. Factors affecting industrial conditions,
4. Personnel management and procedures,
5. Industrial disputes and problems,
6. Industrial relations.
Industrial sociology studies all this on three stages: (1) Labour as
a member of a group; (2) Industry as an organization; (3)
Relationship between society and industry. Social worker has the
knowledge of industrial relations and labour laws. As a labour
welfare officer he tries to solve labour problems.
II. PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL WORK
Psychology literally means the science of soul, but the definition
suffers from extreme vagueness as we cannot give satisfactory answer
to the question, what is soul? Mc Dougall5 has called it the positive
science of conduct and behaviour. Murphy defines psychology as
the science that studies the responses which the living individuals
make to their environment. Woodworth calls it science of action.
Psychology studies the general principles of the human behaviour. It
studies the individual without making any reference to his social
environment. The main aim of psychology is to establish laws of
behaviour which are not affected by the differences of upbringing.
Fundamental laws of motivation, perception, learning, memory,
thinking etc., are universal to all human beings, irrespective of the
culture and the social upbringing. In short, psychology studies the
individual in abstract.
The unit of study in psychology is an individual and its attitudes
is individualistic. Social work also gives much emphasis on individual
 but its approach is both individualistic and social. Psychology is
related only to the mental aspect of an individual. The scope of
social work is wide as it studies all aspects of individual and society
which are concerned with the individual and social problems.
Psychology studies mental activities and thus its major emphasis is on

SOCIAL WORK AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 79

the functioning of the nervous system. This knowledge is essential in
social work as it concerns with individual's needs and problems.
Social worker helps an individual after having studied his
cognition, memory, learning, perception, etc.
Psychology studies human bahaviour, feelings, motivations, and
perception and tells us the factors that play in the formation of
behaviour. Social worker needs the knowledge of these factors as he
tries to affect the behaviour of the client.
HI. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL WORK
Social psychology is the study of the persons in their interactions with
one another and with reference to the effects of this interplay upon
the individual's thoughts, feelings, emotions and habits. It is the
science which studies the behaviour of an individual so far as his
behaviour stimulates other individuals or is itself a reaction to their
behaviour and which describes the consciousness of the individual in
so far as it is a consciousness of social objects and reaction.9
Social Psychology studies the following:
1. Socialization of the child, culture and personality,
2. Individual and group differences,
3. Social stimuli and social, stimulus situations,
4. Individual and group dynamics,
5. Social Pathology.
Social worker studies social psychology to understand the
interactions between behaviour and environment. This study k
essential for the confirmation of the diagnosis and treatment
methodology. Problems arise due to personal or social factors and
therefore, their study is essential for the workers. Social psychology
analyses social conditions on three stages—social behaviour of
individuals, behaviour of social groups and methodology of various
organizations and institutions. This knowledge of social psychology
affects the activities of social work in all stages. Knowledge of these
three stages is generally used in all the methods of social work, but
especially in social case work and group work.
The growth and development of personality is not determined by
one factor but it is due to the interplay of many factors, individual's
reactions, thoughts, attitudes, values and behavioural patterns are the
result of his socialization and social experiences. He works according
to the cultural expectations of society. If we want to study individual's

t
80 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND MEHIODS
behaviour, it becomes essential to throw light on his groups
affiliations and social interactions that take place in his environment.
The objective of social work is individual's growth, development and
adjustment. This objective can be achieved only when the social
worker is equipped with the knowledge of social interactions and its
affects on individual. He solves adjustmental problems through
bringing change in the personality of the client and also in his social
environment. To bring change in social conditions, it is essential to
know the cultural traits like customs, traditions, values, etc. All this
makes the study of social psychology essential for social workers.
IV. ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL WORK
Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life, it
examines that part of individual and social action which is most
closely connected with the attainment and with the use of material
requisites of well-being' Economics is the science which studies
human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means
which have alternative uses. It is a social science studying how
people attempt to accommodate scarcity to their wants and how
these attempts interact through exchange.
Economic activities of an individual are studied in economics. It
is related to production, consumption, exchange, and distribution of
wealth. Economic aspect of life is an important factor in his growth
and development. His social and personal life is affected to a great
extent by the economic conditions. Social work deals with the
problems of man and society, therefore, it has to study the economic
conditions of man and society. To deal with problems it becomes
essential to study social interactions which are influenced by
economic conditions. Therefore, social work tries to assess these
conditions while working with them.
Economics studies only economic aspect of life whereas social
work is concerned with the 'whole' life of man. Economics studies
man with the economic viewpoint whereas social work studies man
for the solution of the problems and his growth and development.
Economics is concerned with those economic activities the aim
of which is to fulfil the aims of economic and social welfare. Social
and economic conditions are interconnected. Social work studies the
needs of man including economic needs. If these needs are not
fulfilled, they take the shape of problems and come in the purview of
social work.

SOCIAL WORK AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

81
V. POLITICAL SCIENCE AND
 SOCIAL WORK
Political science may be defined as the science of the state. It deals
with the associations of human beings that form political units with
the organization of their governments and with' the activities of these
governments in making and administering laws and in carrying on
inter-states relations. It deals with those relations among human
beings which come under state regulations with the relations of
individuals or groups to the state itself, and with the relations of state
to other states. Political science explains the nature of state, its
importance, organization, principles of administration and policies.
It is concerned with the political life of a state or a big group.
Political science is keenly interested in making human being/social
being. Social work believes that man is a social being and various
conditions of state and society affect his development and behaviour.
Political science also studies those organized aspects of society
which are influenced by political system. It explains the suitability of
the policies and systems. Social worker needs to know all this
knowledge for the performance of his job.
State controls the behaviour and functioning of the people. It
makes such provisions so that each is benefited. The scope of state is
very wide and individual's relations are part of it. State has power to
control all types of economic, moral and religious relations and
mutual interactions. Social work is concerned with all these human
relations and interactions. Therefore, social worker requires the
knowledge of state controlling authority.
There are a number of problems which can be solved only by
enacting legislation or changing present legislation. For this work,
the study of political science is ess'ential.
VI. STATISTICS AND SOCIAL WORK ' '
According to Saligman "Statistics is the science which deals with the
methods of collecting, classifying, presenting, comparing and
interpreting numerical data collected to throw some light on any
sphere of enquiry.1 According to King, the science of statistics is the
method of judging collective, natural or social phenomenon from the
results obtained from the analysis or enumeration or collection of
estimates. Lovilt defines statistics as science "that which deals with
the collection, classification and tabulation of numerical facts as the
basis for explanation, description and comparison of phenomena. .
Statistics simplifies complexity. Statistical methods describe; a

82
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
 *>•
phenomenon in a very simple fashion. It also measures results.
Statist ical methods are the best ways to measure the results of cause
and effect relationship or relationship between two phenomena.
Statistics enlarges human experience and knowledge by making it
easier for man to understand, describe and measure the effects of his
own actions or the actions of others.
Social work helps us in solving different types of problems. For
this purpose, the information regarding nature and extent of these
problems is collected. Various data arid facts regarding that problem
are gathered to understand the real nature of problem. It becomes
important to study statistics. With the help of statistics social work
tries to solve individual group and community problems.
Social research is a method of social work through which
informations are collected for the solution of the personal, social
and community problems. With the help of statistics, these
informations are measured, analysed and interrelationship is
established.
VII. SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIAL WORK
Social anthropology can be regarded as a branch of sociological
studies, that branch which chiefly devotes itself to the primitive
societies. It studies the activities of human beings that provide
satisfaction to bio-psychic needs. It basically studies the culture of
societies whose culture is less changeable. Their folkways, mores,
traditions and values are different than that of modern societies.
There are a number of schools of social work in India where
tribal welfare is taught as a specialized course. Social work students
receive information regarding the social organization, their values,
beliefs, customs and on the basis of this information they understand
the needs and problems of the tribal people. Only then, a plan of
action is prepared for the solution of their problems. This knowledge
can be derived only through the study of social anthropology.
 VIII. ETHICS AND SOCIAL WORK
Ethics is the science that deals with conduct, in so far as this is
considered as right or wrong, good or bad. It studies the Tightness
and incorrectness of the behaviour. In order to point out whether
particular behaviour is justified or not, the social background has to
be kept in mind. The behaviour that is considered to be correct in
one society, may not be taken to be correct in another one. It is on

_an inescapable coimeuiun—imn-nn. |jmnA»^7/ „« ..j^_^.—^^n

Social workers are precipitated into philosophical considerations
that take on practical
 importance when we consider of what it is
that our practice consists. Questions about the nature of the self and
other selves, the nature of reality, of consciousness, of determinism,
of science, of reason, and of the function of the will cannot be
evaded, because we are technicians who work with people and
people live in a social world, in world of change, of community, and
of habit.
Herbert Bisno\° has described the philosophy of social work in
details in his book 77ie Philosophy of Social Work. He has narrated
the philosophic tenets of social work in 4 areas:

groups and individuals

1. The nature of the individual,
2. The relations between groups
and between individuals,
3. The functions and methods of social work, and
4. Social maladjustment and social change.
I. THE NATURE OFTIIE INDIVIDUAL
Bisno has explained the following basic tenets, of nature of
individual, which are the basis of the foundation of social work.
(i) Each individual, by the very fact of his existence js of .worth.
It is the firm conviction of social work that life in itself is
socially desirable. The most fundamental premise of all
which permeates social work is, "for belief in the inherent
worth of the individual is the focus of several cardinal
principles: equality of opportunity, the rights of minorities,
the rights of free expression."11
(ii) Human suffering is undesirable and should be prevented,
or at least alleviated, whenever possible. Social work rejects
the doctrine of the value of 'suffering for suffering's sake'.
Social work believes that sufferings are the results of

SOCIAL WORK PHILOSOPHY gs

or threaten_iQ_break„down or- aremot~at~tftr"$tage-of Bfaximum
potential Therefore, it becomes essential to clarify the philosophical
foundation and of social work.
Social work has not produced great philosophers. Therefore; it
has had to usejhe_thought of-others and concern itself mainly with
its ^hods.|Edwar£C^mdjnan]was the first social worker who
conscously emphasized philosophical base of social work.
Social work is an entity representing three clearly distinguished
but interrelated parties; a network of social services, carefully
developed methods and processes, and social policy expressed
through social institutions and individuals. AH
 the three are based
on a view of human beings, their interrelationships, and the ethical
demands made on them.
From its beginning, social work has been based on certain
assumptions about man and society (theory) and their moral
obligations to each other (Philosophy)/
_ Tie,philosophy and,social;work is, based on humanitarianism,
hberahsm, and .democracy. Except from-devolion-"l6-wc!fafe of "
human beings, social worker has to find a method of enabling those
who are assisted to regain their confidence in themselves for the
proper adjustment to normal life. "The introduction of the concept
and philosophy of democracy further strengthened the need to
rccqgmze every human being as an individual, worthy of respect
and recogn.t.on, the individual being given the rights as wellas
respons.biht.es of an equal citizen in a democratic society. The.
consent of the governed, rule of the majority, respect for the creative
minority, freedom of assembly, speech and religion supported the
development of the individual in his own right. Underlying these
.factors lay the social philosophy of justice, liberty, equality and
fra ern.ty. It is m the background of this philosophy of life that the
methods of social work have been developed by the practitioners ^
In education for the Public Social Services, the American
Association of Schools of Social Work has set down a statement that
mavhr <nirl torpnnwnt th* „„—* ,i.:i-..¦.,... -fr„.;.. Wl,,,fi
;! t
 SOCIAL WORK PHILOSOPIIY
91

own opinions and beliefs and to act upon them, so long as by

doing so he does not infringe upon the equal rights of
others or abuse his professional relationship to those he
serves or supervises.
IV. SOCIAL MALADJUSTMENT AND SOCIAL CHANGE
(i) There are serious political, economic and social
maladjustment in our culture. The co-existence of serious
social psychological maladjustments and such permeating
social myths implies that there is an urgent need for new
ways of social thinking, that the gap between social facts
and social values must be bridged.
(ii) Evolutionary type 'reform' is both possible and desirable
in our society. It is based on the belief that our institutions
are, potentially possessed of enough flexibility so as to
allow for necessary adaptations to changing needs and
circumstances.
(iii) There is a need for social planning. Social workers believe
in the possibility of the intelligent direction of social change,
in other words, they recognize the need for and feasibility of
social planning. Social planning is essential with two
fundamental purposes of social work; (i) to stimulate
people to use their power for the cooperative
improvement of group life, and (2) to assist in the
development of the process by supplying the technical
services required. But planning for welfare must include
planning for freedom. ,
\*

GANDHIAN PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIAL WORK

Gandhiji had his own vision of the new society and visualized that
with genuine lead and guidance that young men and women can
fruitfully be employed for eliminating the social evils and
re-instalment of higher moral values in the society. Tackling of
dowry menace, elimination of age old caste taboos and other
discriminatory practices, discouraging child marriages and ill
treatment of widows are some of the glaring examples to be tackled
for proper social development.
Mahatma Gandhi suggested and practiced two.fold strategies
to resolve community problems. The first component
is

92 SOCIAL WORK - PI HLOSOPI IY AND METHODS

} non-violenccj It means non-appreciation and abhorrence of power
jor dommatiorucontrbl and profit?"Trie society based on the
principles of non-violence seeks]ant633ya\ as the main aim. It
concentrates on the development of the majority. Through non-
violence all the problems of society can be solved, stressed that truth
and non-violence are not matters for mere individual practice but
for the practiccby_groups, communities and nations. The second
component kvatyagrahj which means the use of truth as a force to
achieve one's goal Salyagrah is a long protracted struggle,
persuasion, setting examples through suffering for one's convictions.
These qualiiies are necessary for social workers.
VALUE OF INDIVIDUAL

Gandhiji considered the individual as the pivot of all social concerns.

He should be centra! fecus of all social services for the alleviation
of his sufferings. He believed that once the individual is perfect, he
will acquire an enlightened state of perfection, called 'Ram Rajya'.
His concept of individual perfection docs not confine to a state of
utmost comfort and happiness by acquisition of material benefits to
an individual but also extends to the achievement of moral and
ethical standards in one's life. He believed in holistic perspective in
regard to an individual. The various facets of human life are not to
be treated as unrelated compartments and that these can never
be tackled in an isolated way. Any change in human being that is
being induced, manipulated or planned, will involve the
consideration of multiple factors.
TI IE CONCEPT OF HELP
Gandhiji never used the word 'help' for the solving of the people's
problems. Instead he usedf'scrvice' (/o/r_£ev£)/vhich meant nothing
less than social, moral --
ano-rn3rIoTnTc indepcndence of the people.
For Gandhiji constructive work and programmes are only means by
which the strength and the will of trip, p^.nplp are sought to be
generated. He formulated J 18-point ru-ogramtgp for constructive
work on different aspects of socl^Tile^xormnunal^arrnony, removal
of untouchabilitv. prohibition, kliadi, gramodyog naHaUm^ajftdt
education, villagehygiene and sanitaTion^r3g^KC- toJback^rd
classes, emancipation of women, health_education, engaataging
riatiGQjil education, nature cure, removaj^f^jc^tiomic jlispSfity,
establishing^ rjrearr«£rttofts---for"Tarmers, labours and youth,

SOCIAL WORK PHILOSOPHY \ 93

self-purification, sarva dharma sambhav (religious tolerance) and

„ physicaUafeour,
These programmes enabled people to be aware of new
dimensions to their capacity and strength. Its aim was to bring a total
change in the society by generating will and strength in the people
themselves. Gandhiji felt that the involvement of constructive
organizations would serve two basic purnOjBS»>nKrstlf, _ these
programmes would foihstitittft rifipwidftncg fflT^^rnmenljfor
socio-economic developmSSwMTeTJance on people themselves, and
secondly, voluntary organizations would be able to win the support
and sympathy; of all sectionsof society and thus would help in creation
of necessary climate for socio-economic development of the people.
M^/irammnstitutions were established to prepare the personnel
foroten!5velopment activities to be pursued in constructive work
programme.,An ashram, placed underjthg_£harge of a person acting
as its leader and possessing a father image for the traineesrwas
required to inspire a community life based on the well known eleven
vows: [truth] (satya), | non-violence] (non-possessio^ (Aparigrah),
coliiror^^P'"*palat^, TtfolPsteaiing^ j feariessmapjT. removal of
untpucfaabjlilyj^onded jgtoggfeBatityOT^ffe^enyrefig^onsj&nd the
use of home made goc4sTThus, it mayTi>e~cTihtcrestToemphasize
trnrT"Gandhiji's constructive work programme came closer to many
popular concepts of professional social work.

Gandhiji emphasized the spiritual nature of man as basis of

change and development. He used spiritualism as a technique and
tool of constructive work in refashioning the prayer meetings,
emphasizing mantras and vows for constructive workers. He stressed
the need for inculcation of scientific insight
 of the workers into the
social and psychological aspects of human life. The Gandhian
concept of social work looks to spiritual nature of man as the main
key to the unfoldment of the potentialities of growth.

With the inspiration of Gandhi's thought on spiritual nature of

man, social work education in America in the sixties and seventies
emphasized upon man's spiritual nature. It is believed that "Man is a
physiological, intellectual, emotional, cultural, social and spiritual
being. All these aspects must be understood in order to understand
the whole person as revealed in his social functioning." Religious
content in Social Work Education under the auspices of Council of
Social Work Education, USA. has found the spiritual content of
man as important conception in Social Work Education. .,

94

SOCIAL WOIUC - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

CONCEPT OF 51VAUESHI

-J

di-
Using pwadeshi/ as an 'umbrella term* Gandhiji emphasized
economic, cultural, social and political dimensions of the
development of society. In opinion the concept of Swadeshi would
permute" dependence on the RQods__ produced in one's
neighbourhood rather than in remote areas. It included non-
possession or voluntary poverty, simplicity in life and resource
conservation. At latent levcL.ihe Swadeshi moyejnsjuliiclps-in the
growth of cottage industry and circulationof self-employed workers.
This movement was ~fulfillirtg~TlTe~airn of social wojrk,_ie_.
self-dependency.
** — ~~' CONCEPT OF C///lRm4
The idea of spinning wheel was linked with the process of
cfe'eentralization! Liandluji wanted every ""village""To"become
fscll-uulonomous' enable"5TpTo^cmgJenougl^tojneeJ-its- own
requit'cnigjmJalifl then to havelutle surplus as conjtjbaitiaa. to the
requirement of cities.

^,,,,1 Gandhi's concept of social work, his priorities, his field of

action and techniques differed significantly from those of the
professional social workers. But Gandhi's contribution has been to
prepare the background, for the establishment of the profession of
social work in India. Gandhi's philosophy as well as the plan of
social work were grounded on a broad strategy of total social
development resulting from a radical transformation from within the
case of the individual and of thc-communily in which he lived.
Social work was not to be directed merely to corrective or
ameliorative activity, although this was
important. It has to be
geared to radical transformation, not merely to dealing with the
consequences of an inequitable social order. Thus it can be
summarized that Gandhian philosophy of social work is not an
individual problem oriented, ameliorative, but a community
oriented process of rural development.

REFERENCES

si/

1. Leonard, P : Social Work Science or Mystique, lecture given at study conference

held under the auspices of the National Institute of Social Work, USA. 1969.
2. Dwcy, John : Philosophy, Encylopacdia of the Social Sciences, Mac Millan, New
York, 1935, p. 122.
1.

TT

SOCIAL WORK PHILOSOPHY

95

3. Konopka, G., Edward C Undeman: Social Work Philosophy, The Univcisiljr of

Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1958, p. 83.
4. Konopka, G. Ibid. p. 84.
5. Nanavati, M.C : ceOrigfn and Growth of Professional Social Work-Historical
Aspects, S. Dasgupta (ed); Towards a Philosophy of Social Work, Popular Book
Services, Delhi, 1967, p. 24.
6. Brown, E. L: Social Work as a Profession, Russell Sage Foundation, New York,
 1942, p. 185.
7. Hathway, N: "Social Action or Inaction: The Challenge" in Training for Social
Work in the Department of Social Science, University of Toronto, 1914-1940, p.
33.
8. Biestefc, F. P : The Case Work Relationship, Loyola University Press, Chicago,
1957, p. 100.
9. Austin, L.N: The Evolution of our Social Case Work Concepts.* The Family,
20; 43, April 1939.
10. Bisno, Herbert : Tlte Philosophy of Social Work, Public Affairs Press,
Washington, D.C 1952, pp-1-125.
11. Hamilton, Gordon : Theory and Practice of Social Case Work, Columbia
University Press, New York, 1940, p. 15.
12. Towle, Charlotte : Common Human Needs, Federal Security Agency,
Washington, 1945, p. 3.
13. Hamilton, G.opcU. 26.
14. Towle, C op. ck pp. 1-10.
15. Robinson, Virginia: A Clianging Psychology in Social Case Work. University of
North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, N.C. 1930. p. 34.
16. Butler, Ruth M : An Orientation to knowledge of Human Growth and
Behaviour in Social Work Education, p. 24, in Sugata Dasgupta's Towards a
Philosophy of Social Work in India. Popular Book Service, New Delhi, pp.
199-200.
17. Majumdar, A. M : Social Welfare in India. Asia Publishing House, Bombay,
1964, p. 155.

18. Ganguli, B.N: Ideal Social Order,

pp. 20-30 Quoted by Shankar Pathak. Social
Welfare, Mac Millan Company, New Delhi, 1981, p. 108.
19. Pathak, Shankar. Ibid p. 109.
3.
6

Basic Values of Social Work

The basic values of social work do not spring up like wild flowers by
the wayside; they are, instead, rooted in the deep fertile beliefs that
nourish civilizations. Values may be defined as a conception of a
standard, cultural or merely personal, by which things are
compared and approved or disapproved in relation to one another,
held to be relatively desirable or undesirable, more meritorious or
less, more or less correct.2 Values are socially approved desires and
goals that are internalized through the process of conditioning
learning, socialization and that become subjective preference, aims
and aspirations.3 It is seen as an intellectual, emotional judgement...
of an individual, group, or society . . . regarding the worth of a
thing, a concept, a principle, an action or a situation. It is the basis
upon which an individual will choose one course rather than
another, judged as better or worse, right or wrong ... we infer them
through their expression in behaviour.
Every profession of human behaviour has some values and on
the basis of these values it achieves its objectives. Social values have
significant role as they maintain social equilibrium, unity in
behaviour, psychological foundation of life, determination of role
and evaluation of social events and problems.
Kohs has divided the values of social work into primary and
secondary. He described ten values as the primary values of social
work, these are:
1. The worth and dignity of man.
2. The capacity of human nature to achieve full human
potential.

BASIC VALUES OF SOCIAL WORK

97

3. Tolerance of differences.
4. Satisfaction of basic human needs.
5. Liberty
6. Self-direction
7. Non-judgmental altitude
8. Construction social cooperation
9. Importance of work and constructive use of leisure.
 10. Protection of one's existence from the dangers caused by
man and nature.

Konopka has enumerated only two primary values of social

work:

1. Respect for every person and the right of each person to

the fullest development of
 his/her potential.
2. Mutual dependence of individuals and responsibility
towards each other according to their abilities.
Friedlander has enumerated four primary values of social
work:
1. Conviction of the inherent worth, the integrity and the
dignity of the individual.
2. The right to determine himself, what his needs are and
how they should be met.
3. Firm belief in equal opportunity for all, limited only by the
individual's capacities.
4. Social responsibilities towards himself, his family and his
society.
Misra, R. Ahmad has described 12 primary values of social
work:
1. Social work believes in the redistribution of economic and
political power in more egalitarian manner.
2. Social work believes in the social feasibility of production
and in the subordination of production to social
purposes.
3. Organized labour makes a positive contribution to
community life and should be accepted as constructive
rather than a destructive force.
4. Social work believes that economic roles should not be
1.
J.*

9S
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
"f

7.
8.

9.
10.

11.

12.
assigned by ascription, or according to status, but by the
standard of achievement.
Social work believes in removing economic imbalance by
plugging the sources of black money, protecting the public
sector from the onslaughts of the private sector and taking
sincere and honest measures for the establishment of
socialistic slate.
Social work believes in social planning that is organized
for the welfare of the great masses of people in a socialist
economy.
Social work believes in the service state which is oriented
to the well-being of everyone and makes the acceptance of
human conservation as the democratic task.
Social work believes in distributive values as against
aggregate value.
Social work believes in social justice.
Social work believes in distributive justice which implies
that the rewards should commensurate with the
distribution made by an individual to society.
Social work believes in religious, political and scientific
decncapsulation.
Social work believes in modernization.

~
The curriculum study of Council of Social Work Education
presents values of social work in a schematic form:

Mm

K
K>

1. Importance of the individual —

2. Consideration for and —

acceptance of difference

3. Self-determination right to —
select own life style

4. Self-help

Interdependence of all
individuals at all times.
Social utilization of and
provision for variability
within flexible expectations
Consideration for
self-determining needs and
desires of others.
Obligation to assist others
 in developing or recovering
this capacity, non-blaming
acceptance when self-help
is not possible

BASIC VALUES OF SOCIAL WORK

99

5. Common needs of man — Recognition of similarities

as well as differences
6. Acceptance of every person — No condoning of behaviour
which hurts others.
7. Right to equal participation — Granting participation to
others
8. Right to protection of body — Obligation not to injure or
and intellect deprive others
9. Freedom — Limits
10. Change-Process-Growth — Preservation of the
effective; stability, security,
social direction through
accepted norms
11. Validated knowledge — Intuitive speculation, insight.
Herbert Bisno has distributed social work values over four
areas—nature of the individual, the relations between groups, groups
and individuals and between groups, functions and methods of social
work, social maladjustment and social change.
I. VALUES RELATING TO INDIVIDUAL
The dominating concepts in early years of social work development
were individualization and the friendly visitors. Individualization was
applied not only to the charity organization worker, but showed up in
many other areas of social work. The division of the large boy's club
into small groups, the abandonment of barrack method in homes and
hospitals and reformatories, and the creating of new institutions with
many small houses instead of one big one, illustrate the present
tendency. Individualization was thought essential as it was believed
that "healing comes by the touch, that men are saved not in masses,
but one by one, and that every one saved must be saved by an
individual whose own heart is filled with love, and who is able to
communicate to another the grace which he himself has received.
The welfare of the individual has always been a central value of
life, the individual has always counted. In the impersonal,
anonymous, and competitive culture which dominates our life today,
however, the individual has been progressively forgotten. Today
individuality lies in economic prestige, and economic prestige is
possible for only a fortunate few. He is thus caught in a veritable rat
race, a competitive struggle for economic status and social prestige

100 SOCIAL WORK-PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

in which both the successful and the failure individuals suffer anxiety
and strain. 3 But for the proper development and growth of the
society we have to take into account the
welfare of the individual and
his individuality as first goal. Whether one thinks of social welfare
programmes or of society at large, it is clear that ways must be found
to balance the needs of the organization with the integrity of the
person. Provisions for the effectiveness of the group must be
considered along with measures to give play to the creativity of the
individual.
Social work is committed, in this evolving scene, to encourage
implementation of needs in manner consistent with concern for
individual dignity, legal rights, democratic institutions, and that
maximum self-realization of people which does not infringe on the
rights of others.
Cohen has expressed the values in relation to individual in the
following ways:
1. Help the individual, the group, or the community to help
himself or itself.
2. Begin where the individual, the group or the community are
and work at meaningful place.
3. Focus on the individual, the group or the community as well
as on the problem.
4. Take into account the stage of development.
5. Function with flexibility.
American Association of Social Workers identified the following
values in connection with the individual:
1. Firm faith in the dignity, worth and creative power of the
individual.
2. Complete belief in his right to hold and express his own
opinions and to act upon them, so long as by so doing he
does not infringe upon the rights of others.-
3. Unswerving conviction of the inherent in alienable right of
each human being to choose and achieve his own destiny in
the framework of a progressive, yet stable, society, on the
basis of the different thoughts discussed above we find the
following main values in relation to individual:

1. Every individual has his worth.

2. He has every right to get respect.
1.
BASIC VALUES OF SOCIAL WORK 101
3. Individual reacts in totality.
4. Internal and external conditions of each individual are
different, therefore, their behaviours differ.
5. Individual has right to develop his personality according to
his choice.
6. Individualizations is essential for his concrete help.
7. Personal values i.e. thoughts, feelings, beliefs, are important
to be studied.
8. Individual has right of self-determination.
9. Individual rests with total environment.
II. VALUES RELATING TO PROBLEM '

Problems are needs not being adequately or acceptably met by the

needs-meeting facilities of our society.
 An imbalance is apparent in
the person's relationship with the world around him.1 Meaning of
the problem has three dimensions: personal, group and cultural
meaning — in both objective and subjective terms. It is important to
acknowledge these dimensions since problems come not so much
because of their severity, but because of the degree of social
disturbance created within these dimensions (for example not the
'strength' of the phobia but what it is of; not the mild dementia, but
the reactions of family and neighbourhood). It is as much the
interactions effects which trouble people as the 'problem' as such.
Problematic situation arises due to many factors, but where
psychological factors have a bearing on problem areas (in the client
or others) it is often crucial to determine whether these represent a
steady state (ongoing behaviour patterns), a reaction for stress, or
attributable to a transitional developmental phase (adolescence,
climacteric, for example). But it is also important not to think of
psychological factors merely as a list of defects contributing to the
problems, nor even as a 'list of strengths' which might be utilized in
coping with the problem areas (though they are both) but as a
complexity in an international situation which will have a bearing on
the total social work process.
Psycho-social problems arise, very broadly, from the impact of
'sick' people on their environment; or the impact of a 'sick'
environment on people—the 'sickness' being psychological
(emotional or developmental), physical, material or social or a
combination' of these elements. Diagrammatically, the situation
looks like this:

102
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

Individual Family Group Community

Well« • Well rr Well ~^- y Well
X" ^><C ^C
Sick . ¦ Sick « » Sick Sick
The interactional impart route can travel through any
combination of the above, in either direction, for example, a well
individual may belong to a well family, set in well group, but that
group is set in a sick society. A well society may have an interactional
impact on a sick group, but that group contains well families and well
individuals.

Problem should be viewed not only as the effect of a sequence of

preceding events and conditions but also as live cause of emerging
problems. Like the person in himself, his problem is not merely the
product of the past. Because it is making itself felt now, in
transactions with other persons and objects, experienced as stress
within the persons' physical, psychological, and social system, it is an
 active factor in shaping the next hours and days of the person's life...
a problem coped with today or set on the way to resolution —
raises the person's level of hopefulness in regard to his chances of
coping and being satisfied. These explain why helping a person
identify and center on some problem that he feels, sees and
experiences in its present immediacy may cut into the problem's
vicious spiral and offer him incentive to invest further
problem-solving effect.

Social work believes in the following values relating to problem:

1; A problem arises when an individual fails to reach his
objective through the learned habits and methods.
Therefore, social work believes in the changing of the
behaviour patterns and methods of approaching the
objective.
2. Problem either effects social functioning or is affected by
social functioning. Social worker believes in the
improvement of or strengthening social functioning of the
client.
3. Problem has many side effects and creates many other
problems.
4. Problem has multifarious effect on human life.
5. Internal and external factors of the problem not only happen
together but may be a cause of one another.
2.
BASJCVALUESOFSOCIALWORK 103
6. Everybody feels problems. The person who solves these
problems, does not become 'client'. Therefore, social work
believes that the problem solving capacity may be increased
in the individual.
III. VALUES RELATING TO RELATIONSHIP
Relationship is the social worker's responsible and disciplined use of
himself in working with an individual or a groupi In this relationship,
he applies his professional knowledge and skills guided by the ethical
principles and by his ability to develop empathy and trust. The
psychological understanding of his client as an individual or a group
gives him the necessary sensitivity and inventive capacity to make this
relationsfflp constructive.2"
The flesh and blood (in social case work) are in the dynamic
relationship between social case worker and the client, child or foster
parent; the interplay of personalities through which the individual is
assisted the desire and achieve the fullest possible development of
his personality.
Within the democratic frame of reference the professional
relationship involves a mutual process of shared responsibilities.
Recognition of the other's rights, acceptance of difference, with the
goal not of isolation, but of socialized attitudes and behaviour
stimulating growth through interaction.

Hollis distinguishes two types of relationship the basic and the

 special; the basic being the warmth, concern, etc. The worker brings
all relationships coupled with our confidence in our ability to help
and function as worker. This basic relation may have certain
similarities in quality with some social relationship; but the special
relationship has a particular therapeutic element which we bring to
bear in cases where this is needed.

Relationship is the continuous context within which problem

solving takes place. It is the catalytic agent in which the under-levels
of the personality of unconscious shifts and changes in the sense of
trust, the sense of self worth, the sense of security, and the sense of
linkage with other human beings?
Social Work believes in the following values in connection with
the relationship: •
1. The person who comes for help to the agency is accepted by
the worker as an individual, not as a 'case'. The relationship
is established on this basic assumption. "r

104 SOCIAL WORK - PI IILOSOPHY AND METHODS

2. Client is accepted as he is. Social worker does not have
subjective feelings about him.
3. The relationship is established in such a way that the
feelings of the client are not hurt. He has right of self
expression.
4. The relationship is established on the basis of equality.
There is no feeling of subordination in the client.
5. The basis of relationship is love, cooperation, sympathy and
help.
6. Through relationship client is stimulated and insight is
developed.
7. Relationship is considered positive or therapeutic when
communication begins on the emotional and intellectual
level between the client and the worker.
8. Social worker uses relationship as a tool for the solution of
the psycho-social problems of the client.
IV. VALUES RELATING TO SOCIAL AGENCY
Social agencies are instruments of the people. They represent the
organised efforts of individuals or group of people to meet specific
human needs which arise out of social conditions. They meet
specific, recognizable, visible needs that are agreed upon as
important for a substantia! number of persons. The social agency
makes use of professional social work skills in providing programmes
designed to meet these needs.27 Social agencies move intelligently for
affecting culture as well as problem solving instruments.

It is primarily to the agency that the client turns for help; the
worker is a part of a range of resources offered by the agency (though
many of these other resources may be channelled through the worker).
It is the agency which determines the focus of the work, and shapes it
through resource provision, policy
 determination, etc^ so it is essential
that the worker understands it and his position within it.

The nature of the service may be public or voluntary. In a public

service, availability is usually to all who come within certain
categories. Voluntary agency takes up those obligations it chooses in
terms of category and numbers within the category. The setting of
agency may be primary or secondary. A primary agency is one with
social work adjectives in which social workers have the primary
professional place. But in secondary setting of social work agency
social work has secondary place. It uses social work skills to deal with

BASIC VALUES OF SOCIAL WORK

105

the psycho-social problems of clients. Such psycho-social problems

may be grouped as:
(i) Problems of causation : Types of problems arise in hospital
_ settings. Patients have psychosomatic complaints. It gives an
opportunity for the social worker to work in hospitals. ...
(ii) Problems of incorporation : There are a number of
problems which create hindnces in properly utilizing the
agency resources. Social worker helps in such situations,
(in) Problems of discharge on transfer : Social work ensures that
the work of the agency is not vitiated.
It is the j^imary agency which determines for the worker who he
helps, in which way, on what conditions, with what resources, and
where the worker's help fits in with other help needed by or being
given to the client.
The service which the agency offers to its clients influences the
worker's acceptance of the client. Since acceptance means perceiving
and dealing with the client as he is, the "extent to which the client is
helped to reveal himself is determined by the service offered by the
agency. x Case workers conceive of the agency as a social system
exhibiting processes that can train or support helping procedures.
The agency is more often seen as an object of change or even as an
instrument for change. *
Use of agency function as an integral part of social work skill
offers a "difference" to the client or group who may come to an
agency full of his own problems, or need, or intent, and -full of
projection that the agency will or will not be well disposed and
helpful to him.. .
 The agency must have democratic basis of. organization and
administration, so that the individuals and groups have -an
opportunity to share in the important affairs of„the agency in so far as
they are capable. -
On the basis of the above discussion we find the following
important values in relation to social agency:
1. The nature of social agency is always welfare and
humanitarian. j
 2. The proper use of agency resources may solve the problem.
There are a number of agencies for the welfare of the needy
but they are ignorant. "r

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

Social agency is competent in dealing with maladjustment
problems.
Problem can only be solved with the help of agency through
using its service and opportunities.
The objectives of the agency are fulfilled through
programmes.
Effectiveness of the agency is based on the worker's
knowledge of human behaviour and power to influence the
clients.
The agencies which have faith in democratic values, may
use social work services.
Social agencies generally help those individuals who
voluntarily wish to solve their problems and have desire to
become self-dependent.
V. VALUES RELATING TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
Scial work believes in scientific knowledge and scientific
practice. Since the beginning of society there had probably
been some degree of concern for the man in distress. It
might have depended on religious, moral, political and
economic considerations of the era. Charity, did not,
however, become scientific until the late nineteenth century,
Scientific philanthropy, derived from earlier European
sources, took not in a general climate of optimism which
included the belief that science would cure all social evils
and lead to unlimited progress. The Charity Organization
Movement was introduced in the late 1870 as a means for
making aim giving scientific, efficient and preventive.
Charity Organization Societies developed and spread
rapidly and made social work as their offspring, became the
twentieth century heir of the movement's scientific
aspirations. To make charity scientific, Mary Richmond began
her almost regular attendance and frequent contributions to
that body. She is credited with laying the foundation for a
scientific approach to social work, and achievement marked by
the publication of social diagnosis.
Social work has humanitarian attitude. It offers both social
treatment and psychological education depending on human
needs. It considers the worth of the individual being a basic
value, and believes that the individual should not be
BASIC VALUES OF SOCIAL WORK
107
sacrificed for the state. Probably the commitment to the
objectives of social work had never been better stated than
Frankin D. Roosevelt's Four Freedoms: freedom from want,
freedom from fear, freedom of speech and freedom to
worship. Social work accepts the basic human needs of all
children, of all parsons, irrespective of class and caste.
(iii) Social work methods believe in democratic behaviour. The
purpose of social work is, on one hand, to strengthen the
individual and, on the other, to provide for such
arrangement in society so that he may receive maximum
opportunities to realize all that is best in him. It is in the
background of social philosophy of justice, equality and
fraternity that the methods of social work have been
developed by the practitioners.
(iv) Social work believes in distributive value. A distributive
value is one which is to be maximized for each individual,
though not necessarily for the society as a whole. Social
work believes in social justice. It gives equal opportunity to
all to develop ones personality in the way one likes approved
by the society. It further gives attention to the under
privileged to help them to face the challenges of life.
Provisions have been made for reservations in services and
education and other facilities to the Scheduled Castes and
Tribes. In short, it can be said that social work directs about
the necessary conditions for creating social and economic
rights. ,
(v) Social work believes indistributive justice. Social work
believes that the rewards should be given on the basis of
individual achievement. This belief requires a social
structure where there is not exploitation of masses and
where there are no parasites to hold the society at random
by their unconscionable mechanization, that are devoid of
any constructive contribution to society.
(vi) Social work believes not only in the solution of the problems
but also in social development. Social work seeks two things
for people economic well-being and the deeper source of
happiness, that is, self-realization.37 The aim of social work
is .... to remove social injustice, to relieve distress, to
prevent suffering and to assist the weaker members of
society to rehabilitate themselves and their families and, in

108 SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

short, fight the five giant evils of (i) physical want, (2)
disease, (3) ignorance, (4) squalor, (5) idleness. 38 These
evils are the great hinderances in the process of social
development,
(vii) Social work believes in modernization. It believes to develop
those characteristics in man which Alex Inkless has
described of a modern man, i.e., openness to new
experience, readiness for social change, disposition to form
or hold opinion on larger number of issues, measures of
information, time orientation to the present or the future
rather than to the past, efficiency i.e. the belief that man can
learn how to exert considerable control over his
environment, orientation towards long run planning both in
public or private life, calculability or trust i.e., more
confidence that this world is calculable and that the people
and institutions around him can be relied upon to meet their
obligations and become prepared to trust the stranger,
valuing of technical skills and take it as the basis of
distribution of reward, educational and occupational
aspirations, and awareness of and respect for the degnity of
others.39
(viii) Social work believes that economic objectives can be
achieved through social planning. Social planning is a
process of land reform reduction of inequality, equitable
distribution of income, enlarged welfare and social services
between people and regions, more employment, integrated
plans and policies. There are three main objectives of social
planning, (i) Improvement in economic system, (2)
Adjustment on the basis of equality, and (3) social and
political changes in time of need.

REFERENCES

Fricdlander, A. W : Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prcnlicc Hall of

India, Ltd, New Delhi 1977, p. 1.
Johnson, H. M : Sociology: A Systematic Interpretation 1961, p. 49.
Mukerjce, R. K : The Frontiers of Social Science (cd) B. Singh, Macmillan
Company London, 1956, p. 3.

Humanitarian and Democratic

Matrix of Social Work

Wrra the development of industrialization and urbanization a

section of population suffered from poverty and physical suffering.
The result was that new shoots of social consciousness gradually
pushed their way. They flourished and hwime grew into the
movement of humanitarianism: a movement
prophetic of the
subsequent profession of social work. Many of the volunteer
workers developed an abiding interest in charity and philanthropic
activities and thus moved steadily forward toward the building of a
philosophy of social work.
In response to an instinct of sympathy, benevolent individuals
made generous contribution for alleviating the sufferings of the
destitute, poor, and patients. College men and women studied the
economic aspect of altruism while cultivating a 'humanitarian
interest' in convicts, insane, feeble minded, drunkards, and
'analogously degenerated classes'.

EMERGENCE OF SOCIAL WORK

Social work developed out of sheer necessity. The concentration of
new urban populations, composed in large measure of agricultural
workers, from abroad or from domestic rural areas, intensified the
problems of maladjustment made up of the components of slum
dwelling, chronic unemployment, low wages, untreated illnesses,
substandard public institutions that were merely receptacles for the
most disabled and enfeebled. A democratic society was compelled

112 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

by its own instincts, to find some solution or atleast palliation of the
miseries which it could not avoid. The pioneer social workers
were from the University or the church who had humanly attitude,
new element introduced into the gamut of helping and relieving
human miseries.
The main inspiration for social work originally came from
religious teachings. Charity and assistance to the needy and helpless
are the virtues that have been emphasized in all religions. Both in
Hinduism and Islam emphasis for service is found. It was, however,
with Buddhism, through the order of monks (Sanghas) and later of
nuns, that serving the needy first became an organized institution
concern. So in Christianity, chastity and obedience were initiated in
response to the urge of the man who wanted to dedicate himself to
the service of God through the service of man. Churches and
monasteries of medieval Europe played a role of fundamentally
similar to that played by the temples and Maths. Prior to the period
of the Poor Laws in England, the churches and monasteries were.the
main source of relief. In course of time, however, corruption and
malpractices developed and these institutions failed to meet the
problems of poverty. It gave rise to the Poor Laws in England. The
religious motivation in social work continued to be operative upto
the nineteenth century. The beginning of the present twentieth
century started having the rationalistic humanistic approach to
social work as an independent force.
In the early twentieth century, distress has been redefined to
 encompass intrapersonal and interpersonal discomfort. People are
entitled to relief not only from poverty but also from psychiatric
discomforts. Psychiatric distress is recognized as universal and
legitimated as a condition requiring help, with this shift, the will to
help was soon recognized as insufficient and the helpers needed
training to give the proper help.
HUMANITARIANISM
Humanitarianism may be defined as devotion to the welfare of all
human beings. One of its chief characteristics is sympathy for the
underdog or the unfortunate. Myrdal described it as humanistic
liberalism developing out of the epoch of enlightenment with its
emphasis on the "emancipation of human nature. 6 Humanistic
liberalism, with its emphasis on man's ability to control his fate by
reason, opened new philosophical vistas. Man could not only

HUMANITARIAN AND DEMOCRATIC MATRIX OF SOCIAL WORK 113

control his own fate but also collectively could build a "brave new
world". It was a point of view with man rather than God as the centre
of reference .... The potentialities of man were boundless when
approached in terms not of what he was but of what he could.
become if dealt with justly and creatively and if given equal
opportunity for life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.7 Out of
this humanitarian faith the programmes of social reform and social
welfare emerged. The history of social reform movement which
began with Raja Ram Mohan Ray, Swami Vivekanand, Gokhale, and
others and the emergence of the Brahmo Samaj, 'Ram Krishna
Mission, Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, as well as socialist and
Gandhian struggle for political freedom, could however, be logically
described as the antecedents of the new concept of social work.
They focussed attention on the rights of the individuals to achieve a
more rational standard of living for themselves, and pinpointed the
obligations of the society, including those of scientific services
mobilized for human good to help those who on their own could
not have taken of social developments, women became the great
object of deliverance for the social reform of the nineteenth ,
century in India. Abolition of Sati, promotion of widow re-marriage,
rehabilitation of young widows, and similar other measures were
taken. Later on backward classes (SCs) and women became the two
important recipient of social welfare services in the twentieth
century. Reformers established schools for the needy boys and girls.
They also founded orphanages, widows 'homes', homes for the aged
and the destitute and also for the blind and deaf. The organization
of institutional care indicates a goal of sustained care in place of
immediate and temporary relief. Gokhale was a moderate and
liberal reformer who founded the Servant of
 India Society in 1905. It

was a non-religious organization dedicated to the service of India.

He and his colleagues insisted on the scientific study of the

problems for which they sought solution. To Gandhiji, various

facets of life were not unrelated compartments which could be

tackled in an isolated way. Life to him was an integral whole and

any change attempted at any one point could not be adequate

unless simultaneous changes were made at various corresponding

points.10 His philosophy of work could be seen as the forerunner of

social work. Thus the reformers' devotion to and for the welfare of

all could rightly be called as humanitarianism.

