CHAPTER 2.

1 : LEVELS OF
MEANING OF A LITERARY WORK
Themes in Literature in the 21st Century iIMPORTANCE
IDENTITY - Refers how much the culture influence the
- Important because of globalization, author and the author influence the culture
intersections of culture (racism and ethnicity), TYPTYPES OF INTERTEXTUALITY
women’s rights, LGBTQ/LGBTQIA OBLIGATORY INTERTEXTUALITY
- Freedom to draw from multiple cultures - Purposeful or deliberate intertextuality
and philosophies - The result of an author’s choice
Questions a concept of self and his relation of the DELIBERATE INTERTEXTUALITY
body, brain and soul - “The brief and Wondorous Life of Oscar Wao”
The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay by by Junot Diaz
Michael Chabon - References may comics and movies or other
- A novel about young comic book books to describe an events.
collaborations during WW II era. OPTIONAL INTERTEXTUALITY
INFIDEL by Ayaan Hirsi Ali - The intent of the writer is to pay homage to the
- Became feminist for the rights of muslim “original” writers or to reward those who have
women and religions freedom of abused read the hypotext. However, the reading of this
HISTORY and MEMORY hypotext is not necessary understanding the
- Explore the notion of multiplicities of truth hypotext.
- Acknowledge that history is filtered through LATENT INTERTEXTUALITY
human evidence and perspective. - Accidental intertextuality
“THE MARCH” by E.L Doctorow - Everything you’ve ever seen or read sticks
- Depicts the reality general Sherman’s somewhere in your memory and affects your
famous march during the U.S Civil War and how understanding of the world
people of the South were slaughtered giving a - They all contribute to building your specific
slightly difference perspective of how the North is world view which , inturn determines how you
usually depicted. write or create art.
TECHNOLOGY RELATED TEXT OF INTERTEXTUALITY
- Dreams of what technology could EXTERNAL ALLUSION
potentially help people become - Common form of deliberate intertextuality
- Anxiety regarding the demise of humanity - “Fool of a Took” and “Pipin Took”
as a result of technology CITATION
“MACHINE MAN” by Max Barry - (common form) acknowledge loud and clear
- A book about biotechnology helping people that the owner is borrowing an idead and
with disabilities. phrase from someone
“READY PLAYER ONE” by Ernest Cline PLAGIARISM
- Depicts futuristic world where everyone - Stealing another person’s work without giving
escapes reality by plugging into virtual utopia. them proper credits.
INTERTEXTUALITY POST MODERN LITERARY TECHNIQUES
- Not a literary or rhetorical device but rather FABULATION
a fact about literary text (the fact that they are all - Popularized by Robert Scholes
intimately connected) - Rejection of realism which embrases the notion
- This applies, newspapers, articles, films, that literature is a created work and not bound
songs, paintings etc. by mimesis and verisimilititude.
JULIA KRISTEVA – First coined the term - “MIMISES” a representation or imitation of the
“Intertextuality” real world.
- “VERISIMILITITUDE” an appearance of being Extended narrative in which the characters ,
true or real. setting and plot represents both a concrete meaning.
- Inverted stories or created fables filled with Almost all allegories teaches a moral, religious, or
fantasy political lesson.
MAGIC REALISM SYMBOLIC MEANING
- Also known as Magical Realism - Also known as “Representative Meaning”
- An approach to literature that weaves fantasy - A symbol that stand for something else.
and myth into everyday life. - Represents something elese but a less
- Known as MARVELOUS REALISM/ FANTASTIC structural way than allegories.
REALISM because it is the transportation of a FIGURATIVE MEANING
common/ everyday into amazing or unreal thing. - The writer strives for a special meaning
- ZERO, in books, stories, poetry, plays and film of the word
factual narrative and far flung fantasies combine TROPES
and reveal insights about society and human - Any figure of speech not taken literally.
nature. IRONY
GARCIA MARUEZ - Using language that signifies opposite,
- A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings, empathic effect
describes fairly large groups of people in - Used or words wich there intended
psychological detail. meaning far from actual meaning.
