TT aia Pe Le1. Anchor equipment LA Purpose 1.2 Legal requirements for the ‘anchor and mooring gear Overview off anchor gear A. Anchors ‘Anchor ean, ‘Heawse-pipes and anchor porkets ‘Chain stopper /eable stopper Winches Chain locker 2. Mooring gear Winches Mooring gear auailianies: Emergency towing system for tankers R Rigging Cables and ropes Description of common cables Load-testing equipment ‘Various parts Forces and stressesSHIP KNOWLEDGE Trane rer RON Ty Sars rf ar) set Dennen hen ep) CHAPTER 10 QUESTIONS SUI AAO EN ce T Ship wee, a mndern encyclopedia 1. Anchor equipment L.1 Purpose ‘The purpose of the anchor gear (or ‘ground tackle) isto fix the position of 4 ship in shallow water by using the seabed, Reasons for doing this can be: ~The ship has to wait until the berth becomes vacant ~ To load or discharge cargo when a port dors not have a berth for the ship, either temporarily or perma: nent. ~ To help with manoeuvring if the ship does not have a bow thruster Chain stopper with Forecastle deck 7, Guide roller Stem 8 Anchor secur Anchor pocket 9. Anchor chain Hawse pipe 10, Windlass Anchor shank 11, Control le and / or no tugboats are available «In emergency cases to avoid grounding 1.2 Legal demands on the anchor and mooring gear. A certificate for the anchor and mooring equipment is only issued after all the requirements from the Classification Society are_met. The table on the opposite page indicates equipment numbers used to deter- ‘mine the minimum weights and din sions of the anchors, chains, ropes etc. The equipment number ean be found on the midship section drawing, | the fore ship the brake band and winch operation {up or down) 12. Spurling pipe 13. Chain locker 8 for 198,1.3 Overview of anchor equipment 3 5 6 7, 8 9, 1 2 13. 14, Chain stopper, The equipment nunber (a + 2B + OAL y Ship Krovsledge. u modern enesclopedia ‘Storage part of the mooring drum Pulling section of the drum (working part) Brake band Gear box. Electro-motor Spurling pipe Chain in the gypsy wheel Dog clutch e roller 10, Warping head Haveh to chain locker Gi Guide roller, guide pulleys Fairlead hawse pipe below 15, Bollard (double) 840- 910 910-960 980-1060, 4060-1140 1140-1220 112201300 11900-1300 1309-1480 1480-1570 1570-1670 1870-1790 = displacemens (weight of the sh Fireeustle deck 2460 2640 2850 5060 3300 3540 3780 4050 4320 4590 4890 5250 1305 1440 1875 1710 1845 1980 2140 5205 2475 2655, 2835 ‘3040 3240 3495 3870 3940 440 440, 440 4675 467:5 4675 495 498 495 5225, 5225 5225 550 550 550 575 term gives the lave 40 56 58 60 82 64 1 ealeutoted with the equate laf the displacement and the curvenss on the ship. = the lateral surface of the ship fobove the water), wbieh de influence of se wis, (2 BSSSELS BLRVS Se SSE 220 dh end height, this teria which determines the infeence of frantat ines the 340 4 160 130 370 4 160145, 405 4 180 160 440 4 170 770 480 4 170 188 520 4 170 200 560 4 7 OS 600 4 180-230 645, 4 180 250 690 4 180. 270 740 4 180285 785 4 190 305 535 4 180 395 890 5 190 825 ‘940 5 190 335, 1025 5 190350 1.4 Anchors Anchors are the final safety recource of a ship, From the ancient times of the first boats, the men using them had a stone on some sling to keep the boat in position, Later developments show combinations with wood, ending in the stock-anchor with 199Pool anchor {HH Type HG "Pool 1 Half awhor (eonventional enchor! 1, Crown / shackle 2. Shank 3. Flukes 4, Crown pin 5. Crown plate 6. Anchor chain with swivel wooden stock. When propulsion or steering fails, the seafarer has to rely fon his anchoring equipment. It is therefore of utmost importance that this equipment is in good condition A regular check of the condition of the aahor itself, the crown, anchor shackle, the chain eable, windlass, brake band and anchor securing arrangements is a master’s obligation, In general, ships have two bow anchors and sometimes a stern anchor. There are two bow anchors for safety. Under normal circumstances one anchor is sufti- cient, but under severe weather conditions or in strong current both anchors may be needed. Also, if one anchor fails, the second anchor is a back-up. A ship is not allowed to sait from any port when one anchor has been