-, -,
¦

¦ j

i
 1
1 ;

'rsssisesftiBjaK:--

114
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AN0 METHODS

They had sympathy for the down trodden, poor, destitute and
weaker sections of society.
ROOTS OF SOCIAL WORK
Social Work is rooted in humanitarianism. It is based on certain
values like:
1. Dignity of the individual;
2. It stands against discrimination based on caste, creed,
colour, race, sex, religion.
3. It repudiates social Darwinism and doctrine of survival of
the fittest;
4. Belief in creative capacity of man;
5. Self-determination
6. Individual and society are two sides of the same coin.

The concept of the value of the individual person has been

accepted in social work and elaborated to become basic to case
treatment and to social action. Biestek12, Perlman , Timms1 , etc.
have emphasized the value of the individual. Social work is
 committed to encourage implementation of needs in a manner
consistent with concern for individual dignity, legal rights,
democratic institutions, and that maximum realization of people
which does not infringe on the rights of others.15
Our society is facing a great shift in concepts and patterns of
intcrgroup relations. Prejudices and discriminations are the feature
of the modern individual and society. Social work does not believe
in any type of prejudices and discrimination. Puritan conviction that
"Character is all and circumstances nothing and poverty a moral
failing that should be condemned, the Malthusian principle of
inevitable poverty, and the Darwinian conclusion regarding the
survival of the fittest, have nothing to do with social work." It stands
against all these concepts. Social work believes that individual is a
treasure of various types of capacities. He needs only direction and
guidance. Therefore, he should be given full opportunity to
determine his course of action. It is the firm conviction of social
work that if we want to improve the individual's capacity. We have
to see his environment also. He has problems because of
maladjustment with the environment. The prime function of socral
work is to give assistance to individuals in regard to the difficulties

HUMANITARIAN AND DEMOCRATIC MATRIX OF SOCIAL WORK 115

they encounter in their use of an organized group's services or in
their own performance as member of an organized group.
DEMOCRATIC VALUES IN SOOALWORK
American Association of Social Workers defined social work as
modern professional service whose principles and objectives arise
from and are closely identified with the key beliefs and aspirations
of a democratic society. Foremost among these are:
1. Firm faith in the dignity, worth and creative power of the
individual;
2. Complete belief in his right to hold and express his own
opinions and to act upon them, so long as by so doing he
does not infringe upon the rights of others;
3. Unswearing conviction of the inherent in alienable right of
each human being to choose and achieve his own destiny in
the framework of a progressive yet stable, society. The
profession of social work gives specialized services which
aid individuals and groups to ackieve these goals. It also
makes efforts in modifying or reshaping social and
economic institutions which are inimical to the attainment
of these broad democratic goals.

Kinds of Democratic Values

Democracy has distinct social aspect. It seeks to establish a social

order on the basis of equality of status and of
opportunity. It means
abolition of all distinctions of birth, rank and status. Each individual
is to be recognized by his own merit and on no other considerations.

1. Affirmation of Dignity v V
Man deserves honour by virtue of his very manhood. This faith in
"the uniqueness of personality" reflects itself in the recognition for
everyone to experiment with his own life. Man is the highest truth.
A verse in Mahabharat quotes Bhisma advising Yudhisthira 'I tell
you this, the secret of Brahman; there is nothing higher than man."
This is the entire core of social work. _.:<¦=.

2. Liberty
Liberty means primarily absence of restraint or release from
bondage, servitude and arbitrary power. At the same time it means

116 SOCIAL WORK-PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

a given condition for human being the positive enjoyment of rights
and privileges. Liberty implies the preservation of an atmosphere in
which each individual can be his best self. It permits every one to
find out what he wants and to play an active part in the working of a
system responsive to his needs. Liberty is the true elixir of
personality growth. It is the only condition under which a man can
develop all his potentialities with a sense of responsibilities. Social
Work applies this principle in its practice. Every client is free to
choose his own course of action because he knows his welfare most
appropriately.

3. Equality
Equality is the very essence of democracy. It does not certainly mean
any biological equality. Man always differ from one another both in
physical capacity and in potentialities. Equality in democracy
implies that whatever capacity and potentiality one has, he has, an
equal right to develop them with all others. Social work believes
that every individual irrespective of their capacities and potentialities
be given opportunity to develop his personality. It works with both
normal persons as well as abnormals.
4. Happiness for All
The principle of the greatest good of the greatest number is the
central theme of democracy as well as social work. The pursuit of
happiness is an inalienable right of man. It is in the enlargement of
this very principle that socialism and its modern adaptation — the
social welfare state have come out: All legislations directed towards
the prpmotion of public welfare are based on this principle.

5. Social Justice

Social justice is a condition of just and fair to all humanbeings.lt

includes just distribution of material goods, just condition for
physical, mental, social and spiritual development, just means for
these development. Its purpose is to improve the society in order to
avoid and remove the imbalances. It has two main goals,
 (i) rectification of injustice, (ii) to remove the imbalances in social
life: religious, cultural, political, economic educational, etc. of the
human being. Social work has stood on the solid stone of social
justice. It believes in equality, freedom, liberty and stands against
exploitation. Welfare services have been pressed into service to the

1..

HUMANITARIAN AND DEMOCRATIC MATRIX OF SOCIAL WORK 117

weaker sections of the society and social laws have been enacted to
deal with inequality and injustice. A sensitized conscience,
reinforced by the will to cooperate and the desire to help the under
privileged is at the root of all programmes of social work?1
REFERENCES

1. Brown, EL: Social Work as a Profession, Russel Sage Foundation, New York,
1942, p. 8.
2. Warner, Queen and Harper : American Charities and Social Work. Thomas Y.
Crowell Co., New York, 1930, pp. 25-33.
3. Kasius, Cora : New Directions in Social Work, Harper and Brothers, New
York, 1954, p. 3Z
4. Pollak, Otto : Human Behaviour and the Helping Professions. Spectrum
Publications, Inc. New York, 1976, p. 2
5. Cohen, Nathan Edward. Social Work in the American Tradition. The Dryden
Press, New York, 1958, p. 3.
6. Myrdal, Gunnar. An American Dilemma, Harper, New York, 1944, pp. 8-12.
7. Cohen, N.R op. cit. p. 313.
8. Das Gupta, Sugata (ed„) Towards a Philosoplvy of Social Work in India, Popular
Book Service New Delhi, 1967, p. 12.
9. Ibid, pp. 12-13
10. Radha Krishna, K.S: Some Aspects of Gandhian Constructive Work. In Sugata
Das Gupta (ed.) book, op. cit p. 17.
11. Khinduka, S. K : Social Work in India. Sarvodaya Sahitya Samaj, Jaipur, India,
1962, p. 17.
12. Biestek, F. P : The Case Work Relationship, Oxford University Press, London,
1961, p. 17.
13. Perlman, H.H: Social Case Work, Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1957, p. 6.
14. Timms, N.: Social Case Work, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, 1964,
p. 59. . -
15. Kahn, Alfred : Issues in American Social Work, Columbia University Press,
New York, 1959, p. 17.
16. American Association of Social Workers Standards for the Professional
Practice of Social Work, New York, 1951, Quoted by Cora Kasius; New
Directions in Social Work, op. cit. p. 40.
17. Chagla, M.C: Lw,£*ertyfl/!<2Zj/<r,Bombay,1950,p.4 \
18. Willey, M. W: The Theory of Democracy' in Merriam, C E and Barnes, H. E
(ed) A History of Political Theories, New York, 1932, p. 60. \
19. Landtman, G : The'oripn of the Inequality of the Social Classes, London. 1938,
p.2.
20. Chakravarti, R: Studies in Political Science, The World Press, Calcutta, 1965, p.
172. ¦
21. Khinduka, S.K.op.cit. p. 2L
1.
8

Principles of Social Work

 A principle is a verbalized statement of an observed uniformity
relative to some class of objects ... Principles that is, general rules or
laws, concepts, fundamental truths, generally accepted tenets are
the means by which we proceed from one situation to another.. .
A principle must be understood to mean a hypothesis so adequately
tested by observation and/or experiment that it may intelligently be
put forward as a guide to action, or as a means of understanding.
Social work principles are guiding assertions of statements that have
come from experience and research. The objectives of social work
can be fulfilled only within the framework of principles. Therefore,
it seems necessary to deal with the basic principles which are
guiding force for social work practice.
Konopka has described the following principles of social work
common to case work, group work and community organization:
1. The social worker's goal is to enable clients or group
members or groups as a whole to move toward greater
independence and capacity for help.
2. The social worker must use the scientific method to
prepare for action; fact finding (observation), analysis, and
diagnosis in relation to the individual, the group, and the
social environment.
3. The social worker must form purposeful relationships:
this means a conscious focusing on the needs of his clients,
group members, and communities, on their avowed purpose
incoming for help; and on the implied — sometimes not fully
conscious — purpose.
1.
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL WORK
119

4. The social worker must use himself consciously. This

includes self knowledge and discipline in relationship but
without the loss of warmth and spontaneity.
5. The social worker must understand the "origins of his own
value system and be able to handle it in relation to the
value system of others.

6. The social worker must accept people as they are, without

condemning all their behaviour. This involves deep
understanding of his clients or group members as well as
knowledge and identification of values regulating
human/society.
7. The social worker must allow people to develop at their
own pace and to choose their own point of departure
without immediately imposing outside demands. However,
he has responsibility for stimulating change.
8. Because of his infinite respect for the individual every
social worker must help each individual to feel that he is an
important and unique person who can contribute in some
 measures to the whole of society or te a part of it.
Clarke described the principles of social work as follows:
1. All individuals have an 'inner' and an 'outer' life which
interact. How people feel about their situation is perhaps
more important than the situation.
2. All behaviour have a history, the theory of determinism in
psychic life.
3. Most of the behaviour is not intellectually but emotionally
motivated and is symptomatic of emotional needs.
4. The family is a unit of interacting personalities and has the
most important effects of any institution upon the degree of
personality integration.
5. Treatment of emotional difficulties is facilitated by
understanding the history of the onset of the disturbance
which may occur in infancy or early childhood.
6. Treatment of emotional problems can be effective only in
case the person who is emotionally disturbed wants it.
7. Treatment of emotional problems is facilitated by the
worker-client professional relationship; clients differ greatly
in their capacity to use it.
8. Professional relationship means that the case worker
1.
120
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

accepts that the client does not project his own need to
punish, accuse, apologize, sentimentalize on him, identifies
with him without losing his own identity, and hence works
constructively both with environmental problems and with
how the client feels about his problems.
9. Successful treatment of concrete or other problems and
intangible or inner problems, depends largely on how the
client utilizes his own resources — the principle of self-
determination.
Cohen has written the following principles of the major
methods of social work:
1. Self direction and self determination. The individual, group,
or the community must be helped to help himself or itself,
with the professional worker playing an indirect or
enabling role rather than a manipulative one.
2. Beginning at the level where the individual, group, or
community stands and proceeding at a pace, that is
meaningful to him or it,
3. Deal with the total individual. Professional worker must
focus not merely on the immediate problem as seen by the
individual, group, or community but on its relation to the
total situation.
4. Understand and take into account
 the fact of difference
among individuals, groups, or communities.
5. Recognize that the welfare of any individual, group or
community is inextricably interwoven with the welfare of the
whole. All individuals, groups, or communities, must be
concerned with the development of material, human, and
social resources to meet all the needs of all the people
rather than the vested interest of any individual, any
particular group or community.
Friedlander has described generic principles that apply to the
three primary methods of social work, social case work, social
group work and community organization. These principles are:
1. Conviction of the inherent worth, the integrity and the
dignity of the individual.
2. Right to determine himself what his needs are and how
they should be met.

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL WORK

121

3. The firm belief in equal opportunity for all, limited only by

the individual's innate capacities.
4. Social responsibilities towards himself, his family, and his
society. -
In general, social work is based on the following principles.
I. PRINCIPLE OF IN0IVIDUAUZATION
The principle of individualization is fundamental for effective social
work practice since the betterment of the individual is the primary
purpose of social work. Indeed, a belief in the uniqueness of the
individual and his inherent value lies at the heart of social work
practice. Boethius defines person as "an individual substance of
rational nature." Each person's nature is capable of integrating
and directing its own forces in a way that is different from that of
every other individual nature. As we move from understanding
him simply as a human being to understanding him as this
particular human being, we find that with all his general likenesses
to others, he is as unique as his thumb print, by nuance and fine line
and by the particular way his bone and spirit are joined, he is born
and grows as a personality different in some ways from every other
individual of his family, genus or species.

The social worker views the problem of each client as specific

and helps the client move forward finding the most satisfactory
means for him to deal with his particular problem situation. The
client needs the worker's undivided attention, privacy and help in
discussing the topic of the greatest interest to him namely. His
situation and request.1 The social worker incorporates into his
value system the belief that clients are distinct individuals who
possess an inherent worth. The need of the client to be regarded as
 an individual exists even if he is not aware of it, and it is the task of
the social worker to help the client perceive of himself as an
individual.

In working with the client as a person the social worker

involves him in the characterization of action and experience. It is
this approach which individualizes the client so far as the
relationship is concerned. Individualization takes place in three
ways : In the present, through the personal relationship between
client and social worker in which the social worker's actions
structure the client's experience, in description of the past, in which
the client describes and may enrich his biography as an individual

122 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

person; and last, in discussing future action with the client, in
which the worker is also contributing to his identity as a person.11
II. PRINCIPLES OF MEANINGFUL RELATIONSHIP
This is the principle which differentiates social work and some
other professions like surgery, medicine, law. In these professions a
good interpersonal relationship is desirable for the perfection of the
service, but it is not necessary for the essence of the service. But in
social work, a good relationship is necessary not only for the
perfection, but also for the essence, of the service in every setting.
The quality of relationship is the corner stone of helping in social
work.
The relationship is the medium through which the client is
enabled to state his problem and through which attention can be
focussed on reality problems, which may be as full of conflict as
emotional problems. Within the democratic frame of reference the
professional relationship involves a mutual process of shared
responsibilities, recognition of other's rights, acceptance of
difference, with the goal, not of isolation, but of socialized
attitudes and behaviour stimulating growth through interaction. A
good relationship in social work is the professional one—one that
serves the purpose (problem-solving) and includes those elements
which will assist the purpose and exclude those elements which
will not. 14

There are five ways in which the professional relationship

differs from other, social relationship. Social relationship are open
ended in duration but the professional relationship ends when the
problem is solved. The time that is spent with clients emerges from
the needs of the clients and the objectives of professional
involvement. Clients are seen in institutions or in their homes, they
are not invited for tea or dinner. The focus of professional
relationships is not mutual, but the client's needs. Wide aspects of
client's life and feeling are examined and brought into play. Rather
than mutual, the relationship in social work is the helper and the
 helped.

Helping relationship is developed in social work by

demonstrating the interests in client. Client is perceived as a 'real'
person with spontaneity and capacity for responsiveness. He is
convinced of the social worker's warmth as an individual, and
conveys respect and caring for him. Social worker tries to

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL WORK

123

understand what is happening in his mind. He tries to share the

situations on an emotional plane. He helps the client to trust in his
objectivity and feel secured as a worthwhile individual.
HI. PRINCIPLE OF SELF-DETERMINATION
Social responsibility, emotional adjustment and personality
development are possible only when the person exercises bis
freedom of choice and decision.15 Today, one of the basic
convictions of the social work profession is the client's right of
self-determination. Under the ethics of the profession, the social
worker must learn to accept others' distinct personalities with their
own right of self-realization and self-determination. Social Workers
have always considered the client's right of self-determination to be
very important, although there has been serious disagreement
among social workers as to the interpretation of this principle. But
the general opinion is that if this principle is not followed in its
spirit, the social work practice will not be effective.
Social work believes that through the experience of the client
worker relationship, the client will become mature and thus be able
to deal with his life situation better. Obviously, when once the client
has experienced thinking through a problem and arriving at a
decision, he will become a less dependent individual. Social worker
always tries to stimulate the client to think independently and
rationally about his own problem situation and arrive at a decision.
for himself. It is social worker's responsibility to assess each client's
ability to understand and analyse the forces operating in his
problem situation and, on the basis of such analysis, determines
what course of action he would like to follow. If the client wants
stems from lack of knowledge, then it becomes the responsibility of
the social worker to help the client to change his ideas. The goal
and responsibility of the social worker is to help client move away
from superstitious beliefs and primitive concepts. Social worker must
guide the client to avail the facilities and opportunities available to
them. He should not remain inactive and thereby fall to accomplish
this task under the guise of misconceived notion of the principle
of self-determination.

Social worker, following the principle of self-determination,

 helps the client see his problem clearly. He makes him acquainted
with the resources available to deal with his problem. The client,
using his inner resources and the resources of the community, grow

124 SOCIAL WORK-PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

in the potential to work out his own problems, to move along at his
own speed and in his own way.1
IV. PRINCIPLES OF ACCEPTANCE
Social work accepts the individual as he is and with all his
limitations. Not out of personal friendship but as a quality of life, it
offers warmth, acceptance, and understanding, in quiet illustration
of quality in human relations that might have values everywhere.
Social work believes that acceptance is the crux of all help. It
embraces two basic ideas — one negative and one positive. Social
worker does not condemn or feel hostile toward a client because his
behaviour differs from the approved one. He feels genuine warmth
to form a bridge across which help may be given.
Acceptance is essential for the relationship. Except in social
work service, the client becomes the subject of various social
control mechanisms like legal condemnation, ostracism, avoidance,
beletting, nagging by others or by his own conscious. These methods
have failed. Therefore, social work offers the new approach of
acceptance and it is out of this that a useable relationship grows.
The principle of acceptance implies that social workers must
perceive, acknowledge, receive, and establish a relationship with the
individual client as he actually is, not as we wish him to be or think he
should be. It means that no matter how much the client may have
distorted reality, no matter how much our perception of it may differ
from him, or how greatly our values may differ from him, we must
acknowledge and accept him as he is if we are to help him. This
does not mean that we do not hope to effect change in him, but
rather that the art of helping, like any other art, depends on
accepting the material with which we propose to work as it actually
exists, with its limitations as well as its potentialities. This principle
could be restated by saying that in social work one begins where
the client is and, at every stage in the helping process, relates one
self to the client as he is at each given moment.
V. PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a two-way process. Most of the problems that give
pain are precisely the problems of communication. When the
communication is inadequate or insufficient, the problems appear
either automatically or because of misunderstanding. There are
three ways in which social worker conceives that clients may have
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL WORK
125
 problems of communication of feeling (i) The client may be
confronted with a difficult practical problem which arouses such
strong feeling in him that he is unable to cope effectively with the
problem.19 (ii) The client may have certain feelings of apprehension
or diffidence about asking for help.20 (iii) The client's feelings may
be the main problem about which he is asking for help. Social
worker always takes the responsibility of letting the communication
culminate wholesomely between himself and the needy (individual,
group or community). Communication of feeling is not only
important to diagnose the problem but most of the maladies which
befall a man may be removed by re-establishing full and goal
directed communication between the sufferer and the social worker.
Communication is a royal road to the identification of social
worker with his client. The function of social worker is principally
to create an environment in which the client will feel comfortable
in giving expression to his feelings. Client should feel that he can tell
his story in his own way and, he may think that he is given due
importance. The atmosphere includes the client's trust and
confidence in the worker and the worker's acceptance of the client.
Each of the communication for the client depends on his
physical comfort but his emotional comfort will be crucial. Some of
the elements of emotional comfort are (i) time, (ii) warm, (iii) a
focus on the client, (iv) skill to meet particular communication needs.
Towle remarks that since we deal with people in time of trouble
when they are 'in the midst of emotions that come from the major
upheavals in life' it is important that we help them as they talk to us
to express their emotions and that we try to understand the meaning
which their problems have for them with a two fold purpose; first,
that as they give expression to their feelings they may be relieved of
pressures and tensions which have made the problem deeply
disturbing .. . .Second, through understanding the person's feeling
we, as representatives of an assistance agency, may though by
sharing his problem afford each individual relationship which
strengthens him.22 v
VI. PRINCIPLE OF SOCIAL FUNCTIONING
The principle of social functioning has been amply elaborated by
Bartlett who thinks that in social work it is frequently used to refer
to the functioning of people in their social roles and relationships,
with emphasis on their relation to the environment it focuses not on

126
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

the behaviour of people, but on the exchange between them and

their environment... The concept of social functioning involves
 two sub-concepts — task and coping. Task implies the demands
. made upon people by various life situations. These demands may
pertain to issue of daily living, family life, entry into the world of
work or inability to do so, marriage and divorce, illness or financial
difficulties and so on. The concept of coping 'emphasizes the
conscious, cognitive, and rational aspects of behaviour ako. In such
behaviour there is usually a direct engagement with the situation
and coping can then be described as relative mastery of the tasks
in the situation. When environmental demands outweigh the
coping capacity of the individual he feels helpless and overwhelmed.
Poverty, racial discrimination, lack of access to jobs, and other
societal problems subject large segments of the population to stress,
anxiety, deprivation, and alienation. Here, of course, major efforts
for social change must be directed at environment. The common
base of social work consists in a central focus on social functioning,
an orientation towards people involved in the situation, use of
social work values and the combined body of social work knowledge
for working with individuals, group. Social organizations directly and
through collaborative action.
VII. PRINCIPLE OF TUNING BEHAVIOUR
Man has body, mind and intellect as three instruments of
experiences through which life constantly pulsates. Through the
physical body he perceives the world of objects; through the mind
he experiences the world of feelings and through the intellects he
comprehends his world of ideas. These three instruments have their
own distinct characteristics in each person. Hence each person has
unique personality. There is a need of tuning these instruments
regularly so that he may have the proper experience of the world
fully. Medical sciences and other sciences have gained the
proficiency in tuning up the body and intellect of the human being
but our modern society has not developed and popularized the
science for tuning the mind. This is the basic drawback in our
scientific developments and achievements. This vacuum is fulfilled
by social work profession.
When one sees a challenge which is too much for him, he has
a natural tendency to run away from facing it but this is not the
solution of the problem. Wherever he will go, the same problem in

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL WORK

127

another form will arise and obstruct him with a challenge. At such
moments of mental agony, he always discovers a set of defences
apparently eloquent and seeing convincing he knows that this
action is cowardice; but his own thoughts supply him with weak
excuses, slim reasons and false arguments to justify his actions. Thus,
he goes through the convulsions of a psychologically broken
 personality.
It is not on one occasion that he misses the chance in life, fails
in attempts and incurs disappointment but after some time every
day-to-day problems seem threatening to him. If on that crucial
moment he knows how to remake the inner personality whole and
strong he could with a newly found confidence meet the problem
. successfully. He must learn how to unload himself, how to remove
these crushing weights of his conscience. He must find a way to
liberate his heart from unsuited chains gathered from the past, so
that he may feel really free to live courageous life. Social work
believes that through the tuning of the behaviour of an individual his
problems can be minimized if not wholly solved and he feels and
realizes a new strength running in his body and mind.
VIII. PRINCIPLE OF SOCIAL LEARNING
Social learning is a pre-requisite to the changes that are inevitably
involved in problem solving. Change in individual, group or
community will depend on their capacity to learn new facts,
attitudes and ways of behaving (capacity for social learning).
Social learning is an essential part of social work practice
whether the change is initiated by social action or individual
therapy.
Goldstein identifies six stages of problem solving; (i) need of
difficulty felt or observed, (ii) formulating, locating and defining the
need or difficulty, (iii) surveying the information required around
the need/difficulty, (iv) formulating possible solutions, (v) appraising
the consequences of possible solution, (vi) testing, accepting and
internalizing the solution. ¦
Goldstein suggests that the social learning processes which go
with these stages are:
(i) Arousing and focusing attention and concern; <
(ii) Organizing and evaluating the problem and planning further
action;

128
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

(iii) Searching for and acquiring new information and

perceptions;
(iv) Experimenting with alternative means, behaviours and
consequences,
(v) Rehearsing for action; verifying solutions and gains,
(vi) Acting, evaluating, incorporating the gains and (if
necessary) reformulating the problem.
The social work contribution at each stage becomes:
1. Assisting the identification of the problem using guidance,
raising motivation, evaluating, informing, defining;
2. Assisting the evaluation of the problem; helping to
formulate plans, contributing to the assessment of
 capabilities and resources; promoting motivation, assisting
role clarification and evolving commitment.
3. Stimulating an awareness of the salient practical
psychological, social and transactional factors;
4. Enhancing problem solving efforts through sustaining,
testing, evaluating, guiding and motivating;
5. Assisting the reality testing by providing opportunities for
this; evaluating them, reinforcing and confirming the social
learning experienced through them;
6. Assisting the reinforcement of the social learning through
validating the capabilities of those involved, assisting the
analysis and implications of the outcomes of the process and
planning for the termination of the process.
IX. PRINCIPLE OF CONFIDBNTIALrTY
Clients have the right of personal information about themselves in
their relationship with a social agency during and following the
process of obtaining service, a right which may be superseded in
exceptional situations. Recognition of this right requires adherence
to the following principles:
1. The client should be used as the primary source of
information about himself and information sought from him
should be limited to that which is essential to provide
service.
2. Within the agency information regarding a client should be
revealed only to those persons and to the extent necessary
to provide service.
1.
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL WORK
129

3. Other agencies and individuals should be consulted only

with the client's consent and within the limits of that
consent.
4. Only that information should be recorded and these
records maintained that are essential to provide service
and the use of records should be determined by agency
function and the consent of the client.30

It is a tribute to the reputation that social work has that clients

frequently assume that they are talking in confidence and do not
very often need specific reassurance about this.31 Confidentiality is
essential for diagnosis and treatment. If clients feel that they cannot
reveal material they think could be damaging, social worker will
never get real picture of the problem. Confidentiality is essential to
the development of truth, which is fundamental to our work and
professional relationship. It is the base of having therapeutic
relationship with the client and an important part of the model
social workers offer to the clients. The obligation to keep
confidentiality is stated in the
 professional code of ethics for social
workers in these words, "Respect and safeguard to the right of
persons served to privacy in their contacts with the agency, and to
confidential and responsible use of the information tiiey give.
There are three classes of confidential information: (i) the
natural secret that information if disclosed, would defame the
person, (ii) the promised secret promise is made not to reveal the
facts, (iii) entrusted secret—it implies a contractual agreement
which binds him not to reveal the fact. In Social Work confidentiality
includes all the three types of secrets.

REFERENCES

1. Barr, A.S. and Burton, W. H: Supervision - Principles and Practices in the

improvement of Instruction. Appleton Century Croft, New York, 1938, pp. 32-33.
2. White, Leonard D : "Meaning of Principles". The Frontiers of Public
Administration, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1936, p. 21.
3. Konopica, Gisela : Eduard C Lindman and Social Work Philosophy, The
University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1958, p. 193-194.
4. Clarke, Helen I: Principles and Practice of Social Work, Appleton Century
Crofts, Inc, New York., 1947, p. 68,
5. Cohen, Nathan E: Social Work in the American Tradition, The Dryden Press,
New York, 1958, pp. 19-21.
6. Priedlander, WA (ed.): Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall,
lac, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 1958, pp. 1-6.
1.
130 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
7. Quoted by Biestek, F.P: Tlie Case Work Relationsltip, Loyola University Press,
Chicago, 1957, p. 26.
8. He. Cormick, M. J : Thomistic Philosoplry in Social Case Work, Columbia
University Press, New York, 1945, p. S.
9. Perl man, H. II: Social Case Work, Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1957, p.
140.
10. Hamilton, G. op. cit. p. 152.
11. Rogg, Nicholas M : People Not Cases: A Philosophic Approach Social Work
Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd. London, 1977, p. 61.
12. Lucille, Nickel Austin: Trends in Differential Treatment in Social Case Work"
Journal of Social Case Work 29; 205, June 1948.
13. Hamilton, G : Titcory and Practice of Social Case Work (second edition),
Columbia University Press, New York, 1951, p. 27.
14. Tilbury, D.E.F: Case Work in Context: A Basis for Practice, Pergamon Press,
New York, 1977, p. 109.
15. White, Helen C : Activity in Case Relationship; The Family, 14, 208-214,
October, 1933.
16. Robinson, Virginia P : A Changing Psychology in Social Case Work. University
of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1930, p. 115-150.
17. Kraus, I lerlha : The Role of Social Case Work in American Social Work. Social
Case Work 31:9, Jan. 1950.
18. Howers, Swithum: " Social Work and Human Problem." Social Case Work
 35:190, May 1954.
19. Pcrlman, H. II : Social Case Work, Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1957, p.
67.
20. Moffctt, J : Concepts of Case Work Treatment, 30. Routtedge and Kegan Paul
Ltd., London, 1968, p. 55.
21. Pcrlman, H. II. op. cit. p. 55.
22. Towle, Charlotte: Common Human Needs, American Association of Social
Workers, New York, 1952, p. 9.
23. Vartlett, Harrier M : The Common Vase of Social Work Practice, National
Association of Social Workers, New York, 1970, p. 104.
24. Mirza, R. Ahmad : Social Case Work in Horizons of Social Work, Jyotsna
Publication, Lucknow, 1986, p. 75.
25. Bartlelt, II. M.op. cil.p.15.
26. Ibid pp. 75-76
27. Ibid pp. 76.

28. Goldstein, Howard : Social Work Practice : A Unitary Approach, University of

South Carolina Press, N-.w York, 1973.
29. Tilbury, D. E. F : Case Work in Context: A Basis for Practice, Pergamon Press,
New York, 1977, pp. 39-40.
30. American Association of Social Workers: Principles of Confidentiality in Social
Work, AASW, Washington, DC 1946, p. II
31. Tilbury, D.E. F: Case Work in Context op. cit. p. 85
32. "Code of Ethics", In Standards for the Professional Practice of Social Work
AASW, New York, 1951, p. 5.
7.
9

Social Work as a Profession

Social work is a professional service based on scientific knowledge

and skill s in human relations, which assists individuals alone or in
groups to obtain social and personal satisfaction and independence.
In recent years, there has been some- appreciation of the fact that
tackling social problems and helping individuals in the
contemporary society demand special knowledge and skills in
addition to personal qualities of sympathy, understanding and
self-sacrifice that are usually associated with social work. It is felt
that the necessary knowledge and skills can be acquired through
training. Also, it is considered that since the work of helping people
is an essential social function, those performing it should be paid
for their service.
Generally medicine, law and technology are known as
professions and in these categories social work also has established
its relevance and possesses all the prerequisites to be a profession.
But there is a controversy about calling social work as profession. It
seems, therefore, essential to define and explain what is a
profession.
I. MEANING OF PROFESSION
A profession is an occupation which requires a higher educational
qualification — degree, diploma or certificate. Sometimes it is
thought of as on occupation involving a degree of ethical
responsibility. A profession is characterized by a specialized body of
knowledge and skills, an area of operation, a code of ethics, and a
certain degree of organization among the members of the

<r
132
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

profession.4 Cogan5 in an attempt to categorize the

 concept of a
profession, distinguishes three main approaches to definition;
Persuasive definition use to argue the case for or against the
inclusion of a specified occupation in the ranks of the professions;
operational definition used when looking at the organization or
practice of a particular occupational group or groups; and logistic
definition, which draws verbal boundaries round historical material
and customary usage. Profession is a special organization for the
application of specialized knowledge and skills for the welfare of
the human beings.
Millerson after surveying twenty-one writers who have written
on profession; found the following most frequently concerned traits
in a profession:
1. Skills based on theoretical knowledge,
2. Provision of training and occupation,
3. Tests of the competence of members,
4. Organization,
5. Adherence to a professional code of conduct,
6. Altruistic service.
Elliott has given the following criteria to differentiate between
non-professional and professional.

~_r

Non-professional Professional
Technical, Craft, - - Broad,
Skill Knowledg theoretical
Routine -e Task - knowledge
Non-routine
used in. to
situations
Programmed - - Unprogrammed
reach
Decision decisions
Ends decided by - - Ends (derived
according to
society Authority
making from
(of other knowledge)
institution) decided
for society (or
institution
within it)
and supported
by
 Other or non-work

- - Occupation
Identit
SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION group
133 y because work
and
occupation are

Non-professional
Professional

Technical, Craft, Skill - Knowledge

Means to non-work ends - Work

- Career

Occupational/class
advancement
Limited

- Education
Specific

•Role

- Broad, theoretical
knowledge used in.
- Central life interest
and are also the basis
for
- Individual
achievement which
involves meeting
initial entry
qualifications
through
- Extensive education,
showing skill and
meeting other latent
status requirements
. involved in the
- Total role (that is
expectations extend
beyond expertize
and work situation

Professionalization
Professionalization may be viewed on the socialization process by
which individuals are drawn *into the institutional context of
¦ St •
particular occupations. Wilensky proposes the following steps in
the process of professionalization in a particular occupation:

1.
2.
3.
4.

6.
7.
Full time activity at the task;
The establishment of university training,
The formation of a national professional organization
Redefinition of the core task, so as to give 'dirty work' to
subordinates;
Conflict between the old timers and the new men who seek
 to upgrade job;

Competition between the new occupation and related ones;

Political pressure to gain legal protection;

A code of ethics.

134
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

The jobs of the professional is technical. The professional man

adheres to a set of professional norms. The degree to which an
occupation fits the criteria is the degree of its professionalization.
II. PROFESSIONAL TRAITS IN SOCIAL WORK

Systematic and Scientific Knowledge

Social work is based on scientific knowledge. It views man as a
biological, social and psychological entity and his behaviour can be
adequately explained in terms of certain 'needs', natural or acquired,
which originate in the somatic, social and psychic aspects of his
personality. The role of social worker is mainly to set a process of
interaction which sets at the social and psychological levels into
motion. His methodology relates to ways by which individuals and
groups/societies can be made sclfrcliant and self-dependent. The area
of knowledge covered in social work can be grouped as follows:
1. Hitman behaviour and social environment : personality
factors, theories, social aspects, psychiatric aspects, human
relations, groups, social institutions, socialization, social
control, environment, technology, etc.
2. Methods and techniques of social work : case work, group
work, community organization, social administration, social
action and research.
3. Fields of social work : Medical, psychiatric, child guidance,
health, correctional, family, youth, labour, rural
development, etc.
4. Social problems : crime, delinquency, alcoholism, drug
addiction, gambling, beggary, prostitution, unemployment,
casteism, communalism, corruption, National integration, eta
Social work has developed certain well defined principles
which guide its practice. The worker accepts the' client' as he is but
does not approve the client's actions. Social work believes in
individuals worth and dignity and integrity. Its goal is to promote full
growth of human potential by helping the client to help themselves.
The client has the right to determine for himself the goals and means
he would like to pursue.

Skills, Techniques and Tools

Skill is the worker's capacity to apply knowledge and understanding

SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION 135

to a given situation. Skills in social workers are developed through

teaching and training. Social worker through
the skill of
programming arrives at satisfactory and fruitful relationships. He is
skilful in analysing the social situation, individual groups' feelings,
using agency and community resources, serving the client for self
dependent, and diagnosing and treatment. The particular skill of
the social worker lies in his ability to use his relationship
constructively. In rendering his services the social worker applies
three important tools, i.e. the use of himself, the programme;
planning and his relationship with the client. His relationship is-
characterized by objectivity and confidentiality on the one hand and
sensitivity and warmth on the other. Social work has in its command.:
the techniques of individual conscientisation, group conscientisation,
organization and planning, building and maintaining counter-system
and administrative techniques. '

Social Work Education

Social work has a separate identity in the realm of education. In most
of the countries there are provisions for graduate and post-graduate
level of education in the universities and other teaching institutions.
Students are directed to implement their classroom knowledge into
the fieldwork agencies. They are placed in various types of social
welfare agencies like hospitals, beggar homes, aftercare homes,
placement centres, labour welfare centres, schools, slums,
community centres, etc. v

Professional Organizations
There are a number of professional organizations on international
and national levels. The most important organizations are: American .
Association of Social Workers, British Association of Social
Workers, National Association of Social Workers. Association of
American Schools of Social Work, International Schools of Social
Work, etc.

Social Approval '¦' ,'

f
Social work as a profession has been accepted by the respective
governments. Both governmental and non-governmental
organizations employ trained social workers on various posts.

136 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

Code of Ethics

A social worker operates in terms of certain basic assumptions:

(1) respect for human personality, (2) dignity of each human
being, be he a prince or a pauper, (3) matching resources with
needs; (4) stimulating change calculated to enhance democratic
values; (5) accomplishing change through co-operation on both
intellectual and emotional levels; and (6) serving as a
"change-agent" from behind the scene, so that the individual or the
group of the community may emotionally feel that the change was
not imposed from the outside but was autonomously sought by the
individual, groups or community. The social worker gives respect to
each client and believes in his creative power. He has full faith in
the client's freedom of expression and self-judgement. He always
operates on the democratic principles and values. He does not
believe in any type of discrimination on the basis of caste, creed,
religion etc.
Thus, it can be said that social work is a profession because all
the essential characteristics are found in it. But this assumption is
based on theoretical plane, reality is different from it. Even today
people do not accept social work as a profession because of the
following drawbacks in social work:
1. Social work is not concerned with a specific work which
may be called the field of social work.
2. The behaviour and the skills of social workers are not
unique and specific.
3. There is no difference in behaviour of a trained social
worker and an untrained one.
4. The work of helping cannot be called profession because
this work can be performed by any person.
5. Training has not much impact in creating an attitude or
motivational attitude of worker for help as it is mainly
influenced by family background and psychological
make-up.
6. Social workers have failed in developing self-image as
professionals.
7. Though social work has systematic and scientific knowledge
but all this have been derived from other sciences. Workers
most of the time, feel helplessness in using this knowledge
¦ into practice.

SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION 137

8. Professional organizations are not performing their roles
effectively.
9. Social approval is not upto the mark.

Recent studies indicate that social work as a profession does

not have full acceptance by the community. The social worker does
not enjoy a level of remuneration commensurate with related
professions, nor does he enjoy a prestige comparable to even
low-paid related professions and the social worker does not reveal
the type of self-image which reflects personal satisfaction.
HI. SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION IN INDIA
Social work as a profession is of recent origin in India. The year 1936
marks a watershed in the history of professional social' work training
in this country. Professional education for social work in India was
started with the founding of the Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of
Social Work in Bombay in 1936. Since then, social work is gaining
momentum gradually and gradually. It has achieved all the essential
traits of a profession. Let us examine the socfal work in India as
a profession.
Systematic and Scientific Knowledge
There is continuous increase of knowledge in social work in India.
Researches are in progress suited to the Indian conditions. Every
school of social work provides the knowledge of human behaviour
environment, culture, urbanization, industrialization, social
development, etc. to its students. In India not much work has been
done in the development of systematic empirical knowledge relating
to typical problem situations and ways of handling them. The
specialized knowledge of social work in Indian situation is still
somewhat limited. r

Professional Education
The first School of Social Work was established in 1936 in the name
of Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social Work in Bombay. This
school worked in the field of Social Service Administration in the
begining and Diploma in Social Service Administration was awarded.
Later on it included other specialized fields of social work. Till 1947
it was the only institution providing professional training of social

138 SOCIAL WORK - PI HLOSOPHY AND METIIODS

work. After Independence, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Varanasi, and College
of Social Service, Gujarat Vidyapeeth, Ahmedabad were established
in 1947. Delhi School of Social Work came into existence in 1948 as
the first school as a part of the University. Baroda School of Social
Work was established in 1949-50 and Department of Social Work,
Lucknow University was established in 1949. The Social Work
education was started in Agra in 1955 and in Waltaire in 1957. Today
the training and education of social work is imparted in Bombay,
Agra, Madras, Patna, Lucknow, Varanasi, Jamshedpur, Calcutta,
Waltaire, Udaipur, Bhagalpur, Bangalore, Mangalore, Indore,
Dharwar, etc. At present the number of professional training
institutions is more than 60. Some of them provide Bachelor's degree
and some Certificate in Social Work. Some of them are awarding
Diploma/Master's Degree in Social Work. About one-third of these
institutions are having Ph.D. courses.

Code of Ethics

The Association of Schools of Social Work in India was established

in 1960 to work for the promotion of social work education. The
association is concerned with (i) laying down and maintaining proper
standards in professional social work education and promoting the
profession on scientific lines, (ii) providing opportunity to faculty
members to meet and exchange their ideas, (iii) arranging seminars
and refresher courses for faculty members; (iv) encouraging and
coordinating researches and promoting publication of literature on
different subjects relating to social work; (v) disseminating
information pertaining to social work education, and (vi) working as
a national forum on all matters concerning
 social work education.11
Inspite of the best efforts by the association, a code of ethics for
social worker has not been developed so far. There is no clear cut
definition of role of, social work in many fields and hence social
workers find themselves in great difficulty in justifying their presence
in agencies and organizations. There is a confusion in the minds of
most people about the meaning of the term social work.

Social Approval
Social work is gaining approval very slowly both on the part of the
government and non-government organizations. Except in labour
field, there are hardly any jobs exclusively in social work. Inspite of

SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION 139

this, social work is spreading in the Geld of medical and health, chUd
welfare, family welfare, women welfare and rural development.

Professional Organizations >ii: tl

The Indian Association of the Alumini of the Schools of Social Work
was formed in 1951. Its name was changed in 3964 and now it is
known as Indian Association of Trained Social Workers. ^i;hag;ifs
branches at Bombay, Chandigarh, Coimbatore, Delhi, Dfcarwar,
Hyderabad, Indore, Jamshedpur, Madras, Nagpur, Trivandrum,
Udaipur, Varanasi, Waltair and Lucknow. The Association' of
Schools of Social Work in India was established in 1960 to act as a
non-official organization for the promotion of social work education.
Association of Medical and Psychiatric Social Work is also giving
input to the profession. There are several organizations functioning
at the level of Schools of Social Work.
It is, thus, self-evident that we have been gradually heading
towards professionalization in Social Work.
IV. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR TI IE SLOW PROCESS OF
PROFESSIONALIZATION OF SOCIAL WORK IN INDIA
Social work as a profession is of recent origin in India. Its
professional character has not been yet fully developed. There is a
basic doubt in the minds of many persons as to whether there is
distinct body of theoretical concepts and knowledge which can claim
social work as its own. Besides, people who traditionally entered in
the social work field were characterized more by the qualities of
heart (self-motivation) rather than by a discipline. The new concept
of social work has brought a confusion even in the minds of social
workers.

It is unfortunate that social work as a profession got on the

wrong start in India. Modern philosophy of social work as accepted
in the more professional-minded schools is clearly of alien origin,
mainly American. As in America, here too, it has been quite
needlessly made the raison d'etre for the academic survival of social
work. In America there were socio-economic factors that logically
 led to the inidvidual-centred approach in social work, but such type
of factors are not found in India, Most or all Schools or University
Departments of Social Work in India have tacitly accepted the
individual approach but there have been varying degrees of emphasis
on it depending largely on how much it had been diluted with Indian

140 SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

background: consideration in the process of adaptation.13 There is
much confusion about the meaning of social work.
Social work is often regarded as a selfless, non-remunerative,
character-building, or religious activity. Some think that social work
is a charitable task which is done mostly by wealthy persons in the
society. Sometimes social work is thought of as disaster-relief activity.
Voluntary manual labour is frequently known as social work. So far
* the term social work has not been clearly understood, the term social
worker is also ambiguous. There are at least four-five different types
of functionaries that are generally called social workers. These are
philanthropist, social reformer, leader, voluntary worker etc. This
has created a lot of hurdles in gaining the real form of social work.
The lack of teaching material based on Indian case studies is one
of the major factors in the slow process of professionalization of
social work. Dr. Wright points out that the failure to relate to the
Indian culture and the wrong emphasis and assumptions for India,
these are two major defects of American writings. The principles to
be used in the helping process may be the same, but the Indian
brings to his ideas of the solution of the problem a different set of
values which call sometimes for a different use of the basic
principles.
There is a lot of difference between theory and practice. The
teaching in classroom is based upon principles which have been
borrowed. These are not often the principles which imbue social
work practice in India. For example, American books are written on
the assumption that a client feels the need and himself comes to the
agency for help. But in India the students have to develop the skills
to motivate people in need to make use of services of the agencies.
The students, therefore, often feel highly frustrated when they see
that classroom teachings are hardly ever attained in practice.
The area of specialized knowledge in social work is still
somewhat limited. Little attempts have been made to develop
systematic empirical knowledge relating to typical problems,
situations and ways of handling them. Unlike in professions based
upon physical and biological sciences such as medicine, engineering
etc, the knowledge gained in other societies is not easily transferable
in the case of social work. This adds another problem to the process
of professionalization of social work.

The professional organizations like Indian Association of

 Trained Social Workers, Association of Schools of Social Work,

SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION

141

organized for the promotion of standard of social work, are not

performing their job satisfactorily. The functions of these
organizations are so limited that even most of the social workers do
not know the existence of such organizations.
The last and not the least factor is lack of sincere devotion and
dedication on the part of the social workers. They are lacking in
sincere devotion and dedication to the cause of suffering humanity,
forgetting their professional ethics, running too much after money
and keeping self-interest even above the service which is the basis of
their existence. In such a situation a danger has developed that the
profession may degenerate into an occupation and widespread
distrust regarding its utility may develop in the minds of the people.