METAFICTION METONYMY
- Occurs in fictional stories, when the story - Name of something closely related with
examines the elements of fiction itself. thing, concept
- “Foregrounding the Apparatus” - Replaces the name of a thing with
PASTICHE something else closely associated.
- Related to the Italian word “PASTE” this is a PUNS “PARANOMASIA”
collage of words and phrases or entire passages - Form of wordplay that exploits multiple
from one or more other authors that creates a new meanings as a term or of similar
literary work. sounding words for an intended
- “The Metamorphoses” by Ovid, a Roman Poet humorous or rhetorical effect.
- Actually a giant pastiche of hundreds of earlie CHARACTER
Greco-Roman Myths. - A person responsible for the thoughts
ALLUSION and actions with a story, poem or
- A generally implied referece to characters, literature.
scenes, plot elements, etc. that appear in another - “MAIN CHARACTER” most important
work character I the story which is central to
PARODY the action in the story. It can be
- Very similar in form to the pastiche, the parody protagonist and antagonist.
re-appropriate the work of others, but for the IMPORTANCE OF CHARACTER
purpose of poking fun than praising. - They are the medium through which the
BLACK HUMOR reader interacts with the piece of
- A comic that makes lights of subject matter that literature.
is generally taboo KINDS OF CHARACTER
- “A Dirty Job” by Christopher Moore PROTAGONIST
LITERAL MEANING - Main character of led figures in a novel,
- Based on taking the work as his “face value” play, story or poem.
without examining figurative levels. ANTAGONIST
ALLEGORICAL MEANING
 - A character in the story or poem who TYPES OF CONFLICT
deceives , frustrates or works against INTERNAL CONFLICT
the main character. - Within the characters mind and can be
ANTI-HERO describe as a struggle between
- A protagonist who has the ooposite or the most opposing forces of desire or emotions
of the traditional attributes of a hero. within a person.
FLAT CHARACTER ENTERNAL CONFLICT
- Character who has the same sort of person at - A conflict between a character and an
the end of the story as at the beginning. outside force
“STATIC CHARACTER” refers to the character GENERAL CATEGORIES OF CONFLICT
that don’t experience much change MAN vs. NATURE – portrays a story of main
ROUND CHARACTER character against a natural force such as
- A character who is complex , multidimensional natural disaster, a fire, an aggressive animal or
and convincing environmental issues.
DYNAMIC CHARACTER MAN vs. MAN – the conflict usually the
- A character who, during the cause of a story protagonist dealing with the antagonist
undergoes a permanent change in some MAN vs. SOCIETY – the protagonist battles an
aspects of his/her personality or outlook. unjust form as government, culture, possibly a
STOCK CHARACTER holiday , or any society based group.
- Stereotyped character, one whose nature is MAN vs. SELF – the character struggles to
familiar from prototypes in previous overcome fear ,emotional issues.
fiction. OTHER CATEGORIES OF CONFLICT
CHARACTERIZATION MAN vs. SUPERNATURAL- Ghosts, monsters,
- A writers tool or literary device that occurs any aliens etc.
time the author uses details to teach us MAN vs FATE – fight for choice, fight against
about a person. destiny
- A writer reveals what a character is like and MAN vs. TECHNOLOGY – computers, machines
how the character changes throught the etc.
story. 6 TYPES OF CONFLICTS
TYPES OF CHARACTERIZATION PERSON vs. PERSON
DIRECT CHARACTERIZATION “ vs NATURE
- Also known as “Explicit Characterization” “ vs. SELF
consists of the author telling the audience “ “ SOCIETY
what a character is like. “ “ SUPERNATURAL
INDIRECT CHARACTERIZATION “ “ TECHNOLOGY.
- Also known as “Implicit Characterization” POINT OF VIEW
Point of view - the angle of considering things,
Consists of the author showing the audience
which shows us the opinion or feelings of the
what kind of person a character is through individuals involved in a situation. In literature,
the characters thoughts, words and deeds. point of view is the mode of narration that an
- Often leaves a deeper impression on the reader author employs to let the readers “hear” and
“see” what takes place in a story, poem, or
rather than direct statements about what a essay.
character is like. Point of view - a reflection of the opinion an
CONFLICT individual from real life or fiction has.