lost. In general the Classiti ation Bureau may allow departure, under the condition that replacement Ship Knowledge, « modern encyclopedia is carried out at the earliest oppor tunity and that the vessel. takes additional tug-assistance leaving and centering port The stern anchor is used to prevent ships (coastal-trade for example) from rotating due to the changes in a river-current, Anchors can by distinguished as: conventional types ~ HHP-anchors (high holding power) ~ SHHP-anchors (super high holding power) Common conventional anchor ‘pes are: Spek, Hall, Union, Baldt. Spek anchors have the advantage of being fully balanced, Accepted HHP anchors are ACI4, Pool and Danforth CQR and plow-type anchors are only used on stall eraft. Various copies of accepted types are made all over the world. The conventional type is still used a lot and serves as a standard for newer types of anchor (see table) Conventional anchors are always east. Newer types can also consist af plates (or other camponents) that are welded together, If the flukes are hollow, they tend to be more resistant towards bending forces. Some anchors are fully balanced: this means that the centre of gravity Ties so low thar the anchor always. aves the water with the flukes vertical ‘This has the following advantages: an anchor recess that completely envelops the anekor can be used Bue soi hoklng force is sapped by the anchor and tthe weight of te chain The dashed lines i te desing sho i ce shie’s engi fromthe ginal enetor ~ the shell cannot be easily damaged during heaving when the anchor flukes leave the water vertically The crown phite ensures that the flukes of the anchor penetrate the sea floor, In certain types of anchor, the flukes prevent the anchor trom burying itself too deep in the sea bottom. The navy uses a specially developed HHP-anchor with an ope crown plate (bottom plate). The advantage of this type of anchor is that i1 digs into the bottom very rapidly. For dredging and offshore jobs there are special anchors which have to be laid down by anchor run boats and are certified as recoverable mooring systems, HHP-anchars are allowed 10 be 25% lighter in weight because their holding force is twive as strong as that of a conventional anchor, The SHHP-anchors can be 50% lighter in weight, because their holding force is even larger, nawely 4 times as Jarge as with a conventional anchor, However, this type of anchor is not accepted by Class for normal HAP anchor withships and can only be used on yachts and special erat, For Offshore and Dredging. spe very high holding power anchors are inuse, which have tobe lid down in position by 9 lugboal. a so-called ‘anchor run boat and also have to be lifted out by the same boat, using a separate wire attached tothe crown of the anchor. These anchors ate S/n U8 Chub Oui certified as. Recoverable Mooring System. An example of sich anchor ‘The required strength and length of |: 31d length or‘ isthe Flipper Deta-anchor. the chain can be determined withthe 2 6h length or ‘shackle aid of the egeipment numbers in the 3. 7th length or shackle” previous ble, This table also Aistinguishes two main types of advantage ofthis system is that when imaterial-quality, namely U2 and U3, the anchor is hove in, the winch Not inclided in the table are the automatically slows down when the EME cualities U2, which has become anchor chain is almost completely obsolete, and Ud, which is an — inside and stops completely when the offshore quality anchor is home. The anchor chain is composed of A D-shackle connects the anchor and lengths (shackles), each with a length the chain, swivel is usually fixed on of 15 fathom (15 x 183 = 27.5 m). the chain and allows the anchor to a - ‘The shackles are interconnected by & rotate independently from the chain. Stud tk chi enter shackle The swivel can also be connected In order o keep track ofthe outboard directly to the anchor. 