REFERENCES

1. Fricdlander, A.W: Introduction to Social Welfare, Prentice Hall, Inc., New York,
1955, p. 4.
2. Ranade, S.N: 'Trends in Social Work'in Social Work in India by Khinduka, S.K.,
Sarvodaya Sahitya Samaj, Jaipur, (India) 1962, pp. 206-207.
3. Jones, Kathican, Brown, John, and Bradshaw, Jonathan: Issues In Social Policy,
Rout ledge and Kcgan Paul, London, 1978, p. 60. *
4. Gore, M.S : Social Work and Social Work Education, Asia Publishing House,
Bombay, 1965, p. 86.
5. Cogan, M.L: Quoted in P. Elliott, The Sociology of the Professions, Macmillan,
1972, p. 8.
6. Millerson, G: 77ie Qualifying Association, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London,
1964
7. Elliott, P : The Sociology of Professions, Macmillan Company, London, 1972, p.
96.
8. Wilensky, H : The Professionalization of every one, American Journal of
Sociology, 70,1964, pp. 142-46.
9. Wilensky, H : The Dynamics of Professionalism : The case of Hospital
Administration. Hospital Administration, Vol. 7. No. 2,1962, p. 9.
10. Cohen, N.E: Social Work in the American Tradition, The Diyden Press, New
York, 1958, p. 339.
11. Singh Surendra : History of Social Work in India in Horizons of Social Work
{ed), by Singh, S. and Soodan, KB., op. cit p. 36.
12. Ibidp.yj *
13. Khinduka, S.K. op. cit. p. 31.
14. Wright, H: "Similarities and Differences in Social Work Education as seen in
 India and North America" International Social Work, Jan. 1959, Quoted by
Khinduka, S.K. op. cit. p. 168.
15. Singh, S: History of Social Work in India, op. cit p. 37.
1.
10

SOCIAL CASE WORK

Social case work, a primary method of social work, is concerned

with the adjustment and development of the
individual towards more
satisfying human relations. Better family life, improved schools,
better housing, more hospitals and medical care facilities, protected
economic conditions and better relations between religious groups
help the individual in his adjustment and development. But his
adjustment and development depend on the use of these resources
by him. Sometimes due to certain factors, internal or external, he
fails to avail existing facilities. In such situations, social case worker
helps him. Thus, social case work is one to one relationship which
works in helping the individual for his adjustment and development.

DEFINITIONS
RICHMOND (1915)
Social case work may be defined as the art of doing different things
for and with different people by cooperating with them to achieve at
one and the same time their own and society's betterment.1
RICHMOND (1917)
Social case work is the art of bringing about the better adjustments
in the social relationship of individual men, or women or children.2
RICHMOND (1922)
Social case work means, "those processes which develop personality
through adjustment consciously affected, individual by individual,
between men and their social environment". 3

SOCIAL CASE WORK

143

JARRETT{1919)
Social case work is "the art of bringing an individual who is b a
condition of social disorder into the best possible relation with all
parts of ms environment.
TAFT(1920)
Social case work means "Social treatment of a maladjusted
individual involving an attempt to understand his personality,
behaviour, and social relationships, and to assist him in working out
a better social and personal adjustment.5
WATSON (1922)
Social case work is 'the art of untangling and reconstructing the
twisted personality in such a manner that the individual can adjust
himself to his environment'.
QUEEN (1922)
Social case work is 'the art of adjusting personal relationship'.
 LEE (1923)
Social case work is the' art of changing human attitudes'.
TAYLOR (1926)
Social case work is'a process concerned with the understanding of
individuals as whole personalities and with the adjustment of these
individuals to socially healthy lives'.
RAYNOLDS0932)
Social case work is the process of counselling with the client on a
problem which is essentially his own, involving some difficulty in his
social relationship'.
REYNOLDS (1935)
Social case work is 'that form of social work which assists the
individual which he struggles to relate himself to his family, his
natural groups, his community'.1
KLEIN(1938) ¦
Social case work is "a technical method in social work a way of
adjusting the client to his personal problems".

144
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

SWIFT(1939)
Social case work is the art of assisting the individual in developing
and making use of his personal capacity to deal with problems
which he faces in his social environment.
DE SCHWEINITZ (1939)
Case work means 'those processes involved in giving service,
financial assistance, or personal counsel to individuals by re-
presentatives of social agencies, according to policies established
and with consideration of individual need.
STRODE (1948)
Social case work is the process of assisting the individual to the best
possible social adjustment through the use of social case study,
social resources, and knowledge from relative fields of learning.
TOWLE(1947) '
Social case work is one method ... by which certain special
services are made available in areas of unmet needs.
DOWERS (1949)
Social case work is an art in which knowledge of the science of
human relations, and skill in relationship are used to mobilize
capacities in the individual and resources in the community
appropriate for better adjustment between the client and all or any
part of his total environment.
, ^-HOLLIS (1954)
Social case work is a method employed by social workers to help
individuals find solution to problems of social adjustment which
they are unable to handle in a satisfactory way by their own
efforts.18
HAMILTON (1956)
In social case work the client is stimulated to participate in the study
of his situation, to share plans, to make an active efforts to solve
his problems, using his own resources and whatever community
resources are available and appropriate.
MOLLIS (1957)
Social case work is a method employed by social workers to help

SOCIAL CASE WORK

 145

individuals find solution to problems of social adjustment which they

are unabje to handle in a satisfactory way by their own efforts.20
/ PERLMAN(1957) "
Social case work is process used by certain human welfare agencies
i/' to help individuals to cope more effectively with their problems in
social functioning. l
The credit goes to Mary Richmond for defining the social
case work scientifically. In 1915 she said that social case work is an
art through which help is provided to people for their betterment as
well as for the betterment of society. It means that social case work
is essential if any country wants to improve and develop society and
community. But this definition was not clear and therefore, she
defines again in 1917 in which she emphasized the specific purpose
i.e. better adjustment in the social relationships. Again in 1922 she
told that social case work is for change of the personality of the
individual for proper social adjustment. The position of social
maladjustment, disorder, even failure, with which case work is
concerned, entered the definition of Jarrett. The same was repeated
byTaft.

Watson opposed the psycho-social model of treatment and

emphasized an ego psychology. Total personality appears on the
scene of social case work for consideration to social workers.
Porter Lee also emphasized that the goal of social case work is to
change human personality. Taylor stressed upon the need for
understanding the total personality of the individual for bringing
healthy adjustment in social life. «A counselling function was
introduced into the case work definition by Reynolds in 1932. Klein
also suggested that the social case work is for helping the client
for adjustment. Swifts talks of developing the strength and capacity
in the individual to solve his problems himself. De Schweinitz in
?939 advanced definitions containing the functional activity. She
linked the social case work with representatives of social agencies
and established policies. The work which is done through the social
agencies by the social case worker comes in the purview of social
case work. Strode expresses his view by saying that social case work
uses social resources for helping the individual to obtain adjustment
in social life. Towle made very simple definition by saying that case
work is for unmet needs of the individual. Bowers told two
instruments of social case work,
 i.e. knowledge of the science of

146 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

human relations and skill in relationship; which are used to
strengthen his capacity for gaining purposeful adjustment. Hollis
talks of finding a solution to problems for the Individual client.
According to Pcrlman, the case worker's task is to restore or
reinforce the client's ability to deal with the problem rather than to
deal with the problem for or with him.
Pcrlman while defining the social case work process has
indicated the four essential components of social case work in their
relationships to one another. A person with a problem comes to a
place where social worker helps him through a well defined process.
The person is a man, women or child, anyone who finds himself, or
is found to be, in need of help in some aspect of his social
emotional living, whether the need be for tangible provisions or
counsel. As he begins to receive such help, he is called a client.""
The problem arises from some need or obstacle or accumulation of
frustrations or maladjustments, and sometimes all of these together,
which threaten or has already attacked the adequacy of the
person's living situation or the effectiveness of his efforts to deal
with it."J The place is a social service agency or a social service
department of another kind of human welfare agency. It is a
particular kind of social agency and department, in that it is set up to
deal not with social problems at large but with human beings who
are experiencing such problems in the management of their own
personal lives. Its purpose is to help individuals with the particular
social handicaps which hamper good personal or family living and
with the problems created by faulty person to person, person to
group, or person to situation relationships."
The process, named 'social case work' to denote its centre of
attention and its individualized aspect, is a progressive transaction
between the professional helper (the case worker) and the client. It
consists of series of problem-solving operations carried on within a
meaningful relationship. The end of this process is contained in its
means to so influence the client-person tnat he develops
effectiveness in coping with his problem and/or to so influence the
problem as to resolve it or vitiate its effects.

PURPOSE OF SOCIAL CASEWORK

The basic purpose of social work is to enable the client to enjoy with
some degree of permanency, more satisfying, effective and
SOCIAL CASE WORK
147

acceptable experiences in the social situation in which he finds

himself. To achieve this goal efforts
are made to bring effective
changes in the client's environment or social living situation,
through clarifying the client's possibly distorted perception of it or
strengthening his capacities for coping with it.26 Its essential task
is the facilitation of social relationship. According to Witmer 'the
chief aim of social case work is that of helping people to mobilize
their capacities for the solution of the problems that brought them to
the attention of social agencies.27 The purpose of social case work
is not only to help those troubled in their immediate present but to
help in such a way that each client will, from the experience, be
better able to meet future difficulties with a more effectively,
organized personal strength.28 Most of the writers of social work
like Moffett, Hollis, have emphasized that one of the main
objectives of social case work is to bring about an adjustment
between the individual client and his situation or environment.
Towle has proposed both a remote and more proximate
purpose of social case work. According to her the ultimate and is
the promotion of the welfare of the individual in the interest of
society, the proximate and is the making available of certain special
services in the areas of unmet needs. Bowers32 mentioned two basic
objectives : better adjustment in the social relationships of the
individual, and the development of individual personality. According
to Perlman, within the boundaries of what the client's wants, his
capacities, and the resources of skill and material means of the
agency (and community), the specific goal is to help him achieve his
previous level of functioning and/pr to promote the most effective
functioning of which he is capable at this time.
In general, the purpose of social case work is to help an
individual client to solve his psycho-social problems in such a way
so that he finds himself capable of dealing with these problems at
present and also may solve in future if such problems arise. Thus
social case work has the following objectives:
1. To understand and- solve the internal problems of the
individual.
2. To strengthen his ego power.
3. Remediation of problems in social functioning.
4. Prevention of problems in social functioning.
5. Development of resources to enhance social functioning.
1.
148 SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
CLIENT CASE WORKER RELATIONSHIP
The term 'relationship' in social case work was used for the first
time by Miss Virginia Robinson in her book. 'A Changing
Psychology in Social Case Work' in 1939. Relationship is the case
worker's responsible and disciplined use of himself in working with
a client. The relationship is the channel
through which the ,
mobilization of the capacities of the client is made possible. The
relationship is the medium through which the client is enabled to
state his problem and through which attention can be focused on
reality problems, which may be as full of conflict as emotional
problems. A case work relationship is the professional meeting of
two persons for the purpose of assisting one of them, the client, to
make a better, a more acceptable adjustment to a personal
problem/ Within the democratic frame of reference the
professional relationship involves a mutual process of shared
responsibilities, recognition of other's rights, acceptance of
difference, with the goal, not of isolation, but of socialized
attitudes and behaviour stimulating growth through interaction.
The essence of relationship has been called an interplay, a mutual
emotional exchange, an attitude, a dynamic interaction, a medium,
a connection between two persons, a professional meeting and a
mutual process. >
Mollis distinguishes two types of relationship, the basic and
the special. The worker brings to all relationships in his ability to
help and function as a worker. This type of relationship is similar in
many ways with some social relationships.
Special relationship has therapeutic element. It is called
professional relationship.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROFESSIONAL AND SOCIAL

RELATIONSHIPS
There are five ways in which the professional relationship may differ
from customary social relationships.
Social Relationship Professional
Relationship

1. Duration Open-ended Ends when the

problem is solved

SOCIAL CASE WORK

149

Social Relationship Professional

_ Relationship

2. Time Not limited Limited, according

to the problem
3. Place Home, club, invitation, Office or institution
cinema, etc.
4. Focus Mutual satisfaction of Focus on client's
range of needs — needs problem
emotional, social, solving work
intellectual, aesthetics etc.
5. Role Mutual Helper and helped
 relationship

CHARACTERISTICS OF CASE WORKER-CLIENT RELATIONSHIP

Perlman has described the following characteristics of case
worker-client relationship:
1. Vital relationship between people arise out of shared and
emotionally charged situations.
2. All growth producing relationships, of which the case work
relationship is one, contain elements of acceptance and
expectation, support and stimulation.
3. The identifying mark of professional relationship is its
conscious purposiveness .growing out of the knowledge of
what must go into achieving the goal.
4. The case work relationship begins as and when the client
shares some part of his problem and the worker
demonstrates what he feels with the client and at the same
time he has professional competence to bring for dealing
with the problem.
5. The case worker relationship may have several therapeutic
values.
6. Relationship needs and difficulties from outside the case
work situation may intrude into and complicate the case
work relationship and may have to be dealt with.
7. The case worker, too, has relationship reactions, and part of
his professional skill in their management. '
1.
150 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METIIODS
ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATIONSHtP
Despite the general concern with relationship, we find great
difficulty in specifying just what is meant by the term 'relationship.
Rapport explains this problem thus that 'Relationship is a rather
fuzzy concept since we cannot state with clarity what aspect of
relationship, what kind, what symbolic value, what degree of
intensity and so on arc essential ingredients of treatment. The
pertinent question is whether there are components of relationship
that can be identified ... These components are accurate empathy,
non-possessive warmth and genuineness.

Accurate Empathy
It refers to the ability of the case worker to perceive and
communicate accurately and with sensitivity both feeling and
experiences of client and their meaning and significance. The
worker should be sensitive to express feelings of the client as well
as that may only he hinted by voice, posture and content ones.

Non-possessive Warmth
It refers to the workers communication of
respect, acceptance,
liking, caring, and concern for the client in a non-dominating way.
When this component is at low level the worker evaluates the
client and expresses likes, dislikes, approval, disapproval in a
highly conditional way. At high level, the worker warmly accepts the
client's experience as a part of his personality.

Genuineness
It refers to worker's being himself, being real. He should be honest
in his approach, Whatever he reveals should be real aspect of
himself.
These components can be measured and on that basis
closeness of relationship may be explored.
PURPOSE OF RELATIONSHIP
The case work relationship is the dynamic interaction of attitudes
and emotions between the case worker and the client, with the
purpose of helping the client achieve a better adjustment between
himself and his environment. Thus the purpose of establishing

SOCIAL CASE WORK

151

relationship is to help the client with his psycho-social needs and

problems. Other purposes are:
1. Better solution of client's problem,
2. Exploitation of means for solving problem,
3. Stating reality and emotional problems,
4. Solution of the personal problem,
5. Development of personality.
THEPR1NC1PLES OF CASE WORK RELATIONSHIP
Biestek44 has described seven principles of case work relationship.
These are:

1. Individualization
Individualization is the recognition and understanding of each
client's unique qualities and the differential use of principles and
methods *m assisting each toward a better adjustment.
Individualization is based upon the right of human beings to be
individuals and to be treated not just as a'human being but as this
human being with his personal differences.

2. Purposeful Expression of Feelings

Purposeful expression of feelings is the recognition of the client's
need to express his feelings freely, especially his negative feelings.
The case worker listens purposefully, neither discouraging nor
condemning the expression of these feelings, sometimes even
actively stimulating and encouraging them when they are
therapeutically useful as a part of'the case work service.

3.Controlled Emotionallnvolvement

The controlled emotional involvement is the case worker's

sensitivity to the client's feelings, an understanding of their
meaning, and purposeful, appropriate
 response to the client's
feelings.

4. Acceptance
Acceptance is a principle of action where in the case worker
perceives and deals with the client as he really is, including his
strengths and weaknesses, his congenial and uncongenial qualities,

152 SOCIAL WORK-PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

his positive and negative feelings, his constructive and destructive
attitudes and behaviour, maintaining all the while a sense of the
client's innate dignity and personal worth . . . The purpose of
acceptance is therapeutic; to aid the case worker in understanding
the client as he really is, thus making case work more effective, and
to help the client free himself from undesirable defences, so that he
feels safe to reveal himself and look at himself as he really is, and
thus to deal with his problem and himself in a more realistic way.

5. The Non-judgmental Attitude

The non-judgmental attitude is a quality of the case work
relationship. It is based on a conviction that the case work function
excludes assigning guilt or innocence, or degree of client
responsibility for causation of the problems or needs, but does
include making evaluative judgments about the attitudes, standards,
or action of the client. The attitude which involves both thought and
feeling elements is transmitted to the client.

6. Client Self-determination
The principle of client self-determination is the practical
recognition of the right and need of clients to freedom in making
their own choice and decisions in the case work process. Case
workers have a corresponding duty to respect that right, recognize
that need, stimulate and help to activate that potential for self
direction by helping the client to see and use the available and
appropriate resources of the community and of his own personality.
The client's right to self-determination, however, is limited by the
client's capacity for positive and constructive decision making, by
the framework of civil and moral law, and by the function of the
agency.

7. Confidentiality
Confidentiality is the preservation of secret information concerning
the client which is disclosed in the professional relationship.
Confidentiality is based upon a basic right of the client; it is an
ethical obligation of the case worker and is necessary for effective
case work service. The client's right, however, is not absolute.
Moreover, the client's secret is often shared with other
SOCIAL CASE WORK
153
professional persons within the agency and in other agencies; the
obligation then binds all equally.
Friedlander has mentioned two types of principles.

a. Generic Principles
1. The principle of acceptance
2. The principle of communication
3. The principle of individualization
4. The principle of participation
5. The principle of client self-determination
6. The principle of confidentiality
7. The principle of case Worker self-awareness

h. Differential Principles
1. In a stressful situation, involving a client who presents
evidence of inadequacies in current role functions, whose
current mode of adaptation to this lo%s seems appropriate
(not markedly regressive) and who demonstrated the
possession of a clear perception of the problems and what
may be needed for their solution—which is an evidence of
effective ego functioning—the goal and techniques of
environmental modification and ego support are
applicable.
2. In a stressful situation, involving a client who presents
evidence of inadequacies in current role functions, and
whose mode of adaptation, seems either (a) appropriate
(not -. markedly regressive) or else, at the other extreme,
(b) markedly inappropriate and regressive, and who.
demonstrates the possession of either (a) a clear perception
of the problems and what may be needed for their
solution evidence of effective ego-functioning or
(b) markedly inaccurate or distorted perception of the.
problems evidence of grossly ineffective ego-functioning —
the goals and techniques of environmental modification
and ego-support are applicable.
3. With a diagnosis of relatively strong ego-functibning, of
some but not marked regressive modes of adaptation, and
of rather satisfying and effective performance in key social
roles, the case worker may engage himself with clients in
1.
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SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

the goals and techniques of clarifying the effects and

meaning of the client's behaviour.
4. When problems in role fulfilment are based primarily on
intrapsychic hindrances to effective and satisfying modes of
adaptation and the client's potential level of ego-functioning
is a high one, the goals and techniques of uncovering the
"forgotten causes" of behaviour are
 applicable.

SOCIAL CASE WORK PROCESS

There are three phases of social case work practice: Social
investigation or psycho-social study, diagnosis and treatment or
management.
SOCIAL INVESTIGATION (PSYCHO-SOCIAL STUDY)
Nothing happens on this earth without any reason. In other words,
every happening has definite cause. Definite cause does not exist in
vacuum rather a natural phenomenon. It is very interesting to note that
today man is not just considered the creature, rather a creator as well.
This particular change in the status of man has tempted him to
quench his thirst of knowledge not only about the natural phenomena
but today's man is much interested to understand human behaviours
in a very scientific and precise way. Social case worker is also
interested in gaining this knowledge for its successful functioning.
Before conceiving the term "social investigation," Mary
Richmond herself toyed with such, terms as "Social-evidence",
"learned seeking", "Social inquiry" and ultimately shifted her choice
upon the term "social investigation." Social investigation is the
foundation upon which the various helping processes, actions and
treatment techniques are built. For every social work activity,
whether it is at individual level or family level or community and
societal level, the social investigation is indispensable. Social
investigations help to find out the social realities of the clients and
their families, to identify the problem area and to formulate
treatment, rehabilitation and aftercare strategies.
It is rightly pointed out by Hamilton that social investigation
is a psycho-social process. It transcends much beyond the
assessment of the individual client or family. The intra-psychic
forces are inseparably linked with social forces. To understand, the
individual as psycho-social entity, the analysis of his relationship
with others and others related with him is equally important.

SOCIAL CASE WORK

155

CONTENTS OF THE SOCIAL INVESTIGATION

Perlman has given the following contents of the case work
study in the beginning phase:
1. The nature of the presenting problem,
2. The significance of this problem,
3. The cause(s), onset and precipitants of the problem,
4. The efforts made to cope with problem-solving,
5. The nature of the solution or ends sought from the case
work agency,
6. The actual nature of this agency and its problem solving
means in relation to the client and his problem.
 Social case worker attempts to imvestigate the following facts:

1. Picture of the Problem

He tries to know major complaints, beginning of the problems, the
nature of the problem, severity of the problem, implications of the
problem, location of the problem, causation of the problem, scope of
the problem (who are other affected persons) etc.

2. Client's Feelings and Reactions

Case worker attempts to find out the altitude of the client towards
his problem, the analysis and interpretation made by him about his
problem, the relationship between client and problem, capacities,
competencies and weaknesses of the client.

3. Client's Efforts to Solve Problems

Social case worker acquires knowledge about the efforts made by the
client to deal with his problems, the help taken so far, help taking
organization and agencies, effects of help, client's evaluation towards
these help receiving agencies, and the time spent in these agencies.

4. Social Conditions . ;
He investigates the clear picture of family, its environment, and its
impact on the client. He also gains knowledge of schools and its
effect on client. Apart from these social agencies, he makes attempts
to know the impact of neighbour, working place and religious,
economic and political institutions.

156
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

5. Psycho-social Development of the Client

In this area, the case worker gets information about the pre- and
post-natal care of the client, his early development, childhood,
schooling, socialization patterns, home environment, marital history,
occupational history, habits, relationship with others.

6. Personality, of the Client

For the proper diagnosis, the case worker gives much emphasis to
gather information regarding personality characteristics of the client i.e.
knowledge, feelings, wishes, temperament, ego-strength, sensitivity,
adaptability, communication patterns, cooperation, sympathy, tolerance,
responsibility, expression of emotions, devotion to work, motivational
stale, and level of aspirations and weakness in his personality.
THE TECHNIQUES OF SOCIAL INVESTIGATION
There are two fundamental techniques of social investigation, i.e. (i)
Interview and (ii) Observation.
The process of social investigation is initiated and carried
through by the process of interview. Professional skill in this area
requires not only theoretical knowledge about the psychology of
human behaviour but also considerable case work experience in
 which the worker's technique is repeatedly analysed. The interview is
used for securing information about the client as well as his problems
including his relationships with other persons in his social and
personal environment. Through the interview situation, the case
worker attempts to instruct and guide both the client and others who
play significant roles in his life and attempts to manipulate the
environment for the benefit of the client

Observation is always coupled with interviewing. It makes

possible to record the behaviour of the client as it occurs. It yields
clues as to the pathological patterns of communication, pathogenic
relation and defective role playing and polarization of power and
authority among the family members who are of etiological
significance.

Tools of Social Investigation

The following tools are used by social case worker in collecting the
relevant information for diagnosis and treatment:

SOCIAL CASE WORK

157

1. Interview guide and schedule

2. Life Chart .
3. Video recording of family interaction
4. Tape recorded interview

Format of Interview Guide/Schedule

/. History of Problem
1. Major complaints (problems)
2. History of the problems
3. Treatment or helps taken so far.

//. Personal History

1. Early development
2. Process of socialization
3. Coping patterns of day-to-day stress
4. Schooling—likes, dislikes, difficulties, academic
achievements, extra-curricular activities, model teachers'
behaviour, significant incidence. *
5. Marital History—age at marriage, willingness for marriage,
types of marriage, consanguinity, age of the spouse,
personality of the spouse, expectations from marriage,
relationship and compatibility with the spouse, with the
 in-laws and the offspring, sexual gratification, birth of the
first child and its impact on the marital life.
Difficulties in communication, role playing, interaction,
reinforcement, stress managing patterns and social support system.

Habits:
(i) Drinking, gambling, smoking, addictions, etc.
(ii) Reading, creative activities, music, writing, painting, etc.
(iii) Social habits.

6. Occupational History: when and why started working, job

satisfaction in every work, relationship with the supervisors
 and collegues, promotion, work environment, reasons of
changing occupation/job.
7. Income: Income per month, level of satisfaction, needs and
income, spouse's attitude towards your income earning,
capacity, debt, other problems.
6.
158 ¦*¦¦- SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
8. Sex experience: sexual perversion if any, failure in love, its
effects, etc.,

III. Family History

1. Family structure
2. Economic status in community
3. Educational History
4. Occupational History
5. Marital History
6. Ethical and moral standards
7. Family Habits
8. Personality Patterns
9. Interaction Patterns

10. Patterns of decision making *

11. Existing role structure in family
12. Patterns of managing problem
13. Social support system
14. Interaction of the family members with the client.

IV. Analysis and Social Diagnosis: Problematic Areas

V. Treatment Plan
SOCIAL DIAGNOSIS
Diagnosis like treatment begins with the first glance between the
help giver and help seeker. Social diagnosis is the attempt to arrive
at an exact definition as possible of the social situation and
personality of a given client.4 It is a search for the causes of the
problem which brings the client to the worker for help. Diagnosis is
(i) an explanation formulated in the light of known facts (both
tangible fact items and psychological fact items); (ii) an explanation
made in the knowledge of other possible explanations; and (iii)
subject to change or revision whenever subsequent material warrants
a different explanation. Diagnosis is, therefore, concerned with
understanding both the psychological or personality factors which
bear a causal relation to the client's difficulty and the social or
environmental factors which tend to sustain it. The diagnostic
process consists of a critical scrutiny of a client—situation complex
and the trouble concerning which help is sought or needed for the

SOCIAL CASE WORK "y

purpose of understanding the nature of the difficulty with increasing
detail and accuracy. *

Content of the Social Diagnosis

The content of the case work diagnosis falls into the triangular
pattern. It consists of:
1. The nature of the problem brought and the goals sought by
the client, in their relationship to;

2. The nature of the person who bears the problem (his social
and psychological situation and
 functioning) and who seeks
(or needs) help with his problem, in relation to;
3. The nature and purpose of the agency and the kind of help it
can offer and/or make available.

The Process of Making Diagnosis

A diagnosis has been broken up into a number of stages: gathering
the data, the diagnostic study, the diagnosis itself or the evaluation,
and the diagnostic product.

Gathering Data
Data are gathered of the interview of the client, reports agency's records
reports, from other members of the team, other agencies, schools,
relatives. Home visit is also an important source of data collection. The
accuracy of data depends on worker's skill of interviewing,
individualization, acceptance, communication and involvement.

Diagnostic Study
The study attempt to identify the problem areas which are important
for social case work involvement.

Diagnosis or Evaluation
This means finding the nature of the problem, its organization and
extent and who is going to be affected. Factors responsible for the
problem may be one or more than one of the following:
(i) Physical — Physical illness or disability, how the sufferer
feels, how his family and others feel. Effect of physical
illness — dependent, tired, irritable, depressed, self image
lowering, distort relationship, disrupt communication.

160
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND Mini IODS

(ii) Psychological — The assessment is made of the quality of

libidinal relationship, dependency, narcissistic tendencies,
sexual identification, quality of aggressiveness,
channelization of aggressiveness, nature of super ego,
consistency of ego and super ego, reality perception,
self-analysis, self-criticism, judgement, defence used, degree
of discomfort the problem causes him, the nature of desire
to change it, the effect that change may have upon other
members,
(iii) Social — The following facets of social environment
generally come within the diagnosis:

1. Income level — High, low, consistent, uncertain, effect on

the present problem.
2. Housing — Loan taken, rented, adjustment with
landlord/tenant, overcrowding, basic facilities
 lacking/sufficient.
3. Neighbourhood ~ Tolcrant/intoleranl/supportive/confiict,
views toward client etc.

4. Employment — Job availability, prospects, remuneration,

 level, security, status, condition of work, job satisfaction
5. Religion — Beliefs in values, offering support —
consolation, expressive outlets, sublimation, reinforcing
problems — guilt, tension.
6. Availability/quality/attitude and attitudes (client) to social
organization and services: medical facilities, courts, credit
organizations, legal advice centres, Post-office, social
security
7. Prejudice, tension etc.
8. Educational problems.

Diagnostic Product
After identification of the problem areas and the factors relating to
them, the attempts are made towards possible solution. But before
determining solution we need to think about the potential
contribution to solutions of the client, others, the agency and the
worker. The client's work ability (capacity and motivation) is the
base for further determining the treatment techniques and
procedures. Perlman discusses this capacity under three headings:

SOCIAL CASE WORK

161

Emotional - Ability to relate others, ability to feel, experiencing,

contacting, etc.
Social Intelligence Capacity — Perceptivity, attention,
communication, self-management technology, management of
situations.
Physical capacity — How much the client has left over work on
problem solving.

Types of Diagnosis
Perlman has described three types of diagnosis that is carried on in
social case work process. These are : dynamic diagnosis, clinical
diagnosis and etiological diagnosis.

1. Dynamic Diagnosis
Dynamic diagnosis gives an understanding of the current problem of
the client and the forces currently operating within the client,
within social environment and between him/his environment. It
gives the answers of the question — what is t"he trouble?, What
psychological, physical and social factors are contributing to it ?,
What solution is sought? What are the means available within the
client, his environment? what are organized services and resources
by which the problem may be affected? The nature of such
diagnosis is changeable because it is the beginning phase of social
case work practice.

2. Clinical Diagnosis ,
Under clinical diagnosis, the case worker attempts to classify the
client by the nature of his sickness/problem. He identifies certain
forms and qualities of client's personality maladaptation and
malfunctioning in his behaviour. The clinical diagnosis describes
 both the nature of the problem and its relation to the client and the
helping means and goals. Such type of diagnosis is useful only when it
becomes apparent that a disorder of personality accompanies the
social disorder, creating and complicating it.

3. Etiological Diagnosis ;
Etiological diagnosis is concerned with the explanation of the
beginnings and life-history of problem of the client, basically that
problem that lies in th«elient's personality make up or functioning. The

162 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

history of his development as a problem encountering,
problem-solving human being may provide the case worker with an
understanding of what his client suffers from and what the extent of
his coping ability is likely to be. Elilogical diagnosis is more useful in
explaining or rigid reactions. When inspite of the fact that the client's
present problems are in the centre of attention, the clients responses are
not in accordance with, the past history and its appraisal in the light of
client's current capacities, goals and problems are used for the
treatment. This type of diagnosis contributes to understanding the
nature of the problem to be dealt with, the person who has the problem,
and the ways and means that can be anticipated as helpful.

Data for Diagnosis

The data for diagnosis can be collected by at least three primary means:

/. Interviews
Interview guides are used for collecting information. There are a
number of standard guides prepared by psychologists but most
recent guide is of Goldfried and Davison ' having the categories
of information: client's behaviour during the interview and
physical description; presenting problem(s) (nature of problems,
historical setting, events, current situation determinants, relevant
organizmic variables, dimensions of (he problem, consequences of
the problem): targets for modification; recommended
trcatmcnt(s), motivation for treatment; prognosis; priority for
treatment; client expectations; other information, comments, or
observations.

2. Checklists and Inventories

The followine inventories may be used: The Fear Survey Schedule
(of Wolpe) , questionnaire on client's perception of himself
(Goldstein) , family functioning (Stuart and Stourt) marital
functioning (Knox), sexual functioning (Annon) and instruments for
assessing environments (Moos)

3. Direct Observation
Observation in those situation in which the behaviour actually
occurs, e.g., home or place of work makes the work of diagnosing
very easy.
 SOCIAL CASE WORK
163

Steps in Diagnosis
The following steps are taken while diagnosing a problem:
1. The worker begins to focus on problematic behaviours. He
begins with the survey of both functional and disfunctional
behaviours in his environment. He classifies the various
complaints and problems in terms of excesses and deficits.
He evaluates client's personal strength as well as of his
environment.
2. He specifies the target behaviours. This involves an attempt
of breaking down complex behaviours into their component
parts, being as clear and precise as possible about them.
3. Baseline data are collected to specify those events that
appear to be currently controlling the problematic
behaviours.
4. The collected information is summarized in an attempt to
anticipate any major porblem in treatment and as a way of
beginning to establish objectives for treatment.
5. Selecting priorities for treatment is ttie final step of the
diagnosis. Concentration on one problem at one time makes
treatment process more manageable and allows both client
and worker to channel their energies into one area. It is the
best of handling and proper use of available resources.
SOCIAL TREATMENT
Social case work consists of those processes which develop
personality through adjustments consciously affected between
men and their social environment. Generally, two types of efforts
are required for social adjustment—environmental modification
and/or change in behaviour and attitudes. Early case work treatment
was placed on modification through the environment. Later on the
development of ego psychology helped, social case workers to use
intensive and direct treatment techniques. Now the aim of social case
work treatment is to restore the individual to social functioning or to
help him develop this capacity in order that he may achieve at one
and at the same time his own and society's betterment.
According to Hamilton, treatment is the sum total of all
activities and services directed towards helping an individual with a
problem. The focus is the relieving of the immediate problem and, if
feasible, modify any basic difficulties which precipitated it.

164 SOCIAL WORK -

PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
The objectives of social case work treatment are as follows:
1. To prevent social breakdown;
2. To conserve client's strength;
3. To restore social functioning;
4. To provide happy experiences to the client;
5. To create opportunities for growth and development;
6. To compensate psychological damage;
7. To increase capacity for self-direction;
8. To increase his social contribution.
Thus the objective of social case work treatment is to alleviate
the client's distress and decrease the malfunctioning in the
person-situation system. It is to enhance the client's comfort,
satisfaction, and self-realization. This may require enhancing the
adaptive skills of his ego and the functioning of the person-situation
system.

Social Case Work Treatment Process

Social case work treatment process begins with the initial contact
with the client. The process of treatment passes through many
phases, i.e. (i) initial phase, (ii) motivation and role induction, (iii)
primary contract, (iv) diagnosis and assessment, (v) establishing
treatment goals, (vi) developing treatment plan, (vii) preparation for
actual treatment, (viii) treatment in practice (ix) monitoring and
evaluating the effects of treatment, and (x) planning of follow-up
termination of therapeutic relationship.

/. Initial Pfiase
The main task of social case worker in the initial phase is to examine
how the problem was brought to his attention. He would attempt to
foucus on various aspects of the problem that seem fit to case work
treatment. Here the decisions of the worker are tentative. The initial
phase of social case work treatment will be thought to be completed
when the case worker meets the following conditions.
1. The issues have been sufficiently identified so as to
substantiate that they are appropriate to the purposes and
goals of the service.
2. The participants understand the nature and meaning of the
1.
SOCIAL CASE WORK
165

problem with enough explicitness to permit engagement and

participation.
3. The problem is appropriate to the programme, resources,
and services of the setting.
4. The problem fits the practitioner's skill and capabilities.64
Social case worker develops a preliminary understanding of the
problem and of the client. He also provides psychological support and
help to the client and engages him in a therapeutic relationship. It is
quite possible that through this initial process of treatment, client may
 learn that he really does not need further help as the problem has been
sufficiently clarified and explained. It is also possible that the agency
may not have concrete service to the client and the case worker may
become bound to refer the case to the particular agency. If the case is to
be continued with the case worker, he takes a decision whether to move
system-oriented treatment or towards person centred treatment.

//. Motivation and Role Induction

One of the most important tasks of social* case worker at the
beginning of the treatment process is to build and develop the
therapeutic relationship between himself and the client. Worker's
empathy, warmth and genuineness feelings are highly motivating
force for the client to take part in the therapeutic process. The
objective of this phase is to the minimizing of premature terminations
and enhance motivation to continue the treatment. At this phase the
worker finds the resistances of the client, and its genuineness. He
explores client's perception of why.he is involved in the treatment
and how he feels about being in the agency. He also encourages the
client to specify his expectations of treatment and feelings about
seeking help. He attempts to clarify the roles and responsibilities of
both himself and the client. He also clarifies about the type of
services agency can offer and extends the boundaries to those
services. These activities and role of social case worker help to
engage the client in therapeutic planning.

III. Primary Contract

The objective of this phase is to develop a preliminary contract with
the client. This contract may be oral or in writing. The case worker
thus by making psychological contract (relationship) sets the stage to
move towards more formal assessment.

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SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

IV. Diagnosis and Assessment

Diagnosis and assessment process are ongoing throughout the entire
treatment. Social case worker provides detailed information about
the problem situation that will help in establishing the treatment
goal, a strategy of treatment and selection of specific procedures
of treatment. The case worker assesses the client's ego strength,
skillfulness, capabilities and capacities in relation to his problem.
He classifies the excesses and the deficiencies in his behaviour,
and selects the specific treatment procedures to be used to
overcome the problem. He assesses whether the client needs
advice, counselling, behaviour modification, crisis intervention or
consultancy services like teaching, consultation, interpretation,
supervision or provision of adult services i.e. material help,
resource location and referral.

V.Establishing Treatment Goals

Social case worker after diagnosis and assessment of the problems of
 the client, establishes goals for the solution of the problem. He
selects any one or more goals of the following: (i) prevention of
breakdown, (ii) ego strengthening, (iii) restoration of social
functioning, (iv) creation of opportunities for growth and
development, (v) self-direction experience, (vi) social
participation experience, (vii) change in the environment. Social
case worker along with this work, points out the negative and
positive result that may come out due to change in the behaviour
patterns of the client or due to environmental manipulation.
Though the client has the major say in deciding on goals the case
worker plays an important role by clarifying a variety of
alternative goals for his consideration.

VI. Developing Treatment Plan

Treatment planning involves three major dimensions : formulating
of a strategy, selection of specific treatment procedures and
developing a method for evaluating the impact of the treatment
programme. Social case worker decides whether the primary
thrust of the invention or treatment will be system-centred,
person- centred or both. He, then, makes a judgement as to which
of the key roles of case worker are most suited to the particular
problem. The entire process of formulating a treatment strategy
may be depicted as.05

SOCIAL CASE WORK

Assessment and Establishment of Goals
167

Formulate intervention Strategy

System centred
Person centred

Direct
/I
Environment
 Increase Decrease Change cognitive
behaviours behaviours Patterns

Cognitive Problem-solving and Self-control

restructuring decision making

VII. Preparation for Actual Treatment

Preparation for actual treatment phase involves several specific steps

such as collecting all possible information, formation of action
system, preparation of mediator(s) if
needed, change of significant
elements in the client's environment to increase the probability of
getting desired result, make an attempt to make the new behaviour
acceptable to the client and to provide high level of close
relationship with the client. '

VIII. Application of Treatment Methods

In order to achieve the goals set by the case worker, conventionally
the following methods of social treatment have been mentioned:
1. Administration of practical services
2. Indirect treatment (environmental manipulation),
3. Direct treatment.

1. Administration of Practical Services

The client is extended help to choose and use the social resources
afforded by the community. Porter Lee66 was the first social worker

168
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

who emphasized and classified such resources into executive and

leadership. Administration of practical services means to help the
client in such a way that he could select and use the resources
avalable in ih; community. Social case worker, helps the client for an
adequate knev. ledge of available resources through the techniques of
discussion, information, clarification and direction. The use of
services is essential to solve any kind of problem and if the problem
is of social nature, then it becomes more essential for the worker to
help the client in this direction. These services take the form of
treatment as they satisfy his needs and give satisfaction. The client
knows the type of services he needs but he does not know how to
reach these firs-ices. It is the job of case worker to take the client to
the resources. Money, medical care, nursery schools, scholarships,
foster homes. legal aid, recreational facilities, etc. are such type of
services thai any person may need in order to resolve a given
problem in his daily living.

2. Indirect Treatment (EnvironmentalManipulation)

Environment:.'! manipulation means to bring change in the social
conditions c: the client so that he may be relieved from excessive
stresses and itrains. The case worker suggests as to what steps may
or may not help the client to cope better with his problems. He plans
with him as to his emotional, professional and recreational activities.
He gives an appropriate advice to members of his environment and
modifies their attitude favourably. Though inteview is used in this
method but the main emphasis is laid to change in his conditions.
When social resources and systematized social conditions are
used as main sources for the solution of the problem, it becomes
social treatment. Home services, camps, group experience
activities, training and employment for livelihood and other
activities of adjustmental nature are such type of programmes.
 The purpose of such activities is always to minimize the load of
tension in the client.
Social case worker organizes such type of activities through
which the client's experiences help in his personality growth and
adjustment in the society. Though practical services are also made
available but the focus is always on change in conditions. Attempts
are also made to change and modify the attitude of parents, teachers,
spouse, employer, friends and relatives in accordance with the needs
of the client.

SOCIAL CASE WORK

169

In general, environmental modification (manipulation) is

undertaken by the case worker only when environmental pressures
upon the client are beyond the latter's control but can be modified by
the case worker.67

3. Direct Treatment
Perlman sees direct treatment as the provision of a systematic but
flexible way in which the client can work over his problem, his
relation to it and possible solutions. Here case worker exerts his
influence directly on the client. Direct treatment techniques are used
where the client needs direction because of his ignorance, anxiety,
and weaknesses of his ego strengths. The degree of influence, the
case worker is able to exert, may depend on the relationship between
himself and the client.
Direct treatment is given through counselling, therapeutic
interviewing, clarification and interpretation leading to an insight.
Supportive treatment for the direct benefit of the client is provided
through guidance, externalization of interests, re-assurance,
suggestion, persuasion and advice.

Counselling: Counselling is a personal help directed toward the

solution of a problem which a person finds that he cannot solve
himself and on which he, therefore, seeks the help of a skilled person
whose knowledge, experience and general orientation can be brought
into play in an attempt to solve the problem. It is a psychological help
in which information and clarification are used for making the client
aware about the problem. It is always used for some particular
purpose like marriage counselling, occupational counselling, family
counselling, school counselling, etc.

Therapeutic Interviewing: Therapeutic interviewing is used where

intra-psychic conflict is projected to the environment or neuroses or
behaviour disorders are acted out. The purpose of such interviewing
is that of psychotherapy which aims towards personality growth in
the direction of maturing, competence and self-actualization. For the
analysis of the unconscious, social case worker applies the
techniques of free association, dream interpretation, analysis of
 resistances and transference. For behaviour modification, social case
worker makes use of the techniques of positive enforcement,

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SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

negative enforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment,

systematic desensitization and covert desensitization.
Sometimes faulty communication, faulty interaction play basic
role in developing maladaptive behaviour. For the improvement of
interpersonal relations and correct communication social 'case
worker practises marital and family therapy techniques and
transactional analysis.

Clarification : It is also a kind of counselling through which

clarification of client's himself, his environment and the public with
whom he is associated is made. Social case worker gives such an
understanding to the client that he becomes capable of
understanding himself, his environment and his social network.
Clarification my consist of giving the client information about the
environment or people in the environment, which he does not
possess and without which he cannot see clearly what steps he ought
to take.68
Interpretation and Insight: Sometimes conflicting feelings and strong
emotions lead the individual to distort reality so seriously or react to
it so inappropriately that understanding is impossible without the
deeper perception. Social case worker interprets the factors of the
problem, related facts, attitudes of client and unconscious feelings
in relation to the reality situation. He helps the client to an
awareness of his strong projection of his inner needs and his
subjective responses upon the outer world. Insight development
is always accompanied by some degree of clarification and
psychological support.

Psychological Support: Psychological support is useful in decreasing

tension and guilt, increasing self-confidence, encouraging healthy
functioning or a way of functioning that maintains the client's
equilibrium and in helping him to build up compensatory strengths
and satisfaction. The following help is provided to the client. He is
encouraged to express his feelings. Case worker accepts him and
his feelings, and shows keen interest in him. He clarifies the problem
and encourages him to take his own decision. Social case worker,
through psychological support does not develop understanding in
the client but applies reinforcement for his ego strength through

SOCIAL CASE WORK 171

 the techniques of guidance, reassurance, suggestion, persuasion and
advice.

JX. Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring provides the crucial feedback to case worker and the
client regarding whether the treatment programme is succeeding
as desired, whether established goals have been achieved,
whether modifications in the programme are necessary and
whether the client is being helped in real sense. Social case
worker evaluates the content of the programme and its
effectiveness inner strength gained by the client and success of
himself in helping the client.

X. Planning Follow -up and the Termination of Therapeutic

Relationship
It is neither wise nor necessary for the termination to be an abrupt
one. The frequency and amount of contacts should be gradually
decreased. Particularly, the follow-up should be planned on a
progressively diminishing basis, first, perhaps after two weeks, then
a month hence then three months, six months and a year following
the termination of the formal programme.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL CASE WORK

The goal of social case work is to solve client's problems by

developing his capacities and capabilities so that he may realize
satisfaction and happiness. To achieve this goal, case worker
studies social and psychological conditions of each client. The
problems generally arise when an individual fails to fulfil his role in
a particular situation or his ego is not performing its obligations
satisfactorily. Both the situations make the process of adaptation
difficult for the individual. Thus, the case worker studies social
roles of the clients, adaptation level and ego functioning to put a
clear diagnosis for proper treatment. These concepts, are
discussed here.
TIIE CONCEIT OF SOCIAL ROLE
The term role is used to designate the sum total of the cultural
pallcrns associated with a particular status. It thus includes the
altitudes, values and behaviour ascribed by the society to any and all

172 •
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

persons occupying this status ... In so far as it represents overt

behaviour...
A person's role is a pattern or type of social behaviour which
seems situationally appropriate to him in terms of the demands and
expectations of those in his group. 3 When a number of interrelated
behavioural patterns are clustered around a social function, we call
this combination a social role.