- A struggle between two different forces Kinds:
- Opposing forces 1. First person point of view involves the use of
IMPORTANCE OF CONFLICTS either of the two pronouns “I” or “we.”
• “I felt like I was getting drowned with shame and
- Without conflict, there will be no plot. disgrace.”
 2. Second person point of view employs the PLOT
pronoun “you.” It is build around a series of events that take place
• “Sometimes you cannot clearly discern between
anger and frustration.” within a definite period.
3. Third person point of view uses pronouns like - It is what happens to the characters
“he,” “she,” “it,” “they,” or a name. ELEMENTS OF PLOT
• “Stewart is a principled man. He acts by the book
and never lets you deceive him easily.” EXPOSITION – The introduction, a material
3 main types of Third Person POV:
1. Third Person Limited – Limited means that the POV that creates a tone, give the setting, introduces
is limited to only one character. Which means that the the characters and supplies other facts
narrator only knows what that character knows. With necessary to understand the work of
third person limited you can choose to view the action literature
from right inside the character's head, or from further RISING ACTION - the second section of the
away, where the narrator has more access to information
outside the protagonist's viewpoint. typical plot in which the main character begins
- Also known as The Limited Narrator – it can only tell the grapple with the story’s main conflict
what one person is thinking or feeling. CLIMAX – A rhetorical term for a rising order
2. Third Person Multiple – This type is still in the as imoortance in the ideas expressed.
"he/she/it" category, but now the narrator can follow
FALLING ACTION – part of a plot after the
multiple characters in the story. The challenge is making
sure that the reader knows when you are switching from climax which contains events caused by the
one character to another. Make the switch obvious with climax contributing to the resolution.
chapter or section breaks. RESOLUTION – the final unravelling of a plot.
- Also known as The Multiple Narrator – This strategy SETTING – the main events of a play,
can include either changing narrator or point of view to
explain a single incident from multiple perspectives, or it
novel,movie. Where and when the story takes
can include using multiple narrators to provide fragments place.
of the same story. PARTS OF SETTING
3. Third Person Omniscient – This point of view still PLACE – Where the story takes place
uses the "he/she/it" narration but now the narrator knows TIME- when the story happened
EVERYTHING. The narrator isn't limited by what one
character knows, sort of like the narrator is God. The SOCIAL CONDITIONS – Dress, language,
narrator can know things that others don't, can make religion culture
comments about what's happening, and can see inside the WEATHER CONDITION – climate, precipitation
minds of other characters. MOOD – atmosphere, surroundings
- Also known as The Omniscient Narrator – it is not a THEME – a broad idea, message of the story. A
character in the story and can tell what any or all
characters are thinking. central idea of truth. Message about life,
society, human nature.
OBJECTIVE VS. SUBJECTIVE AUTHOR:
CHAPTER 2.2 CRITICAL
 If the author never speaks in his or
her own person and does not obviously intrude, APPROACHES TO LITERATURE
the author is said to be objective. AND CRITICISM
 If the author butts in or throws his
weight around or makes comments or tells his
READER- RESPONSE
characters what to do in the story and obviously
- Focuses on the readers/ audience experiences
intrudes, the author is said to be subjective.
of the literary work. It emphasizes how
RELIABLE VS. UNRELIABLE NARRATORS: “religious, cultural and social value affect
readings.
 Reliable Narrators – when FEMINIST CRITICISM
everything the narrator says is true and the - Focuses on female representation on
narrator knows everything that is necessary in literature, paying attention to female point of
the story. view, concerns and values.
 Unreliable Narrators – exists when UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS IN APPROACH
the narrator may not know all the relevant
1.) Western society is pervasively patriarchal,
information or may be intoxicated or mentally ill
male centered , correlated and is organized in
or may lie to the audience.
such a way as to subordinate women.
 2.) The concept of gender is socially constructedbe interpreted coherently to have a universal
not biologically determined. determinate meaning.
3.) Patriarchal ideology those writings which have
- closely examine the conflicting
been considered “great works of literature” forces/meanings within the text in order to
show that the text has an indefinite array of
possible readings/significations.