1.5 Anchor chain chain-length, the paying out and heaving in of the anchor can be The chain runs from the chain locker, monitored by markings near each through the spurling pipe, via the kenter shackle. The markings can be gypsy wheel of the windlass through white paint and/or wire wound around the hawse pipe, to the anchor, ‘The — the studs. The kenter itself is red. Description of the images below anchor chain consists of links. with studs to prevent kinks in the chain. The paid out chain Tength can also be | nchor shank monitored electronically, by sensors anchor tink 2 that carefully register how many 3° gvivep ‘i times the gypsy wheel rotates. An 39 4, Open ink 5. Enlarged lnk a 6 6. Kenter shackle 7. Crown shackle 5 5 { 4 4 2 7 awa 7 1. | hl nk 1 2: locking pin a stud Dien was tcomtet th anchar wo he ea 201 Ship Knowledge, a modern eneytop202CERTIFICATE FOR ANCHOR CHAIN CABLE AND CHAIN CABLE FITTINGS tie Qingdao [31 July 2001 QBO 0150680/7 Toei Fonte Zibo Anchor Chain Factory | Chongging Marine & Industries Co, Ud. taiveu Steel Group, Hd, Ta RRR TARO Sider war or we . 7286, Teng st a od To om abo Wana a ; : | ato etiam 19000808 “iin mo he as Ct ti Ta Bc Cats Ce wl Co CaP, ead Ree, del dT “nth he ais ed Ress fie Regt Spay and ln arenes oe oe ne Ne UK Ancor nd Cham Ctl Rae 970 = So Frames 3453 Bay Sips Oi) PARTICULARS OF FINISHED GHAIN CABLE AND RITANGS ial Dame an 400 Toulon REGS ERAT naa ay Twas ena Nil Nil Nil Nuns ctalagd he Nara nia aga ngs Nil Nit End Shackle (ifeen) rt a AE ak oR Anyword serve prone OTF TS 896.0 1280.0 yes L] No Fekete each 7m eee ET] ‘Boy baw 75m eae E) Tantouh ee) OR Manutacturing proces ‘eat armen Formed Quenched and Tempered ‘MECHANICAL PROPERTIES -HINISHED CAULE AND FITTINGS teh ema mate ingle aa canunter gy | tee | trog | SY | Mane ashe ae — we | Ryne | Nye St feme 3 [ame aes TadStacke 30 [nao owe me tke Saat ‘GHEMICAL COMPOSITION - AS STATED BY MANUFACTURER Ceunamber[ ce | 58] Mos | P= | ss | ale | Ne | Ge | Gs | ee | NR [ve | Mom vaoss [032 jen 146 [osm [ooo [oo joo [007 joa7 jam [00s ‘om om | | | L L L tL Corte nore a Proat ed ond god PLS96KN UG Fe Sepia GSTS GS TS Tsrafgiun anon oiign mentee oa 31.97.2001 ee were od apa ‘Gin ae pea on aed (aww aoe inn tn eg oe el it i ea ft Rt a a a a nse r iar tn encase Reman aed ne Ship Resledge. a modern encyclopedia 2031.6 Hawse-pipes and anchor aidtion to this, the plating is extra pockets thick inthis area ‘The hawse pipe is a tube that leads Anchor pockets are sometimes made the chain to the forecastle deck. A in the bow into which the anchors can water-spray in the pipe cleans the be completely retracted, chain during heaving of the anchor. The advantages of the anchor recesses: the anchors are protected from direct contact with waves. ~ a loose anchor eannot bang against the shell (important on passer liners) = damage to the shell by Hloating ice can be prevented. = prevention of fatigue damage to the anchor itself ‘mooring wires do not get Fouled Aw iow in the hase pipe During heaving, the flukes of the anchor should be parallel to the ships shell. A collar protects the part of the ship’s shell around the hawsepipe. In (Chain stopper with tenston 2” 1, fixture 3, chain Aachea partl an pork cable stopper 4, guard Ship Knowle, « maders encyclopedia 1.7 Chain stopper / cable stopper ‘The chain stopper absorbs the pull of the chain by diverting it to the hull The chain stopper’s holding force should be min, 80% of tensile breaking stre Furthermore, the hawse pipe’s resis- tance absorbs 20% and the windlass should have a holding forve of 45% of the minimum break load. of the anchor chain, In _most types of chain stoppers, the chain runs over a roller, equipped with a tensioner. The securing consists of a hook onto which both eyes ofa steel wire are attached. This wire is put through a link of the chain and tensioned. This securing tixes the anchor in the s thereby preventing banging of the anchor inst the shell Cable stoppers are to be divided into anchor securings for when the vessel is at sea, and for when the vessel is riding at anchor. When the vessel is at sea, the anchor is held by the brake band, and a securing wire or preferably a high tensile chain, through the chain cable and attached to a sirong point on the foesle deck. ‘The windlass should not be engaged, ‘When riding at anchor the chain force fon big ships is held by a transverse, hhingeuble bar, a strong back, incorporated in the guide roller above the hawse pipe secured on top