Social role may be defined as the institutional group expectation

as to behaviour, attitudes and other
 attributes for the occupant of a
given position in a social system. Every society is composed of
familial, educational, economic, political, religious, etc. institutions
to ensure the adequate development of each and every member of
society. To ensure the proper and continuous functioning of these
institutions every individual is assigned to fulfil certain obligations.
Expectations vary according to the position the individual occupies
in a family, a work situation, in a school or in other institutions.
Expectations arc also being changed according to the changing
social system. Normally balance is maintained between the changing
expectations of the society and the changing values and capacities of
an individual.

When there are periods of sharp transition either in individual's

life cycle as he enters in another role expectations, or modification and
sudden changes happen in the social system, a critical imbalance
develops between person-social equilibrium. In such a situation he
is bewildered and confused in understanding his role. If he finds
himself capable of handling such a situation he maintains his
position and status in society otherwise he will no longer enjoy the
same position in the social system. And because of lowering of
social position, he suffers from stresses and strains. When this kind
of problem occurs social work may provide services which enable
the person to reassume productive membership in the
institutionalized groups of his society.
BEIIA VIOUR AND SOCIAL ROLE
The person's 'being and becoming' behaviour is both shaped and
judged by the expectations he and his culture have invested in the
status and the major social roles he carries. Every person occupies
some position or status in a society. He has status in lieu of certain
major functions which he fulfils. Every status is associated with
certain expectations. For example, a man in the role of father is

SOCIAL CASE WORK

173

supposed to act in a certain way towards his children, a woman in the

role of wife to behave in certain ways towards her husband. Such
types of behaviour in the form of roles an individual learns through
the process of socialization. In the social transaction if he fails to
perform his roles as expected, he feels shy and shame, mental stress
and strains.
ROLE CONFLICT
In complex society the individual needs high level of adaptability to
fulfil the numerous roles. He is supposed to perform different types
of roles every day. He may feel difficulty in doing so because of the
lack of training or knowledge or skill and thus conflict occurs within
the person himself. On other occasions conflict occurs when there is
refusal or inability to conform to the expectations inherent in status
and role. Conflict may also arise when
a person has not had adequate
opportunity to learn the roles. Sudden new situations also bring
conflict in the performance of the roles.
When a person's feelings and ideal of himself are compatible with
each other and with the social reality, and "when he is clear about
permissions and obligations, his role is a source of gratification and
of expansion of his personality. If he feels satisfaction in
performing a major role as of father/mother/husband, it becomes
possible for him to learn or struggle with frustration in other aspects
of his life. But when he fails or feels disturbances and barriers in the
social outlets, some degree of frustration is experienced by him
resulting in self-devaluation.
CONCEPT OF SOCIAL ROLE TO SOCIAL CASE WORK PRACTICE
The person who is in trouble approaches the social case work
agency for help. He needs help because he is unable to carry on
one or more of his roles with satisfaction. This maladjustment may
be either because of his inappropriate pattern of functioning or
because of social circumstances. Thus, the social case worker must
himself be clear as to what, realistically, the role's requirements
are, its firm requisites, and the range of variations permissible within
it. Then, within this objective frame of reference, the individual
client's behaviour must be viewed and assessed as to the nature of
the maladaptation whether it stems from conflict between what he
wants and what he can be or between what he wants and what he
must be, from some unrealistic interpretation of what his role

174
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

embraces, from some lack of preparation to engage in the necessary

behaviours, or from the loss of external supports.
THE CONCEPT OP EGO
The forces of the human personality are combined in three major
functions; (1) the life emerges that seek satisfactory outlets; (2) the
check system, automatic or voluntary, that halts, modifies, or
rechannnels those drives to make their ends acceptable to their
owner and his environment; and (3) the organizing and governing
operations that control the negotiations and balance within the
person himself, as between what he wants and what he can or ought
to do, and between himself and his physical and social
79
environment. The names Freud gave to these are the 'Id', ego',
(he super-ego'

Ego is the sum total of the integrating efforts of the personality,

the sum total of all the mechanisms of dealing with conflicts. The
functions of Ego are four fold; perception of internal subjective
wants and needs; perception of external and relevant reality
demands and opportunities, integration mediation operations
 between the two sets of perception towards selection and choosing
of means for gratification by the "reality principle", planning and /or
management of conscious, voluntary behaviour. From the very
beginning of birth to the moment of death every human being is
continuously engaged in problem-solving work in order to maintain
his stability, and effectiveness to achieve higher status in society.
That process of ego functioning by which a person perceives inner
or outer reality, reads its meaning, and variously adapts, defends,
protects, copes, accommodates, treats, renounces, compromises,
chooses, grapples and engages himself with his reality that process is
the way by which a person feels with his encountered problems,
whether those problems are in the nature of pleasure to be gained
or unpleasantness to be avoided. Ego qualities are many; among
them are abilities of perception (accurate/distorted), judgement
(rational/irrational, considered/hasty), reality testing (working at
things as they are, or resorting to fantasy), self-image (realistic,
inflated/denigrated), impulse control (too little, too much), and
executant ability (can they do things, organize themselves to
achieve, persist). In persons with 'weak' or under-developed ego,
these functions may not be fulfilled satisfactorily and the person
may feel incapability in problem solving. The job of the case worker

SOCIAL CASEWORK

175

is to deal with such person whose ego functions either are

undeveloped or are under the excessive anxiety, strains and conflict
The person under great stresses and strains due to failure of
ego-functioning uses defence mechanisms consciously or
unconsciously to protect the ego. These defences may be rational
or irrational. Irrational defences are unstable techniques for
adjustment as they create more problem. Social case worker
analyses other defences and tries to know how the client perceives
his current situation, utilizes knowledge gained in past experiences
and how he tries to solve his problems. He thus, by studying
functioning of the ego, obtains the knowledge of client's inner
strength, thought process and perceptional insight. On the basis of
this knowledge he prepares plan for his treatment or help.
TUB CONCEPT OF ADAPTATION

When a person faces new adjustive demand he receives it in the

form of particular problem based on its similarities to and
differences from previous ones. If he faces a stress situation for
which existing categories are inadequate, he-is forced to examine it
as a unique situation and tries to discern its key dimensions. If the
individual evaluates the stress situation as non-threatening or only
mildly menacing, he is likely to deal with it in terms of old patterns
that require little thought or effort. On
the other hand, if he
evaluates the stress as a serious threat, he is likely to experience
anxiety and to interrupt other ongoing activities and focus on
coping with it. The individual's threat appraisal may be in error.
He may perceive danger where none exists, fails to perceive it
where it does exist or exaggerate," or minimize the threat.
If he feels competent to handle a stress situation, his
behaviour tends to be task oriented i.e. aimed primarily at dealing
with the requirements of the adjustive demand. He offers the best
channel for using and coordinating resources in constructive
action, but if he faces severe stress and feels incapable of meeting
the demand he uses mechanism such as denial of reality, fantasy,
repression, rationalization, projection, reaction formation,
displacement, withdrawal, etc. Thus its is quite clear that adaptation
to stressful situation is made basically on three different levels:
1. Use of well known practiced method of adaptation.
2. Simple defensive mechanism like pairing, flight, withdrawal,
etc. ,.-,
1.
176 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
3. Destructive defenses like severe regression, severe
withdrawal, apathy, and other mental disorders symptoms.
The first level of adaptation gives satisfaction and new energy
to the person but others two are harmful for the proper growth and
development.
In a stressful situation, involving a client who presents
evidence of inadequacies in current role functions, and whose mode
of adaptation seems either (a) appropriate (not markedly
regressive), or else, at the other extreme, (b) markedly inappropriate
and regressive, and who demonstrates the possession of either (a) a
clear perception of the problems and what may be needs for their
solution — evidence of effective ego functioning or (b) markedly
inaccurate or distorted perception of the problems — evidence of
grossly ineffective ego functioning, the goals and techniques of
environmental modification and ego support are applicable. 1 With
a diagnosis of relatively strong ego functioning, of some but not
marked regressive modes of adaptation, and of rather satisfying
and effective performance in key social roles, the case worker may
engage with clients in the goals and techniques of clarifying the
effects and meaning of the client's behaviour.

DIAGNOSTIC AND FUNCTIONAL SCHOOLS OF SOCIAL

CASEWORK

The nature of social case work is dynamic and continuous progress

is being made in its techniques and methodological procedures. In
the beginning, the aim of social work was to help but later on due
to influence of psychology and psychiatry personality and behaviour
treatment have also been added as the objective of social case
work. Basic orientations of social case workers are of different
kind and with the result diagnostic and functional schools appear in
the practice of social casework.
DIAGNOSTIC SCHOOL
The Diagnostic school is basically founded on the Freudian Theory
of Psycho-analysis. The credit for giving shape to these thoughts in
the form of a school goes to Mary Richmond who wrote a first
book on social case work i.e. 'Social Diagnosis' in 1917. However,
the approach changed drastically as it was influenced by the
happening of the world and growth of personality and social theory.

SOCIAL CASE WORK

177

The contributors of this School were Marion Kenworthy (New

York School of Social Work). Betsey Libbey (Family Society of
Philadelphia), Gordon Hamilton, a teacher and writer,* others were
Bertha Reynolds, Charlotte Towle, Florence Day, Lucille Austin,
and Annette Garrett who contributed by their writings and
practices.
The Diagnostic schools is based on the following main
foundations:

1. Principles of Diagnosis ^
Social case work help is based on the understanding of each client
individually and his problem. It is essential because it gives a
realistic basis for differentiation and gives a base for the
improvement of the client's social situation and personal
satisfaction and adjustment. In 1922 Mary Richmond pointed out
that case work involved two types of insights, one into the
individuality and another into the social environment, and two
types of action, one through direct action of mind upon mind and
another through indirect action in the sOcial environment. The
diagnosis is based on the following principles:
1. The diagnostic process consists of a critical scrutiny of a client
situation complex and the trouble concerning which help is
sought or needed for the purpose of understanding the
nature of the difficulty with increasing details and accuracy.
2. Diagnosis is based on the knowledge of the worker about
the interplay of social and psychological factors effecting
the client. '
3. The knowledge of interaction between inner and outer
forces influencing the client makes the process of
diagnosis helpful and therapeutic.
4. Every problem of the individual should be
 understood in
the light of multiple factors theory.
5. In the initial stage also, relieving of pressure of stresses
and strains on the client, helps the case worker to arrive at
a proper diagnosis. ~ ¦ ¦',, •<: .-.*¦>
6. The initial appraisal of personality and motivations and
their significance in the development of client's problem,
provides the basis for planning the treatment of the
client's problem. '',..< K^A^ts
1.
178 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
7. For the solution of the problem of the client, it is of utmost
importance to gain some knowledge of his current capacity
to work and to recognize the motivating forces k his
behaviour.
8. The understanding of the psycho-dynamics and the
pathological symptoms of the personality of the client
provides the basis of determining the kind of help that can
be appropriately offered.

2. Principles of Treatment
The main objective of the treatment is of alleviating the client's
distress and decreasing the malfunctioning in the person-situation
system. The above objective is achieved by enhancing the
adaptive skills of his ego and functioning of the person-situation
system. It is based on certain principles:
1. The focus of the discussion in the interview is centered on
the problem and ways of resolving it. Attention is paid to
kr.ow the obstacles (both situational and behavioural) that
stand in the way of solution.
2. Nature and extent of both the social and psychological
factors differ in each situation, treatment goals and
techniques are planned after the careful study of the
particular needs of the client.
3. The success of the treatment programme is based on the
utilization of the relationship purposefully.
4. Change in the client is brought largely through a
correctional emotional experience in the relationship and
through stimulating growth experiences in the social
reality.
5. Social therapy and psycho-therapy are the two broad
classifications of social case work treatment.

3. Use of Techniques
The treatment objectives determine the use of techniques. They
include, within the framework of relationship, encouraging,
emotional, discharge, reassurance, support, suggestion guidance and
direction, provision of new experiences, clarification interpretation,
and so forth.84
 SOCIAL CASE WORK
179

4. Use of Relationship
The relationship is the medium of treatment through which client is
enabled to find new ways of perceiving his problems and of
handling himself.lt gives the client a sense of being listened, being
understood and being given importance. The case worker's
understanding of the dynamics of the relationship makes it
possible to provide some gratification, protection, and guidance to
the client when his ego needs support, and at the same time to
help the client marshal strength to meet his life situation.
FUNCTIONAL SCHOOL
The 'functional approach' to social work practice was developed by
the faculty members of the School of Social Work of the University
of Pennsylvania. This approach is based on the personality theory of
Otto Rank. According to Functional School social case work is a
method for engaging a client through a relationship process,
essentially one to one, in the use of a social service toward his own
and the general social welfare. Function case work is a method of
helping people through special services given by social agencies, in
such a way that the experience of using such services may be
psychologically constructive. Thus the functional approach of
social case work has two inseparable aspects.
1. Potentials for help to a person is inherent in the existence
of service. Inspite of the differences in the clients, and ways
of using of agency's services, the kind of service an agency
gives and its purpose remain the same.
2. The use of agency service gives psychological experience
that differs from ,t he form of another kind of service
regardless of the similarity of problem in the people using
the two services.

Diagnosis
That diagnosis is most effective which is related to the use of
some specific service and which is developed in the course of
giving the service. This school does not recognize the significance
to understand total situation of the client. The worker brings his own
understanding through a process of professional education and
experience. ¦>¦¦ ...
Functional diagnosis recognises that people n cannot be

--_
ISO SOCIAL WORK
-PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
categorized and a plan with a specific kind of service or plan on
the basis of firm diagnosis by category of clients, may deny potential
growth and change. In establishing a diagnosis each individual
makes his own diagnosis of himself and revises that diagnosis, as
he in fact becomes different. Diagnosis is a way of engaging in a
human relationship process which frees the help seeker to
determine his own goal for himself. He himself is the cantre for
change capable of continuous growth and development

Treatment
Functional school preferred to use the term 'helping process'
rather than treatment. Social case worker is not responsible for
treating someone who is the passive recipient of treatment because
the school believes that the centre for change resides in the client
itself. Social case work through the agency service seeks to release
power for improved social functioning. No classification scheme is
used as base for engaging the client in certain form of helping. The
distinctive characteristics of each person is served on the basis of
age, sex, personality pattern, cultural base, intelligence, mental and
psysical health, etc.
The process of establishing and using a diagnosis serves as the
part of case work helping. It also includes the use of time phases;
beginning, middle, and ending within the total social case work
process. The 'content' of service is determined by the purpose of
the agency within which the case worker is functioning. His role is
to achieve those goals assigned by the agency. Personality growth
process takes place through the media of time, space and motion.
Time cannot be grasped, held, repeated or postponed, but can only
be used. It is upon this universal reality, functional view of social
case work gives importance to the use of time in the helping process.
It gives emphasis upon the present and the present relationship,
and its dynamic use of the ending of that relationship. CaSe work
activity consists in (1) meeting the projection with genuine regard
for the client and respect for his need as well as with psychological
understanding and acceptance of the meaning of the projection, and
(2) at the same time differentiating between the projection and the
reality that the case worker actually represents. It is the awareness
of client's himself and of the strength of his own will, which makes
him to strengthen his capacity voluntarily. Treatment mechmsms are
projection and identification, union and separation, which

SOCIAL CASE WORK

181

continuously work in the helping process. The beginning has three

phases: beginning, middle and end. The beginning phase starts with
the willingness of the client to participate in the helping process.
His willingness is essential as it releases a positive feeling and
eagerness towards help. The middle phase starts when the client
feels that it is unnecessary to take part any more because he
already feels so much better. In middle phase client often attempts
to use the worker as he had used other meaningful person in his life.
The help, the client receives, enables him to take responsibility
and carry on his business of life.
The end phase of the helping process brings fear in client of
separation. Case worker gives him a chance to become conscious
of his readiness to leave, so that he can leave the agency without
any fear.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIAGNOSTIC AND FUNCTIONAL SCHOOL
1. Diagnostic school follows the theory of personality
developed by Sigmund Freud whereas functional school
is based on the theory of 'will' d'eveloped by Otto Rank.
According to Freud, personality is a composite of many
interacting forces, reacting not only in each other but also
to favourable or unfavourable influences in the social
environment. The strength and the nature of balance of
these forces are the result of individual's experiences primarily
of his relationships to parents and the other persons. The 'ego'
is the chief of psychic energy, the strength of which is
determined largely by the favourable or unfavourable course
of one's psycho-social development.

The functional school also believes that the process of

development of personality takes place within the interaction of
inner instinctual needs and environmental experience, but such
an interaction takes place and is directed by the human being's
inborn will to individuation and autonomy. Because of this,
activity, since the beginning of life, is not only acted upon by inner
and outer reality but also acts upon it. Thus the ego (self) is the result
of the creative use of inner and outer experience through the Svill' and
is not the product of interaction of inner and outer forces.

2. According to Diagnostic School, projection is a defense

182 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

mechanism by means of which an individual (1) places the

blame for his own shortcomings and misdeeds on other;
and (2) attributes to others his own unacceptable
impulses, thoughts and desires. Functional school believes
that projection is a technique of releasing of inner impulses
upon an outer object and the appropriation of that object
 in self-interest. In the relationship basically with the mother
the individual projects his need (basically of biological
nature i.e. hunger) upon her, they are also invested with
great psychic significance. The satisfaction of need by
mother or other person has the psychic effect of creating a
union with her. Because complete union is not possible as
he has when he was in wants, separation inevitably follows.
The 'will' may use this separation constructively to create
inner wholeness or destructively by refusing to accept
limitations.
3. In the diagnostic view, resistance is a manifestation of the
ego's effort to avoid facing unacceptable ideas and
impulses which earlier it had succeeded in repressing.
Treatment is considered something to overcome in order
to help the individual for achieving adjustment. In the
functional view, resistance is seen as an inevitable and
necessary effort of the 'will' to maintain control over a
relationship situation. Rather than making efforts to
overcome resistance worker accepts the validity of the
client's need to control a part of relationship and thus
provides a new experience in which client may release a
destructive use of 'will'.
4. The attitude of both schools towards the client who
comes for help is different. Diagnostic school conceives of
the individual as fashioned by the interrelationship between
his basic needs and his physical and social environment.
The problem or the psycho pathology is due to partial or
total inability of the ego to cope with inner and outer
pressure. Functional School sees the client as the fashioner
of his fate. Though it does not deny the influence of inner
drives and outer conditions on personality development
yet, believes that even pathological phenomenon, like
psychoses, is the effort of the 'will' to affect a solution of a
psychic problem.
3.
SOCIAL CASE WORK
183

5. In the diagnostic view, the goal of treatment is to increase the

individual's ego capacity or strength whereas functional
school tends to direct his effort toward helping the client to
release his inner capacity of feeling, organizing and acting.

6. Total information about the client's ego functioning,' total

personality, motivating forces, reality pressures and his
current feelings is essential according to diagnostic view
for enabling the client to take part in the therapeutic
relationship. Functional
 school gives emphasis on the
client's feelings in the immediate situation, which includes
both his problem and the case work relationship through
which he may solve the problem, other informations are
secondary.
7. Diagnostic school believes in giving planned and goal'
directed help to the client. It includes within the framework
of relationship, both psychological and social help. The
nature of help is determined by the case worker. Functional
school gives full freedom to the client to give direction to his
own processes of change. Agency services are made
available for initiating, sustaining and terminating of a
process in human relationship. The worker does not attempt
to classify a client and select a type of treatment appropriate
to him.
8. The diagnostic school accepts responsibility for apprising
client capacities and weaknesses.and for organizing and
arranging measure for supporter for self development. The
functional school believes in the client's right for choices
and goals because of the intrinsic constructive value of the
use of self.

TRANSFERENCE
Transference is the tendency in every human being to relate the
emotions and attitudes that have developed during his growth to
those people in his immediate environment. The individual who
brings to his object relationships his fantasied needs and who gives to
the object fantasied qualities, is manifesting the phenomenon of
transference. This means that he is transferring to a real person
feelings, attitudes, and fantasies which come from his unconscious
mind and which are residuals of his infantile experiences and

184 .SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS'

conflicts. " A patient's transference to the analyst is only that part of
the patient's reaction to the analyst which repeats the patient's
reactions to a person who has, at some previous time, played an
important role in the patient's life.

When a patient recounts free associations, he soon speaks of

events or fantasies of vital interest to himself, and when these are
told, the listener is gradually invested with some of the emotions
which accompany them. The patient gradually begins to feel that the
sympathetic listener is loved or hated, a friend or an enemy, one who
is nice to him or one who frustrates his needs and punishes him. The
 feelings toward the listener become more and more like those felt
toward the specific people the patient is talking about, or, more
exactly, those his unconscious "is talking aboui". This special case of
object displacement during psycho-analysis is called transference.
TRANSFERENCE IN SOCIAL WORK
Transfer' was introduced into social work literature by Jessie Taft in
95
1924 who described it as "an emotional relationship to the client'.
Hamilton defines transference as a carrying over of irrational
elements from other relationships, particularly in the past, displaced
on to the social worker, reflecting unconscious motivation. All
relationships are based on previous experiences with people,
however, the psycho-analytic term 'transference' referring to specific
irrational responses of the client to the worker, as though the worker
was some person in the client's previous experience, is frequently
used to refer any positive or negative feelings of the client for the
worker. In this sense, the therapeutic relationship would be viewed
as a transference relationship, as opposed to a real relationship, thus
permitting the worker to insulate himself or herself from any true
reactions and personally meaningful interactions with the client. A
simple example of transference would be that of a client who came
from a home where his father was an arrogant and domineering
person. As a man the client has never been able to get along with his
boss or any other figure of authority. In the case work situation, he
transfers to the case worker hostile feelings of the type he originally
felt toward his father and accuses the case worker of the same
arrogant treatment at the hands of his father.
TYPES OF TRANSFERENCE
Transference is of two types: positive and negative. If the parents of

SOCIAL CASE WORK

185

the client have been friendly and helpful, even though imperfectly or
unsuccessfully but with the child's (client) interest at heart, he will
SOCIAL CASE WORK 187
worker who develops transference. Thus the transference helps in
treatment in a number of ways:
1. The mature ego strengths of the worker serve to reinforce
the weak ego strengths of the client.
2. The client feels relaxed.
3. The client starts abandoning resistances.
4. He perceives the problem situation more realistically.
5. The worker, when he does not respond neurotically, helps
the client to see and bear the reality.

6. Indcntification with the worker gradually helps the client to

strengthen his ego power and capacity for reality
 testing and
problem solving.
The effects of transference are many but it is the leaven of
treatment, not treatment itself.

COUNSELLING
Counselling in social case work was started by Bertha Reynolds in
1932. Counselling is a personal help directed toward the solution of a
problem which a person finds he cannot solve himself and on which
he therefore, seeks the help of a skilled person whose knowledge,
experience and general orientation can be brought into play in an
attempt to solve problem.
Counselling is essentially a process in which the counsellor
assists the counselee to make interpretations of facts relating to a
choice, plan or adjustment which he needs to make It is face to face
situation in which, by reason of training, skill or confidence vested in
him by the other, one person helps the second person to face, perceive,
clarify, solve, and resolve adjustment problem. The process by which
the structure of the self is relaxed in the safety of the relationship widi
the therapist, and previously denied experiences are perceived and then
integrated into an altered self is called counselling. It is a warm,
permissive, safe, understanding, but limited social relationship within
which therapist and patient discuss the effective behaviour of the latter,
including his ways of dealing with his emotionally toned needs and the
situations that give rise to them. ~
Counselling aims at enabling individuals to solve present
problems to prepare themselves for future tasks, to attain higher
standards of efficiency and well-being and to develop personal
resources for growth.

188 SOCIAL WORK - PI IILOSOPMY AND METHODS

The Committee on Definition of Division 17 of the American
Psychological Association describes the objectives of counselling by
staling that the counselling psychologist contributes to the
following:110
(a) The client's realistic acceptance of his own capacities,
motivations and self-attitudes.
(b) The client's achievement of a reasonable harmony with his
social, economic and vocational environment, and
(c) Society's acceptance of individual differences and their
implications for community, employment, and marriage
relations.
Classification is the most important technique of counselling. It
is a tool through which the client becomes aware of certain attitudes,
feelings, reality versus subjective concept and permits him to see
himself and his environment in a more objective manner which allows
better control of the himself and of situations. Counselling may include
the giving of information, explaining a regime and analysing its issue,
and analysing the steps involved in a course of action. '

Counselling is a psychological help

 which can be given even
outside of the agency. In counselling no solid help is provided, only
guidance is given to solve his problem.
COUNSELLING IN CASEWORK
Social case worker not only offers financial relief, help in getting
work, medical and the like to his clients but in addition to these he
also provides counselling help. While the term counselling is used
very iittle in case work circles, it is used here precisely to emphasize
the fact that in giving the client an opportunity to release his feelings,
to find new solutions to his adjustment problems, the case worker is
utilizing the same process as the one used by the other professional
individuals described. Social case worker in all settings gives much
emphasis on the process of counselling for releasing client's innner
burden i.e. anxiety and strains. Mostly counselling services are
rendered in schools/colleges, employment offices, rehabilitation
centres, sanatoria, prisons, welfare agencies of different types, family
welfare centres, etc.
Counselling is provided to the clients under the following
conditions:
1. The individual is under a degree of tension, arising from

SOCIAL CASE WORK

incompatible personal desires or from the conflict of social
and environmental demands with individual needs. The
tension and stress so created are greater than the stress
involved in expressing his feelings about his problems.
2. The individual has some capacity to cope with life. He
possesses adequate ability and stability to exercise some
control over the elements of his# situation. The
circumstances with which he is faced are not so adverse or
so unchangeable as to make it impossible for him to control
or alter them.
3. There is an opportunity for the individual to express his
conflicting tensions in planned contacts with the counsellor.
4. He is able to express these tensions and conflicts either
verbally or through other media. A conscious desire for help
is advantageous, but not entirely necessary.
5. He is reasonably independent either emotionally or
spatially, of close family control.
6. He is reasonably free from excessive instabilities,
particularly of an organic nature.
7. He possesses an adequate intelligence for coping with his life
situations, with an intelligence rating of dull, normal or above.
8. He is of suitable age-old enough to deal somewhat
independently with life, young enough to retain some
 elasticity of adjustment. In terms of chronological age this
might mean roughly from ten to sixty.11
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CASE WORK AND COUNSELLING
Counselling is one technique of a social case work which is used to
prepare the client to participate in the treatment plan. It means that
there are certain similarities in case wrok and counselling. These are:

1. Both have the Same Objective

The purpose of social case work is to help an individual client to
solve his psycho-social problems in such a way so that he finds
himself capable of dealing with these problems at present and also
may solve in future if such problems arise. Counselling aims at
enabling individuals to solve the present problems, to prepare
themselves for future tasks and to attain a higher degree of efficiency
in dealing with his problems.

190
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

2. Both deals with the Same Type of Clients

The 'client' is a man', woman, or child, anyone who finds himself,
or is found to be, in need of help in some aspect of his
soical-cmotional living, whether the need be for tangible
provisions or council. u

3. Both deals with the Same Type of Problems

The problems within the purview of social case work are those which
vitally affect or are affected by person's social functioning. The client
of the case worker sees his problems as lying in some interacting
relationship between himself and some other persons or between
himself and his environment. Help is provided to the client for some
readjustment of the self in relation to the demands and expectations
of the social role he plays. Help is also directed to the readjustment
of some parts of his social environment. If the client finds that his
inner problems exert such pressure over his problems of social
functioning, he may need counselling.

4. The Effectiveness of Both Depends on 'Relationship'

The relationship is the medium in case work as well as in counselling
through which help is provided to the client. It is the channel of the
entire case work process and counselling process through which the
mobilization of the capacities of the client becomes possible. It plans
throughout in interviewing, study, diagnosis and treatment.

5. Both believe in Worth and Dignity of the Individual

Case work and counselling treat the client as an individual who has
right to get help and reorganize as a person of worth and dignity. He
has every right to make his choice and decisions himself.

6. Both have Common Principles

 Social case work and counselling, both believe in the
individualization of all clients irrespective of their similarities in the
problems. Both accept the client as he is and provide opportunities
 for self-expression. Case worker and counsellor do not give their own
judgement to the clients. Client has every right to determine his own
path for his easy recovery from malfunctioning.

SOCIAL CASE WORK

191

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CASE WORK AND COUNSELLING

1. In counselling, help is provided to the client without social
service whereas the main base of help in social case work is
social service.
2. Agency is not essentially required in counselling but social
* case work is always practised in an agency.
3. Concrete help is not provided in counselling. Counsellor
and client talk together on the problem but in social case
work concrete service is rendered along with oral
discussion.
4. Counsellor is concerned most of the time with one type of
problem as there are various counselling agencies but in
case work client is studied and understood as a whole.
5. Social case work gives an emphasis on activity but in
counselling, the client is enabled to understand his problem.
6. In counselling, an emphasis is laid on the problem, not the
person concerned but in social case work the emphasis is
basically on client and the type of service to be provided.
7. Counsellor is self-dependent in his counselling but case
work services are provided through agency.

PSYCHOTHERAPY
Psychotherapy is an effort to understand the personality structure of
patients, the mental mechnisms which are at work, and the specific
relationships of psychological situations in the precipitation of the
illness. It may be defined as a process which utilizes
psychodynamic principles to bring about an emotional growth, thus
permitting greater development of the individual's capacities and
better social adjustment. As derived from psycho-analytic
principles, psychotherapy is two-person relationship which has the
purpose of modifying attitudes and behaviour largely, though not
exclusively through psychological processes. It is essentially a
relieving experience, though not always of the remote past. In
general, psychotherapy aims towards personality growth in the
direction of maturily, competence and self-actualization. 118 This
involves the achievement of one or more of the following goals:
1. Increased insight into one's problems and behaviour;
2. A better delineation of one's self-identity,
3. Resolution of handicapping or disabling conflicts,
 1.
192 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND MEI"HODS
4. Changing of undesirable habits or reaction patterns.
5. Improved interpersonal or other competencies,
6. Modification of inaccurate assumptions about oneself and
one's world, and
7. The opening of a pathway to a more meaningful
existence.
DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY
The following are the differing systematic viewpoints, goals and
procedures of the major forms of psychotherapy.

1. Psycho-analytic Therapy
Psychoanalytic therapy was developed by Freud aiming at uncovering
repressed memories, motives, and conflicts presumably stemming
from problems in early psycho sexual development. It helps the
client to resolve conflicts in the light of the adult reality. It follows the
following techniques:

/. Free Association
The client is given an opportunity to say whatever comes into his
mind, regardless of how personal, painful, irrelevant it may be. He
sits in a comfortable position and allows his mind to give running
account of thoughts, feelings and desires. The therapist usually sits
behind or records the expression through devices and later interprets
the material which gives an insight into the understanding of conflicts
and motives of which he has been unaware so far.

2. Dream Interpretation
Dreams are unfulfilled desires. During sleep, defense mechanism's
power is lowered an forbidden desires and feelings may find an
outlet. In dream interpretation, the therapist uncovers the disguised
meanings by studying the symbols that appear in the manifest
content of the dream.

3. Analysis of Resistance
Sometimes, the client while talking about an important area of his
problem, suddenly switces topics or he may give some glib
interpretation to his associations. Since resistance prevents painful
and threatening material from entering and influencing awareness, it

SOCIAL CASE WORK

193

must be broken down if the client is to face his problems and

conflicts and deal with them in a realistic manner.

4. Analysis of Transference
Often, a client carries over and applies to the therapist attitudes and
feelings that he (client) developed in his relations significantly with
others in the past. By recognizing the transference, the therapist may
provide the client with the experience of having a good father (if
father is a problem for the client), thus
he gives an opportunity to
deal with reality.

II. Behaviouristic Psychotherapy

Bchaviouristic model views the maladjustment in the individual due
to faulty learning of coping patterns, and failure of acquiring needed
competencies. Therapist attempts to modify behaviour directly by:
1. Aversion therapy—removal of undesirable behaviour by
punishment; x
2. Systematic desensitization;
3. Positive reinforcement for learning new competencies.

III. Humanistic-Existential Psychotherapy

Humanistic-existential therapy is based on the assumption that man
has the freedom to control his own behaviour. He can reflect upon
the problems, make choices, and lake positive action. The client-
centred therapy of Carl Rogers is known as humanistic
psychotherapy . The therapist task is to present such psychological
climate for the client where he can feel unconditionally accepted,
understood and valued as a person. He will choose his own path for
the solution of his problem.
Existentialists are deeply concerned about the predicament of
modern man, the breakdown of traditional faith, the alienation
depersonalization of man in contemporary culture, and the lack of
meaning in many people's lives.~ Existential therapy calls for the
therapist to share himself his feelings, his values and his existence and
not to let the client respond to him as anything other than he really is.

IV. Interpersonal Psychotherapy

Interpersonal therapy emphasizes the role of faulty communication,

194 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

interactions and relationships in maladaptive behaviour. Therefore,

attempts arc made to improve mutual need gratification system,
social role expectations and communication patterns. Eric Berne,
(1964) developed an innovative technique of interpersonal therapy,
known as Transactional Analysis. It is based on the notion that there
are three 'ego states' in human personality — Child, Adult and
Parent. 'Parent ego state' is that part of personality which one has
corporated from his parents or from other parental model. When
one says that 'you should not eat too much' or 'do not go in cold',
these statements are appropriate when they are spoken to a child,
but if they are used with spouse, it means he is playing too active
'Parent' role. 'Child ego state' is that part of personality which is
carried over from the childhood feelings. The statements like 'I will
eat as much as I like' or 'I play whole day' are the examples of child
responding to the 'Parent'. This behaviour may be appropriate for
child but not for a mature adult. 'Adult ego state' is that part of
personality which processes information
rationally and appropriately
for the present circumstances. An Adult response to the parent
might be 'I really don't think it is cold enough for a sweater'.
As long as such participant reacts to the other in the way that he
is being addressed, e.g., as a child to a parent, the transaction may
continue indefinitely. But when one part decides to discontinue
playing with child for addressed role, the game ceases and conflict
occurs.
The therapist analyses the interactions among group members
(often married couples) and helps the participants understand the
'ego states' in which they are communicating with each other.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COUNSELLING AND

PSYCHOTHERAPY
The most common differentiation is that counselling is dealing with a
generally normal individual, and psychotherapy is dealing with an
abnormal person; or some would say that counselling does not get to
the same depth as psychotherapy; or some would say that
counselling is concerned with the conscious, whereas psychotherapy
deals with the unconscious materials. According to Bordin
'counselling relationship is characterized by less intensity of
emotional expression, and relatively more emphasis on cognitive and
rational factors than in the case in psychotherapy. ""

SOCIAL CASE WORK

195

This differentiation is only logical and for understanding the

concept of both treatment processes. In practice there is no such
differentiation1 as there is no clear and distinct line between
conscious and subconscious. Anyone who works with people who are
under stress going to have a difficult time cataloguing what he is
doing as either counselling or psychotherapy on the basis of the
conscious or the subconscious.1"

CASE WORK AND PSYCHOTHERAPY

Social case work is a form of psychotherapy with a special
orientation, differential aims, and a particular methodology; it is the
application of psychotherapeutic principles in a setting and in a
manner which is uniquely its own. "
Thus, there are a number of points of similarities:
1. Both social case work and psychotherapy help an individual
who comes with emotional problems and painful situations.
2. Interview techniques are the same. •
3. Both types of workers try to put the client at ease and make
it possible for him to express his problem.
4. Social case worker and
 psychotherapist have skill in creating
an atmosphere of confidence.
5. Both share the value of individuality, worth and respect for
the client.
6. Both case work and psychotherapy believe in the client's
self-determination.
7. Both types of workers havb training for helping the client in
a systematic way.
8. Both recognize the role of emotional and unconscious
processes in influencing the attitudes and behaviour of the
client.
9. Both provide an emotional support to relieve immediate
anxiety of the client.
10. Both give imortance to the transference.
Psychotherapy also differs from social case work in many
essential points: -
1. Though social case work and psychotherapy give
importance to the relationship but both have different view.
In psychotherapy, the client himself wants to establish

196 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

rapports or considers psychotherapist as magician or
omnipotent parent. In social case work, the situation is
different. He tries to establish close relationship with the
client for achieving his goal.
2. The case worker does not define the role problems he deals
within terms of intrapsychic conflict. It is the problem of the
client in relation to a distressing situation, usually of an
economic, health, or interpersonal nature. Intrapsychic
conflict within individual is the problem for the
psychotherapy.
3. Psychotherapy deals with the people's feelings or with the
impact of personality on the situation but case work deals
with client's stressful and painful situation.
4. Social case work is to help the client with his situational
problems. It does not attempt to modify the client's attitudes
or his neurotic adaptations. Such types of change occur
during the social case work process itself. Psychotherapy is
mainly concerned with changes in the neurotic behaviour of
the client.
5. The case worker respects the consciously expressed wishes
of the client and helps in clarifying those wishes.
Psychotherapist accepts on such limitations.
6. Psychotherapist generally thinks that client is a separate
entity from social environment but in social case work client
is seen as a unit of his social context.
7. Psychotherapy stresses on internal factors of the problem
whereas social case work gives
 equal importance to internal
as well as external factors of the problem.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CASE WORK, COUNSELLING AND

PSYCHOTHERAPY
CLIENT
Social case work studies 'whole' individual for the giving of concrete
help. Help is provided after considering and analysing client's social,
psychological, economic etc., factors. Client has right to select his
own course of action or make use of available resources. In
counselling, counsellor has limited relations with client's social
factors. He tries to know only that part which is interlinked with
client's problem. Though the client has right to receive or not the

SOCIAL CASE WORK

197

counsel, but in absence of concrete help, he feels himself unable to

take decision. In psychotherapy, internal factors of client's
personality are studied for treatment. Client has limited freedom in
treatment process.
PROBLEM
Social case work deals with psycho-social problems which become a
source of maladjustment for the client. Counselling deals with
behavioural problems. Problems are solved through discussion or
oral conversation. Problems pertaining to personality disorders are
treated in Psychotherapy.
HELP
In counselling, the nature of help is mostly therapeutic and help is
provided to solve some specific problems. Though in case work also
the nature of help is therapeutic but concrete help has specific and
primary place. Psychotherapy deals with the unconscious factors that
are responsible for the internal conflict^ in the client. Client's
personality is the centre of focus for psychotherapy.
RELATIONSHIP
Relationship is the medium for case work service. The utility of case
work service depends on the intensity of the relationship. Worker
gives first preference to relationship. In counselling, the client
himself wants to establish closeness with the counsellor. It is the
same with psychotherapy.
«
THEORIES OF SOCIAL CASE WORK
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
The first systematic attempt to discover the 'unconscious' was made
by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud discovered his psychoanalytic
model for realization of the important role played by unconscious
process in the determination of behaviour. Individual's behaviour is
the result from the interaction of three key sub-systems within the
personality: 'Id', 'Ego' and 'Super ego'. The 'Id' consists of primitive
 biological drives and basic energy of life 'Libido'. It is concerned with
the immediate gratification of instinctual needs. 'Ego' mediates
between the demands of the 'Id' and the realities of the external
world. The third sub-system 'super ego' develops by learning the

198 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND MEIHODS

taboos and moral values of society. It controls the 'Id' and directs the
'Ego'to inhibit desires that are considered wrong or unmoral
The interrelationship between these sub-systems of personality
(intrapsychic) are of crucial significance in determining behaviour.
There is regular conflict between the instinctual needs and demands
of the 'Id' with the demand of external world (Ego and Super ego).
The adequate resolution of such conflicts by the 'Ego' is considered
essential to personality adjustment. Psychopathology is the result of
the individuals inability to resolve these conflicts.
According to the psychoanalytic model every moment of human
life is determined not by one psychological force operating alone but
by the whole constellation of psychological processes. Some of them
are conscious, some are on the fringe of consciousness but can be
drawn into conscious (preconscious), still others are^ actually
inaccessibie to conscious introspection. This is the "dynamic
unconscious" to which Freud attributes the key role in
psychopathology'. 126 Whole of behaviour is a product of these three
processes: the conscious, preconscious and unconscious.
Psychoanalysis clarifies the fact that human behaviour is normal
precisely to the degree to which it is determined by conscious and
preconscious forces operating within the individual Psychopathology
or neurotic behaviour occurs when behaviour is determined by
unconscious forces.
The processes by which an individual is conscious can be
influenced by appeals to reason, by argument, by success and failure
or by rewards and punishments and thus he has the capacity to adapt
_ _.-.,,—i »„„i;t;„c *nH fn learn from past experiences. If the
are insatiable, Furthermore, since unconscious forces pursue wc
symbolic and the behaviour which expresses such needs must repeat
itself endlessly, repeating errors as frequently as success, regardless
of the happiness or unhappiness which it occasions. Consequently to
the extent to which behaviour is driven by unconscious forces it can
learn nothing from experience, and can never devdop or change or
grow. In the truest sense of the word, it is enslaved.

SOCIAL CASE WORK

201
I
exert specific influences in varying proportions at each stage of
growth. If the process of psychological development is smooth and
unimpeded, the 'ego* becomes strong enough to bear innner and
external pressure and to control and flexibly mediates between
conflicting internal and external forces. 'Ego* impairment may occur
in the following conditions:
1. The equipment for sensory perception, matter activity, and
memory may be defective.
2. There may be failure in the normal development of libidinal
and aggressive drives.
3. The child may receive too much or too little gratification
and frustration of a degree and kind appropriate to his
maturation. Since the immature 'ego' needs both supportive
stimuli and protection from overwhelming ambunts of inner
and outer pressure, either of these possibilities will seriously
impede growth.

4. There may be insufficient or inadequate opportunities for

identification with parents, teachers, peers, and other
models whose real and unconscious attitudes toward reality
and toward instinctual drives are apparently inadequate
performance and enjoyment of
 a variety of roles,
relationships, and beliefs compatible with the society of
which they are a part.
5. It is also necessary that there be a successful resolution of
conflicts between instinctual drives and reality demands,
(Not only ego functions it might be added, depend upon
these same factors, particularly process of identification and
the successful resolution of conflicts.
This concept of 'ego' is more helpful in understanding the
personality of parents and children in troubled families. These
concepts now illuminate the underlying therapeutic significance of
case work's specific efforts to make details of life more reasonable
and more confortable for parents whose 'ego' functioning is
threatened.by the tasks confronting them.
Case work practice is directed towards the goal of ensuring a
socio-psychological environment which promotes the development of
nature autonomous 'ego* functions, so that each individual is capable
of "exercising freedom under the law".1 Case work is also directed
to helping individuals resolve their problems of adaptation through

SOCIAL CASE WORK

203

01 flis interactions anu n au&uuiuua wim m^ uu«.^. t.^»1u. » „. t ,

diagnosis and treatment client's social context must

be understood
and mobilized. Treatment must be differentiated according to the
need of the client.

Psycho-social Study
Social case worker starts his work with the knowledge of the needs
of the client. He, on the basis of the needs, assesses what kind of
help he is in need of. He also finds out the perception of the client
about his own problem, and his desires about the kind of assistance
to be provided. He, then, himself tries to arrive at his own
understanding of what the client's trouble is, what factors contribute
to it as etiological agents and what type of service in the
client-situation gestalt can enable the client to improve his ego
strength and adaptability.
Social case worker tries to find out the history of the problem
and its impact on the social functioning of the client. He locates the
important happening in client's life as precipitating factors for the
present problem. He gathers full data of the client's childhood, and
other stages.

Diagnosis of Assessment
Psycho-social approach believes that diagnosis is essential because
it gives a realistic basis for differentiation. On the basis of the
collected data and available material, social case worker tries to
assess the nature of client's trouble, contributing factors and what

/. Objective
The ultimate objective of the case worker using the psycho-social
approach is a very broad one of alleviating the client's distress and
decreasing the malfunctioning in the person-situation system. To
achieve the above objective, social case worker's job is to enhance
the adaptive capacities and functioning of the client in social
systems.

2. Process
Social case worker gives much emphasis on indirect treatment or
environmental modification. He intervenes actively in the
environment and provides necessary concrete help to the client. He
helps the client in locating the place or agency for help. He also,
sometimes mediates between the client and resource when the
client has weak ego strength. Today the worker takes responsibility
to secure financial assistance for which the client is eligible, proper
health care and for housing and educational resources. If the
situation demands to change or modify environment, he talks to the
family members, school teachers or employers and supplies the
information about his problem. After preparing the. favourable
background he gives an advice and makes suggestions for the
welfare of the client.
Direct treatment is also provided for the ventilation of the
client to accept concrete help. Psychological support, classification,

204
 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

interpretation, counselling, etc. techniques are used to establish

rapport with the client.
FUNCTIONAL THEORY
The functional theory in regard to social work practice was
developed by the School of Social Work of the University of
Pennsylvania in 1930s. The functional theory worked from a
psychology of growth and believed that the centre for change was
located in the client. The theorists used the word 'helping' instead
of treatment. Social case work is not a form of social treatment
but a method of administering some specific social service and
creating such a psychological understanding in the client so that he
may become skilful in utilizing the agency services. The functional
theory believes that the social case work is a method for engaging a
client through a relationship process, essentially one to one, in the use of
a social service toward his own and the general social welfare.
Functional theory presents five principles for the practice of
social work.140
1. That diagnosis, is most effective, which is related to the use
of some specific service and which is developed in the
course of giving the service.
2. The effectiveness of any social work process primary or
secondary, is furthered by the worker's conscious, knowing
the use of time phases in the process (beginnings, middle,
and endings) in order that the particular potential in each
time phase may be fully exploited for the other's use.
3. The use of agency function and function in professional
role gives focus, content, and direction to social work
processes, assures accountability to society and to the
agency.
4. A conscious knowing use of structure, as it evolves from
and is related to function and process, introduces "form"
which furthers the effectiveness of all the social work
processes, both primary and secondary.
5. All social work processes, to be effective, require the use
of relationship to engage the other in making and acting
on choices or decisions as the core of working toward the
accomplishment of a purpose identified as his own, within
the purpose of the service being offered.
1.
SOCIAL CASE WORK
205
Initial Phase and Use of Time Phases

Functional theory believes that the social case work must use the
concept of time phases properly and consciously so that the client
may accept and utilize available services. In the beginning phase. It
is the worker's understanding of what
is true for beginning that
makes it possible for him to lessen the fear and resistance and thus
begins mobilization of energy. Generally in the beginning phase case
worker provides the knowledge of agency's services — conditions
for availing of service, requirement, eligibility, etc. He encourages
an immediate engagement of the client in expressing hopes,
intentions, and fears in respect of what is being offered in the way
of service. The goal in any beginning is to find a common base for
worker and client to work together toward a common purpose with
the rules of the game known, and its elements broken down into
what can be encompassed for immediate engagement.
Middle time phase is characterized by the client's taking
increased responsibility in utilizing services and by deepening of
the relationship involved. Social case work'er directs the client in
such a way that the client takes his responsibility in the solution of
his problem. Ending phase is determined on the basis of the
appraisal of the achievement in the middle phase.