QUEER THEORY
It “rejects the traditional assumption that
- A combined area of gay and lesbian studies and
language can accurately represent reality.”
criticism , including studies of variations in biological
sex, gender, identity,and sexual desires. As a result, deconstructionist critics tend to
MARXIST CRITICISM emphasize not what is being said but how
- Focuses on how literary works are products of language is used in a text.
economic and ideological determinants specific to Deconstructionists try to show how the text
that era. “deconstructs,” “how it can be broken down ...
- Examines the relationship of a literary products into mutually irreconcilable positions.”
to the actual literary and social reality of its time Other goals:
and place. 1. challenging the notion of authors’
NEW HISTORICAL CRITICISM (NHC) “ownership” of texts they create (and their
- Focuses on examining a text primarily in ability to control the meaning of their texts);
relation to the historical and cultural conditions on
and
its productions and also of the later critical
2. focusing on how language is used to achieve
interpretations.
power, as when they try to understand how
- “ CULTURAL MATERIALISM” mode of the
(NHC) argues whatever “textuality” of history a some interpretations of a literary work come to
culture and its literary products are always be regarded as “truth.”
conditioned by the material forces and relations of 9. Archetypal/Mythic/Mythological Criticism —
production in their historical era. Focuses on recurrent narrative designs,
PSYCHOLOGICAL CRITICISM patterns of action, character types, or images
- Focuses on a work as literature primarily and which are said to be identifiable in a wide
expression , in fictional form, of the state of mind variety of literary works, myths, dreams, and
and the structure of personality of the individual even ritualized modes of behavior.
author. This approach emphasizes “the recurrent
- An investigation of “ the creative process of the universal patterns underlying most literary
artist what is the nature of literary genius and how.
works.” Combining the insights from
- Theories includes Lacan and Klein.
anthropology, psychology, history, and
comparative religion, mythological criticism
7. New Criticism – The proper concern is with a
“explores the artist’s common humanity by
detailed consideration of the work itself as an
tracing how the individual imagination uses
independent entity.
myths and symbols common to different
Emphasis on “the words on the page.”
cultures and epochs (eras).”
Study of poetry focuses on the “autonomy of
Key concept in mythological criticism:
the work as existing for its own sake,” analysis
Archetype – “a symbol, character, situation, or
of words, figures of speech, and symbols.
image that evokes a deep universal response,”
Distinctive procedure is close reading and
which entered literary criticism from Swiss
attention to recurrent images; these critics
psychologist Carl Jung.
delight in “tension,” “irony,” and “paradox.”
According to Jung, all individuals share a
(Similar to Formalism or Neo-Aristotelian)
“‘collective unconscious,’ a set of primal
8. Deconstruction — Focuses on the practice of
memories common to the human race, existing
reading a text in order to “subvert” or
below each person’s conscious mind”—often
“undermine” the assumption that the text can
deriving from primordial phenomena such as
the sun, moon, fire, night, and blood, historical critics is to understand the effect of a
archetypes according to Jung “trigger the literary work upon its original readers.
collective unconscious.” 13. Gender Criticism — “examines how sexual
Northrop Frye, defined archetypes in a more identity influences the creation and reception
limited way as “a symbol, usually an image, of literary works.” Originally an offshoot of
which recurs often enough in literature to be feminist movements, gender criticism today
recognizable as an element of one’s literary includes a number of approaches, including the
experience as a whole.” Regardless of the so-called “masculinist” approach recently
definition of archetype they use, mythological advocated by poet Robert Bly. The bulk of
critics tend to view literary works in the gender criticism, however, is feminist and takes
broader context of works sharing a similar as a central precept that the patriarchal
pattern. attitudes that have dominated western thought
10. Formalist Criticism — regards literature as have resulted, consciously or unconsciously, in
“a unique form of human knowledge that literature “full of unexamined ‘male-produced’
needs to be examined on its own terms.” All assumptions.”