of @ flat link of the anchor chain, so that a vertical link cannot pass, The chain forces are then transferred to the ships construction, A wire as anchor securing at sea is insufficiently rong and vulnerable to chafing especially \when not lished through a link of the chain under a stud 1.8 Winches Anchor winches or cupstans are used to heave in and pay out the anchors and anchor cbains in a controlled way. The same winch can be used to operate a mooring drum. clutch is uused 10 connect J disconnect the ‘eypsy wheel or the mooring. drum to the main shaft. The anchor can be hoven if the gypsy wheel is coupled to the main shaft 204J. Mai shaft 2. Gear box 3, Electric motor 4, Warping drum 5. Drum: (storage part) 6. Drum (working part) 7. Gypsy wheel 8, Control lever for the band brake 98, Clutch with control fever ‘The winches can be powered by: ~ electricity; an electric motor rotates a cogwheel, The advantage of using, an eleetric motor is that the noise is limited, Especially on passenger liners this is important - hydraulic systems, The cogwheels are driven by & hydraulie motor, which is connected 10 2 hydraulic pump system located below the deck. Advantages of this system are that there is n0 isk of (eleetrieat) sparks and furthermore, the system seatless + electric-hydrautic. The set of pumps is incorporated in the winch instead ff helow deck. This means that there is no need for piping systems for the hydraulic oit = seam. 1.9 Chain locker “The anchor chain enters the chain Jocker via the spurting pipes. Chain lockers are high and natrow, making them sel-tsimming, ‘This means that the stacked ehain ean not fall over in bad weather. grill on the bottom of the chain locker makes sure that water, rust and mod ean fll through A (maral) bilge pump can drain the vvater Winchey om the forevusile and on the quarter deck ofa cat ferey The main shat 6 rotating, the warping su the only par ta ab The gypsy wheel ond both trams are disconneered, 1. Bearing 2. Sliding claw 3. Fixed claw Pipe quasi the chain focker Shere the end lnk connected, The whee! és osed to secure a pie dough the end lnk ap Kontedee, u modern eneyclopedia 205Windtoss with anchor securing, 1. Nest sheave 2. Hammer 3. Set pen 4. Bitter-end vonnection ‘5. Brake band lever In emergencies, the chain can be released by the bitterend relessed outside the chain locker. Possible types of chain release devices (bitter-end connection): remove the pin out of the last Tink of the chain with a hammer ‘The pin is located either below deck outside the chain locker or on deck, next to the windlass, ~ a weak link in the final joint ensu- tes that the chain breaks loose when the stress becomes t00 high. The breaking force must be less than the maximum holding force of the chain, ‘The hand wheel can be used to release or attach the chain, 2 Mooring gear 2.1 Winches = Drum If the drum is made of one part, it serves both as head (storage) and as drawing and pulling drum. These types of drums are only suitable for steel wire and certain synthetics. If force is applied to a synthetic hawser, it may not slip through the layers of rope below. IF this does happen, the rope gets foul. Sorting the rope out again takes a lot of time, IF the drum consists of two parts, then the small part is the working drum snd the ther part is the storage part. The Sip Knowledge, a meter enesctopedia Anchor windlass with mao warning head 1, Working part 2. Storage part 3. Warping end 4. Gipsy tension in a rope (with a maximum of two layers) may only be applied on the working drum. Suppose thatthe diameter ofthe drurm is 380 em, and § windings fit aext to each other in two layers, then the pulling drum can pull in 10 metres of rope. IP the MBL. (minimum break load) of the ropes is 100%, then the holding capacity of the drum is 80%, and the pulling force is approximately 1/3 of this. This rule applies to all the drums ‘mentioned. ~ warping drum ‘The warping drum is used: to heave in extra ropes, set them up and then fasten them on the bollards to move the ship alongside the quay over shont distances. If the warping drum is used, the gipsy wheels and the drums must not be coupled to the main shaft which would engage