Diagnosis or Assessment
Functional theory does not believe in the understanding of the
total situation of the client. The worker develops his own
understanding of man, in kno'wing the nature of a particular
problem of the client. He attempts to find out to know the
particular kind of individual services as well as his own
developing understanding of this specific individual. Diagnosis is
considered a way of engaging in a human relationship process
which frees the other to define his own goals for himself as they fall
within or coincide with the goals of a specific programme being
administered, and to work toward their achievement, with the
1
worker's help. "

Treatment
Functional school uses the term "helping" in the place of treatment.
The goal of social case work is congruent with the goals of the

206
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

programmes of social service it administers. Social case work

attempts to release power for improved social functioning through
the consciously directing the client to use the agency services
appropriately.
BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION THEORY

Behaviour modification theory is based upon the principles of

learning and conditioning propounded by Pavlov and Thorndike.
The researches of B.F. Skinner helped develop the behaviour
modification approach further. The first paper dealing solely with
behaviour modification in a social work journal appeared in
1968.143
In essence, behaviour modification can be defined as the
planned. Systematic application of experimentally established
principles of learning to the modification of maladaptive behaviour,
specially to decreasing undesired behaviours and increasing
desired behaviours.
The goals of behaviour modification are congruent with the
goals of social work. In fact, the behavioural approach deals by and
large only with problems in functioning, on the grounds that if
change is not somehow detectable in improved functioning, such
change may be meaningless to the client.

The Problem
The behaviouristic theory viewed problem as essentially the result of
a failure to learn necessary adaptive behaviours or competencies
and/or the learning of ineffective and maladaptive behaviours. It may
happen due to conflicting situations that require the individual to
make discriminations or decisions of which he feels incapable. The
behaviouristic theory views the maladjusted person indifferent from
others only in that he has learned faulty coping patterns which are
being maintained by some kind of reinforcement and he has failed to
learn needed competencies for coping with the problems of living.

Techniques of Behaviour Modification

The following techniques are used for behaviour modification.

Simple Extinction
In this technique, the reinforcement is removed to eliminate a

SOCIAL CASE WORK

207

maladaptive pattern of behaviour. This is especially helpful where

maladaptive behaviour is being reinforced unknowingly by others.
Through this technique, learned behaviour patterns are made
weaker and disappear overtime.

Systematic Desensitization
Systematic desensitization is a technique to deal with a wide variety
of maladaptive emotional behaviours, particularly involving anxiety,
irrational fears and phobias and other forms of dysfunctions
(neurotic tendencies). This type of behaviour is being reinforced by
the avoidance of painful situation.
There are five basic steps in systematic desensitization : (i)
assessment, (ii) constructions of anxiety hierarchies, (iii) training in
muscle relaxation, (iv) imaginary training, and (v) implementation.
The method of sensitization is aimed at teaching the client to emit
a response which is inconsistent with anxiety while in the presence
of real or imagined anxiety-producing stimulus.
Implosive Therapy

In this technique, instead of banishing anxiety from the treatment,

the social case worker attempts to elicit a massive flood, or
implosion of anxiety. With repeated exposure in a safe setting
where no harm is felt by the client, the stimulus loses its strength to
elicit anxiety.

Assertive Therapy
Assertive therapy is used to develop more effective coping
mechanism. In such therapy, the opportunity is given to the client
for role playing.

Aversion Therapy
This technique is used for the modification of undesirable
behaviour by the method of punishment. Punishment may involve
either the removal of positive reinforcements or the use of aversive
stimuli. The first formal use of aversion therapy was made by
Kantorovich in 1930 who administered electric shocks to alcoholics
in association with the sight, smell and taste of alcohol. Since then,
it is being used in the treatment of wide range of maladaptive
behaviours i.e. drinking, smoking, drug dependence, gambling, and
in sexual deviations.

210
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

1. Initial recognition of a difficulty,

2. Identification and specification of the problem,
3. Analysis of the problem,
4. Summary restatement of the problem
5. Selection of objectives which are to be effected,
6. Depiction of the criteria by which solution will be judged.
7. Consideration of possible solutions,
8. Testing proposals against criteria,
9. Selection of a course of action,

10. Operation Planning (how it is to be done)

11. Implementation (actuation) of the plan.
12. Subsequent evaluation of the solution in real life.

Self-control and Self-management Therapy

Helping clients help themselves is an old case work catch phrase.
Self-control refers to the ability of individuals to decrease behaviour
that they or others perceive as harmful (or dysfunctional to
themselves or others) and to increase functional behaviours. " The
role of case worker in this process is to help client develop the
knowledge about how, when, and where to use strategies for change.
The worker acts as an instigation and motivation to help the client
start the programme and have motivating force to complete it. A
multi-step guide has been presented by Watson and Tharp to be
used both by case worker and client to develop a self-control plan!

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
 6.
List a current dissatisfaction.
Select one particular problem of behaviour that occurs in a
particular situation.
Describe the effect of problem on behaviour such as escape
aversive consequences.
Be as precise as possible in stating the behaviours that occur
and the situations in which they occur. Describe some
behaviour in a situation that you wish to increase or decrease.
Gather your own baseline data. Count every instance of
target behaviour and keep a record of your count (include
time and place).
Catalogue your reinforcements. Answer three questions for
each potential reinforcer (a) Is it a reinforcer specifically
formed (b) Is it a strong reinforcer ? Is it accessible (can I
find some way to use it).

SOCIAL CASE WORK

211

7. Draw up a contract with yourself. State what the target

behaviour is and what reinforcement you will gain for
performing it. Specify the ways in which you will obtain
reinforcement, e.g. the shaping schedule, (at times, it might
be helpful to designate a significant other one, spouse or
friend, as the dispenser and withholder or reinforcers to
ensure there will not be any "cheating").
8. List and attempt to verify through self-observation possible
antecedents to problem behaviours. Devise a plan for
intervention, for altering antecedents (or stimulus) control,
but do not implement the plan yet.
9. Identify the emotional components of the problem (e.g.
anxiety response) and devise an /'/: vivo or
self-desensitization plan. Develop hierarchy and practice
relaxation.

10. Select one of the plans you have developed.

11. Continue to collect data on the problem behaviour. Make
a graph of the data to determine that the intervention plan
is working. If not, rcanalysc or change the plan or choose
an alternative plan.
12. Consider termination, if the plan is successful.

Existential Social Work

From the existential viewpoint, man as basic motivation is to find

the best possible way of life, to actualize his potentialities, and to
fulfil himself as human being. However, in an age of profound
cultural change, traditional mores and beliefs are being
questioned. As a result, modern man suffers from confusion and
 deep spiritual and emotional strain.
Existential thoughts have been developed by Kierkegoard,
Sartre, Tillich and May. The major theme of existentialism is that
non-being continuously threatens to extinguish man's individuality
(being) and that man has to find the meaning of his existence in
the face of such a threat. Essentially, man can resolve his dilemma
in one of the two ways:
1. By giving up his quest and finding some satisfaction in
blind conformity and submergence in the group.
2. Striving for increased self-definition in the reality of his
own existence.
1.
208
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

COGNITIVE THEORY
Cognitive theory believes that an individual's thinking which is a
conscious process, primarily determines his emotions, motives and
behaviour, Perlman's work on case work as problem solving process
includes an important focus on cognitive events. The work of
Werner has been the most specific and comprehensive one to
translate cognitive theory into application for case work practice.
Werner lists three premises on which this theory is based.
1. When perception changes, there is change in emotions,
motives (goals), and behaviour;
2. When goal changes it results in behaviour change.
3. Perception can be changed by new activities and new
kinds of behaviour.147
The theory, thus, believes in reciprocal relationship between
perception, emotions, goals and behaviour. If the worker thinks
that the client's goals are anti-social or self defeating and
destructive, he fulfils the therapeutic task of helping the client to
reorient himself with a different set of goals.14
The basic work involved in changing misconceptions and
unrealistic expectations, is to identify and alter the client's typical
way of structuring beliefs and thoughts. This process is called
cognitive restructuring.
The following techniques are used for conginitive
restructuring.

Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)

This technique is used in the area of modifying irrational
statements to oneself. Some of the irrational ideas that Ellis views
at the core of emotional and behavioural problems are as under.
1. It is a dire necessity for an adult to be loved by everyone for
everything he does.
2. Certain acts are awful or wicked, and people who perform
such acts should be severely punished.
3. It is horrible when things are not the way one would like
them to be.
 4. Human misery is externally caused and is forced on one by
outside people and events rather than caused by the view
one takes of those conditions.
1.
SOCIAL CASE WORK
209

5. If something is or may be dangerous or feel some one

should be terribly upset about it.
6. It is easier to avoid rather than face life's difficulties and
self-responsibilities.
J7, One needs something stronger or greater than oneself on
which to rely.
8. One should be thoroughly competent, intelligent and
achieving in all possible respects.
9. Because something once strongly affected one's life, it
should indefinitely effect it.
10. One must have certain and perfect control over things.
11. Human happiness can be achieved by inertia and inaction.
12. One has virtually no control over one's emotions, and one
cannot help feeling certain things.
Rational Emotive therapy includes four stages:

1. Presentation of Rationale
The worker attempts to elicit the problems, or significance of
self-statements in general without mentioning the client's problems.

2. Overview of Irrational Assumption

The worker presents a number of irrational self-statements before
the client and tries to realize the client that his statements are
irrational.
»
3. Analysis of Client's Problem in Rational Emotive Terms
Client is made aware of his problem* rationally and is provided with
the knowledge of how he has labelled the event.

4. Teaching the Client to Modify Internal Sentences

In this stage the client is taught to change his opinions and attitudes
which are anxiety provoking.

Problem-solving and Decision-making Cognitive Therapy

In this technique the client learns how to solve problems, thereby
discovering for himself the best way of responding and deciding
upon the most effective course of action. Problem solving is a
behavioural process-overt or cognitive. The basic steps in this
therapy are.

212 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

The first alternative is unauthentic and the pathway to anxiety
and despair. Therefore the basic theme of this approach is that the
individual's existence is given but what he makes of it his essence is
up to him. The despair of the modern man is traced to the fact
that he has lost his freedom due to depersonalization of mass
society. Man should detach himself from the larger society and
 must chart his own destiny by discovering his own highly individual
meaning in life.1
Many of the concepts of the existential theory such as
nonbeing, freedom, meaning, authenticity, obligation, commitment,
existential anxiety, despair have had a profound impact on the
thinking of the social workers. They now view modern man as
alienated and estranged —stranger to God, to other man and to
himself.
Krill has listed five organizing concepts of existential thought
in the context of therapy.
1. Disillusionment
2. Freedom of Choice
3. Meaning in Suffering
4. Necessity of Dialogue
5. Commitment.
ROLE THEORY
Role is mainly behavioural concept. Roles and statuses are
interlinked as roles are associated with given social positions.
Social role refers to the behaviour of status-occupants, that is
oriented toward the patterned expectations of others (who accord
the rights and obligation),156 Linton went on to observe that each
person in society inevitably occupies multiple statuses and that, for
each of these statuses, there is an associated role.
The concept of social roles in social work not only includes
attitudes and emotions but it also includes behaviour itself. Thus
the social worker, when he refers to role, it also includes social
functioning. If, in any small group, we become leader or follower,
new comer or isolate, scape goat or clown' we have feelings about
the position we occupy and about the role behaviour associated
with it. The other group members also have feelings about our
behaviour and their own role.
Thus the concept of role in social work is based on two
formulations, one expressed by Perlman, 'Role implies that certain

SOCIAL CASE WORK

213

emotional values or sentiments tend to be injected in any human

activities that involve relationships with others, either into the
activities themselves, or 'into the reciprocal relationships, or both'
The other is the emotional and effective component in the role
relationship. It helps to determine the base of role differentiation.
It is often assumed that the individual's wishes and capacities are
the determinants of his role. Attitudes and behavioural patterns are
the product of earlier life experiences in social network. These
experiences form the individual's self-image and self-evaluation
which in turn influence his expectations of acceptance, indifference,
or rejection in new group situations. His expectations influence his
life style. Approach to new social situations is affected by his past
experiences.

Role may be seen as a product of

 an interplay between
(i) individual members' needs and resources; (ii) the solution in the
social network; and (Hi) the forces acting on the social network
from the environment. When there are internal or external
difficuities which are beyond the capacity of an individual, he feels
the problem and fails to perform his role.

Social case worker with such clients suggests new ideas and
ways of facing the problem. He gives new definitions of the
problem and suggests solution for a difficulty that the external
stimuli have encountered. He .clarifies that values pertinent to
what the social group is undertaking. He offers facts or
generalizations which relate to his own experience for understanding
the problem. He spells out suggestions in terms of examples, offers
a rational for suggestions and tries to deduce how suggestion
would work if adopted by the client. He mediates between other
members, attempts to reconcile disagreements, relieves tension in
conflict situation. His efforts are also directed to keep
communication channels open by encouraging others to participate
in the business of the client.

Family Therapy
Family is the cradle in which the future is bora and nursery in which
new democratic social order is being fashioned. It is a procreative
group, a child bearing group and a status giving group.160 The
family is highly complicated network of forces expressed in family
members relationships. Family is a system which is composed of
three sub-systems: marriage, parenthood and siblings. There are

214 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

continuous interactions and transactions among these sub-systems
and certain relationship behavioural patterns become autonomous.
, !' Because these family patterns are unconsciously integrated and,
. therefore, largely outside the conscious awareness of the family and
j' its members, and because they need to be understood if the
~*1 individual and family are to be assessed as correctly as possible for
• treatment strategy, direct observation of family process and
I relationship is necessary.

j Basic Assumption of Family Therapy

I 1. Marital relationship system heavily influences in the
management of individual and family development tasks and
I that to understand the problem of the individual and family
| it is necessary to understand the nature of marriage.
2. The nature of the marital equilibrium affects all family
 ¦ members, but its effects differ on each of the members.
| 3. Children are affected developmental^ by the nature of the

marital equilibrium
 because they introject the parents as
I models, guides and educators.
'„» 4. Individual's developmental tasks such as self-control and
i self- responsibility, intimacy and distance, separateness and
I dependence, individuation and interdependence, must be
guided and directed for masterly by the family for the
I achievement of maximum self-realization both of individual
I and family.
j*- 5. Each developmental phase in the family has stressful
J situation which requires new identification, role transitions
I. , and new relationship.

Basic Concepts of Family Therapy

The following are the concepts that influence the practice of family
therapy.162

1. Whenever one member of a family is in trouble, all are in

¦¦ trouble. The symptoms in an individual serve to balance
forces within the family as well as his own intrapsychic
^ forces. Understanding the meaning of the individual
symptoms requires comprehension what they represent
for him and for the family for purpose of treatment
planning.

SOCIAL CASE WORK

215

2. The nature of family structure, that is, identifications, object

relationships, collusions, alliances, and roles, are
significant indexes of family functioning and are causative
in individual development .... In disturbed families,
behavioural difficulties, symptoms, or delays in personal
development indicate faulty family structure that is
expressed in poor role performance.
3. Communication in the family is the channel through which
the rules and roles, the processes of identification and
differentiation, the management of tasks, conflicts and
resolutions — in short, the business of life is conducted ...
Family therapy relies on understanding the communication
patterns in the family and intervening in those, that are
currently dysfunctional in the family system.

Diagnosis and Assessment

(i) Diagnosis is confirmed on the basis of various types of

interviews with the client and family. He knows the content
of the problem, identification of the Tamily and its members
— their characteristics, complaints and requests, differing
and similar perceptions, reactions, efforts made by the
 family to deal with the problem.
(ii) The worker knows family structure and processes in the
family responsibilities, roles, family patterns of daily living,
role performance, role relationship, reciprocal relationships,
individuation, dependency, separateness, independence
level; capacity, tolerance,*and control of feelings; intimacy,
aggression anxiety, regressions, taboos, etc., capacity for
reality perception, use of defences and resistances in the
family; patterns of conflict and resolutions, decision-making,
cultural and social influences; management of moral, ethical
and religious values, social aspirations and goals; patterns of
varbal and non-verbal communications,
(iii) He records the family history and analyses its contents,
history of marriage, child development, important events,
family functioning in stressful situation; individual's
behaviour, symptoms, adaptations and difficulties; ego
strength of the family and its members to solve the
problem.

216 SOCIAL WORK - PI IILOSQPHY AND METHODS

Treatment
Immediate and long range goals include, characteristically, helping
the family members to become better attuned to each other's needs,
to "hear" what the others are saying and they mean to overcome
fears, about expressing honest feelings, to learn how to communicate
more directly and clearly, and to learn different ways of behaving and
feeling.103
Most of the techniques used in one-to-one treatment, such as
guidance, advice, education, and reflection, are used in family
therapy, with the difference that they are always directed to the
interactional process. Suggestions, clarification, and interpretations
may be directed to an individual, but only in the interest of the total

EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL CASE WORK

Social case work as a method of social work has emerged from the
processes of industrialization and its concomitant urbanization. It is
the offspring of Charity Organization Societies Movement which was
introduced in the late 1870s.
But the first theoretical formulation of social case work is
associated with the publication of Mary Richmond's book 'Social
Diagnosis' in 1917.
Case work has gone through several discernible stages. These
stages are: (1) the exploratory and disciplinary, (2) the sociological,
(3) the psycho-social, (4) the synthetic or integrated.
THE EXPLORATORY AND DISCIPLINARY STAGE

Josephine Shaw Lowell, founder of the

 New York Charity
Organization Society and many other social workers believed that the
unworthy poor should be provided financial assistance.
These workers were motivated by desires to:
1. Deal kindly but firmly with individuals in need, primarily the
self-respecting and working" poor, the public agencies to
deal with others by repressive methods.
2. Reduce duplication in relief administration as between
agencies.
3. Conduct careful inquiries into the extent of personal needs.
4. Help people with certain types of personal problems
1.
SOCIAL CASE WORK
217

contributing to poverty such as sickness, and to deny help to

others who were lazy, intemperate, extravagant,
5. Give their time effort without remuneration to the
alleviation of sufferingand to the diminution of extravagant
relief administration.
THE SOCIOLOGICAL STAGE
In 1901, Mary Richmond presented a chart showing the
environmental forces influencing the family and argued for the
analysis of social situation before providing any help. She wrote a
very valuable book 'Social Diagnosis' in 1917 which reflects the
sociological point of view of social case work. In 1922 she published
another book 'What is Social Case Work?' in which she defined
social case work as such: "Social case work consists of those
processes which develop personality through adjustments
consciously affected, individual by individual, between men and their
social environment.
THE PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE
World War I was a major turning point for the practice of social case
work. The psychiatric wave forced social case work away from its
appropriate concern with social issues toward an inappropriate
pre-occupation with mental phenomena. Influence of Freudian
concept spread and social case work became psycho-dynamic case
work. Valuable contributions were made by Towle, Bibring,170
Turner,171 Austin172, Bandler,173 Parad,17* Hollis,175 Smalley,176
Garrett,177 etc.
The other contributors are Miss Robinson who wrote a book 'A
Changing Psychology in Social Case Work', Taft who wrote a book
'A Functional Approach to Family Case Work'. ' "
In this phase, the following contributions were made to the
philosophy and practice of social case work:
1. Interest in the causes of human distress conceived of as
deriving from the social situation or physical environment.

2. Interest in the family as the

 social unit having maximum
importance in the development of human adjustment but
with little appreciation of the nature of psychological
interactions within the family.
3. Efforts to find the most scientific way of doing things and
the development of a methodology for social diagnosis.
1.
218 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
4. Belief that most of the people will make adjustments to life
if their environment is favourable. If it is unfavourable, the
social worker has the function of removing or of having
removed the disrupting conditions.
5. Interest in the effects of social environment upon human
personality but without much understanding of causation
and mechanisms of bahaviour.
6. Belief in the values of friendly contacts and their effects
upon personality but with little awareness of what in the
next period was so energetically studied —psychological
relationships and the dynamics of interaction.
TI IE SYNTHETIC OR INTEGRATED STAGE
The Milford Conference in 1925 appointed a committee under the
Chairmanship of Porter Lee to define the nature of generic social
work. Milford Conference accepted the report of the committee
which recommended: " Social case work deals with the human being
whose capacity to organize his own normal activities may be
impaired by one or more deviations from accepted standards or
normal social life. The use of norms is essential because without use
of norms purposeful activity is difficult. Social history of the client is
significant for the particularization of the care. The purpose of social
case work is to assist the individual to develop his capacity to
organize his own normal social activities.
Since the publication of the Milford Conference Report 1929,
number of books on social case work theory and practice have been
published. Lowry edited 'Readings in Social Case Work: 1920-1938'
in 1939. Hall is brought out 'Social Case Work in Practice' in 1939.
Hamilton published, 'Theory and Practice of Social Case Work' in 1940.

BASIC ASSUMPTION OF SOCIAL CASE WORK

Hamilton has described the following main assumptions of social
case work:
1. Individual and society are interdependent,
2. Social forces influence behaviour and attitudes, affording
opportunity for self-development and contribution to the
world in which we live;
3. Not only are all problems psychosocial, inner and outer but
most case work problems are interpersonal, that is, more
1.
 SOCIAL CASE WORK

219

than one person is likely to be involved in the treatment of

the individual, and particularly in case work the family unit
is involved;
4. The client is a responsible participant at every step in the
solution of his problems;
5. At the certres of the case work process is the conscious and
controlled use of the worker-client relationship to achieve
the ends of treatment.

REFERENCES

1. Richmond, Mary: Vie Long View, Russel Sage Foundation, New York, 1930, pp.
374-75.
2. /6/<ip.398.
3. Richmond, Mary: Wltat is Social Case Work, The Russell Sage Foundation, New
York, 1922, p. 98.
4. Jarrett: Proceedings, NCSW, 1919, p. 587.
5. Taft:77iefam;/y,VoU.No.5,p.l.
6. Waston: Charity Organization Movement in tlie United Stales, p. 415.
7. Queen : Social Work in tlie Liglu of History, J.B. Lippincot Company,
Philadelphia, 1922, p. 18.
8. Lee: Social Work as Cause and Function, p. 119.
9. Taylor:r/jef<OTi;/>',VolVI,p.289.
10. Reynolds:S/H«/iCo%cSwd/er,Vo!.in,p.9. •
11. Reynolds: The Family, Vol. XVI, p. 235.
12. Klein: A Social Study of Pittsburgh, p. 622.
13. Swift, Linton B: The Purpose and Programme of A family Case Work Agency",
Vie Family, Vol. XX, No. 1,1939, p. 4.
14. DeSchwinitz,F:Sun^M;d-MowWy, Vol. LXXVp.39.
15. Strode: Introduction to Social Case Work, p. 79.
16. Towle,C: Soda/WwfcyfcarBooA, 1947, p. 477.
17. Bowers, Swithun : The Nature and Definition of Social Case Work in Kasius,
Cora (ed) Principles and Techniques in Social Case Work, Family Service
Association of America, New York, 1952. p. 127.
18. Hollis, Florence: 'Social Case Work', Social Work. Year Book, 1954, p. 474.
19. Hamilton, Gordon : Tltcory and Practice of Social Case Work, Columbia
University Press, New York, 1956, p. 23.
20. Hollis, Florence: 'Social Case Work'.Soc/a/ Work Year Book, 1952, p. 525.
21. Perlman, Helen, Harris : Social Case Work 0 A Problem Solving Process. The
 University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1957, p. 4.
22. Perlman, H.H. op cil p. 4.
23. Ibid p. A.
24. Ibid. p. 4.
25. lbid.p.4.
26. Friedlander, W.A : Concepts and Medtods of Social Work, Prentice Hall, Inc,
Englewood Cliffs, N J., 1958, p. 21.
27. Witmer, Helen L: Social Work: An Analysis of Social Institution, Rinehart and
Company Inc, New York, 1942, p. 178.
1.
220
SOCIAL-WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

28. I lelcines Todd : 'Relief and Relief Giving', in Defining Family Case Work
Services in Relation to Client Applications, Family Service Association of
America, New York, 1938, p. 4.
29. Moffctt, J : Concepts of Case Woik Treatment, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.,
London, 1968.
30. Hollis. F : Case Work - A Psycho-Social Therapy, Random House, New York,
1964.
31. Towled Charlotte : 'Social Case Work", Social Work Year Book, Russell Sage
Foundation New York, 1947, p. 477.

32. Bowers, Swithun : The Nature and Definition

of Social Case Work' in Cora,
Kasius (cd) Principles and Techniques in Social Case Work, New York, 1953, p.
112.
33. Pcrlman, Helen Harris : Social Case Work : A Problem Solving Process, The
University of Chicago Press Chicago, 1957, p. 201.
34. Austin, Lucille Nickel : "Trends in Differential Treatment in Social Case
Work". Journal of Social Case Work, 29:205, June, 1948.
35. Lyndon, Benjamin II : KDcvclopincnt and Vsc-E, in Richard Sterba, Nenjamin,
H.L. & ct ai, Transference in Case Work, Family Service Association of America,
New York, 1948, p. 16. '*
36. Hamilton, O : Theory and Practice of Social Case Work, Columbia University
Press, New York, 1951, p. 27.
37. Biestck, Felix P : 77ic Case Work Relationship, Loyola University Press, Chicago,
1957, p. 11.
38. Hollis, Florence : Case Work :A Psycho-Social Theory, Random House, New
York, 1972.
39. Tilbury, D.E.F : Case Work in Context UA Basis for Practice, Pergamon Press,
New York, 1977, pp. 109-111.
40. Pcrlman, Helen, Harris : Social Case Work U A Problem SoMng Process, The
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1957, pp. 64-83.
41. Raport, L: Crisis Intervention as a Mode of Brief Treatment in Roberts R. and
R. Nee (cd). Theories of Social Casework, Chicago Press, Chicago, 1970, p. 290.
42. Fischer, Joel : Effective Case Work Practice — An Eclectic Approacli, McGraw
Hi! Books Compay, New York,' 1978, p. 191.
43. Bicstek F.P. op. cit. p. 12.
44. Bicstek, F.P. op. cit. pp. 23-120.
45. Friedlandcr, W.R : Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall, Inc,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 1958, pp. 99-101.
46. Perlman, H.H. op. cit. p. 115.
47. Perlman, H.H. "The Problem-Solving Model in Social Case Work" in Robert
Nee (ed) op. cit. p. 163.
48. Richmond, Mary: Social Diagnosis, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1917, p.5,
49. Sytz, Florence: "The Development of Method in Social Case Work" in Kasius,
Cora (cd). Principles and Techniques in Social Case Work, Family Service
Association of America, New York, 1953, p. 320.
50. Aptekar : "The Dynamics of Case Work and Counselling, Houghto Miflin, New
York, 1955, p. 72.'
51. Hollis, Florence op. cit p. 51.
52. ¦ Perlman, H.H : Social Case Work — A Problem Solving Process, The University
of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1957, pp. 168-169.
53. Perlman, H.H. op. cit pp. 189-1%.

SOCIAL CASE WORK

221

54. Ibid pp. 171-180.

55. Perlman,H.H.o/>.cJtp. 176
56. Goldfried, M.G. and Davison, G.C : Clinical Behaviour Therapy, Hold, New
York, 1976, pp. 47-54.
57. Wolpe, J: The Practice of Behaviour Therapy, Pergamon, New York, 1973.
58. Goldstein, A.P : Psychotherapeutic Attraction, Pergamon, New York, 1971, p.
172-179.
59. Stuart, R.B : Client-Tlierapist Treatment Contract, Research Press, Champaign,
111, 1975.
60. Richmond, Mary : What is Social Case Work"! Russell Sage Foundation, New
York, 1922, p. 98.
61. Richmond, M : 77ie Long View, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1930,
p. 374.
62. Hamilton, G: Theory and Practice of Social Case Work, quoted by Tilbury, DEP,
op. tit. pp. 149-150.
63. Hollis, Florence : The Psycho-Social Approach to Case Work, in Robert Nee op.
c/tp.57.
64. Goldstein, H : Social Work Practice: A Unitary Approach, University of South
Carolina Press, Columbia, 1973, p. 229.

65. Fisher, Joel: Effective Case Work Practice—An Eclectic Approach, McGrawHill
Book Company, New York, 1978, p.
264.
66. Lee, Porter : 'Social Work as Cause and Function', in Hamilton Book, op. ck,
p. 243.
67. Holis, Florence : "The Techniques of Case Work" in Principles and Techniques
of Social Case Work, (ed) Cora, Kasius, F.S.A.A. New York, 1953, p. 414.
68. Holis, Florence, op. ck p. 419.
69. AW p. 422.
70. Ibid p. 416.
71. Fischer, Jeol. op. ck p. 292.
72. Linton, R : 77ie Cultural Background of Personality, Appleton Century Crafts,
New York, 1945, p. 264.
73. Sargent, S.S : 'Conceptions of Role and Ego in Contemporary Psychology' in
J.H. Rohrer and M. Sherif (ed) Social Psychology at the Crossroads, 1951, p. 360.
74. Fichter, J.H: Sociology, p. 120.
75. Mass, Henry S. Wolins, Martin : Concepts and Methods in Social Work
Research in Kasius, Cora (ed) New Directions in Social Work, op. at p. 229.
76. Ibid, p. 130.
77. Perlman,H.H.op.c/'£p.24.
78. Ibidp.2S.
79. Ibid p. W.
80. Alexander, F.: "Development of die Fundamental Concepts ofPsycho-analysis"
quoted by Perlman, H.H. in his article 'the Problem Solving Model in Social
Case Work' Robert Nee et al., op. at pp. 153-154.
81. Friedlander, W.A: op. ck p. 45.
8Z Ibid p. 96.
83. Richmond, Mary : What is Social Case Work? Russell Sage, Foundation,
New
York, 1922, p. 101.
84. Kasius Cora: A Comparison of Diagnostic and Functional Case Work Concepts.
Family Service Association of America, New York, 1950, pp. 20-21.
85. /Mi p. 19.
83.
222 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
86. Smalley, Ruth E : The Functional Approach to Case Work Practice' in Robert
Nee. p. 113.
87. Kasius, Cora, op, cit. p. 27.
88. Kasius, Cora. op. ciL p. 29.
89. Taft, Jessie : "Time as the Medium of the Helping Process". Jewish Social
Service Quarterly, Vol. XXVI, No. 2,1949, p. 189.
90. English O. Spurgcon and Pearson, Gerald H.J : Emotional Problems of Living,
W. W. Norton & Company, New York, 1945, p. 537.
91. Heiman, Marcel : Psychoanalysis and Social Work, International Universities
Press, New York, 1953, p. 71.
92. Ibid. p. 71.
93. Parad, Howard J (ed) : Ego Psychology and Dynamic Case Work, Farcify Service ,
Association of America, New York, 1958, p. 54.
94. Hendrick, Ives : Facts and Tltcories of Psychoanalysis, Alfred A. Knopp, New
York, 1958, p. 193.
95. Taft, Jessie : The Use of the Transfer within the Limits of the Office Interview.
The Family.
96. Hamilton, G : op. cit. p. 257.
97. Fischer, Joel : Effective Case Work Practice, McGraw Hill Book Company, New
York, 1978, p. 346.
98. Heiman, M. & Kaufman, M.R.: op. cit. p. 73.
99. Ibid., p. 73.
100. Ibid., p. 73.
101. Hamilton, G. op. cit. p. 257.
102. Ibid, p. 257.
103. Parad, Howard, J. op.ch. p. 71.
104. Aptekar, H.I 1: 77ie Dynamics of Case Work and Counsellmg Houghten Mifflin
Camp. New York, 1955, p. 110.
105. Smith, Glcen, F : Counselling in the Secondary School. The Mac Millan
Company, New York, 1955, p. 156.
106. Williamson, E.G. and Foley, J.D : Counsellmg and Discipline, McGraw Hill
Book Company, 1949, p. 192.
107. Rogers, Carl. C : "Client Centred Psychotherapy", Scientific American, 187:70,
1952.
108. Pepinsky, Harold B & Pepinsky, Paulin, N : Counsellmg: Theory and Practice,
Ronald, New York, 1954, p. 3.
109. Mehta, II.P : Counselling and Vocational Guidance, Encyclopaedic of Social
Work m India, The Planning Commission, Govt, of India, 1968, p. 200.
110. Hadley, John M: Clinical and Counselling Psychology, Knopf, New York, 1958,
p. 26.
111. Hamilton, G. op. cit. p. 251.
112. Rogers, Carl. R : Counsellmg and Psychotlierapy, Houghton Mifflin Com. New
York, 1942, pp. 7-8.
113. Ibid pp. 76-77.
114. Perlman, H.'H. op. cit. A.
115. Weiss, Edward & English, O. Spurgeon : Psychosomatic Medicine, W.B.
Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1950, p. 16.
116. Ibidp.V.
117. Hamilton, G. op. cit., pp. 254-255.
118. Coleman, Janes, C. op. cit p. 663.
86.
SOCIAL CASE WORK
223

119. Ibid. p. 663.

120. Coleman, James, C: op. cU. p. 677.
121. Ibid. p. 678.
122. Arbuckle, Dugald S : Counselling: An Introduction, Allyn and Bacon, Inc.,
Boston, 1961, p. 145.
123. Bodin, Edward S : Psychological Counselling Appleton Company Crofts,
New
York 1955, p. 15.
124. Arbuckle, D.S. op. ck p. 146.
125. Coleman, Jules V : Distinguishing Between Psychotherapy and Case Work'
in
Kausis, Cora's book op. ck p. 382.
126. Heiman, M. & Kauf Man, M : Psycho-anafysis and Social Work,
International
University Press, New York, 1953, p. 5.
127. Ibid. p. 7.
128. Friedlander, W.A : Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall,
New
York,'1958, p. 74.
129. Davison, E.H: Special Case Work, p. 55.
130. Parad, H J op. ck p. 43.
131. Stamm, Isabel L: Ego Psychology in the Emerging Theoretical Base of Case
Work.
In Khan, AJ. (ed) Issues in American Social Work, Columbia University Press,
New York, 1959, pp. 88-89.
131 Ibid pp. 89-90.
133. Ibid p. 91.
134. Erikson, Erik H : 'Growth and Crisis of the Healthy Personality". In Clyde
Kluckhohn and H.A. Murray (cd). Personality in Nature, Society and Culture,
Knopf, New York, 1953, pp. 185-225.
135. Knight, Robert : "Determinism 'Freedom' and Psychotherapy", Psychiatry,
 IX,
1946, pp. 251-62.
136. Stamm, I.L. op. ck p. 96.
137. Ibid p. 103-104.
138. Hollis, Florence : 77ie Psychosocial Approach to Case Work, Robert, Nee &
Other,op.c/tp.67.
139. Smalley, Ruth E: The Functional Approach to Case Work' in Robert Nee
book
p. 81.
140. Ibid. p.Sl-SZ
141. Ibid p. 101.
141 Ibid p. 112.
143. Thomas, EJ : "Selected Socio-Behavioural Techniques and Principles". An
Approach to Inter Personal Helping". Social Work, Vol. 13,1968, pp. 12-15.
144. Fischer, Joel: Effective Case Work Practice, An Eclectic approach, McGraw
Hill
Book Company, New York, 1978, p. 157.
145. Ibid p. 157.
146. Werner, H.D : "Cognitive Theory" in FJ. Turner (ed) Social Work
Treatment,
Free Press New York, 1974.
147. Ibid p. 264.
148. Ibid. p. 264.
149. Ellis, A: Reason and Emotions in Psychotlterapy, Lyle Staurt, New York, 1962.
150. Mahoney, MJ : Cognitive and Behaviour Modification, Balliger, Cambridge,
1974, pp. 171-172.

151. Urban, H.B. and Ford, D.H :

Some Historical and Conceptual Perspectives on
Psychotherapy and Behaviour Change, Wiley, New York, 1971, pp. 3-35.
143.
224 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
152. Watson, D. and Tharp, R : Set/Directed Behaviour, Monterey, Calif, Brooks,
1972 quoted by Fischer, J. op .cit pp. 186-187.
153. Ahmad, M.R : 'Social Case Work' in Surendra Singh & K.S. Soodan (ed)
Horizons of Social Work, Jyotsna Publications, Lucknow, 1986, p. 85.
154. Coleman, Jones, C. op. tit. p. 69.
155. Lowe, C. Marshall, pp. 125,178.
156. Mcrton, Robert K : Social Theory and Social Structure (englarged edition).
Amerind Publishing Comp. 1968, p. 41.
157. Ibid p. 422.
158. Heap, Ken : Group Thcoiy for Social Workers, Pergmon Press, New
York, 1977,
p. 140. i
159. Perlman, I MI: The Role Concept and Social Case Work: Some Explorations:
the 'Social' in Social Case Work, Socio/ Service Review, Vol. 35, p. 378.
160. Gilin, J.L. & Gilin J.P : Cultural Sociology, The Macmilan Co. New York, 1954,
p. 227.
161. Schcrz, Frances II: "Thcoiy and Practice of Family Therapy" in Robert's book,
p. 225.
162. Schcrz, Frances, II. op. cit. pp. 131-235
163. Ibid p. 244.
164. Ibid p. 247.
165. Clarke, I F.I : Principles and Practice of Social Work, Applcton Century Crofts,
New York, 1947, p. 57.
166. Ibid pp. 58-59.
167. Richmond, Mary : What is Social Case Work?, Russell Sage Foundation, New
York. 1922, pp. 98-99.
168. Field, Martha II. Social Case Work Practice during the Psychiatric Deluge",
Social Semce Review, Vol. 54, No. 4, December 1980, p. 483.
169. Towle, Charlott et al : Social Approach to Mental Patient Care, Columbia
University Press, New York, 1964.
170. Bibring, G.l: Psychiatry and Social Work, Journal ofSocial Case Work, 1947, pp.
203-10.
171. Turner: Social Work Treatment.
172. Austin, Lucille N : Trends in Differential Treatment in Social Case Work,
Journal of Social Case Work, 20,1948, pp. 203-11.
173. Bandler, L: The Concept of Ego Supportive Psychotherapy, Parad H. (ed): Ego
Oriented Case Work, F.S.A.A. New York 1963.
174. Parad, 11: Ego Ps)'chology and Dynamic Case Work, F.S.A.A., New York, 1958.
175. Mollis, F : Case Work : A Psychosocial Therapy, Random House, New York,
1964.
176. Smalley, R.E: Theory for Social Work Practice, Columbia University Press, New
York 1967.
177. Garrett, A: Modem Case Work: The Contribution vfEgo Psychohsy,»» Parad,
H. (ed) op. cit.
178. Clarke, op. cit. p. 65.
179. Hamilton, G. op. cit p. 22.
152.
11

Social Group Work

Social Group work is a method of social work which develops the

ability of establishing constructive relationship in the individuals
through group activities. Group experiences are the essential needs
of human being. Montagu develops the idea that the pattern of
social relationships is a natural continuation of the processes of
biological growth. ... the source of the social appetite of all living
creatures is traceable to the way in which the living organism
originates. All cells originate from other cells; it is impossible for
them to originate in any other way ... Each
cell of the organism is
dependent for its proper functioning upon the interaction with it of
every other cell of the organism. This is to say that every organism
functions as a whole, and not as a mass of discrete, independent
cellular elements. The orgaiysm is itself dependent and
interdependent whole. Montagu thus, invests the social appetite of
man with an instinctive quality, derived, from the biological
growth process and consistent with it.

I. DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

We are quoting here some of the views expressed by the social
workers about the social groupwork to understand it systematically.
NEWSLETTER (1935)
Group work maybe defined as an educational process emphasizing
the development and social adjustment of an individual through
voluntary association and the use of this association as a means of
furthering socially desirable ends.

226 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

COYLE(1937)
Social group work aims at the development of persons through the
interplay of personalities in group situations, and at the creation of
such group situations as provide for integrated, cooperative group
V action for common ends.5
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF GROUP WORKERS (1948)
Group Work is a method by which the group worker enables
various types of groups to function in such a way that both group
interaction and programme activities contribute to the growth of the
individual, and the achievement of desirable social goals.
WILSON AND RYLAND (1949)
We ... see social group work as a process and a method through
which group life is affected by a worker who consciously directs the
interacting process toward the accomplishment of goals which in
our country are conceived in a democratic frame of reference.
HAMILTON (1949)
^ Social group work is a psycho-social process which is concerned
no less than with developing leadership ability and cooperation
than with building on the interests of the group for a social
purpose.
 COYLE(1954)
*•$
o
Its distinct characteristics lie in the fact that group work is used
within group-experience as a means to individual growth and
development, and that the group worker is concerned in developing
social responsibility and active citizenship for the improvement of
democratic society. "*
TRECKER, H.B. (1955)
Social group work is method through which individuals in groups
in social agency settings are helped by a worker who guides their
interaction in programme activities so that they may relate
themselves to others and experience growth opportunities in
accordance with their needs and capacities to the end of the
individual, group and community development.
KONOPKA(1963)
Social group work is a method of social work which helps
< --'

SOCIAL GROUP WORK

227

individuals to enhance their social functioning through purposeful

group experiences and to cope more effectively with their personal,
group or community problems.
ANALYSIS OF THE DEFINITIONS

Newsletter has metioned social group work as an educational

process and this method is used by voluntary association to help
individuals to achieve social goals. But social group work is not only
an educational process, it is a service. The objectives of group work
is not only achieved by voluntary associations but both types of
associations; public and private use social group work method.
Grace Coyle in her first definition talks of personality development
through the process of group activities. In her second definition she
included the worker's role as to develop social responsibilities
among group members. Wilson and Ryland mentioned group work
both as a process and a method and the purpose of group work is
to help individuals through groups lo further their development into
emotionally balanced. Intellectually free and physically fit persons
on one hand and on the other to help to achieve ends desirable in
an economic view are quite different from earlier thinkers. In her
opinion, social group work is a psychosocial process through Which
individuals are affected both mentally and socially. American
Association of Group Worker's
definition denotes both personality
development and in general social development.
The most appropriate and complete definition of social group
work has been given by Trecker. We find the following main
characteristics of his definitiorl.

1. Social Group Work is a Method

A method is a conscious procedure, a designed means of achieving
a goal. In its outer sense, a method is a way of doing something
but doing underneath we always discover an integrated
arrangement of knowledge, understanding and principles.11 It
means the purposeful use of insights and understandings based
upon a body of knowledge and principles. It also means that social
group work has special knowledge, understanding, principles and
skills. Social group worker has the knowledge of individuals, groups,
community behaviour and skills of working with them. He is made
aware about the factors of human behaviour, such as role of
heredity, environment, learning, socialization, motivation and

228 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

perception. He is equipped with the principles of planned group
formation, purposeful relationship, programme development, self-
determination, flexible functional organization, guided group
interaction, resource utilization, etc. Social group worker is skilled
in establishing purposeful relationship, analysing group situation,
participation with the group, dealing with group feeling, using
agency and community resources.

2. Individuals Helped through Groups and in Social Agency

Settings
Groups and agency both are important for social group work
practice. Help is provided to the individual when he becomes a
member of a particular group which exists in a social agency.

3. The Role of the Worker is to Guide Interaction Process

The relationship between worker and group is based on acceptance.
The basic function of social group worker is to direct interaction
process of the group. He watches the activities and behaviour of
every member of the group. He keeps his eyes on member's
participation, its frequency, time duration, order of participation,
interactional level meaning of activities to the group member. On
the basis of this knowledge he provides adequate opportunities to
each member for his proper growth and development.

4. The Purpose of Social Group Work is to Provide

Experience, Growth Opportunities for Development
Social group worker helps the group to organize such types of
activities through which group members increase their capacities for
 participation, belonging, decision-making, responsibility- taking, and
adjusting themselves. They avail opportunities for their growth and
development. Democratic principles are followed in group work
activities. Clarke12 has mentioned the following aspects of social
group work.
1. Provision of opportunities to members for educational or
growth experiences.
2. Understanding by leader of the significance of group
characteristics including type, composition, structure, and
milieu in which the group lives.
1.
SOCIAL GROUP WORK
229

3. Use of Programme resources to meet desires and needs of

group members.
4. Use of community resources.
5. Adaptation of knowledge from other areas to the
requirements of social group work.
6. Understanding by leader of personality organization.
7. Development of leadership qualities and skills in the
professional workers.
8. Knowledge of techniques for promoting constructive
interpersonal relations within the group.
9. A philosophy, which, in the language of social case work;
Generic and specific, "determines the purposes, ethics, and
obligations" of social group work.
10. The blending of all nine aspects.
After the analysis of these definitions, we find that: (1) social
group work is a democratic method of social work; (2) it develops
democratic ideals and leadership qualities in group members;
(3) constructive relationship is the base for achieving its objectives;
(4) the ability and capability of self-direction is developed by the
group worker; (5) tic group is used to make group experience more
pleasurable; (6) group activities are directed on the basis of certain
skills, principles zr.<\ techniques; (7) these activities arc carried out
in social agency; (8) group work is used for remedial as well as for
personality development purpose. Thus it can be said that social
group work is a method of social work in which worker organizes
programme activities through group itself for its growth and
development and accepts interaction process as a base for this
growth and development.