the elements necessary for understanding the Feminist criticism attempts to correct this
work are contained within the work itself. imbalance by analyzing and combatting such
Formalist critics are interested in the elements attitudes—by questioning, for example, why
of form—style, structure, tone, imagery, etc.— none of the characters in Shakespeare’s play
that are found within the text. Othello ever challenge the right of a husband to
Primary goal: determine how such elements murder a wife accused of adultery.
work together with the text’s content to shape Other goals of feminist critics include
its effects upon readers. The methods of this “analyzing how sexual identity influences the
approach is to locate unity within a text, “how reader of a text” and “examin[ing] how the
the diverse elements of a text cohere into images of men and women in imaginative
meaning.” literature reflect or reject the social forces that
11. Biographical Criticism — This approach have historically kept the sexes from achieving
“begins with the simple but central insight that total equality.”
literature is written by actual people and that 14. Sociological Criticism — “examines
understanding an author’s life can help readers literature in the cultural, economic and political
more thoroughly comprehend the work.” context in which it is written or received,”
Hence, it often affords a practical method by exploring the relationships between the artist
which readers can better understand a text. and society.
However, a biographical critic must be careful Sometimes it examines the artist’s society to
not to take the biographical facts of a writer’s better understand the author’s literary works;
life too far in criticizing the works of that writer: other times, it may examine the representation
the biographical critic “focuses on explicating of such societal elements within the literature
the literary work by using the insight provided itself.
by knowledge of the author’s life.... Influenced by Marxist criticism, which focuses
[B]iographical data should amplify the meaning on the economic and political elements of art,
of the text, not drown it out with irrelevant often emphasizing the ideological content of
material.” literature; because Marxist criticism often
12. Historical Criticism — “seeks to understand argues that all art is political, either challenging
a literary work by investigating the social, or endorsing (by silence) the status quo, it is
cultural, and intellectual context that produced frequently evaluative and judgmental, a
it—a context that necessarily includes the tendency that “can lead to reductive judgment,
artist’s biography and milieu.” A key goal for as when Soviet critics rated Jack London better
than William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway,
Edith Wharton, and Henry James, because he 3. An examination or exploration of the
illustrated the principles of class struggle more relationship between dominant cultures and
clearly.” Nonetheless, Marxist criticism “can the dominated is essential.
illuminate political and economic dimensions of 4. When looking at a text through the
literature other approaches overlook.” perspective of marginalized peoples, new
15. Structuralism — challenged the belief that a understandings emerge.
work of literature reflected a given reality; 17. Postcolonial Criticism — analyzes and
instead, a text was constituted of linguistic critiques the literature, poetry, drama, and
conventions and situated among other texts. prose fiction of writers who are subjects of
Structuralist critics analyzed material by countries that were governed by or that were
examining underlying structures, such as colonies of other nations, primarily England and
characterization or plot, and attempted to France, and, to a lesser extent, the United
show how these patterns were universal and States.
could thus be used to develop general Deals mainly with the literatures of Africa, Asia,
conclusions about both individual works and and the Caribbean by analyzing the interactions
the systems from which they emerged. between the culture, customs, and history of
Three main properties: indigenous peoples and of the colonial power
· Wholeness – the holistic function of a system that governs.
· Transformation – the evolution of a system as Postcolonial criticism is part of a larger field
it must not be static called cultural studies, or race and ethnicity
· Self – regulation – constancy of basic studies.
structure.
16. Cultural Criticism — The practice of
describing, interpreting, and evaluating culture.
It evaluates the literature of popular and classic
culture and breaks down the boundary
between high and low culture, and discovers
the political reason why a cultural product or
literature is more valued than others (Smith,
ed., 1992: 312-313).
It examines how different religions, ethnicities,
class identifications, political beliefs, and views
affect the ways in which texts are created and
interpreted. Cultural Criticism suggests that
being a part of—or excluded from—a specific
group or culture contributes to and affects our
understanding of texts.
Four common assumptions in the use of
Cultural Criticism as a lens for understanding
literature:
1. Ethnicity, religious beliefs, social class, and so
on are crucial components in formulating
plausible interpretations of text.
2. While the emphasis is on diversity of
approach and subject matter, Cultural Criticism
is not the only means of understanding
ourselves and our art.