the anchor cable, + Self tensioning winehes Self tensioning winches ean be set 10 certain holding force. If this value is exceeded, then the winch automa- tically adjusts the length of wire to the new force (too much holding force: stacking; too little holding force: heaving). This system is frequently used by ships that load and discharge quickly (container ships and RoRo-vessels) or if there is a large tidal range in the port Control for ce self tensioning winch 1. Control lever for the winch 2. Cooling fan 3. Control for the self-tension seting, + capstan ‘The capstan consists of a warping «drum with a vertical drive shaft that is driven either electrically, hydrav- lically of electro-hydraulicatly. The capstan is usually placed on the aft- ship and, ifthe ship is very long, on the sides. If the capstan is combined ‘with a gipsy wheel, it can be used to control the (stern) anchor i.e. a vertical anchor windlass, 2062.2 Mooring gear auxiliaries One or more winches can be placed ‘on the foreship, depending on the size Of the ship and the preference of the owner, As shown in the picture, the warping drum, bollard and fairlead are preferably positioned in a straight Tine Hawses, leadways, guide pulleys and bollards, A rope is guided from the shore via a panama chock, through the bulwark to a bollard or winch. The panama chock must be able 1p withstand farge forces, because the direction of the rope changes inside the panama chock. ‘The panama chock must be curved to prevent wear of the rope. Roller fairleads can be made of vertical and horizontal rollers, Their function és ¢he same as the panama chock, However, the roller fhirleads ccause less wear to the ropes. Ship Knowledge, « modern eneytopedia of a tn Roller jeirlead Panama chock and voller faislead Rollers on deck serve to change the direction ofthe ropes. Bot the roller farieads and the. guide pulleys ace able t0 withstand a maximus of 32 tons of pling Force depending on the ship's size Bolfards transfer the mooring forces to the ship’s bull, The outsides of the bollards have a nose, which prevents the first few windings of the rope from slipping upwards. Above ot below this, there is an eye to which the rope stopper can be attached. The stopper absorbs the forces in the rope temporarily so that the rope can be 1. Warping head 2. Drum 3. Bollards 4, Byes to connect the stoppers 5. Guide cater (Fairlead) 6, Centre lead 7. Leadway 8. Head line 9. Forward spring Sete Bollond 1. Guide roller 2. Nose 3. Stopper eye taken off the warping drum and placed on the bollard. The double Dollar is provided with two ridges t0 prevent the rope from moving, A stopper lug fas heen fitted as rope stopper: For the non-moving parts like panama hocks, the allowed force is 1/5 of the maximum static force that this partis able t0 sustain 2071. Fite (ilament) \\ 2 tet 3. Rope yarn 4, Strand 5, 3-Strand rope 1. Head lines Rope can be made from either natural 2. Spring or symheti fibres. Nowadays, witha 2.3 Emergency towing system few exceptions, most ropes are made 1 “mE APE shows tow re for tankers from synthetic fibres, The synthetic‘ Pe composed! fibres are manufactured from mineral Some rope-types have a mantle, The In recent years @ number of environ- oil products that have undergone a purpose of the mantle is to keep the mental disasters involving tankers chemical process. The rotation of the strands in the core together. This has has shown how difficult it is to make threads is opposite 1 the strands, the advantage that the strands in the a connection whith a ship in distess, preventing the rope to unlay, Below core ean be arranged ina parallet The IMO demands that tankers with a some (of the many) types of ropes are fashion: this gives the maximum ‘carrying capacity of more than categorised according to the way they tensile strength, ‘The mantle itself 20,000 tons have an emergency have been stranded (plaited). rarely contributes to the tensile towing connection foreward and aft strength, The threads in the core need not be resistant to wear as the mantle provides the wear resistance. There- fore it is important that the wear resistance of the mantle is higher than the wear resistance of the