11. HISTORY AND GROWTH OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

Just as the Charity Organization Movement is the parent of social
case work, the club and recreation movements of the nineteenth
century and early twentieth are the direct forebears of social group
work.1
1. THE YMCA AND YWCA MOVEMENTS '
 Social group work has developed as a method from two sources,
the Young Men's Christian Association and Young Women's
Christian Association and Settlements. YMCA was established by

230 SOCIAL WORK - Fl IILOSOPIIY AND METHODS

George William in 1844 with the objectives of giving social and
religious welfare and companionship. It was also realized that
women and girls were in need of opportunities for recreation,
instruction and Christian companionship. In 1877, Mrs. Kinnird and
Miss Roberts decided to bring two organizations — Prayer Union
and General Female Training Institute, together under the name of
YWCA.
In America, the first YWCA was formed in Boston in 1866
with the objective of the temporal, moral, and religious welfare of
young women who were dependent on their own exertions for their
support.
2. SETTLEMENT MOVEMENT
Jane Addams was one of the founders of settlements for the purpose
of formation of clubs through which residents of the area could
share the cultural resources of more fortunate segments of the
propitiation, the identification of settlement workers with the life
of the area, and the responsibility of the same group for social
reform. These objectives were based on the philosophical tenets
of (i) the advantages to (hose who have not the sharing experiences,
(ii) the desirability of strengthening and perpetuating many racial
and cultural characteristics, (iii) the wisdom of providing an
opportunity to practise the Christian way of life, or in other than
religious language, the opportunity to practise democratic and
humanitarian principles. 15
3. PLAY GROUND AND RECREATIONAL MOVEMENTS
In 1885, Mariezakrzewska, who had visited Berlin where she had
seen children playing in sand piles in public parks, opened a sand
garden in Boston. The movement was first confined to the summer
months but later on it became a regular activity. The support of
schools and of social agencies greatly contributed to the rapid
development of the playground movement. The school saw them as a
means of supplementing classroom instruction by providing a form
of socialized experience in harmony with the newer theories of
progressive education. Social agencies, including settlements, saw
them as an outlet for youthful energy and as a means of forestalling
delinquency.
The War Camp Community Service organized during World
War I, helped greatly to accelerate the recreation movement.

SO'CIAL GROUP WORK

231
Recreation activities such as playground, sports, athletics,
pageants,
parades, community music, dancing, handicrafts, discussion,
debates, etc. provide the opportunity for self expression and from
them derive pleasure and relaxation.
4. INFLUENCE OF EDUCATION
John Deway and William H. Kilpatrick of Columbia University used
group process for eudcational achievements. Kilpatrick profounded
certain principles as listed below for education and these principles
formed a foundation for social group work.
1. Life is itself a positive good ... not something to be denied
or reduced or simply to be postponed.
2. Personality as such is to be cherished in all men, and as
far as possible, on terms of equality.
3. Change is inherent in human affairs.
4. The free play of intelligence is our final resource to tell us
what to think and to do in all human affairs.
5. Democracy is the effort to run society on the principles just
enumerated.
6. Society can no longer run itself on the individualistic basis
of each man for himself alone.
7. The conscious improving of our culture should be a chief
determining goal of both social and educational
endeavour.
5. INFLUENCE OF SOCIOLOGY
Grace Coyle in 'Social Process in Organized Groups', Edward
Lindeman in Social Discovery, Mary P. Follett in 'the New State'
and other writers study human conduct in society, especially in
relation to groups. Their thesis is that for the preservation of.
democracy and civilization, we must have education system based
on principles derived by Kilpatrick and social organizations through
group associations. It is the human association through which
development of integrated personalities is possible and desired
social change can be achieved.
6. INFLUENCE OF MENTAL HYGIENE ¦
The theories of psychology especially of mental hygiene have
become an integral part of social group-work, S.R. Slavson in 'An
Introduction to Group Therapy' writes: "In group therapy we work

232 SOCIAL WORK - PI IILOSOPHY AND METHODS

with children who are directly rejected by parents, family, schools,

street gang, and community centre, or whose powers and
personalities are indirectly rejected by pampering and coddling,
as a result of which they are unable to get on with their
contemporaries and with adults. These children are actively hostile
and destructive or reject the world by withdrawing from it. They are
either excessively aggressive or excessively withdrawn; obsessed
with great fears on guilt, they overcompensate for them by non-social
 or antisocial behaviour.1

III. BASIC ASSUMPTION OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

Douglas has mentioned the following basic assumptions upon
which group work practice is founded.
1. That group experience is universal and an essential part
of human existence.
2. That group can be used to affect changes in the attitudes
and behaviour of individuals.
3. That groups provide experiences which can be monitored
or selected in some way for beneficial ends. Life outside
the group is in no way neglected, it tends to be 'put out of
focus'in favour of considering the'here and now* situation
within the group.
4. That groups offer experiences shared with others so that
all can come to have something in common with the sense
of belonging of growing together.
5. That groups produce change which is more permanent,
that can be achieved by other methods and change which
is obtained more quickly also.
6. That groups assist in the removal or diminution of
difficulties created by previous exposure to the process of
learning.
7. That- groups as instruments of helping others may be
economical in the use of scarce resources, e.g. skilled
workers, time, etc.
8. That a group can examine its own behaviour and in so
doing learn about the general patterns of group
behaviour (process).
1.
SOCIAL GROUP WORK 233
Coyle has narrated the following basic assumptions of group
Work.2"
1. A firm conviction of the value leisure time educational
and recreational activities can yield both to the individual
and to society.
2. The group worker brings an insight to his job. The group
worker always is aware of two simultaneous streams of
activity within the groups. On the one hand, he sees the
programme activities and their progress, games discussion,
business meetings, dramatics or ceramics as the case may
be. On the other hand, he sees an interplay of social
relationships which make the group.
3. The programme must be viewed always in terms of its effect
on individuals. This involves, in the first place, keeping his
relation to the group person centred and not activity centred.
4. The group worker is aware of the emotional, social as well
as physical and intellectual aspccts*of the lives of those with
•whom he works as well as their leisure time pursuits
related to their work situations, their family relations and
their community attitudes.
 5. If group workers arc to help individuals seeking recreation
and education to find them in the most fruitful forms they
need to understand behaviour.
In general, social group work is based on the following basic
assumptions: s •
1. Man is a group animal,
2. Social interaction is the result of group life,
3. Man's achievements can be increased, changed and
developed through group experiences.
4. The capacity to solve problems may be increased through
group experiences.
5. Group experiences change the level of individual's
aspirations and desires.
6. Group recreational activities are beneficial to both
individual and society.
7. Group experiences have permanent impact on individuals.
8. Group work always focuses its attention on two types of
activities—programme and social relationship in the group.
1.
234
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

9. Social group work believes in the principle of 'whole man'.

10. Evaluation of programme activities is done on the basis of
its effects on group members.
11. Individual member may be fully understood and helped in
group activities.
12. Knowledge of social sciences is essential for working with
the group.
13. Professional knowledge and skills are essential for working
with the group.

IV. OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

When we use the word 'objectives' we refer to what we are trying to
accomplish. Here our objectives are statements or formulations of
what wc are trying to do in group work." 1 Objectives are not merely
goals; they are motivating forces for action, and we move toward
them or retreat by concerted action. The objectives should be clear
because they help the worker in the determination of the kinds of
programmes need for the fulfilment of the group goals. They provide
the guidance through which the group worker proceeds in his
mission. The utilization of skills, techniques, resources, financing,
equipments and other physical necessities are based on the
objectives.

The group worker enables various types of groups to function in

such a way that both group interaction and programme activities
contribute to the growth of the individual, and the achievement of
desirable social goals.23 According to Wilson and Ryland, social
group work has two objectives: (1) to help individuals use groups to
further their development into emotionally balanced, intellectually
free and physically fit persons, (2) to help
 groups achieve ends
desirable in the economic, political and social democracy.
Trecker's view is that the purpose of social group work is to bring
about the highest possible development of human personality,
dedicated and devoted to the democratic ideals. Specht thinks that
social group work brings change in internal personality, encourages
to accept new roles; brings closeness in interrelations among group
members; improves the conditions of systems and also in
communication process. In short, it can be said that it enables groups
to achieve personally enriching and socially productive goals.

SOCIAL GROUP WORK

235

Konopka has mentioned the following objectives of group

work method.
1. Individualization — It helps the individual to free himself
while being helped to interact with his fellowmen.
2. Development of sense of belonging.
3. A basic development of the capacity to participate.
4. Increase of the capacity to contribute to decisions on
grounds of rational thinking and through group deliberation.
5. Increased respect for differences among people.
6. Development of warm and accepting social climate.
Heap29 has mentioned different objectives on the basis of the
type of groups.
1. Some social work groups aim primarily at alleviating social
isolation. Such groups have the preventive function of
reducing the debilitating effects of isolation, as well as more
creative purposes of life enrichment and increasing
self-esteem. This is a common aim of work with the aged
and infirm, handicapped and psychiatric patients.
2. Another aim is that of orientating and preparing people for
new experiences which may arouse uncertainty,
disorientation, or fear. Such cases are the predischarge
group prison inmates, or psychiatric patients, intake groups
in mental hospitals and children's hospitals.
3. Other groups are mainly intended to contribute to the social
learning and maturation of people who encounter obstacles
to normal social growth and development. This kind of
social group work is most often found in the youth service
and maladjustment children.
4. Another aim of social work with groups is that of solving
 problems.

5. It aims at solving specific environmental problems which

 affect the group members i.e. helping slum dwellers for the
improvement of the environment.

In general social group work fulfils the following needs of the

human being.
1. Social group work fulfils human needs such as need of love,
affection, feeling security, to have enjoyment, etc.

SOCIAL WORK - 1'IHLOSOPHY AND METHODS

Social group work is a unique means of solving isolation
problems especially in urban areas where man lives among
thousands but feels alone.
Self-reliance is developed through group activities.
Maladjusted children are treated through group
programmes.
The feeling of being accepted is satisfied with the help of
group work activities. Evidences have proved that in the
absence of acceptance by the family and society, one
becomes either a mental case or antisocial case. Social
group work provides the opportunity to each of its members
to feel crealive and honoured member of the group.
Social group work helps in developing self-confidence.
Every member is given the responsibility to carry his role
independently in relation to other role. Thus, the essential
element of life is again re-charged in group members.
Social group work helps in solving adjust mental problems.
One fails to adjust in family and community because of
certain reasons. These reasons may be: his authoritarian
altitude, aivycssive tendencies, inactivity, not realizing his
roles, tendency -s dependency, runaway from taking
responsibilities, negative responses, denial of others'
authority, misntilization of group resources or fanta.;.).
Group experience is the best remedy for all these abnormal
behaviour symptoms.
Sometimes due to physical injury or congenital deformities,
one becomes totally or partially dependent on others. In
such situations the sufferer feels disgusted, isolated and
helpless creature. Social group work gives an opportunity to
realize and accept his dependency and encourages to adopt
a new way of life that makes his life pleasurable.
Relations are made real and productive through group
experience.
Psychosocial problems are solved and managed through the
group work services.
Democratic values equality, opportunity, liberty and
development, are developed through group experience.
Social group work is the best method lor proper
 development of personality.

Social group work provides recreation.

SOCIAL GROUP WORK 237

V. BASIC SKILLS OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK
In a general sense, skill means tha capacity to perform. The
Webster dictionary defines it as "Knowledge of, and cxpertness in,
execution and performance". Virginia Robinson refers as "the
capacity to set in motion arid control a process of change in specific
material in such a way that the change that takes place in the
material is affected with the greatest degree of consideration for and
utilization of the quality and capacity of the material.31 Trecker
defines method and skill: "Melhod means the purposeful use of
insights and understandings based upon a body of knowledge and
principles. Skill is the capacity to apply knowledge and
understanding to a given situation. " Method is the use of a process,
skill is capacity to use it.
To become more productive, a group worker needs to develop
the following abilities and skills in the group.
1. To exchange ideas among the members freely and clearly,
using language understood by everyone and with no fears of
starting arguments or hurting feelings.
2. To examine objectively how well the group and its members
are working.
3. To share the leadership jobs among the group members and
to become sensitive to the feelings of all.
4. To accept new ideas and new members into the group
without irreparable conflict, and to discipline itself to work
toward long range objectives, and to profit from failures.
5. To think clearly about its own problems, finding causes and
working through to some solutions.
6. To adjust its procedures and plans to meet the feelings and
the desires of the members.
7. To create new jobs or committees as needed and to
terminate them, or the group itself, when the need is
passed. 33 Trecker 34 has listed the following basic skills of
social group work:
1. SKILL IN ESTABLISHING PURPOSEFUL RELATIONSHIP
(a) The group worker must be skilful in gaining the acceptance
of the group and in relating himself to the group on a
 positive professional basis.
(b) The group worker must be skilful in helping individuals in
(a)
238
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

the group to accept one another and to join with the group
in common pursuits.
2. SKILL IN ANALYSING TOE GROUP SITUATION

(a) The worker must be skilful in

 judging the developmental
level of the group to determine what the level is, what the
group needs, and how quickly the group can be expected to
move. This calls for skill in direct observation of groups as a
basis of analysis and judgement.
(b) The group worker must be skilful in helping the group to
express ideas, work out objectives, clarify immediate
goals and see both its potentialities and limitations as a
group.
3. SKILL IN PARTICIPATION WITH THE GROUP
(a) The group worker must be skilful in determining,
interpreting, assuming, and modifying his own role with
the group.
(b) The group worker must be skilful in helping group
members to participate, to locate leadership among
themselves, and to take responsibility for their own
activities.
4. SKILL IN DEALING WITH THE GROUP FEELING
(a) The group worker must be skilful in controlling his own
feelings about the group and must study each new
situation with a high degree of objectivity.
(b) The group worker must be skilful in helping groups to
release their own feelings, both positive and negative.
He must be skilful in helping groups to analyse
situations as a part of the working through group or
intergroup conflicts.
5. SKILL IN PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT
(a) The group worker must ve skilful in guiding group thinking
so that interests and needs will be revealed and understood.
(b) The group worker must be skilful in helping groups to
develop programmes which they want as a means through
which their needs may be met.
(a)
SOCIAL GROUP WORK 239
6. SKILL IN USING AGENCY AND COMMUNITY RESOURCES
(a) The group worker must be skilful in locating and then
acquainting the group with various helpful resources
which can be utilized by them for programme purposes.
(b). The group worker must be skilful in helping certain
individual members to make use of specialized services by
means of referral when they have needs which cannot be
met within group.
7. SKILL IN EVALUATION
(a) The group worker must have skill in recording the
development processes that are going on as he works with
 the group.

(b) The group worker must be skilful in using his records and
 in helping the group to review its experiences as a means of
improvement.
Phillips has enumerated the following skills of social group
work:

I. Skill in using agency Function

The skilful worker carries the function in himself, not needing to
protest it by words but directing all of his efforts consistently
toward what the agency is in the community to do, and contributing
to the doing of it.

1. The Intake Process

The worker who meets the applicant, while carrying out the
agency's procedures for intake, will discuss with him what he
particularly wants from the agency as well as what is available
there for him to consider both the privileges and responsibilities
of agency membership.

2. Connecting the Group with the Agency

The worker relates the group more firmly to the agency hy helping
it to understand what the agency stands for and what kind of
responsible behaviour is expected of them as well as of other
groups.

240 SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

3. Serving the Individual through the Croup Work Process
Since the function of the agency includes helping group units to
develop in socially useful ways, as well as helping individuals,
the worker's attention must simultaneously be on the
development of the group as whole, and on each individual's
use of the group.

4. Working with the Individual Outside the Group Meetings

Although the worker's help toward fulfilling the purpose is
offered primarily within the group process, part of that help may
be given through individual contacts with members, to the end, that
they may make better use of the group experience.

5. The Referral Process

An important part of the group work agency's service is to work
with members and their parents in a process of considering the use
of other community services for help with problems that cannot be
dealt within the group work agency, possibly eventuating in a
referral.

II. Skill in Communication of Feelings

/. The 1 Vorkers' Feelings

High among the qualities essential to a social worker's skill is the
capacity to feel with others.

2. The Group Members'Feelings

The worker must be skilful in helping the group members to know,
accept, express and be responsible for their feelings.
3. Group Feelings
The interaction of each member to the others and to the worker
produces some group feeling. The worker helps the groups in
understanding their feelings and its meanings.

HI. Skill in using the Reality of the Present

1. Utilizing the Group's Current Interest for Purposeful Activity.
2. Helping the group to responsible decision.
1.
SOCIAL GROUP WORK " 2ST
IV. Skill in Stimulating and using Group Relations

1. Group relations as the focus for social group work process.

Social group work has focused its efforts on understanding and
using the worker's activity in a process that enables each group
member to find and take his part in the whole, in relationship with
other members.
I
2. The use of programme to strengthen group relations.
3. Containment of an essential quality in the worker. j|
4. Group relation in crisis: The group worker controls the
process of group relations but not the members, by enabling them Ij
to take their active and appropriate part in it.

VI. PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

Douglas36 has described fourteen principles of social group work:

1. Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the
unique difference of each individual.
2. Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the wide
variety of groups as groups.
3. Genuine acceptance of each individual with his unique
strengths and weaknesses.
4. Establishment of a purposeful relationship between group
worker and group member.
5. Encouragement and enabling of help and cooperative
relationships between members.
6. Appropriate modification- of the group process.
. 7. Encouragement of each member to participate according
to the stage of his capacity and enabling him to become
more capable.
8. Enabling members to involve themselves in the process of
problem solving.
9. Enabling group members to experience increasingly
satisfactory forms of working through conflicts.
10. Provision of opportunities for new and differing
experience in relationships and accomplishments.
11. Judicious use of limitations related to the diagnostic i(
assessment of each individual and the total situation. »
 12. Purposeful and differential use of programme according to . f
10.
242 SOCIAL WORK -PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
diagnostic evaluation of individual members, group
purpose, and appropriate social goals.
13. Ongoing evaluation of individual and group progress.
14. Warm human and disciplined use of self on the part of the
group worker.
Terence J. Cooke37 has derived the following principles to use
as a guide in applying the philosophy of St. Thomas.
1. All individuals have common human needs which they
seek to satisfy in groups.
2. The primary objective of social group work is the
development of the individual by means of the group in
which some of these needs are satisfied and/or the
primary objective of group work is the development of the
individual and the group.
3. In social group work, the group work process, the dynamic
interaction among the members of the group and the
worker and the group is the primary means of personality
growth, change and development.
(i) Group Programme
The programme is a means or tool of individual and group
development which should be derived from the basic
needs and interests of the group,
(ii) Voluntary attendance
Voluntary attendance of group members at meetings is
essential to good group work.

4. Since social group work operates in a controlled agency

setting, the group worker is essential to the group work
process and he is necessarily one who has knowledge,
understanding and skill in the art of helping people
related to and work with each other.
Friedlander has mentioned the following basic principles of
social group work:
1. The function of the social group worker is a helping or
enabling one. This means that his goal is to help the
members of the group and the group as a whole to move
toward greater independence and capacity for self-help.

SOCIAL GROUP WORK

243

2. In determining his way of life, the group worker uses the

scientific method — fact finding (observation), analysis,
 diagnosis in relation to the individual, the group, and the
social environment.

3. The group work method requires the worker to form

purposeful relationships to group members and the group.
This includes conscious
 focusing on the purpose of the
sponsoring agency, and as implied in the members'
behaviour. It is differentiated from casual unfocused
relationship.
4. One of the main tools in achieving such a relationship is
the conscious use of self. This includes self-knowledge and
self- discipline in relationships without the loss of warmth
and spontaneity.
5. Acceptance of people without accepting all their
behaviour: This includes a basic respect and love for
people, a warmth relating to their strength as well as to
their weakness. It is not sentimentality and is enhanced by
understanding of individual needs and societal demands.
6 Starting where the group is. The capacity to let groups
develop from their own point of departure without
imposing immediately outside demands.
7. The constructive use of limitations : They must be used
judiciously in relation to individual and group needs and
agency function. The forms will vary greatly. The group
worker will mainly use himself, programme materials,
interaction of the group, and awakening of insight in the
group members.
8. Individualization.
9. Use of the interacting process.
10. The understanding and conscious use of non-verbal
programme as well as verbal material.
Tracker has explained the following principles:
1. The Principle of Planned Group Fromation — In social
group work, the group is the basic unit through which
service is provided to the individual, consequently, the
agency and worker responsible for the formation of groups
or the acceptance into the agency of already-formed
groups must be aware of the factors inherent in the group

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

situation that make the given group a positive potential for
individual growth and for meeting recognizable needs.
2. The Principle of Specific Ojectives — In social group work,
specific ojectives of individual and group development must
be consciously formulated by the worker in harmony with
group wishes and capacities and in keeping with agency
function.

3. The Principle of Purposeful Worker Group Relationship — In

social group work, a consciously purposeful relationship
must be established between the worker and the group
members based on the worker's acceptance of the group
members as they are and upon the groups willingness to
accept help from the worker because of the confidence the
members have in him and in the agency.
4. The Principle of Continuous Individualization — In social
group work, it is recognized that groups are different and
that individuals utilize group experience in a variety of ways
to meet their differing needs; consequently, continuous
individualization must be practised by the worker. Groups
and the individuals in the groups must be understood as
developing and changing.
5. The Principle of Guided Group Interaction — In social
group work, the primary source of energy which propels the
group and influences the individual to change are the
interaction or reciprocal responses of the members. The
group worker influence this interaction by the type and
quality of his participation.
6. The Principle of Democratic Group Self-determination — In
social group work, the group must be helped to make its
own decisions and determine its own activities, taking the
maximum amount of responsibility in line with its capacity
and ability. The primary source of control over the group is
the group itself.
7. The Principle of Flexible Functional Organization — In
social group work, the process through which the worker
guides the group in setting up formal organization is just as
important as the actual structure details of that
organization. Formal organization, should be flexible and
should be encouraged only as it meets a felt need, is
understood by the members and can function accordingly.
2.
SOCIAL GROUP WORK
245

The formal organization of the group should be adaptive

and should change as the group changes.
8. The-Principle of Progressive Programme Experiences — In
social group work, the programme experiences in which the
group engages should begin at the level of member interest,
need, experience, and competence and should progress in
relation to the developing capacity of the group.
9. The Principle of Resource Utilization — In social group
work, the total environment of agency and community
possesses resources which should be utilized to enrich the
content of the group experience for individuals and for
the group as a whole.

10. The Principle of Evaluation — In social group work,

continuous evaluation of process and programmes in terms
of outcomes is essential. Worker, group and agency
 share in
this procedure as a means of guaranteeing this greatest
possible self-fulfilment for all.

VII. DEFINITION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE GROUP

WORKER
A National Committee of the American Association of Group
Workers4 formulated the following definition of the functions of the
group worker:

The group worker enables various types of groups to

function in such a way that both group's interaction and
programme activities contribute to the growth of the
individual, and the achievement of desirable social goals.
The objectives of group worker include provision for personal
growth according to individual capacity and need, the adjustment of
the individual to other persons, to groups and to society, and the
motivation of the individual toward the improvement of society, the
recognition by tfie individual of his own rights, limitations and
abilities as well as his acceptance of the rights, abilities, and
differences of others.
Through his participation the group worker aims to affect the
group process so that decisions come about as a result of knowledge
and a sharing and integration of ideas, experiences and knowledge

246
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

ralher than as a result of domination from within or without the

group.
Through experience he aims to produce these relations with
other groups and the wider community which contributes to
reponsible citizenship, mutual understanding between cultural,
religious, economic or social groupings in the community and a
participation in the constant improvement of our society toward
democratic goals.
•. The guiding purpose behind such leadership rests upon the
common assumptions of a democratic society, namely, • the
opportunity for each individual to fulfil his capacities in freedom, to
respect and appreciate others and to assume his social responsibility
in maintaining and constantly improving the democratic society.
Underlying the practice of group work is a knowledge of
individual and group behaviour and of social conditions and
community relations which are based on the modern social sciences.
On the basis of this knowledge the group worker contributes to
the group with whom he works, skill in leadership which enables the
members to use their capacities to the full and to create socially
constructive group activities.

He is aware of both the programme activities and the interplay

 of personalities within the group and between the groups and its
surrounding community.

According to the interests and needs of each, he assists them to

get from the group experience the satisfactions provided by the
programme activities, the enjoyment and personal growth available
through the social relations and the opportunity to participate as a
responsible citizen.

The group worker makes conscious use of his relation to the

group, his knowledge of programme as a tool, and his understanding
of the individual and of the group process and recognizes his
responsibility to individuals and groups with whom he works and to
the larger social values he represents.

In general, Social group worker performs the following activities:

ACTIVITIES RELATING TO GROUP

1. Group Formation
Worker studies individual's altitudes, interests, needs, and desires
and unite them on the basis of certain principles. He forms the group
according to the motives and the needs of the agency. He, after the

SOCIAL GROUP WORK

247

interview of the members, brings out such accepted terms and

conditions which unite them together. In the group formation
process, the group worker decides: (i) nature of group activities —
recreational, educational, social treatment or mixed; (ii) working
methodology; play, drama, role playing, discussion, work experience,
etc; (iii) place of activities; (iv) frequency of the group meeting; and
its meeting time; (v) process of communication; (vi) selection
procedure of the group members (age, sex, member, educational,
cultural background, etc.); (vii) need of the community resources.

2. Programme Planning
Though group members plan and organize activities for themselves
but the worker is the key factor in making these activities lively. He
guides and directs the group so that the maximum creative effects
may come out from these activities and group may avail full benefit
out of these activities. He is more involved in children's activities. If
he works with socially handicapped cr mentally retarded people, he
dicides himself most of the activities.
The worker keeps his eyes on the interaction process of the
group. If any member is not taking interest or not participating as he
is desired, the worker helps him. He resolves group conflicts and
directs them for healthy interaction.

3. Development of Responsible Participation

Social group work believes that when members of the group behave
in a responsible manner, the group has conducive with more effect
on its members. The following conditions show the nature of
belongingness: member accepts the
objectives of the group,
interprets them and shows interest in achieving them. He fulfils his
roles and helps others in doing so. He believes in healthy criticism.
The social group worker accomplishes the following activities to gain
responsible participation : He selects only those individuals who
want to avail the facilities in a real sense. He provides them full
information about the programme, facilities in the agency and
working methodology. He directs the group activities keeping in view
the needs and desires of each member. He develops leadership
qualities in them so that they take leadership in their hands and
direct their activities. He does not allow any member to dominate,jhe
group and individualizes each member regularly. ;

248 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

4. Direction to the Interaction Process
The basic function of social group worker is to direct the interaction
process of'the group. He watches the activities and bahaviour of
every member of the group. He keeps his eyes on member's
participation, its frequency, time, duration, order of participation,
interaction level and its direction, contents of interaction and
meaning of activities to the group members. Generally disorganized
interaction appears in the forms of conflict and apathy. Group worker
resolves such problems with the help of his professional skills.

5. Development of Leadership
Group members differ in their talents and abilities. Some are more
capable in the realm of leadership than others. Group worker's job is
to locate those individuals who show signs of being able to assume
leadership responsibilities Thus, the worker on one hand, finds it
necessary to work with these members who are carrying on
leadership duties, and on the other hand helps every member to try
out his specific strengths.

6. Study and Help of each Individual Member

The group worker works with individual member in the .following ways:

1. He makes aware each member about the aims, objectives,

resources, facilities of the agency.
2. He gains knowledge of attitudes, interest, needs and
problems of each individualization. He introduces each
member to the group.
3. He advises each member to fulfil his responsibilities and
helps in his tasks.
4. When any member fails to fulfil his responsibilities and feels
difficulty, the worker develops an insight and brings the
factors to light which are responsible for his failure.
5. When any member shows aggressive tendencies or shows of
sign of withdrawal, the worker helps in changing his behaviour.
7. Evaluation
Evaluation is an important task of the worker. Trecker has
suggested the following activities under evaluation:

SOCIAL GROUP WORK

249

1. Formulations of objectives for groups and individuals in-

terms of agency purposes.
2. Identification of criteria for judging growth and
development of individual and group.
3. Provisions of programme experiences designed to foster
growth and change.
4. Keeping of full records of individual and group behaviour.
5. Analysis of records by applying criteria of growth and
development.
6. Interpretation of analytical data to determine whether
objectives are being reached.
7. Review of programme content and method.
8. Modification of objectives, continuation of evaluation.
ACTIVITIES RELATING TO THE AGENCY
Group worker is an employee of the agency and therefore, he uses
his knowledge and skill as a representative of the agency. He must
have the following knowledge about the agency.

1. Aims and objectives of the agency.

2. Changing nature of the agency.
3. Geographical, social, psychological, and other factors of the
agency,
4. Condition and fecililies of the agency.
5. Internal and external policies of the agency.
6. The worker tries to change the group according to the
policies of the agency.
7. He participates in every meeting of the agency.
8. He helps in the growth and development of the agency's
resources.

VIII. GROUP DIAGNOSIS

HOW TO DIAGNOSE GROUP PROBLEMS
Three most common group problems are:
1. Conflict or fight
2. Apathy and non-participation
3. Inadequate decision-making4
1.
250
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

1. Problem of Conflict or Fight in the Group

We find the following group behaviour expressions in conflicting and
fighting situations:
1. Members are impatient with one another,
2. Ideas are attacked before they are completely expressed,
3. Members take sides and refuse to compromise,
 4. Members disagree to plans or suggestions,
5. Comments and suggestions are made with a great deal of
vehemence,
6. Members attack one another on a personal level in subtle ways,
7. Members insist that the group does not have the know-how
or experience to get anywhere,
8. Members feel that the group cannot go ahead because it is
too large or too small,
9. Members disagree to the leader's suggestions,

10. Members accuse one another of not understanding the real

point, of issue.
11. Members bear distorted fragments of other member's
contributions,
10.

Symptoms Possible diagnosis

1. Every suggestion made seems The group may have

impossible for practical reasons; been given an impossible
2. Some members feel the group is too Job and members are
feel unable to meet the
demands made of them.
small; frustrated because they
3. Everyone seems to feel pushed for
time;
4. Members are impatient with one
another;
5. Members insist the group does not
have the know-how or experience to
get anywhere;
6. Each member has a different idea
of what the group is supposed
to do;
3.
SOCIAL GROUP WORK
251

Symptoms Possible diagnosis

7. Whenever a suggestion is made,

at least one member feels it won't
satisfy the large organization.
1. Ideas are attacked before they are The main concern pf
completely expressed; members is to find
status in the group.
2. Members take sides and refuse to
 compromise;
3. There is no movement towards a
solution of the problem;
4. The group keeps getting struck on in
consequential points;
5. Members attack one another on a
personal level in subtle ways;
6. There are subtle attacks on the *
leadership;
7. There is much clique formation.

1. The goal is stated in very general, Members are loyal to

non-operational terms; outside groups of con-
flicting interests.
2. Members take sides and refuse to
compromise;
3. Each member is pushing his
own plan;

4. Suggestions are not built on previous

suggestions;
5. Each member appearing to start
again from the beginning;
6. Members disagree to plans or
suggestions;
7. Members don't listen to one another,
each waiting for a chance to say
something.
1.
252
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

Symptoms
Possible diagnosis

1.

4.

5.

6.
There is a goal which members
understand and agree to;
Most of the comments are relevant to
the problem;
Members frequently disagree to
one-another's suggestions;
Comments and suggestions are made
with a great deal of vehemence;
There are occasional expressions of
warmth;
Members are frequently impatient
with one another;
There is general movement towards
some solution of the problem.
The fight being expres-
sed is constructive,
members feel involved
and are working hard
on a problem.

<•%,
x^J

^
2. Apathy

Apathy may be expressed in the form of the indifference to the

group task, lack of genuine enthusiasm for the job, lack of
persistence, satisfaction with poor work, etc. The following
symptoms are generally seen: frequent yawns, dozing off, no point
of discussion, low level of participation, conversation drags,
members coming late and frequently absent, slouching and
restlessness, overquick decisions, failure to follow through
decisions, ready suggestions for adjournment , failure to consider
necessary arrangement for the next meeting,
 reluctance to assume
any further responsibility.

Symptoms
Possible diagnosis

1. Questions may be raised

about:
The group goal may seem
unimportant to the members.

\ i
What is their Job?
What do they want us to do?

SOCIAL GROUP WORK

253

Symptoms Possible diagnosis

2. Members fail to follow

through decision;
3. There is no expectation that
members will contribute
responsibly,
4. Confused irrelevant
statements are allowed to go
without question;
5. Members wonder about the
reason for working on this
problem;
6. Suggestions are made that
we work on something
else;
to
7. The attitude is expressed that
we should just decide on
 anything;
8. The decision does not really
matter;
9. Members are inattentive seem
to get lost and not to have
heard parts of the proceeding
discussion;
10. Suggestions frequently ploped
are not taken up and built on
by others;
11. No one will volunteer for
additional work.

1. Points are made over and Inadequate problem solving

over; procedure.
2. Appears to be unable to
develop adequate
summaries;
1.
254 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
Symptoms Possible diagnosis

3. Little evaluation of the

process;
4. Little attention to fact finding
or use of special resources; >
5. Complaints are made that the
groups'job is an impossible one; .-
6. Subgroups are formed;
7. No follow-through on
decisions or disagreement or
what the decisions really were;
8. Always demand for leader's
decision.

1. Two or three members Conflict among few members

dominate all over the is creating apathy in others,
discussion, but never agree;
2. Conflict between strong
members comes out no
matter what is dicussed,
dominant members ;
occasionally appeal to
other's for support, but
otherwise control '
conversation
3. Decisions are made by only
two or three members.

3. Inadequate Decision-making

Symptoms Possible diagnosis

1. The group swings between Decision is too difficult or

making too rapid decisions group is low in cohesiveness
and having difficulty in and lacking faith in itself.
deciding anything;

SOCIAL GROUP WORK 255

Symptoms Possible diagnosis

2. The group almost

makes the decision
but at the last minute
retreats;
3. Group members call for
definition and redefinition
of minute points.

1. There are long delays in Though goal is important but

getting started much members fear working toward
irrelevant preliminary the group — goal
conversation;
2. Embarrassment or
reluctance in discussing
the problem at hand;
3. Members emphasize the
consequences of making
 wrong decisions, imagine
dire consequences which
has little reference to
ascertainable facts;
4. Members make suggestions
apologetically;
5. Members are over-tentative
and hedge their
contributions with may,
ifsandbut's;
6. Solutions proposed are
frequently attacked as
unrealistic;
7. Suggestions are made that
someone else ought to
make the decision - the
leader, an outside expert,
or some qualified person
outside the group;
1.
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

Symptoms Possible diagnosis

8. Members insist that they have

not enough information

or ability to make a
decision and appear to
 demand an unrealistically
high level of competence;
9. Humorous alternative
proposals are suggested,
with the group completely
unable to select among
them.

1. No one is able to suggest the

first step in getting started
toward the goal;
2. Members seem to be unable
to stay on a given point
and each person
seems to start on a
new track;
3. Members appear to
talk of the past to
misunderstand
one another and the same;
4. Discussion wanders into
abstraction.
1. Lack of clarity about decision; Decision may be threatening
2. Disagreement as to %vhere because of unclear
consensus is; consequences, fear or of
, .. , reaction of others or fear of
3. A decision is apparently failure for the individuals,
made but challenged at the
end;
4. Group members refuse
responsibility;

SOCIAL GROUP WORK

257

Symptoms Possible diagnosis

5. There is continued effort to

leave decision-making to
leader, subgroup or outside
source.

IX. GROUP WORK TREATMENT

Social group work is a professional service which aims to work
generally with the normal people to develop and strengthen their
abilities to establish and maintain positive relationships with others.
Treatment in group work means management of group situations and
problems with a view to satisfy the group needs and achieve satisfying
group participation and growth. Persons poorly adjusted in a group
are simply those with poor adjustment in their social life. They have
not learned to capitalize suitably their own potentials. They are
relatively static in the face of obstacles *or retreat from pressures
instead of meeting the demands of reality.
When group work is used as a therapy, its objectives are
different. It is mostly used in dealing with functional illnesses which
aims at (1) to relieve tensions and anxieties in the patients, (2) to
help patients resolve some of their conflicts, (3) to assist patients in
arriving at a clearer understanding of some of the reasons for their
trouble, and (4) to enable patients to depend upon their personal
resources in substituting methods of behaviour which are satisfying
and acceptable for those which have been chiefly defensive.
TREATMENT METHODS

No specific methods have been

 developed in social group work
because its main objective is to strengthen normal personality and
socialization process. Group members avail of this opportunity if
they find the atmosphere of the group congenial and interest
promoting. Group worker's success depends on the degree of
rapport he has built with the group members.
In general, the following- methods are used in social group
work.

1. Empathy, Warm and Genuineness

Empathy means to perform the role of others or to realize other's

¦''¦J-
258 SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND MEIHODS
>
problems as its own. The job of the worker is to study the group
, members and mobilize them in such a way so that they may develop
1 an insight of the problem. Warm is a non-verbal method of
expression. The worker expresses this feeling by touching
I members, showing favourable facial expression and acting
e ; accordingly. This helps in creating worker's acceptance by the
group members and developing close relationship among group
members. Genuineness means the appropriate methods and media
' for the group activities to attain its objectives.

2. Self-disclosure
! The worker expresses his own experiences before the group
members. It helps them in understanding their problems and learn
to ease from tension and anxiety. The time, content and nature of
self-disclosure one important and the worker must keep in mind the
appropriateness of these factors in accordance with group
situation.

3. Disclosure of Confronting Behaviour

"*-"' Sometimes the behaviour expression of a member of the group is
different than what he says. For example, he says that he is not angry
' with anybody in (he group but his voice and word expression show
that he is angry. The job of the worker is to clarify these situations and
warn members not to allow to happen such situations.

4. Investigation
^> The group worker prepares an interview schedule for the group
members in order to know the internal and external feelings of the
members. This helps the worker to diagnose the problem of the
^ group.

5. Support
 It is a psychological strategy which is used to strengthen .or
restructure ego power in the members of the group. The worker
-«i provides an opportunity to the group to express its feelings and

clarifies the positive and

 negative aspects of these feelings. He
takes interest in group activities and helps at the time of need. He
enables the group to take its own decision for the programme and
its implementation.

SOCIAL GROUP WORK

259

6. Cognitive Restructuring
Cognitive restructuring refers to complex strategy for changing
perceptions of emotional sets, which seem to impede the group
members' abilities to change. Sometimes group fails to arrive at a
decision due to complexity of problem. At this time, group needs
such help so that it may perceive the reality. It is the work of group
worker to provide such help.

7. Role Playing
Role playing is such a method through which group members gain
knowledge of their roles and other's roles. Through role playing a
member expresses his feelings, thoughts and action in reference to
others. This method is used to know the reality of life conditions.

8. Partialization
Group worker divides the whole problem into many parts and
takes up one by one for its solution. He directs the group to
organize activities accordingly. Thus he enables the group to work
in such a way so that it does not have unnecessary tension. This
process helps the group to understand that the problem can be
solved.

X. TOOLS OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

The major tools of the social group worker are:
1. The conscious and disciplined use of himself.
2. The verbal interaction between himself and between
members.
3. The discriminate use of programme activities related to
the needs of the individual and the group.
4. Interaction among the group members themselves.
The worker must have necessary knowledge of human and
group behaviour, skills, techniques, and problem solving capacity.
The success of the group work depends on him. If he is skilled, the
group will certainly achieve its objectives. He contributes especially
in the following areas.
1. Establishes purposeful relationship with the group, agency

260 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

and the community and always tries to make it more
effective and purposeful.

2. Participates in the activities of the

 group, agency and
community and thus helps them..
3. Determines his responsibility, z makes changes in his
-«p;S -t approach and evaluates himself according to the need of the
group.
4. Uses his knowledge and relationship timely.
5. Develops self control, patience, tolerance in himself and
works with group in healthy atmosphere. The basic need for
relationship is contact. Group members and the worker
have emotional and psychological variety of tools. They
affect another due to contact interaction. The interaction
process denoted the fact that the worker's reaction, gesture,
words or abstracts, bodily movement stimulate members
and they in their turn act toward the worker and the group.
Stability of relationship is dependent on the reactions of the
participant and "interaction among the group members
44
themselves." The worker must be skilful in directing the
.» interaction process.
The members reveal their personality patterns through the ways
¦> in which they are engaged in activities. Knowledge of the
potentialities of programme media makes it possible for the worker
to understand the needs so expressed and to help the members
"'J> ."" meet these needs through the programme to the group if it is
possible to do so.45 There are many programme media which are
used according to the need of the group. There are games, play,
Ij* dance, music, story telling, drama, arts, crafts, etc.
Growth and development in the group are the result of natural
interaction among group members. In the beginning phase of the
" -* group activities, group shows the characteristics of collection of
individuals and group consciousness is of low level. Members take
, -v interest in their talks. The social group worker develops a common
"- i wish or desire and this is the first sign of group formation. Group
feelings are increased later on. In general, group interaction has six
t t stages:
.J
""', 1. Members collect together but each takes interest in himself.
\ 2. Group feeling is developed, form of organization is

determined and programmes are

 organized.

SOCIAL GROUP WORK

261

3. Rules, regulations, and conditions are framed, closeness is

increased.
4. High level of group feelings are found and objectives are
achieved.
5. Members start taking less interest, low level of interaction
gradually appears.
6. Group is dissolved.

XL DEMOCRATIC GROUP PROCESSES

Processes are the ways of doing things, the approaches one takes
and the steps are followed to reach one's goals. Democratic group
process occurs when there is a permissive, democratic,
experimental atmosphere as opposed to a punitive, hostile,
competitive, autocratic climate. The following characteristics are
found in democratic group process:
1. Everyone participates voluntarily
2. All action is cooperative. »
3. Regular interaction occurs among group members.
4. The group formulate goals.
5. Every group member is a'change agent'
6. Group morale and discipline are'we-centred'.
7. Leadership is a function of the group.
ANALYSIS OF GROUP PROCESSES
To achieve maximum effectiveness with democratic group
processes, a group needs group thinking, group discussion, group
planning, group decision, group action and group evaluation.
GROUP THINKING
It means group intelligence in working process. It shows the ability
to work out means for their accomplishment.
GROUP DISCUSSION
When there is an effective discussion, members participate freely,
and the atmosphere of the group is cooperative. Leadership is
assumed by various members of the group and passes from one to
another. Questions stimulate group thinking.
The following techniques should be used to achieve group
thinking and discussion: (1) each person should express his
262 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
views, (2) no debate but cooperative talk, (3) every one should assess
his ideas in the light of the discussion, (4) when discussion wanders,
restate the question and get a new start, (5) short statements, (6) no
ambiguous talks, (7) control over feeling of too much talks, (8) fair
chance to every member, (9) trust the group members, (10) fixed
time for discussion, (11) summarize each discussion.
GROUP PLANNING AND DECISION
Group planning and decision involve the following fundamental
steps'. (a)*fhe clear definition of the problem during a period of
group thinking and the formulation of the real group goals; (b) the
selection of the possible paths of action (ends and means) toward
the goals; (c) the election of a path of action (group decision) and
the application of the action to the problem.
Group decision involves the decision how to take action and
who should do it. The group decision often becomes a forced
compromise by means of majority vole. Such a compromise divides
the group into majority and minority. Though majority rule is
democratic technique of group decisions, yet it is an inadequate
technique. Group decision should be the result of a consensus in the
action to be taken. But to achieve consensus is very difficult. The
following steps should be taken for achieving group decision :
(i) full opportunity to each member to express his views; (ii) free to
ask questions, (iii) control the group member from criticizing each
other, (iv) find out common suggestions, (v) make priorities and
preferences.
GROUP ACTION
Effective group action has three prime requisites: (a) a genuine
interest in the group project; (b) a belief on the part of the group
members in each other and in the cooperative democratic process;
and (c) a desire to make it work.
The following steps should be taken to make group action
more effective.
1. Group action must arise out of need felt by group
members.
2. Group members should accept the responsibility of group
action.
1.
SOCIAL GROUP WORK
263

3. Group action should develop intolerance of group

pathologies such as inability to arrive at a decision, failure
to use member potential, inability to use resources, inability
to evaluate success or failure of group processes, rigidity of
organization, prevention of the assimilation of new
members, rigidity of role structure etc.
GROUP EVALUATION
Group evaluation techniques are concerned with the following
aspects of evaluation.
1. Evaluation of leadership,
2. Evaluation of the group process,
3. Evaluation of the outcomes or changes brought about in
members, and
4. Evaluation of group action in terms of group goals.

XII. EVALUATION

By evaluation we mean appraisal or

 judgement of the worth and
effectiveness of all the processes of social group work designed to
meet the objectives of the group. It is essentially the study and
review of past operating experience. According to Trecker,
"Evaluation is that part of social group work in which the worker
attempts to measure the quality of group's experience in relation
to the objectives and function of the agency. Evaluation may be
centred upon individual growth, programme content, on worker
performance. Evaluation is essential because it enables the
worker to discover to what extent group has achieved its
objectives. Evaluation enables the group to see both strengths and
weaknesses and is enabled to discover points at which group
members need to alter their procedures. Well planned evaluation
help to formulate new objectives and to renew unsuited objectives.
It further directs the worker to adjust and modernize his methods
of working with group. Evaluation can be stimulation to greater
professional growth. It can be an extension of the learning process
because its very nature is scientific and its aim is educational.
CONTENT OF EVALUATION
Group worker evaluates the following:

264 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

1. Evaluation of Individual Growth
Group is composed of individuals. They become the member of the
group because of certain needs and desires. Therefore, the main
objective of social group work is to fulfil these needs and desires in
accordance with the prescribed rules and procedures. But how can
the worker be able to know the level of fulfilment of their needs
without evaluating their growth process. The worker evaluates the
presence of each member. He evaluates their level of participation
in the group activities. Sometimes it happens, that the member
because of difficulty in adjusting himself in the group, remains
usually absent giving one or the other reason. The worker evaluates
the growth of skills, methods of problems solving, behaviour
techniques or knowledge gained by the member through the group
experience. The chart (A) has been prepared for the evaluation of
the individual member growth.

(A) Chart for Evaluation

Individual qualities Nature of growth and

parts
and Regression
chance Slight
Major
1 2
as usual 3
progress 4
1. Attendance progress
2. Frequency of participation
3. Contact with group
4. Self-esteem
5. Reliability
6. Emotional control
7. Contact with reality
8. Frequency of responses
9. Behavioural dynamism

10. Tolerance
11. Leadership qualities
12. Sensitivity
13. Sympathy for group
14. Loyalty for group
15. Capacity of Problem solving
16. Discussion and conversation
17. Ways of performing task
18. New knowledge
19. Status in group
20. Breakdown prejudices
10.
SOCIAL GROUP WORK
265

Douglas has proposed the following capacities to be

evaluated for measuring individual growth. These are :.,.
(1) encourages, (2) agrees, accepts, (3) arbitrates, (4) proposes
action, (5) asks suggestions, (6) gives opinion, (7) asks opinion,
(8) gives information, (9) seeks information, (10) poses
problem, (11) defines position, (12) asks position, (13) routine
direction, (14) depreciates self, (15) autocratic manner,
(16) disagrees, (17) self-assertion, (18) active aggression, (19)
passive aggression.

2. Evaluation of the Group

Group is the medium for achieving individual's objectives and
individual personality development. Therefore, it is essential for a
worker to evaluate the effects and growth of group as a whole.
The group worker evaluates the group organization, a social
responsibility fulfilled by the group, maturity that has achieved,
skilfullness, and expertness has developed, the techniques of
problem solving have seen learned and mutual understanding
and cooperation have developed amotig group members.
Bernstein " has developed the chart (B) for evaluation of the
progress in the group.

(B) Chart for Evaluation

Group criteria Trends

Regression Static Great
Slight progres
1 2 ' 3 progress
4 s 5
1. Attendance
2. Group organization
3. Group standards
4. Wider Horizons
5. Social responsibility:

(a) To each other

 (b) To agency
(c) To community

6. Enriched Interests
7. Handling conflicts
8. Leadership and participation
6.
266 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPIIY AND METHODS

Group criteria Trends

Regression Static Great
Slight progre
1 2
progress . 3 4 ss 5
9. Cooperative planning
10. Group-thinking
11. Group loyalty and morale
12. Acceptance of differences
13. Decreasing need of leader

Douglas has prepared the following yardstick for measuring

the growth of a group.
1. How clear are the group goals:
 1. No apparent goals
2. Goal confusion, uncertainty or conflict
3. Average goal clarity
4. Goals mostly clear
5. Goals very clear
2. How much trust and openness in the group ?
1. Distrust, a closed group
2. Little trust, defensiveness
3. Average trust and openness
4. Considerable trust and openness
5. Remarkable trust and openness
3. How sensitive and perceptive are group members ?
1. No awareness or listening in the group
2. Most members self-absorbed
3. Average sensitivity and listening
4. Better than usual listening
5. Outstanding sensitivity to others.
4. How much attention was paid to process ? (The way group was
working)
1. No attention to process ^
2. Little attention to process
3. Some concern with group process
4. A fair balance between content and process
5. Very concerned with process.
1.
SOCIAL GROUP WORK
267

5. How were group leadership needs met ?

1. Not met, drifting
2. Leadership concentrated in one person
3. Some leadership sharing
4. Leadership functions distributed
5. Leadership needs met creatively and flexibly
6. How were group decisions made ?
1. No decisions could be reached
2. Made by a few
3. Majority vote
4. Attempts at integrating minority vote
5. Full participation and tested consensus
7. How well were group resources used ?
1. One or two contributed but deviants silent
2. Several tried to contribute but more discouraged
3. About average use of group resources
4. Group resources well used and encouraged.
5. Group resources fully and effectively used.
8. How much loyalty and sense of belonging to the group?
1. Members had no group loyalty or sense of belonging.
2. Members not close but some friendly relations.
3. About average sense of belonging.
4. Some warm sense of belonging
5. Strong sense of belonging among members.
«
3. Evaluation of the Member's Group Contribution
The focus here is on the contribution of the member to the
development of the group, not on his total personality. This calls
for an assessment at the end of each meeting. Bernstein has
prepared the chart (C) for this purpose.

(C) Chart for Evaluation of Members

 Group Contribution
Constructive participation Name of member

1. Good attention and interest but no

outstanding participation

268 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS*

Constructive participation Name of member

2. Minor contributions, such as

helping to arrange chairs, getting
equipment, etc.
3. More important contribution, e.g.
thoughtful consideration of new
members.
4. A good job handling a committee
assignment or of something
comparable
5. An outstanding contribution, such
as helping to resolve conflicts,
unusual effort in relation to
responsibilities, etc

Destructive participation

1. Inattentivene.ss and lack of interest

and participation
2. Giggling, restlessness, and similar
behaviour.
3. Openly opposing and thwarting the
plans and activities of the group.
4. Name calling and other arts which
tend to stimulate aggressive and
negative responses.
5. Violently destructive behaviour
which makes it impossible for the
group to continue normally for a
time.

XIII. IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

IN MODERN TIMES
1. Man is a group animal. He lives in the group for the purposes of
protection, education, exploration of adventure, treatment,
promotion, advisement, administration coordination, integrations

SOCIAL GROUP WORK 269

 and planning.54 He has no existence far from group life. In modern
times group life has been adversely affected due to development of
technological and materialistic outlook. Man, though lives among
thousands yet feels alone. He now thinks himself as a machine.
Values of happy life such as love, affection, sympathy,
friendliness, etc, are becoming rare commodity today. Social
group work which is based on these values may be of a great help
to the modern man.
ill

2. Urbanization has increased the problem of isolation and

separation. The feeling of
 separation is gradually increasing. Man is
considering himself as a helpless creature and is limiting his close
circles. Thus its result may be seen in the form of increased mental
disorders. Social group work attempts to deal with the problem of
isolation.
3. Every human being has the basic desire of having
importance, worth, respect and a place in the society. Social group
work keeps the members busy by providing them worth, dignity, ?
place, role, creative participation. *
4. Modern age is affecting our adaptation abilities. Old I
techniques are not as suited as those were in the times. Man has to ?t
learn new techniques of behaviour for the proper adjustment in the j
various fields of life. Social group work provides theis knowledge. |
5. Self dependency is a basic characteristic for the personality if
growth and development. In social group work, each member plays j
his role and thus learns to fulfil his obligations of life without taking j]
help from others. Group work alsb makes people economically nji
self-dependent by organizing training in small-scale industries and
crafts.
6. Social group provides a new hope to the physically
handicapped disabled and aged persons.
7. Social group work helps to achieve democratic goals such as
liberty, equality, fraternity and social justice.
8. It provides recreation, the most valuable medicine for
keeping oneself mentally healthy.
9. Human capacities and abilities are strengthened through
the group work.
10. Social group work helps in solving psychosocial problem.

J
mm
J

270 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

XIV. RECORD WRITING IN GROUP WORK
MEANING OF RECORD WRITING
Writing record is generally accepted as a necessary practice in social
group work. For the worker to keep an accurate, honest and
thoughtful account of the processes which are occurring within the
group, it is of utmost importance as no worker is able to keep the
variations of behaviour of a group in his mind. Recording extends
and supplements our memory recall, thus increasing the volume of
usable memory wc have at our command.
Recording in group work means writing the
 description of the
individual's activities, his relationship with the group. Social group
worker writes about the individual members and their responses to
one another, their behavioural pattern, type and extent of
participation, movement, growth and change in individual and group
and his own role in the group processes.
IMPORTANCE OF RECORD WRITING
Preparing records is essential because (i) records help the group
worker to understand individuals in the group; (ii) help the worker
to understand the group as whole; (iii) provide evidences of growth
and change in the members and in the group worker himself;
(iv) help the worker to do more effective job with his groups; (v)
the worker can see merging and changing interests of individual
members; (vi) he can see the development of skills and social
attitudes; (vii) he gains knowledge of special problems in the group;
(viii) he knows the emergence of group consciousness; (ix) he
records provide content for supervisory conferences; (x) they are the
source of future planning; (xi) they are source of information for
other workers; and (xii) the records provide a permanent and
continuous register of facts for the agency.
CONTENTS OF RECORD
1. Identifying information of the group:
1. Name of the group
2. Time of meeting
3. Place of meeting
4. Name of the present, absent members
5. New members (if any)
6. Physical settings of the agency
1.
SOCIAL GROUP WORK
271

7. Important observations.
2. Member's participation by name:
1. Role perfumed
2. Conversation did
3. Talks began
4. Expressed his views
5. Sequence of participation in activities
6. Special contribution made
7. Interaction type, level, duration, and creativeness, took
place.
8. Emotional quality of participation
3. Description of the group as a whole:
 1. General atmosphere in the group — formal, informal,
competitive, cooperative, hostile, supportive, permissive,
any other.
2. Quantity and quality of work accomplished by the group
3. Participation of group members — mostly all/few members
talked and participated, supported* others, took sides/
dominated group, etc.
4. Positive and negative responses
5. Members feelings about their group
6. Group's status in the agency.
4. Description of the group problems.

1. Conflict or fight — nature, type,

 reason, involvement, level;
2. Apathy — nature, level, and possible causes;
3. Inadequate decision making'
5. The relationship and the role of the group worker:
1. Material provided by the worker
2. Arrangement made
3. Agents help taken
4. Suggestions given
5. Technique, used for problem solving
6. Workers'participation in group processes
]5. Special assistance given:
1. Member's name
! 2. Problem
3. Nature of assistance

272 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

7. Evaluation:
1. evaluation of programme activities
2. evaluation of the group members'participation
3. evaluation of the workers role.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RECORDING
Lindsay has suggested the following basic principles of recording:
1. The Principle of Flexibility
The acceptance of this principle means that the group worker
records as a disciplined professional. As the nature and objectives
of the agency and the group change, the worker records accordingly
and gives emphasis on the other aspects.

2. The Principle of Selection

Everything should not be recorded in the group work recording.
The worker records significant observations about individuals and
their interactions.-He selects from the movement of the group,
behavioural patterns of individual, his own enabling contributions
and skills and techniques applied in the group processes.

3. The Principle of Readability

The most important aspect is to keep the record as simple as
possible in form, in language, in length. Records, must have face
sheet, presenting a brief outline of the factual data. If records are
detailed, brief summaries should be prepared. In describing
individuals, verbetim quotations should be written. Records should
be written systematically.

4. The Principle of Confidentiality

One of the basic principles of recording in all social work is that
records are written on the premise that they will be held in
confidence. If records are used for other purpose such as training,
all names and other identifying information need to be carefully
obscured, with fictitious ones substituted. Records should be kept
in lockup. -.

5. The Principle of Worker Acceptance

The worker should take up this responsibility as one of his

SOCIAL GROUP WORK

273
important assignment. He should realize that this work is as much
important as other responsibilities.

XV. PROGRAMME PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Planned activities play an important role in social group work
practice. These planned activities are the programmes which are
organized for many purposes. These include attaining improvement
in member's own environmental conditions, promoting a sense of
achievement, sublimating and canalising certain impulses,
actualising problems in an on-going social situation and working
through or articulating symbolically problems and feelings which
members are unable to express verbally. Programme is a concept
which, when broadly conceived, includes the entire range of
activities, relationship, interactions and experience individual and
group which have been deliberately planned and carried out with
the help of the worker to meet the needs of the individuals and the
57
group.
Social group worker translates his knowledge into practice
with groups through the use of programme as a tool in group
relationships. Most of the tools in group work used are that of
recreation and that is why social group work is thought to be
equivalent to recreation. It is as if we should say that the surgeon
is a butcher because he uses a knife and cuts into flesh, or that the
to t
case worker is a talker because he uses only words. Social group
worker knows more about the activities and has skills in relating to
these activities with human needs.
FACTORS IN PROGRAMME PLANNING
In planning a programme, the social group worker must take into
account a number of factors. Firstly the programme must accord
with the facilities and traditions of the community. Secondly, the
programme must be tailored to fit into the needs and interest of the
group members. Thirdly the programme must be based upon the
resources which exist in the agency. Fourthly, progression of the
group may be vertical or horizontal, i.e., the member's present
abilities and interests may be discovered and developed or he may
acquire interest and abilities in group activities. The group worker

274 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

must analyse each factor and individualiza each member. Lastly,
participation in group activities should be open to all members.
PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMME PLANNING
In order to achieve the objectives of the group, a number of
important principles of programme planning have been identified.
Let us take look at some of these principles.
1. Participation in Activities Depends on Reward
For the members to remain involved and interested over long
period of time, they must receive satisfactory rewards.

The two kinds of rewards possible are gratification of member's

 need for such things as dominance, friendship, intimacy,
opportunity to test ideas, and so forth; and satisfaction with group
accomplishment of tasks.

2. Group Works and Employing Energy on Felt Problems

The only matters on which group members will expand energy are
those which they feel are problems, things about which they have
feelings which they must deal with. Therefore, the survey of
problems suggested by members is the starting point of the group
activities.

3. Leadership is by Team
Leadership is an important factor in group activities. This should
be within the group. This kind of leadership encourages free
expression of feelings and opinions and guides the group into action.

4. Membership should be based of Willingness to Work and not

Ideology
The basis of participation in group activities should be willingness
to work in group. As long as there is willingness to work on
problems, ideological differences can be settled or avoided.

5. Activities should be Problem Centred

Members of the group must know that what, they are organizing
and doing, is for their welfare and for the solution of the problems.

SOCIAL GROUP WORK 275

6. Group members should plan their own programme.

7. All decisions are Subject to Revision as a Result of

Taking Action

If the decisions are not suited for action, the process of changing
decisions plays an important and cohesive role in group work
programming.

8. There should be definite rules and regulations, of group

activities.

9. Group should be formed on the basis of sociometric measures,

on mutuality of interests, and needs of the individual.
PROGRAMME MEDIA
Programme media are tools which are used within the group
setting to help individuals and the group as a whole achieves
desirable personal and social goals. Many media such as games,
social recreation, dances, music, story telling, dramas, arts and
crafts, domestic arts of cooking, sewing, photography, discussion,
educational activities etc. are used.
PRINCIPLE ELEMENTS IN PROGRAMMING PROCESS

There are three elements of programming process, the members,

the social group worker and th% programme content. The members
join the group having their .special interest, needs, abilities,
relationship and desire to advancement. The
 worker has his norms,
values, working methodology, and obligations of agency in which
he works. Programme content and its variety of rules, regulations,
require a change in behaviour patterns. The interaction of these
three is essential in programme planning for successful functioning
of the group.
ROLE OF GROUP WORKER IN PROGRAMME PLANNING
Wilson and Ryland have narrated the following role of the group
worker in programme planning.

1. Helping the Members Plan the Programme

The social group worker helps the group members to plan their
own programme. He enables them to engage constructively in

276 SOCIAL WORK -PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

the programme planning process. He does this by the following
ways:

(a) Observing, Listening and Acting

The social group worker observes the actions and words of the
members as they make use of programme media, reveal their needs
and interests. He is sensitive not only to the actual words but to the
way in which they are spoken. The worker picks up conversations in
the midst of activities and helps the members to verbalize their
troubled thoughts.

(b) Analysing and Recording

The worker makes 'on the spot' analysis which changes his
procedures with the group. Through the records, he remembers and
sees the events of the meeting and the members' reactions in a little
different light and finds new leads for programme related to the
needs of the members and the group as a whole.

(c) Visiting and Counselling

By another way the worker discovers needs and interests is through
his contacts with the family, the school and the community resources.
He counsels them to plan the activities according to their needs.

(d) Teaching and Leading

Sometimes the worker leads the activities when it is urgently
needed in such a way that the members enjoy participating in them.
The worker keeps his focus both on the group experience and on the
members. He is catalytic agent between people, programme, ideas,
materials, and the facilities.

2. Discovering and Arousing Interests

(a) Assumed Interests

Because of his general knowledge of the growth and developmental
needs of individuals at various age levels, the worker can assume that
a group composed of members having the ordinary development for
a certain age will have certain interests.

(b) Expressed Interests

Various devices are used to express their interests. It is worker's
SOCIAL GROUP WORK 277
responsibility to sec what needs lie behind the expressed interests.

(c) Implied Interests

Many interests are implied or insinuated rather than expressed
directly in words. Group worker analyses these interests and brings
them on conscious level of the group.

3. Using the Environment

The worker makes an extensive use of the environment to stimulate
new programme activities. He uses agency's facilities such as
gymnasium, swimming pool, game room, record player, library,
kitchen, craft, shop, etc. to enrich the activities.

4, Using Limitations
Social group worker imposes limitations on the activities on the
basis of available materials, rules and procedures, resources and
facilities. He also limits the activities within the realm of the
possibility of a successful accomplishment. In groups in which some
or all of the members are handicapped, the worker's responsibility
is to help the handicapped person to function to the best of his
ability within the limitation of his disability.

REFERENCES

1. Phillips, M.U : Essential of Social Group Work Skills, Association Press, New
York, 1957, p. 2.
2. Montagu, A: On BcingHuman, Henry Schuman, New York, 1950, p. 30.
3. Kulckhohn, C. Murray A., Schneider, D.M : Personality, Society and Culture,
Knopf, New York, 1953, p. 64.
4. Newsletter, W.I : What is Social Group Work? Proceedings of the National
Conference or Social Work, Ixii, 1935, p. 251.
5. Coyle, Grace: 'Social Group Work' Social Work Year Book, National
Association of Social Workers, New York, 1937, p. 461.
6. Wilson, G. and Ryland, G : Social Group Work Practice, Houghton Mifflin,
Boson, 1947, p. 61.
7. Hamilton, G. op. til p. 19.
8. Coyle, C : 'Social Group Work' Social Work Year Book, AASW, New York,
1954, p. 480.
9. Trccker, H.B : Social Group Work Principles arid Practices Association Press,
New York, 1955, p. 5.
10. Konopka, G: Social Group Work A Helping Process, Prentice Hall, Englcwood
Cliffs, 1963, p. 29.
11. Trccker, H.B. op. cil. p. 3.
1.
278
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
12. Clarke, Helen, I: Principles and Practice of Social Work, Applcton - Century
Crofts, Inc. New York, 1947, p. iOz.
13. Clarke, H.l. op dtp. 91.
14. Ibid., p. 93.
15. Ibid., pp. 93-94
16. Nash, J.B : "Playground", Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. XII, pp.
161-163.
17. Clarke, H.I. op. cit. p. 98.
18. Slavson, S.R : An Introduction to Group Therapy, The Common Wealth Fund,
New York, 1943, quoted by Clarke, H.l. op. cit. p. 49.
19. Douglas. Tom: Group Work Practice, International Universities Press, New
York, 1976, pp. 28-29.
20. Coyle, Grace Lonwcl: Group Work with American Youth, Harper and Brother,
New York, 1948, pp. 22-32.
21. Treckcr, II.B. op. cit. p. 56.
22. David,D.K : Tlic Objective of Professional Education quoted by Treckcr, H.B. op.
cit. p. 57.
23. Coyle, G.L: Social Group Work, Social Work Year Book, 1951, p. 466.

24. Wilson, G. and Ryland, G : Social Group Work Practice, Houghton Mifflin Co.
New York, 1949, p. 61.
25. Treckcr, H.B. op. cit. pp. 67-68.
26. Specht, H: Integrating Social Work Methods, p. 156.
27. Bruno, F.J : Trends in Social Work (1874-1956) Columbia University Press,
Columbia, 1957, p. 423.
2S. Konopka, G : Group Work in the Institution, Whiteside, New York, 1954, pp.
44-46.
29. I leap, Ken: Group Theory for Social Workers, Pcrgaman Press, New York, 1977,
pp. 3-10.
30. Phillips, Helen U: Essentials of Social Group Work Skills, Association Press,
New York, 1957, p. 6.
31. Robinson, V.P : "The Meaning ofSkilL£ Training for skill in Social Case Work,
University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1942, pp. 11-12.
32. Treckcr, H.B : Social Group Work, 'Principles and Practices Whiteside, New
York, 1955, p. 35.
33. Jenkins, David H. Zander, Alvin: "Some Skills for improving Group Dynamics"
in Sullivon s Book op. ciL pp. 156-157.
34. Treckcr, I I.B. op cit. pp. 35-37.
35. Phillips, Helen, U : Essential of Social Group WorkSkill, Association Press, New
York, pp. 51-155.
36. Douglas, Tom: Group Work Practice, International Universities Press, New
York, 1976, pp. 26-27.
37. Cooke, Terence J : Basic Principles of Social Group Work, in Sullivan, D.F.'s
Book (ed) Readings in Group Work, Association Press, New York 1952, p. 429.
38. Fricndlander, W.A. (cd): Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall
Inc., Hnglcwood Cliffs, N.J. 1958. pp. 153-154.
39. Treckcr, H.B. op. cit. pp. 258-271.
40. Committee on the function of the Group Worker,The Group, May, 1949.
41. Treckcr, H.B. op. cit. p. 218.
42. Bradford, L.P., Stock. D., Morwitz, M : 'How to Diagnose Group Problems' in
Robert T. Golembiewski and Arthur Blumbcrg: Sensitivity Training and the
29.
SOCIAL GROUP WORK
279

Laboratory Approach, Itases, III, Peacock, P.E, 1970, quoted by Douglas, Tom,
Group Work Practice, International University Press, New York, 1976, pp. 99-
107.
43. Hinckley, Robert G. & Hermann, L : Group Treatment in Psychotherapy,
University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1951, pp. 14-15.
44. Konopka, G: Group Work in the Institution: A Modem Challenge Whiteside,
Inc., New York, 1954, p. 47.
45. Wilson, G. and Ryland G. op. cit p. 154.
46. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, NEA, Ibid, pp.
29-34. Group Processes in Supervision NEA, Washington, 1948, p. 28.
47. 7«<ip.40.
48. Ibid p. 46.
49. Treckcr H.B. op. cit p. 217.
50. Treckcr, H.B: Group Process in Administration. Women's Press, New York,
 1950, p. 309.
51. Douglas, Tom. op. cit. p. 108.
52. Bernstein, Saul: 'Charting Group Progress* in Sullivan, D.F. {ed). Readings in
Group Work, op. cit. pM.
53. Douglas, Tom. op. cit. pp. 112-13.
54. Wilson, G. & Ryland G. op. cit. p. 26.
55. Lindsay, A.W : Group Work Recording—Principles and Practices, Women's
Press, New York, 1952, pp. 95-106.
56. Ken, Heap: Group Theory for Social Workers, Fergamon Press, New York, 1977,
p. 123.
57. Trecker. op. cit. p. 14Z
58. Konopka, G: Group Work in tlie Institution : Modem Challenge, aWiteside, Inc,
New York, 1954, p. 36.
59. Wilson G. and Ryland. op. cit pp. 159-193.
43.
12

Community Organization

Community organization as a social work

process distinct from case
work and group work, which are concerned with the welfare of
individuals through inter-personal and intra-group relationships, is
interested in inter-group relationships. It is directed to providing
services for people with spcical needs. 1 Community organization is a
process in which efforts are directed towards meeting the commuity
needs and developing integration within the community.

I. DEFINITIONS
The term community organization became an important concept in
the social work profession due to the publication of the Lane
Committee Report in 1939 which identified community organization
as a method of social work. Here we are giving some of the important
definitions of community organization formulated by different
thinkers and practitioners.
LINDEMAN (1921)
Community organization is that phase of social organization which
constitutes a conscious effort on the part of a community to control
its affairs democratically, and to secure the highest services from its
specialists, organizations, agencies and institutions by means of
recognized inter-relations.
PATTrT(1925)
The term "community organization is best defined as assisting a

COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
281

group of people to recognize their common needs and helping them

to meet these needs
LANE{1939)
We suggest that the general aim of community organization is to
bring about and maintain a progressively more effective adjustment
between social welfare resources and social welfare needs. This
implies that community organization is concerned with (a) the
discovery and definition of needs; (b) the elimination and pre~ention
of social needs and disabilities, so far as possible; and (c) the
articulation of resources and needs, and the constant readjustment of
resources in order better to meet changing needs.
SANDERSON AND rOLSON (1939)
The aim of community organization is to develp relationship between
groups and individuals that will enable them to act together in
creating and maintaining facilities and agencies through which they
may realize their highest values in the common welfare of all
members of the community.
MCMILLAN (1947)

Community organization in its generic sense is deliberately directed

effort to assist groups in attaining unity of purpose and action. It is
practised, though often without recognition of its character,
wherever the objective is to achieve or maintain a pooling of talents
and resources of two or more groups on behalf of either general or
specific objectives.
DUNHAM (1948)
Community organization for social welfare means the process of
bringing about and maintaining adjustment between social welfare
resources in a geographical areas or a functional field.
Resources include, not only agencies and organizations, but also
personnel, physical equipment, finances, laws, leadership, public
understanding, goodwill, and participation, community organization
is a dynamic, pervasive, far-reaching process.
ROSS (1955)
Community organization is a process by which a community
identifies its needs or objectives, orders (or ranks) these needs or
objectives, develops the confidence and will to work at those needs

282 SOCIAL WORK - PI IILOSOPI tY AND METHODS

or objectives, finds the resources (internal and/or external) to deal
with these needs or objectives, takes action in respect of them, and in
so doing extends and develops cooperative and collaborative
attitudes and practices in the community.
SIEDER (1959)
Community organization is a method of social work practice which
helps a community determined and achieve continuously more
desirable programme goals which meet constantly changing social
welfare needs by facilitating the interaction of its constituent parts
(organizations, institutions, individual leaders, and geographical
subdivisions) in such a way as to make maximum use of its internal
and external resources which at the same time strengthening its
potential ability to undertake the solution of new and more tlifficatt
problems.
KRAMER AND SPEC1IT (1969)
Community organization refers to various methods of intervention
whereby a professional change agent helps a community action
system composed of individuals, groups or organizations to engage in
planned collective action in order to deal with social problems within
a democratic system of values.

Community organization includes two words: community and its

organization. Community has been defined in terms of geographical
boundaries. The area must have some common characteristics.
^Warner states "The word community denotes a number of people
sharing" certain interests, sentiments, behaviour and objects in
common by virtue of belonging to a social group. The community
from the point of view of social work is any area where people have
common interests in the social welfare field and where the
community organization process is being attempted. It may be a
small community, a section of a city, an entire city, a metropolitan
 area, a country, a state, or a nation.12 Organization is a process
through which it is made possible for people of a community to work
out problems involved in coordinating the social services that are
provided by all types of agencies—economic development, health,
welfare and others.

When we analyse the definitions given by various authors, we

find the following characteristics of community organization:

1. It is a process by which the capacity of the community to

COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
283

function more positively and progressively grows. The social

worker makes this process conscious, deliberative and
understandable.
2. Community organization makes possible the community to
identify its needs when community involves itself in solving
methods of its problems, the first job of the worker is to
help the community to focus its attention upon the problems
about which it is disturbed.
3. After the identification of the needs, community is helped by
a worker to establish some order of priority among these
needs so that efforts may be taken accordingly to fulfil these
needs.
4. Community organizer helps the community to locate the
resources in the society through which the needs may be
fulfilled. There are certain agencies in the community which
work for the betterment of the life of people but people
generally are ignorant about these agencies. Worker helps
the community in such a situation and makes community
able to use those agency resources for its development.
5. Community organization process identifies a problem about
which some action is required and helps the community to
take some action so that the problems are solved or needs
are fulfilled.

6. As the process evolves and progresses, people in the

community will come to understand, accept, and work with
one another, that in the process of identifying and dealing
with a common probUyn, subgroups and their leaders will
become disposed to cooperate with other subgroups in
common endeavours, and will develop skills in overcoming
the inevitable conflicts and difficulties which emerge in
 such
collective tasks.

II. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATION
The general aim of community organization is to bring about and
maintain a progressively more effective adjustment between
social welfare resources and social welfare needs. It is
concerned with:
(a) The discovery and definition of needs,

s*f
284 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
(b) The elimination and prevention of social needs and
disabilities,
(c) The articulation of resources and needs, and the constant
readjustment of resources in order better to meet changing
needs.15

The other objectives are :

16

1.
To secure and maintain an adequate factual basis for sound
planning and action.
2.
To initiate, develop, and modify welfare programmes and
services, in the interest of attaining a better adjustment
between resources and needs.
To improve standards of social work and to increase the
effectiveness of individual agencies.
To improve and facilitate interrelationships, and to promote
coordination, between organizations, groups, and
individuals concerned with social welfare programmes and
services.
5.
To develop a better public understanding of welfare
problems and needs, and social work objectives.
6.
To develop public support of, and public participation in,
social welfare activities. Financial support includes income
from tax funds, voluntary contributions and other resources.
McNeil has mentioned the following objectives of community
organization in the field to social welfare:
o
 i
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

7.

9.
10.
Analysing resource-services available to meet needs,
Gaining facts about human needs,
Synthesis, correlation and testing of facts,
Relating facts about needs to facts about available services,
Bringing into participation in all phases of the process,
individuals and representatives of group concerned,
Fostering interaction of attitudes and representative view
points with the objective of reaching agreement through
mutual understanding,
Stimulating citizen interest in social problems and creating
motivation for action through participation and education,
Determining priorities,
Developing and improving standards of service,
Identification of gaps or duplication of services, .

COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 285

11. Adjusting or eliminating existing services or developing new
services to meet needs,
12. Enhancing community understanding through education,
13. Mobilizing support — moral and financial.

III. THE SCOPE AND NATURE OF COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATION
The scope of community organization is broad and its content is
varied. It is needed in all types of communities in hamlets and
villages in towns and cities and metropolitan areas — in primary
services communities and in distributing communities, in industrial
communities, educational centres, resort towns and political
18
centres. "The community organization" process is used,
consciously or unconsciously, in many fields or human activity — in
politics, in art, in education, in economic life. Wherever individuals
and groups seek ways to pool their resources and efforts to achieve
an improvement in community life, the., community organization
process is at work.
The increasing necessity for more effective community
organization of social welfare services grows out of a number of
factors:
1. Communities are becoming more complex;
2. The number of social welfare agencies has been increasing;

3. Social welfare needs are constantly

 expanding;
4. Higher standards for services and more, effective
administration of them are required;
5. The increasing specializations must be more effectively
integrated;
6. Hazards to unity and coordination are becoming more
evident in many communities;
7. Understanding and skill in cooperative relationship are also
becoming more and more necessary.

IV. PRINCIPLES IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

McNeil has mentioned the following principles:
1. Community organization for social welfare is concerned
with people and their needs. Its objective is to enrich human

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

life by bringing about and maintaining a progressively more
effective adjustment between social welfare resources and
social welfare needs.
2. The community is the primary client in community
organization for social welfare ...
3. It is an axiom in community organization that the community
is to be understood and accepted as it is and where it is.
Understanding the climate in which community organization
process is taking place is essential if seeds of that process
are to bear fruit...
4. All the people of the community are concerned in its health
and welfare services. Representation of all interests and
elements in the population and their full and meaningful
participation are essential objectives in community
organization.
5. The fact of ever-changing human needs and the reality of
relationship between and among people and groups are the
dynamic in the community organization process ...
6. Interdependence of all threads in the social welfare fabric of
organization is a fundamental truth ...
7. Community organization for social welfare as a process is a
part of generic social work. Knowledge of its methods and
skill in their application will enhance the potentialities for
growth and development of any community effort to meet
human needs ...
Ross has mentioned the following principles:
1. Discontent with existing conditions in the community must
initiate and/or nourish the development of the association
(organization)
2. Discontent must be focussed and channelled into
organization, planning, and action in respect to specific
 problem...
3. Discontent which initiates or sustains community
organization must be widely shared in the community...

4. The association must involve leaders (both formal and

informal) identified with, and accepted by, major subgroups
in the community...
5.^ The association must have goals and methods of procedure
of high acceptability... J

COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
287

6. The programme of association should include some

activities with emotional content...
7. The association should seek to utilize the manifest and
latent goodwill which exists in the community...
8. The association must develop active and effective lines of
communication both within the association and between the
association and the community...
9. The association should seek to support and strengthen the
groups which it brings together in cooperative work...

10. The association should be flexible in its organizational

procedures without disrupting its regular decision-making
routines...
11. The association should develop a pace for its work relative
to existing conditions in the community...
12. The association should seek to develop effective leaders....
13. The association must develop strength, stability, and
prestige in the community.. ?
Johns and Demarche has narrated the following general
principles of community organization:
1. Community organization is a means and not an end . . .
Organization, personnel, programme, knowledge and skills
are only means to an end — the welfare and growth or
people is the end.
2. Communities, like individuals and groups, are different.
Each has its own peculiarities, its own problems and needs.
To deal with communities effectively, they must be
individualized.
3. Communities, like individuals, have a right to self
determination.
4. Social need is the basis for organization.
5. Community welfare rather than agency self-interest should
be the first consideration in determining programme.
6. Coordination is a process of growth.
7. Community organization structure should be kept as simple
as possible.
8. Services should be distributed equitably.
1.
288
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
 9. Diversity in programme approach should be respected.
10. There should be broad representation in inter-agency
bodies.
11. There must be a balance between centralization and
decentralization.
12. Barriers to communication must be broken down.
13. Communities need professional help."

V. SKILLS IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

Harper and Dunham"'1 has mentioned the following essential skills
essential for community organizer:
1. Skills of maintaining many relationship with individuals and
groups; because individuals and groups, simultaneously and
often independently of one another; because individuals and
groups may be fearful or hostile to one another and yet may
all be engaged upon solution of a common problem.
2. Skill in use of professional judgement in timing the drawing
into contact of these relationships, after the worker has been
able to resolve or modify the issues between them by an
individual approach.
3. Skill in knowing where to take hold and when to let go of a
project.
4. Skill in group thinking.
The following skills are essential in community organization
worker:
1. Skill in establishing rapport,
2. Skill in releasing people's feelings and in overcoming
resistance,
3. Skill in helping people to grow in personal and social
understanding,
4. Skill in enabling people to clarify their ideas,
5. Skill in motivating people in expressing their own goal,
6. Skill in enabling people to find the ways to fulfil their goals,
7. Skill in communicating knowledge of programmes and
resources available to them,
8. Skill in stimulating people's movement towards achieving
goals.
1.
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 289
VI. STEPS IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
Lindeman has suggested ten steps in community organization.
These are:
1. CONSCIOUSNESS OF NEED
Some persons, either within or without the community, express the
need which is later represented by the definite project.
2. SPREADING Tl IE CONSCIOUSNESS OF NEED
A leader, within some institution or group within the community,
convinces his or her group, or a portion of the group, of the reality of
the need.

3. PROJECTION OF
 CONSCIOUSNESS OF NEED
The group interested attempts to project the consciousness of need
upon the leadership of the community; the consciousness of need
becomes more general.
4. EMOTIONAL IMPULSE TO MEETTHE NEED QUICKLY
Some influential assistance is enlisted, in an attempt to arrive at a
quick means of meeting the need.
5. PRESENTATION OF OTHER SOLUTIONS
Other means of meeting the need are presented.
6. CONFLICT OF SOLUTIONS
Various groups lend their support to one or the other of the various
solutions presented.
7. INVESTIGATION
It appears to be increasingly customary to pause at this point, and to
investigate of the project with an expert assistance.
8. OPEN DISCUSSION OF ISSUE
A public mass meeting or gathering of some sort is held, at which the
project is presented, and the groups with most influence attempt to
secure adoption of their plans.
9. INTEGRATION OF SOLUTIONS
Various solutions presented are tested, with an effort to retain

290 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

something out of each, in the practicable solutions which is now
emerging.
10. COMPROMISE ON BASIS OPTENTATIVE PROGRESSIVE
Certain groups, relinquish certain elements of their plans in order to
save themselves from complete defeat, and the solution which results
is a compromise with certain reservations. The means selected for
meeting the need are not satisfactory to all groups, but are regarded
as tentatively progressive.

VII. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATION

Community organization in broad sense is as old as community fife

because wherever people live together, some organization becomes
necessary. But when life became more complicated, some formal
organizations were set up for the welfare of the community.
Elizabethan poor Law in England was one of the first efforts to
provide services to the needy. But the Charity Organization Societies
were forerunners of modern community organization planning. They
were first organized in London in 1869 to eliminate indiscriminate
alms-giving by the relief agencies at that time. In America, the first
Charity Organization Society was organized in Buffalo in 1877. Later
on these were organized in Pennsylvania, Boston, New York,
Philadelphia and other places. The basic purpose of these societies
 was "cooperation between all charitable agencies of a given locality
and the best coordination of their efforts. They also organized a
number of other activities employment bureaus, day nurseries, etc.
The Settlement House Movement was another landmark in the
beginning of community organization. Beginning with the
establishment of Neighbourhood Guild in the Lower East Side of
New York City in 1886, the movement spread rapidly in all industrial
centres. James Addam's Hull House in Chicago and Mary
Simkhovilch's Greenwitch House in New York City were among
more famous settlements.
The American Red Cross Home Service programme began
during World War I and had the concept of professional social work
in its practice. At the same time many other agencies like Y.M.C.A.,
Y.W.C.A., the Boys Scouts, the Girl Scouts and the Camp Fire Girls,
began extending their programmes to many communities.

COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
291

VIII. COMMUNITY COUNCILS AND COMMUNITY CHESTS

Community councils and chests are generally considered to be major

specialized and primary community organization bodies in cities and
metropolitan areas of America. In general, community welfare
councils may be defined as intergroup bodies composed of delegates
or representatives, of member organizations and of the public.
Three main types of councils may be distinguished (1) traditional
councils of social agencies, (2) Community welfare councils, and (3)
specialized councils. The first type of councils are concerned with
the department of social welfare. Community welfare Councils are
concerned with social welfare in a comprehensive sense and
frequently engaged in social action as well as in efforts to coordinate
social agencies and improve health and welfare programme.
Specialized councils are functional divisions of either of the two and
are found in such fields as family and child welfare, health, mental
hygiene, rehabilitation, youth services and correctional programmes.
Councils are the voluntary bodies whose functions include: fact-
finding, planning, stimulation of discussion, coordination and the
improvement of team work and agency efficiency, consultation to
neighbourhood councils and to agencies, interpretation and the
improvement of public relations, and promotion and social action. In
addition, they may administer certain common services such as
research information and referral, volunteer bureaus, and the social
service exchange. Community chest is the modern counterpart of
financial federations, which has been established largely as a result of
the desire to eliminate multiple solicitations. The main job of the
chest is to raise adequate funds 1,0 finance the agencies. Community
chests have two major functions:
compaigning annually for the
support of member agencies, and distributing the funds raised
through joint budgeting.

IX. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATION
The term "community development" designates the utilization under
one single programme of approaches and lechniques which rely
upon local communities as units of action and which attempts to
combine outside assistance with organized local self-determination
and effort, and which correspondingly seek to stimulate local
initiative and leadership as the primary instrument of change...

294 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

an extension worker but a social worker. Thus the community
organization is different from community development:
1. Community development is a government sponsored
programme while for community organization, government
sponsorship is not necessary.
2. Community development aims to provide services to the
people mainly economic for improvement. In community
organization, community services are organized and
planned by the people themselves under the guidance of a
community organizer.
3. Community development programmes are practised mainly
in underdeveloped or developing communities for the
economic development. The basic aim of community
organization is to develop cooperative and collaborative
attitude among people in thp community.
4. Community organization worker is not necessarily a
government functionary. He is skilled in community
planning but the functionaries of community development
are expert in removing economic backwardness.

The following steps are taken in community organization

process:

1. Identifying the Problem

Under this step the following information is gathered:
(i) Nature of the problem;
(ii) Severity of the problem;
(iii) Implications of the problem;
(iv) Location (institutional/social);
(v) Causation of the problem;
(vi) Recognition of the need for change;
(vii) Scope of the problem (who are affected);
(viii) Efforts made to solve the problem;
 (ix) Effectiveness of the previous efforts;
(x) Reasons for success or failure.

2. Perception of the Problem — Facts and Data

(i) Attitude of the community;

COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 295

 (ii) Perception of the problem;
(iii) Significant different attitudes.

3. Structural-functional Analysis
(i) Origins of the problem;
(ii) Characteristics of community structure that maintains
problem;
(iii) Forces operating favourably and unfavourably;
(iv) Significant elements of the social structure.

4. Beneficiaries Profile
(i) Population segments;
(ii) Physical surroundings of the community;
(iii) Factors operating as behaviour determinants;
(iv) Client's divisional and cleavages;
(v) Significant relations with other parts of the social structure;
(vi) Level of acceptance of plans;
(vii) Barriers into the way of acceptance;
(viii) Significance of the barriers.

5. Action Plan
(i) Thinking of various possible course of action;
(ii) Analysis of the course of action in terms of cost, efforts,
consequences, effectiveness, acceptability;
(iii) Selecting the best possible course of action;
(iv) Analysis of the problem-solving structure and processes.

6. Determination of the Strategy

(i) Level of efforts required for success;
(ii) Nature of activities required;
(iii) Minimum work required;
(iv) Action system—individual conscientizatioii, group
conscientization, organization and planning, building and
maintaining viable counter-system, developing skills,
administrative techniques.

296 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

7. Linking People with Programme
(i) Areas:
(a) Level of needs analysis,
(b) Nature of activities required,
(c) Strategy dclcrmination,
(d) Planning action,
(c) Implementation and management,
(ii) Approaches:
(a) Individual approach,
(b) Extensive approach,
 (c) Community education,
(d) Need-base approach,
(c) Social action.
(iii) Steps to be taken:
(a) Arousal of consciousness about problem,
(b) Popularization of the problem,
(c) Creation of motivating force for solving the problem,
(d) Suggestion invitation,
(e) Rendering proper knowledge,

(f) Resource utilization,

(g) Promotion for action of practice,
¦ (h) Regular contact,
(i) Follow-up.

8. Implementation and Evaluation

(a) Effectiveness of action,
 (b) Success of strategy in problem-solving,
(c) Weaknesses in action,
(d) Designing new action and strategy.

9. Building Counter-system
(a) Such system-building aims to develop a power base
from which changes in existing system can be achieved.

X. COMMUNITY PLANNING AND COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATION
Planning is one of the methods of community organization. It is the
conscious and deliberate guidance of thinking so as to create logical

COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 297

means for achieving agreed-upon goals. Planning is basic and
fundamental approach or way of dealing with the human problems
which beset us? Community planning can be defined as a process in
which a number of activities are undertaken in a systematic manner
for bringing about an adjustment between community resources and
felt community needs collectively determined by residents of the
community themselves. Community organization is a broader word
which not only includes planning but implements the programmes
for the development of community and its relations.

REFERENCES

Clarke, Helen I: Principles and Practice of Social Work, Appleton Century

Crofts, Inc, New York, 1947, p. 124.
Lindeman, Edward C: Vie Community,Association Press New York, 1921, pp.
139-173, Quoted in E.B. Harper and A. Dunham: Community Organization in
Action, Association Press, New York, 1959, p. 55.
Pettit, Walter W: Quoted by I larper E.D. and Dunham, A. (cd) op. cit. p. 56.
Lane, Robert, P : The Field of Community Organization, Quoted, Ibid. p. 56.
Sanderson, D. and Poison R.A: Rural Community Organization, John Wiley and
Sons, New York,
McMillan, Wayne: Community Organization in Social Work in Social Work Year
Book, 1947, A.A.S.W., New York, 1947 p. 110.
Dunhar i, A. op. cit p. 58.
Ross, h I.G : Convnunity Organization : Tixeory and Principles, Harper and
Brothei;, New York, 1955, p. 39.
Sicder, fiolet M : "The Tasks of the Community Organization Worker" in H.L,
Luric, 1 he Community Organization Method in Social Work Education, Council
of Socia Work Education, New York, 1959, p. 249.
Kramer
Practice
Warner
Ralf M. and Specht, Harry (eds): Readings in Community Organization
Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1969, p. 6.
W. Lloyd and Lunt, P.S : The Social Life of a Modem Community,
Yalle University Press, New York, 1941, p. 16.
Johns, lay and De Marche, David F: Community Organization and Agency
Rcspom 'bility. Association Press, New York, 1951, pp. 11-12.
Ross, M .G. op. cit. p. 48.
Harper, E.B. op. cit. p. 65.
Dunham, A. Ibid p. 65.
Ibid. p. 65.
McNeil, C.F : "Community Organization for Social Welfare" in Social Work
Year Book, 1951,1954, p. 122.

Johns, R. and De Marche, D.F : Community Organization and Agency

Responsibility. Association Press, New York, 1951, p. 73.
 McMillan, W : Community Organization for Social Welfare, University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, 1945, p. 24.
Johns, R. and Dc Marche, D.F. op. cit. pp. 2-3.