core, A a) Sg SOY). ee seo RS ‘compact, which reduces sensitivity to wea ‘Some core-types that can be present in core-with-a-mantle-cables: Bucy of an emergency tasing system ~ braided . = stranded = parallel strands 3. Rigging = parallel threads 3.1 Cables and ropes ‘The characterises that are important when using or buying rope: General Cables on ships are used: rs ~ MBF. (minimum break force) This ~~ is the minimum force in kN needed to moor the ship and maintain its to break the rope. position and for towing. _. Elasticity. - Density. The larger the density, the heavier the rope. It is important to know whether the density is smaller or larger than 1.000 vm in other words: does the rope sink or float. = UVeresistanee. Afier several years, sunlight can degrade the rope. ~ Wear resistance. b.for the cargo gear c. in fishing and dredging ‘The cables mentioned in a, are usually made of rope and called hawsers of lines, The cables used in b. and c. generally are steel cables. ‘The later are described in more detail in the section “Uescription of common eables”. - Construction, The number of Bratt Ship Knowledge a madem enestopeia 208 i ——— CsThese graphs show thu the elasticity of polypropylene is redier dav tha af sf: At maximum le the nedyaunynfone sreicles by 20%¢ avd the polyester by 12%. strands and the way that the rape is plaived, the presence of a mantle. Water-absorption, expressed as a weight percentage of the rope. Backlash or snapback. is indicates if. in case of breaking, the rope falls “dead” on the deck, or snaps back. Rubber has a large backlash, Creep limit. This is the lengthening cof the cable in time under constant tension ‘Chemical durability. This indicates how well the rope can resist (the action of} chemicals, A knot or splice in a cable, reduce the strength by as much ay 50% TCLL-value (thousand eycle load level), This isthe cyclic load level as § percentage and as an absolate value of the maximum load under ‘wet conditions. This is the load at which a cable will break when it has undergone the load a 1000 times. For example. if the TCLL-value of a 100 tonf. cable is 50%, or 50 tonf then the cable will break if subjected {0 8 $0 tonf load a 1000 times. Ship Knowledge, modem encyclopedia - [testi fl ee: This graph shows the TCLL-values for a ‘um types 3.2 Description of common cables a, High-grade cables Polyamide Polyester Natural rope Steel cables b 4, Polyolefines f Aramide and High Module PolyEthylene (HMPE) are high-grade cables. Kevlar, Twaron and Technora are aramide brand names and Dyneema and Spectra are HMPE brands. The difference between the wo (ypes is that the aramide has a lower (thus better) creep, but aramide Toosg wine with w stretch sinks whereas HMPE floats. High- grade cables are relatively new Droducts and strengthwise they are comparable to steel cable of the same diameter. However, the price is 5-10 times as high as of steel cables. Advantages over steel cables are + light-weight easy to manage - non-conductive ~ small backlash », Polyamide Polyamide is better known as nylon, Polyamide ropes. sink (density > 1.000 Un?) and absorb water after being a few days in contact with ‘water The absorption of water adds 4% 0 the rope’s weight. This can reduce the MBF by 10%. Polyamides, have a large elasticity. A consequence of this i che backlash when parting ‘The rope sweeps over the deck and endangers the people present there Certain types of polyamides can be spliced and re-used after the rope has snapped. However, especially cheap ropes are disposed of when they snap, and a new rope is ordered, «Polyester Polyesters are very resistant to wear and very durable, both in wet and dry conditions. In mechanical charac- teristics polyester resembles. nylon, except that it is more resistant 0 wear, Furthermore, polyester is more expensive, The density of nylon (14) is lower than of polyester (1.38) and the energy absorbing 209Lodo capacity of nylon is higher, making it more suitable 10 absorb large force variations. For this reason, nylon is often used as a stretcher, to protect, steel cables from large shock loads, 4. Polyolefines ‘There are two types of polyolefine rope, namely high performance ropes