298

SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

21. Mc. Neil, C.F : Principles in Community Organization for Social Welfare,
quoted by I Iarpcr and Dunham op. cit. pp. 106-107.
22. Ross, M.G : Community Organization : Theory and Principles, Harper and
Brothers, New York, 1955, pp. 155-199.
23. John, Ray and De Marchc, D.F : Community Organization and Agency
Responsibility. Association Press, New York, 1951, pp. 235-239.
24. Harper, and Dunham, op. cit. 84-85.
25. Lindcman, E.C : Tlie Community ¦ An Introduction to the Study of Community
Leadership and Organization, Association Press, New York, 1921, pp. 120-123.
26. Warner, A.G., Queen, S.A., Harper, E.B : American Charities and Social Work,
Thomas Y. Crowcll Co. New York, 4th ed., p. 207.
27. I iarpcr, E. B. and Dunham, A. op. cit. p. 355.
28. Ibid. p. 355.
29. Ibid. p. 355.
30. Ibid. pp. 355-356.
31. Ibid. p. 357.
32. United Nations Document E/CN5/291, Programme of Concerned Action In the
Social Held of the United Nations and Specialized Agencies quoted by Ross,
M.G. op. cit. p. 7
33. I Iarpcr, E.B. & Dunham, A. op. cit. pp. 525-526.
34. Gangradc, K.D : Community Organization in India, Popular Prakashan,
Bombay, 1971, pp. 28-29.
35. Uniicd Nations: Social Progress through Community Development, New York,
1955, pp. 5-13.
36. Singh, S : Community Organization in Singh and Soodan's Horizon of Social
Work op. cit. p. 107.
37. I Iarpcr, E.W. and Dunham A. op. cit. p. 215.
38. Singh, Surtndra. op. cit p. 108.
21.
13
 Social Welfare Administration

SOCIAL work may be described as a professional service to people

for the purpose of assisting them, as individuals or in groups, to
attain satisfying relationship and standards of life in accordance with
their particular wishes and capacities and in harmony with those of
the community. Organization of effective" service involves planned,
directed and coordinated endeavours on the part of the social
workers. Until and unless social workers have the knowledge and
skill necessary to provide administrative leadership to the social
service programmes in which they practise, social work will be
looked upon by the public either as a subprofessional services or as
merely a useful service operating as an aid to that of another
profession. Thus, it seems essential to discuss the process and
principles of social welfare administration.

WHAT IS ADMINISTRATION?

Administration is a process of direction, oversight, coordination and

stimulation in an agency designed to carry out some agreed purpose
with economy and effectiveness in the means employed (material and
 personnel) and with all possible regard for the claims of the
individuals involved. Leonard Mayo indicates that administration
may be defined as the determination and clarification of function; the
formulation of policies and procedures, the delegation of authority;
the selection, supervision, and training of staff; and the mobilization
and organization of all available and appropriate resources to the
end that the purposes of the agency may be fulfilled. Arlien
Johnson defines administration as a process and method by which

300 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

objectives of a programme are transformed into reality through a
structure and a mode of operation that make possible the
coordinated and unified work of people in the movement toward the
defined objectives. Thus administration may be defined as the
process or means by which the.aims of an organization are
determined, plans made for achieving those aims and the plans are
carried out. Dunham defines social welfare administration in the
sense of supporting or facilitating activities which are necessary and
incidental to the giving of direct service by a social agency. Kidneigh
defines administration as the process of transforming social policy
into social services. Friedlander's view is that administration of
social agencies translates the provisions of social legislation and the
aims of private philanthropy and religious chanties into the
dynamics of services and benefits for humanity.
Administration is thus primarily a problem-solving and enabling
process; it involves the making of decisions; and if only because
present decision affect future functioning, it is directed towards the
future.10
While reviewing the various definitions of social welfare
administration, we find that it is a process which has definite
knowledge, understanding, principles and ways of interaction. Its
main focus is on the suitability and accessibility of social services to
the public. Social work enables the process of administration
through guidance, planning, stimulation, organization, creating
structure, coordinating, and through research. To fulfil the well
defined main objectives of administration, policies are suitably
amended; . programmes are formulated and budget, finance
personnel selection procedures are made.
In conclusion of the nature of administration the following
points may be recapitulated:
1. Administration is the process of organizing resources to get
work done.
2. Although certain roles are specifically administrative, every
member of an organization, specialists included, is part of
the administrative structure,
3. The setting of administration is the organization through
which it must do the administrative
 work.
4. Leadership, decision-making, authority and communication
are essential ingredients of the administrative process.
1.
SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION 301 j.
Social Work Administration is concerned primarily with the
following activities:1

1. Translation of social mandates into operational policies and

goals to guide organizational behaviour;
2. Design of organizational structures and processes through j
which the goals can be achieved;
3. Securing of resources in the form of materials, staff, clients,t
and societal legitimation necessary for goal attainment and j
organizational survival; ¦j
4. Selection and engineering of the necessary technology, '
5. Optimizing organizational behaviour directed toward j
increased effectiveness and efficiency, and •
6. Evaluation of organizational performance to facilitate ¦
systematic and continuous problem-solving. j
FUNCTIONS OF ADMINISTRATION I
Talcott Parsons identifies variable functions for administration at ¦ i
• •i
three different levels in the organization: I
1. The institutional level refers to administrative activities in the i i
translation and implementation of social goals into social action. \
Attention is also directed to political aspects because social values (j-
are always involved in this level. Administrators are expected to ; (
personify organizational goals, to give leadership to boards, staff, and ; j
clients in policy formulation . . . The determination of the specific j j
social problems to be addressed by the agency and the establishment t j
of the organizational domain are also functions of administration at 1'
the institutional level. The determination of organizational • j
boundaries and the management of organization-environment j,
relations are particularly significant at this level although they also ! \
appear as activities in modified form at the other levels. Reporting \ \
and interpretation to the community and the development of a
particular public image are other institutional level activities. i
2. Managerial-level activities comprise the second level and <
involve mediation between the consumers and the technical sub- ,
organization. Included here are tasks directed toward procurement
and allocation of resources, structural design, coordination, and
direction of staff to optimize effectiveness and productivity. The :
overall recruitment, selection, training, and supervision of staff fall at
the managerial level. Given the goals and domain, managerial level

-»'
302 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
activities include decision-making about the variety of alternative
means through which ends can be achieved....
3. The technical level is the third level in analysis of the
functions of administration. It includes the sub-organization
concerned with performance of the technical activities—counselling
clients, referral, teaching, or provision of material resources.
Selection, implementation, integration and maintenance of viable
technologies to atttain organizational goals, all are involved. Short
and long term programming includes problems of standardization,
routinization, periodic assessment of programme achievement, and
personnel effectiveness. Administrators must deal directly with
contradictions and priorities among goals. They must also provide
mechanisms for continuous staff development so as to attain the
goals.
THE FUNCTION OF THE SOCIAL WORK ADMINISTRATION
The social work administrator's job is not only to perform the work
of the agency but to maintain the agency moving in positive direction.
He is supposed to perform the following functions.

1. Formulating the Agency's Objectives

He is required to implement the policy decisions. Policy can be given
system expression only through the administrative processes. He
takes part in formulating the policy also so that coordination may be
maintained between the objectives of the agency and policy on the
broader level.

2. The Provision of a Formal Structure

His second function is to make provisions of a formal structure to
serve as an effective communicable system. Hierarchy is determined
in the staff and the emphasis is laid of relationship accordingly.

3. The Promotion of Cooperative Efforts

The administrator's functions is to attempt to lessen the conflict
between the needs of the agency as -an organization, and the
separate needs of its individual members and to enhance that
widespread sense of commitment to the agency, whether of social
workers or clerks, which constitutes high morale.

SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION 303

4. Finding and Deploying Resources

To perform its work an agency needs resources—human material,

and time. The common denominator is money, adequate not only to
maintain standards, but for development. T^e direct responsibility
which the executive takes for money raising will depend on the
nature of the agency. Resources once
obtained have to be deployed.
Authority itself may be defined in terms of control over resources.
The executive's authority is a correlate of his control over the total
resources of the agency, and when he delegates authority, what he is
in fact delegating is the power to use resources. The administrator
controls resources external to himself. He deploys them efficiently in
pursuit of the agency's purposes, and for identifying and acting upon
the need to increase them.

5. Supervision and Evaluation

He is accountable for agency performance and must oversee its
activities. He is required to help social workers to function more
effectively as agency members. As an administrator, he has the
supervisory function of allocating work, or seeing that it is done; and
how it is done. He evaluates the total performance of the agency.
Luther Gulick15 has given a magic formula (POSDCORB) to
express the functions of social welfare administration. It means
planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and
budgeting.
PLANNING
*
Planning is fundamentally an intellectual process, a mental
predisposition to do things in an orderly way, to think before action,
and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses. Planning is the
provision to implement guaranteed minimum of resources, both
physical and social accordmg to the needs and necessities for better
life conditions arid adjustment. The work cannot be done without
continuous, thoughtful and comprehensive planning. Planning is
essential for membership and client selection, personned and
supervision, the management of resources, programme making and
finance.
The first task of planning is that its objective should be defined
clearly. After the objective has been defined the next step in effective
planning is to formulate broad policies governing its achievement.

-_r...

304 SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY ANM1ETHODS

The third step in planning is the analysis of the ways and means of
achieving the objective within the framework of policies. After the
analysis of ways and means, organization is made responsible to
achieve the objective. Responsibilities are assigned. Procedure of
continuous assessment of the work done is evolved and applied to
evaluate the progress made by the agency.
 ORGANIZATION (ORGANIZING)

The organization has been referred to as the administrator's raw

material. Social agency involves dearly defined patterns of activity in
 which every series of actions is functionally related to the purposes of
the organization. In such an organization or agency there is an
integrated scries of offices, or hicrarchal statuses, in which a number
of obligations and privileges are closely defined by specific rules.
Each of these offices contains an area of imputed competence and
responsibility. Official action ordinarily occurs within the framework
of pre-existing rules of the agency.
The administrative job in the modern social agency differs from
that of the administration of educational, governmental or business
organizations. The following are the important factors to be taken
into account in organizing to do any job:
1. The administrative worker in the social agency must organize
his work not solely as an individual but always in relation to many
other people...
2. The administrative worker in the social agency must organize
his work in relation to a dear set of goals and purposes which are
inherent in the nature of the agency which he represents.
3. The administrative worker in the social agency must organize
his work with a comprehension of the whole job to be done ...
4. He must organize his job with a special regard for priorities
and arrangement of tasks in terms of significance and importance.
5. He must organize his job with a particular awareness of the
degree to which channels of communication have been established
and are open throughout the whole agency.
6. He must organize his job so as the take into account his own
need and the needs of others to divide large assignments into
manageable units so that a sense of productivity is forthcoming
without excessive delay.
7. He must organize his job so as to consider his own readiness
to do a certain thing and the readiness of others to respond.
1.
SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION 3Q5/
8. He must organize his job so that there is a systematic
arrangement of task in relation to the capacities and capabilities of
his associates.
9. He must recognize the factor of self insight and self
understanding as being control in the task of organizing to do the job.
10. He must organize small units for smooth functioning.

Staffing
Staffing means the administration of staff. It is an important
administrative function as the abilities and sincerity of staff
determine the qualities of service provided by the social welfare
agency. Staffing includes recruitment, selection, service conditions,
promotion, leave, working conditions, welfare etc. Staffing also
includes training, orientation, supervision grievance procedure,
retirement rules etc.
In relation to staff, the executive's role involves at least the
following aspects.
 1. Personnel practices: Sound administrative practice calls for
three essential elements of personnel policy—clarity of
formulation, machinery for fair dealing of grievances, and
reserving to the executive the final authority in matters
where judgement of competence and discipline are involved.
2. Staff coordination and development are essential works for
the administrator. Each employee should be assigned clear
responsibility in relation to the authority.
3. Channels of communication: Two-way channel is essential
for proper administration. The best channel is the staff
meeting where the executive and staff can, in face to face
contact, take up problems and plans for discussion and
decision.

Directing
Direction of the staff members is also an important task to fulfil the
objectives of the agency. The purposes of direction are the following:
1. To see that the work which has been agreed upon is carrieTd
out in accordance with the instructions and rules,
2. To assist staff in keeping work being done,
3. To harmonise team work between employees,
1.
306 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
4. To maintain and develop standards of performance,
5. To produce orderliness in performance,
6. To get acquainted with the weaknesses of the programme
and to correct them. The administrator should have in mind
the personalities strengths and weaknesses of his staff
members. He instead of criticizing should suggest the ways
and means which are suited to the programme. He should
develop in his staff that he is there as helper and advisor
rather than as director.

Coordinating
Coordination is an essential ingredient in efficient and effective
administration. Effectiveness of an individual in achieving his aims in
any social situation will depend not only upon his own activity, but
also on how well that activity relates to what the other individuals
concerned are doing.1 Coordination means to bring into a common
action, movement or condition to relate and combine separate parts
in harmonious balance and adjustment. Coordination in any agency
denotes two things: Unity of purpose and unity of action. This can be
achieved only when every staff member must hold the same view
concerning the objectives of the agency. To secure unity of action it is
important to provide an orderly arrangement of individual and
group effort in pursuit of common goals.

Reporting
 A report is an official presentation of facts. It is a summary of activity
covering a specific period of time. Reports are made periodically.
They are the tools or devices for use in carrying on the work of the
agency. Reports are prepared on the basis of the records maintained
by the agency. Reports enable the agency to discover to what extent
it has accomplished the objectives. They enable to summarize the
results of work together and help the board to formulate new
objectives. Agency planning can be sound only when it is based upon
an adequate reporting.

Budgeting
The process of preparing and presenting an annual budget needs
technical knowledge and has no concern with the social work

SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION 307

activities. But it has been thought as an important task of social work
administrator to promote the function of the agency in accordance
with the objectives of social work. Its significance is that it is a
statement of the agency's intended programme translated into fiscal
terms.
BASIC UNDERSTANDINGS NEEDED IN ADMINISTRATION
Trecker21 has mentioned the following understandings essential for
any administrator:
1. Understanding of self and meaning of being an executive,
feelings about authority and responsibility.
2. Understanding of the agency and its basic purpose in the
community.
3. Understanding of the individuals who make up the agency;
their needs, abilities and motivations.
4. Understanding of groups, i.e. board, staff, consituency, how
they define their function, and approach to their work.
5. Understanding of how the individual is related to his group,
his background, what he brings to the work with the group.
6. Understanding of kinds of help the group need in doing its
work; how group asks for and accepts help; how it evaluates
its own progress.
7. Understanding of how the individual receives basic
satisfaction from his work; how to provide recognition for
genuine accomplishment.
8. Understanding of how the group relates to and works with
other groups in the agency and the community.
SKILLS OF SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION
Administrator should have the following skills to perform his job
satisfactorily:

1. Skill in Establishing and Maintaining Relationships with the

Staff and Boards

Administrator should be skilful in accepting the ability of the staff

 and have faith in their capacity to do their job. Relationship is the
core of any work and, therefore, he should be skilful in establishing
effective and comfortable relationship with the staff and other
groups. He should clarify his own role and be able to changing and

308
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

modifying his role as the needs be. The language is an important

medium for communication and hence he should be skilful in using
language for easiness of communication. He should be skilful in
encouraging group members to express negative as well as positive
feelings, in keeping his feelings under control and controlling his own
feelings even the decision of the staff and other groups is contrary to
his personal wishes, being flexible and willing to alter his advance
plans in keeping with the group's response, in cultivating cooperative
work atmosphere, and in managing his total job.

2. Skill in Selection of the Staff

The administrator must be skilful in the selection of the staff
members, in providing a written statement of the function of the staff
group, in helping the staff members become acquainted with one
another and develop group feelings, in utilizing the past experiences
of group members and in helping the staff and other groups to
integrate different points of view.

3. Skill in Defining Purposes and Objectives of the Agency

He should be skilful in helping the staff understand its responsibility,
in helping the staff stay within the limits of its assignments and place
limitations on its efforts, in helping the staff keep a sharp focus on
the work to be done and in helping the staff members to take steps in
accordance with the needs of the clientele.

4. Skill in Helping the Staff Organize for Effective Work

The administrator should always try for creating a good and healthy
atmosphere for working of the different categories of employees and
workers. He should help the members develop enthusiasm regarding
the assignment it had undertaken. He should be skilled in helping
them divide its work into progressive units.

5. Skill in Developing a Work Methodology

The administrator must be efficient in suggesting methods and
procedures to the members to follow. He should be skilful in
planning and organization of different activities in the agency. He
should show his skill in helping the staff and others to use records as
tools in facilitating the work, in using community resources, in

SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION 309

making them self-determining and able to make its own decision, in
helping them to get recognition and esteem
for work well done.

6. Skill in Helping Individual Members

Sometimes due to personal reasons one fails to perform one's duties
well. Therefore, he is in need of external help and this help should be
given by the administrator. He should solve his problems and help to
become an active member of the agency.

REFERENCES

1. Street, Elwood : A Handbook of Social Agency Administration, Harper and

Brothers, New York, 1948, p. 4.
2. Spencer, S : Tiic Administration Method in Social Work Education, Council on
Social Work Education, New York, 1959, p. 12.
3. Tead, Ordway : "Administration and Freedom" Survey Graphic, Oct. 1939,
p. 619.
4. Mayo, Leonard : 'Administration of Social Agencies Social Work Year Book,
Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1945, p. 15.
5. Johnson, A : "Administration of Social Agencies" Social Work Year Book, 1947,
p. 15.
6. Beavers, H.D : Quoted by Trecker, H.B. aGroup Process in Administration,
Women's Press, New York, 1950, p. 2.
7. Dunham, A: "Administration of Social Agencies' Social Work Year Book, 1949.
8. Kidneigh, John C: Administration of Social Agencies'. Social Work Year Book,
1957, p. 75.
9. Friedlander, WA op. cit. p. 567.
10. Warham, J : An Introduction to Administration for Social Workers, Routiedge
and Kegan Paul, London, 1970, p. 47.
11. Warham, H : An Introduction to Administration for Social Workers. Routiedge
and Kegan Paul, London, 1970, p. 58.
12. Sarri, Rosemary C: Administration in Social Welfare, Encyclopaedia of Social
Work, National Association of Social Works, New York, Vol 1.1971, pp. 42-43.
13. Parsons, Talcott : Structure and Process in Modem Societies. Free Press, New
York, 1960. quoted by Sarri, Rosemary Cop. cit. pp. 44-45.
14. Warham, J : An Introduction to Administration for Social Workers, Routiedge
and Kegan Paul Ltd. New York, 1967, pp. 85- 92.
15. Gulick, Luther and Urwick, L (ed) : Papers on the Science of Administration,
Institute of Public Administration, New York, 1937, p. 13.
16. Urwick, L: The Elements ofAdmimstration, Harper, New York, 1 >43, p. 35.
17. Trecker, II.B. op. cit. pp. 180-183.
18. Kidneigth, John Cop. cit. pp. 81-82.
19. Simon, H.A. op. cit pp. 103.
20. Kidneigh, John C. op. cit. p. 76.
21. Trecker, H.B : Group Process in Administration, Women's Pr ss, New York,
1950, p. 48.
1.
14
 Social Action

Tub first Review Committee on Social Work Education (1965) felt

that "for half a century the role of the social worker in India was that
of the social reformer.. . Now that the main aim of social reform has
been achieved, the task of the social worker has taken on a different
form ... he has to look after the needs of children in orphanages, to
rehabilitate the unmarried mother and to save children from the
stigma of illegitimacy . .. With Independence has developed also the
consciousness of other evils in society : poverty, insanitation,
prostitution, drunkenness. These evils are beyond the capacity of
individual and social workers to remove ... Today the field of social
work coalesces more or less with the field of the social worker in the
West. Now that the social worker has ceased to be the social
reformer in the old sense, it has become possible to benefit from the
experience of social work training institutions in other countries."
The Second Review Committee on Social Work Education
(1978) in its report staled that "an inquiry into the causes of poverty
and evolution of measures for its elimination was the responsibility of
social work"." Unfortunately this emphasis was not given anywhere
in the work. Our present model of social work is based on capitalistic
model which takes up the cause of assisting people in their
adjustment to the social environment. It is not working for the
identification of the cause of poverty and removing these. It has been
now realized that industrialization cannot eliminate poverty even
from the affluent societies. Therefore, now the emphasis is being
given to teach social action, social policy and social administration.
Mary Richmond was the first social worker and writer who used

SOCIAL ACTION
311

the word 'social action' in 1922, it could not get due place among the
methods of social work but it has received much attention in the
developing countries. "In developing countries, social action is
crucial and must precede social work. It is wasteful in a developing
country to start with social work and leave social action behind.
Social action . . . creates the necessary conditions and climate in
which social work could be done more effectively".

I. DEFINITIONS
Some of the definitions of social action are being given below:
RICHMOND MARY (1922)
Social action is "mass betterment through propaganda and social
legislation.4
LEE, PORTER R. (1937)
Social action seems to suggest efforts directed toward changes in law
or social structure or toward the initiation of new movements for the
modification of current social practices.
COYLE, GRACE L. (1937)
Social action is "the attempt to change the social environment in
ways which ... will make life more satisfactory. It aims to affect not
individuals but social institutions, laws, customs, communities."
FITCH, JOHN (1940)
Social action is legally permissible action by a group (or by an
individual trying to promote group action) for the purpose of
furthering objectives that are both legal and socially desirable.
HILL, JOHN L (1951)

Social action might be described as organized group effort to solve

mass social problems or to further socially desirable objectives by
 attempting to influence basic social and economic conditions or
practices.
WICKENDON, E. (1956)
Social action is a term applied to that aspect of organized social
welfare activity directed towards shaping, modifying or maintaining
the social institution and policies that collectively constitute the
social environment.

312 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

SOLEND1-R, S. (1957)
Social action in the field of social work is a process of individual,
group or inlcrgroup endeavour, within the context of social work
philosophy, knowledge, and skill. Its objective is to enhance the
welfare, of society through modifying social policy and the
functioning of social structure, working to obtain new progress and
services.
FRILDLANDLR, W.A. (1963)
Social action is an individual, group or community effort, within the
framework of social work philosophy and practice that aims to
achieve social progress, to modify social policies and to improve
social legislation and health and welfare services. '
NA\'AVATI,M.C(1965)
Social action is a process of bringing about the desired changes by
deliberate group and community effort. Social action does not end
with the enactment and signing of socal legislation, but that the
execution of policies was the real test of the success or failure of
social action.
BALDWIN (1965)
Social action as "organized effort to change social and economic
institutions as distinguished from social work or social service, the
fields of which do not characteristically cover essential changes in
established institutions. Social action covers movements of political
reform, industrial democracy, social legislation, racial and social
justice, religious freedom and civil liberty, its techniques include
propaganda, research and lobbying." 1
SINGH, S. (1986)
Social action is a process in which conscious, systematic and
organized efforts are made by some elite(s) and/or people
themselves to bring about change in the system which is instrumental
in solving problems and improving conditions which limit the social
functioning of weaker and vulnerable sections, it is, on the practical
plane, nearer to social reform than to social revolution which aims at
smashing the entire existing social structure and to build up a new
social set-up. It is conflictual in nature but at the same time
non-violent.
SOCIAL ACTION
313

Social action should be seen as an endeavour to bring about or

 prevent change in the social system through a process of making
people aware of the socio-political and economic realities
conditioning their lives and by mobilizing them to organize
themselves for bringing about the desired change, or to prevent the
change that adversely affects them, through the use of whatever
strategies they may find workable, with the exception of violence.
Social action is a confiictual process of varying intensity, initiated
and conducted by the masses or by a group of elites, with or without
the participation of the masses in the action against the structures or
institutions or policies or programmes or procedures of the
government and/or relevant agencies and/or power groups to
eradicate/control any mass socio-economics political problem with a
view to bringing betterment to any section of the underprivileged at a
level larger than that of a sociologically defined community.

II. OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL ACTION

The objective of social action is the proper shaping and development
of socio-cultural environment in which a richer and fuller life may be
• ¦ 17
possible for all the citizens. The following goals have been
identified, prevention of needs, solution of mass problems,
improvement in mass conditions, influencing institutions, policies
and practices, introduction of new mechanisms or programmes,
redistribution of power, resources (human, material and moral),
decision-making, effect on thought and action structure, and
improvement in health, education and welfare.

HI. FORMS OF SOCIAL ACTION

Britto19 has identified two types of social action:

1. Action initiated and conducted by the elites for the benefit
of the masses.
2. Popular social action.
He identifies three sub-models of each type of social action. In
the first model he has mentioned the following types:

(a) Legislative action model: In this model elites try to modify

314
SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

the social policy by creating public opinion against the

problems.
(b) Sanction model : The elites by gaining control over some
economic, social, political or religious weapon try to obtain
benefits for the society.
(c) Direct physical model : Elites take action and punish those
responsible for the cause of
 injustice.

The second type of social action has the following three sub- models:

(a) Conscienlization model based on Paulo Friere's concept of

creating awareness among masses through education.
(b) Dialectical model promoting conflict to exploit the
contradictions in a system, with the belief that a better
system will emerge as a result.
(c) Direct mobilization whereby specific issues are taken up by
the aclionists and the masses are mobilized to resort to
protests and strikes to achieve the objectives.

IV. PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL ACTION

Bntto" has described the following principles of social action which
emerged out of the analysis of the methodology used by Gandhiji to
mobilize, the masses during the freedom movement.
1. PRINCIPLE OF CREDIBILITY BUILDING
It is the task of creating a public image of the leadership, the
organizEtion and the participants of the movement as champions of
justice, rectitude and truth. It helps in securing due recognition from
the opponent the reference-public, and the peripheral participants of
the movement.
2. PRINCIPLE OF LEGITIMIZATION
Legitimization is the process of convincing the reference public and
the general public that the movement objectives are morally right.
The ideal would be making a case for the movement as a
moral-imperative. Movement makers might use theological,
philosophical, legal-technical, public opinion paths to establish the
tenability of the movement's objectives.

SOCIAL ACTION 315

3. PRINCIPLE OF DRAMATIZATION
Dramatization is the principle of mass mobilization by which the
leaders of a movement galvanize the population into action by
emotional appeal to heroism, sensational news — management,
novel procedures, pungent slogans and such other techniques.
4. PRINCIPLE OF MULTIPLE STRATEGIES
There are two basic approaches to development : Conflictual and
non-conflictual. Taking the main thrust of a programme, one can
classify it as political, economic or social. Four developmental
strategies have been identified by Zeltman and Duncan. These are:
(i) Educational strategy — (a) adult education (b) education by
demonstration,
(ii) Persuasive strategy,
(iii) Facilitative strategy,
(iv) Power strategy.

5. PRINCIPLE OF DUAL
 APPROACH
Any activist has to build counter-systems or revive some moribund
system which is thought to be beneficial to the needs of the mobilized
public on a self-help basis without involving opponents. Counter-
system must be built up and traditional systems must be transformed
or humanized in any developmental operation.
6. PRINCIPLE OF MANIFOLD PROGRAMMES
These are of three categories:
(i) Social programmes •
(ii) Economic programmes
(iii) Political programmes

V. PROCESS OF SOCIAL ACTION

Lees has suggested nine tactics which are used by social actionists.
Tactics Stage
1. Research —>
2. Education I Developing awareness
3. Cooperation —i
4. Organization I Organization
1.
316 SOCIAL WORK-PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
Tactics Stage
5. Arbitration —¦
6. Negotiation Strategies
7. Mild coercion —
8. Violation of legal norms —
9. Joint Action ' Action

The first step in the social action process is to make people

aware about the social problems and situations responsible for these
problems. The next step is to develop an organization to deal with
these situations. He will suggest certain strategies to achieve the
defined goal. Now the efforts are made to mobilize people to
organize activities on the lines of strategies to achieve the goal.

VI. STRATEGIES OF SOCIAL ACTION

Lees" had identified three types of strategies for social action:
1. COLLABORATION
In this strategy the social workers collaborate with the local authority
and other authorities or agencies in order to bring about
improvements in the existing social policy. The basic assumption of
this approach is homogeneity of values and interests, through which
substantive agreement on proposals is obtainable. No one stands to
lose a great deal of power, authority or money, since change occurs
within a consensus that includes both values and interests.
2. COMPETITION
In this strategy contending parties utilize commonly accepted
 campaign tactics to persuade, to negotiate and to bargain, with a
willingness to arrive at a working agreement.
3. DISRUPTION
This strategy signifies more militant approach and it may include
strikes, boycotts, fasts, tax-refusal, sit-ins, etc.
Richard Brynt23 postulates two sets of strategies — bargaining
and confrontation. Bargaining means lobbying, submitting petitions,

SOCIAL ACTION
317

information and publicity campaigns, etc, whereas confrontation

includes strikes, demonstrations and 'sit-ins'.
Hornstein has mentioned the following strategies for social
intervention : individual change, techno-structural data-based,
organizational development and cultural change, violence and
coercion, and non-violent action—accommodation, exposures, living
examples, public support, presentation of proposals, competition,
lobbying, agitation and subversion, etc. Sharp has identified as many
as 198 methods of non-violent action.25 Hornstein26 has classified
them as under:
1. Direct action tactics : Picketing, marches, fraternization,
haunting, leafletting, and renouncing honours.
2. Non-cooperation: Strike, boycott, tax refusal
3. Intervention: Sit-in, fast, reverse strike, obstruction.

VII. MODELS OF SOCIAL ACTION

27 • *
Smgh has mentioned the following models of social action:
1. INSTITUTIONAL MODEL (STATE)
The state generally takes an indirect action and is directed for the
benefit of the people with or without their participation. The
approach is parliamentary, representational, bureaucratic and elitist.
The action is organized or sponsored within the framework of law, or
may be legalized subsequently i.e. regularization of unauthorized
sattlements. State action may include residual/institutional (mixed)
models.
2. INSTITUTIONAL SOCIAL MODEL
It visualizes social action by non-governmental institutions aided or
unaided which initiate action directly or otherwise and in the course
of time secure people's active support. In the beginning the action is
initiated for the people but subsequently it progresses with and,
through them. The thrust of such action maybe welfare or normative
and may take place within the framework of law.
3. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONAL
 MODEL
Here the social action may be organized by the citizens, self-help
groups, elites, the deprived, and others for their benefit but in its

318 SOCIAL WORK - PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS

progression and development may seek support from formal groups
and institution(s) which may like to espouse its cause. Depending
upon its success it may institutionalize itself formally.
4. POPULIST/MOVEMENTAL MODEL
It relies on popular social base and power, rejects dependency, and
stresses self-reliance through collective effort, active participation
and continuing education. This is an ideal form of social action, in
that participants experience thinking, deciding and working together
in helping themselves and in the process also strengthen their social
base and power.
5. GANDHIAN MODEL
This model emphasizes on spirituality, purity of means and ends,
non-violence as a creed, austerity (limitation of want), and moral
rearmament of people.

VIII. ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKER IN SOCIAL ACTION

Clarke" has mentioned the following role of social worker in social
action:

1. All social workers are interested in promoting the welfare of

the individual and as a consequence every social agency sooner or
later is concerned with some aspect of social action ... Social work
practitioners have the responsibility of keeping their constituency
informed of conditions creating the problems they handle so that the
agency which is composed of supporters, staff, and clients, can share
in achieving social change.
2. It is agreed that every social worker as a citizen has a
constitutional right to participate in any form of legal social action
that he chooses whether it be as a trade union member fighting for
the principles of his group; as a member of neighbourhood camp,
advocating slum clearance; as an individual espousing the cause of
religious freedom, racial equality, civil liberties, free birth-control
clinics, disability and health insurance; as a member of a political
party; or as a member of a citizen's political action group ...
3. The Rev. Mr. Dwight J. Bradley, Director of the Religious
Association of the National Citizens Political Action Committee,
urged an active participation in political movements. It was then that
in a democratic society all reforms are eventually bound up with
1.
SOCIAL ACTION
319
political action, hence if we are to be realistic about social change we
cannot evade association with political
action groups.
4. Social workers as individuals or professional persons will
support specific programmes because they believe in them, not
because they have professional expertise of them.
5. Social worker may participate in social action as a primary or
secondary activity.

The profession of social work in India has hitherto not paid an

adequate attention either to education or to practice of social action.
Major concerns of the professionals in this area have revolved largely
Around Disaster Situations or Disturbances.

REFERENCES

1. Quoted by Siddiqui, H.Y. {cd) Social Work and Social Action, Hamom
Publications, 1984, pp. 3^1.
2. Ibid. p. 5.-
3. Kulkami, V.M : "Social Workers are not Revolutionaries" in Towards a
Philosophy of Social Work, Das Gupta (ed) Popular Book Services, New Delhi,
p. 112.
4. Richmond, Mary E: Whal is Social Case Work? Russell Sage Foundation, 1922,
p. 23.
5. Lee, Porter R : "The Social Worker and Social Action", in Porter R. Lee (ed)
Social Work as Change and Function, Columbia University Press, New York,
1937, p. 270.
6. ' Coylc, Grace L : "Case Work and Group Work, Social Workers and Social
Action", Survey Midmonthty, LXX1II May 1937, pp. 138-139.
7. Fitch, John: "The Nature of Social Action" Proceedings, National Conference of
Social Work, New York, I940,*p. 488.
8. Hill, John L: "Social Action" Social Work Year Book, A.A. S.W. 1951, p. 455.
9. Wickendon, E : 'Social Action', Encyclopaedia of Social Work, NASW, New
York, 1956.
10. Solender, S: 'Social Action', Social Work Year Book 1957, pp. 517-18.
11. Friedlandcr, W.A : Introduction to Social Welfare, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi, 1963, p. 219.
12. Nanavati, M.C : "Social Action and the Professional of Social Work "Social
Work Forum, Vol. Ill, No. 2,1965, pp. 26-29.
13. Baldwin, Roger N. (1966) quoted by Siddiqui, H.Y. (ed) Social Work and Social
Action, Harnam Publication, New Delhi, 1984 p. 12.
14. Singh, Surendra : 'Social Action" in Horizons of Social Work (ed) by Surendra
Singh & K.S. Soodan, op. cit. p. 161.
15. Siddiqui, H.Y («*•): Social Work and Social Action, Hamam Publications, New
Delhi, 1984, p. 16.
16. Britto, GAA : "Social Action and Social Work Education in the Eighties" in
Social Work and Social Action (ed) Siddiqui, H.Y. op. cit p. 50.
7.
320 SOCIAL WORK- PHILOSOPHY AND METHODS
17. Jacob, K.K: Methods and Fields of Social Work in India, Asia Publishing House,
Bombay, 1963, p. 69.
18. Singh, R.R: Social Action: Soine Reflection in Siddiqui Book, op. cit, p. 107.
19. Britto, G.A.A: Social Action and Social Work Education in the Eighties' paper
Presented s&ASSWI Seminar Kalanassery, Kerala, 1980.
20. Britto, G.A.A. Ibid pp. 33-18.
21. Lees, R : Politics and Social Work, Routledge and Kegan Paul, Lcmdon, 1972 by
Siddiqui, H.Y. op. cit. p. 19.
22. Ibid. p. 21.
23. Bryant, R : Community Action, British Journal of Social Work, Vol. 2, No. 2,
1972, quoted by Siddiqui, H.Y. op. cit. p. 21-22.
24. Hornstcin, H.A. («/) : Social Intervention : A Behavioural Science Approach,
Free Press, New York, 1971, pp. 1-5.
25. Sharp : The Politics of Non-Violence, p. 117 quoted by Singh, R.R. op. cit p.
121.
26. I lornstein, I I.A (ed) op. cit. 558IT.
27. Singh, R.R : ti-Social Work and Social Action : Some Reflections' in Siddiqui's
Book op. cit. pp. 117-19.
28. Clarke, Helen, 1 : Principles and Practice of Social Work, Appleton - Century
Crofts, Inc New York, 1947, pp. 170-175.
29. Ibid p. 127.
17.
15

Social Work Research

RESEARCH is a method, applicable in certain circumstances, for

achieving the objective of transforming the indeterminate situation
into a determinate one. Research may be defined as systematic
investigation intended to add to available knowledge in a form that is
a communicable and verifiable. Social work is a new profession and
hence it needs a variety of knowledge of theory and practice to make
it more valuable to the mass population.

I. SOCIAL RESEARCH
Social Research is a studious enquiry, usually, critical and
exhaustive investigation or experimentation having for its aim the
revision of accepted conclusions in the light of newly discovered
facts. (Webster Dictionary).
YOUNG (I960)
Social research is "a scientific undertaking which, by means of
logical and systematized methods, aim to discover new facts or
old facts, and to analyse their sequences, interrelationship
causal explanations and the natural laws which govern them" .
(1934)
SLEISINGCR AND STEVENSON
Social research may be regarded as "a method of studying, of
analysing and conceptu^'izing social life in order to extend, correct
or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction
of a theory or in the practice of an art."

MUbtiK (I'm)
"Systematized investigation to gain new knowledge about social
phenomena and problems, we call social research.
BOGARDUS (1953)
Social research is the investigation of the underlying processes,
operative in the lives of persons who are in association.
By the analysis of these definitions, we find the following
characteristics of social research:
1. Social research is related to acquire knowledge in
connection with the social life and social phenomena.
Human beings are studied as members of society.
2. New facts about social life are investigated in social
research. Old facts are also verified.
 3. Laws are formulated in connection with social life and social
phenomena.
4. Social research investigates the interrelationships among
different social facts.
¦ 5. Knowledge about the control of social phenomena is
promoted through social research.

II. SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH

FRIEDLANDER (1957)
Social Work research is the systematic, critical investigation of
questions in the social welfare field with the purpose of yielding
answers to problems of social work, and of extending and
generalizing social work knowledge and concepts.
RIPPLE (I960)
Social work research begins with practical problems, and its
objective is to produce knowledge that can be put to use in planning
or carrying on social work programmes.
BRIJ MOHAN (1986)
Social work research as an organized scientific endeavour is an
established professional activity toward building up a general theory
of human behaviour and social functioning involving a coherent
system of interventions.

MACDONALD (1957) I
Research in social work may be taken to encompass those questions
which are encountered in social work practice or in planning or
administering social work services, which are solvable through
research, and which are appropriate for investigation under social
work auspices.
FLETCHER (1949)
"Research in social work has been defined as the scientific testing of
the validity of social work functions and methods.
On the analysis of the various definitions we find that social work
research has certain points.1
1. Social work research is applied research, in that it derives
from and contributes to the practice of social work. The
body of social work knowledge, while not a science, may be
made more scientific by means of social work research.

2. Social work research may be addressed to problems of

varying degrees of generality. At one extreme the product
may be quite abstract, for example; a test of the hypothesis
postulating a positive relationship between acceptance by
the case worker and lowering of protective defensive
mechanisms by the client, or between the support of group
structure by the group worker
 and increasing cohesion of
the group. At the other extreme, a private agency may wish
merely to know how many of its clients are non-residents so
that the director may use this fact when he testifies before a
legislative commission. The resulting figure is an
infinitesimal contribution to social work knowledge, and it
may be pretentious to label as research the simple inquiry
that resulted in this discrete item of information.
3. Information is inert knowledge . . . and theories are
proposed to account for relationships among the facts ...
4. While the function of research in social work is to produce
• useful knowledge, the function may be discharged sequentially.
One investigation may build on others, later investigations may
incorporate the findings of earlier ones....
5. The function of social work research may be conceived to
include production of knowledge of different sorts. The
functions will be fully discharged only as knowledge is

increasingly systematized, mis implies tuc ucvciupmcm ui

useful concepts and the explication of their relationship,
i.e., theory building.

III. OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH

Social work research facilitates the use and generalizability of
systematically arrived at facts and explanations which help solve
social problems and enhance human functioning. Mass indicates
two purposes of social work research: (1) to achieve a better fit
between human needs and welfare goals; (2) to increase the
likelihood that these goals can be attained Macdonald's view is that
the function of social work research is to contribute to the
development of a dependable body of knowledge to serve the goals
and means of social work in all its ramifications. Fletcher has
mentioned the following objectives of social work research:
1. To improve and enlarge the techniques of diagnosis and
treatment as they are used in social work practice.
2. To develop the efficiency and define the function of social
work agency as the medium through which social work is
practised.
3. To appraise and measure the community's needs for social
work service.
4. To add to the general knowledge of the etiology of social
pathology so that social action can be directed toward the
prevention of problems that might later require social work
treatment.
 IV. TYPE OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL WORK
Phillip Klein has mentioned the following classification of the types
of research in social work:
1. Studies to establish, identify and measure the need for
service.
2. Studies to measure the services offered, as they relate to
needs.
3. Studies to test, gauge, and evaluate results of social work
operation.
4. Studies to test the efficacy of specific techniques ... of
offering service.
1.
5. Studies in methdology of research.
Friedlander18 has mentioned the following types:
1. Studies to establish and measure factors that produce social
problems and call for social services.
2. Studies of the history of charitable institutions, social welfare
legislation, social welfare programme, and social work concepts.
3. Studies of the expectations, perceptions, and situation
evaluations of social workers.
4. Studies of intentions, goals, and self-images of social workers.
5. Studies of relationship between the social worker's
expectations, his intentions, and his actions.
6. Studies of the content of social work proceses.
7. Studies that test the adequacy of available social services in
relation to the needs of the individuals, groups, and the
community.
8. Studies that test, gauge, and evaluate the effects of social
work operations and investigate the competence required
for social work practice.
9. Studies of client's expectations, goals, perceptions, and
evaluation of situations.

10. Studies of client's behaviour in relation to their reactions of

social work practice.
11. Studies of formal and informal definition of the role of
social workers, their interrelationships.
12. Studies of the values and priority preferences of social
groups in the community upon which social welfare practice
relies for support and development.
13. Studies of the "patterns of interaction between the different
components in social agency settings and of their influence
upon clients and agency staff.
14. Studies in the methodology of social work research.

It has been recognized that social work research needs to

develop and define its own conceptual
 tools, selecting and adapting
concepts from the social sciences.

V. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOCIAL RESEARCH AND

SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH
General social research and social work research have not much

distinction as both are concerned to promote the welfare of humanity

by the results of their investigation. Social work research begins with
practical problems whereas social research may be concerned with
any aspect of social life. The objective of social work research is to
produce knowledge that can be helpful in planning and executing
social work programmes, whereas the objective of social research is
to accumulate the knowledge for understanding social life of human
beings. Social work research is an applied research which is directed
toward the acquisition of knowledge in order to control or change
human behaviour. Social research may be basic as well a applied.
Social work research serves the goals of social work whereas, social
research has no specific goal. It increases the knowledge of any of
the social sciences. Social work research helps the social workers in
dealing with social problems or problems relating to their clients
(individual, group or community). Social research may belheipful to
social,work as it helps in increasing the knowledge of human
behaviour.

VI. RELATIONSHIP OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH TO

OTHER DISCIPLINES

Social work Operates on the basis of variegated bodies of knowledge.

Important contributions have been, made by social and biological
sciences, i.e., sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics,
education, public administration, medicine, psychiatry, biology and
law to develop social work as a profession. Social Work research is
the formulation and testing of social work knowledge but its
achievements are peripheral to the developing body of knowledge.
"Social work knowledge in the coming years either must formulate
and test its own knowledge on a substantial scale, supplementing it
with critical use of social science^knowledge, or it must surrender its
professional functions to new and more vigorous disciplines, hereby
assigning its practitioners to the role of useful technicians and
abandoning the hope of attaining full professional status for the
field. Social work research has so far developed its knowledge of
the following areas: knowledge of the
history of social work and the
relationship of social work, as a profession, to the society in which it
operates, knowledge of social agency organization, administration,
operation and function; skill in interpreting social welfare
programme and^ services; knowledge of community resources
relevant to problems that clients bring to social agencies; knowledge
of the nature of human needs which social welfare, programmes are

designed to meet; knowledge of the relationships between the

different units of network of social services in the community and
skills in using this network on behalf of the social agency client;
knowledge of an appropriate professional behaviour in relation to
clients, colleagues, and other professional persons; knowledge and
acceptance of the values and philosophical orientations of social
work and of the ethics of the profession; knowledge and acceptance
of the role of social work and the social worker in relation to the
client; skills in developing, sustaining, and managing a
relationship with clients of social agencies; skill in the
application of the scientific method — study, diagnosis and
treatment in helping the social agency client; skill in interviewing,
discussion, leadership, committee chairmanship in a social agency
setting for social work purposes; skills in constructively using
social work supervision and consultation and knowledge about
such supervisory, consultative relationships; skill in recording in
line with the agency's needs."

VII. THE PROBLEMS IN SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH

The great problem in social work research is to bring together

knowledge of the field and knowledge of rhethod. The researcher
must have the thorough knowledge of practice, practice theory, other
relevant theories, concepts and findings of other researches in the
field. This knowledge can be achieved only through the study of
social work or its any branch and other related social sciences. But
the problem is, that the authorities of social work have never been
researchers and experts in research field and have seldom been
expert in some branch of social work. This has created new types of
problems in the research field of social work. The first one is the
abortive study that fails for lack of competence in application of an
appropriate research method. The second type is the irrelevant study
that fails to contribute to social work knowledge because the
research design does not utilize concepts and variables that are
meaningful in terms of social work
theory.
Optimum conditions for the advancement of research in social
work suggest three requirements: (1) an intimate and profound grasp
of social work knowledge relevant to the problem; (2) grasp of
relevant knowledge from other disciplines or professions,
(3) methodological competence in undertaking the given inquiry.