and standard ropes, The difference between these two lies not justin the MBE, but also in the qualities Tike UV-sensitivity and w which increase the durability of the rape. High performance ropes. can also be found with a mantle, Poly- propylene, polyethylene and mixtures of these compounds are polyolefines. Many high performance ropes like the Tipo-eight are also polyoletines. sar resistance, Polyprop is a polyoletine-rope that is often used, Its advantages are: - it floats = itis relatively cheap The disadvantages are: - not very resistant to wear low TCLL-value pant An eye is spliced into a rope . Natural rope Natural fibre rope has been replaced ‘on most ships by synthetic ropes. In general, the only type of natural rope Still in use on ships is: manila rope. Manilla rope is manufactured from the abaea fibre that is present in the leaf stalks of the manilla plant Ship Rstedge, a mers encyclopedia Although the resistance to chemicals, i is good, the MBF is about 2-8 times smaller than the MBF of synthetic ropes. Manilla on ships is used for the pilot ladder, boat ropes of, lifeboats and helicopter-nets. The for this is re - manila is less sensitive to fire and burns slower ~ manila is rough and hairy, therefore it does not slip easily, especially when wet, £. Steel wire ropes Steel cables or wire ropes have advantages and disadvantages. They are strong, cheap, have little elonga- tion under tension, have a high wear resistance, but they are heavy, and they rust. ‘They ure used where the circum- stanees allow or demand it, for instance for hoisting and luffing wires in cranes, mooring wires for tankers and bulkearriers, anchor wires. in dredging and offshore, towing wires for fishing and tugboats. In case of fire they are not immediately destroyed, Steel wires are available in numerous constructions, depending on the requirements, There are basically two Steel tensile strength grades: 1770 Nimm2 and 1960 Nimm2. Cables are made of a number of strands, turned in a long spiral around a core. The Strands consist of a number of usually galvanised wires, For flexible wire, the core is rope, and when flexibility is not necessary, the core is steel. A steel core makes a stronger wire, Rope core when oiled, lubricates the wire, but allows defor- mation under stress and bending. Steel wires need maintenance. Regularly greasing is essential The strength is optimal when different sizes of wires are used in the strands, so that the section is optimally filled with steel, Like ordinary rope, there are right hand and lefi hand laid cables. Analogue to synthetic rope. the direction of rotation of strands and wires is mostly opposite, called ‘ordinary lay’. Other constructions and ways of lay are Cross Lay, Lang's Lay, Non-Rotating, ete, Each lay is used for spe. purpose. During the fabrication process the wires in the strands ean be pre-formed into the helical form Which they get in the finished state, to reduce internal stresses in the rope. That prevents unspinning, and a broken wire does not stick out ‘The construction of steel wite is given in a foseuula For example: Galvanised, Diam 36 mm, 6 x 36 ws + iwre, I means 36 mm diameter, 6 strands with each 36 galvanised wires, warrington seal (ws), and an independent wire rope core (irwe), Warrington seal is a means of constructing a wire rope from wires with different diameter, so that water ingress is limited, Steel wire is mostly galvanised, but untreated steel wires also exist, and for special purposes stainless steel is used, Lifeboat ted with 1967 steed wives 2106X36WS + IWRC 1960 N/MNY SSS: ‘QUALITY “galvanised WWREOFLAY ——regubrlay TENSILE STRENGTH ‘i960WV/mm BIRECHONOF LAY. «ight hand ‘TOTAL NUMBER OF STRANDS. +13 GREASING yes TOTALNUMBER OF WIRES + 265 ONReQUEsT — sanglay “TYPE OF CORE twee *ungahanised NUMBER OF OUTER WIRES +8 ody NUMBER OF OUTER STRANDS + 6 "left hand lay 7™19 ‘QuauTy galvanised TPEOFLAY = regulriay TENSILE STRENGTH, {irre N/mm? DIRECTION OF LAY. righthand lay TOTAL NUMBER OF STRANDS +7 GREASING sno TOTALNUMBEROFWIRES <5 QNREQUEST —- ungalvnives TYPE OF CORE. wie «greased NUMBEROF OUTERWIRES +36 ‘lefthand ay NUMBER OF OUTER STRANDS + 6 Standard wire ape, mutiny used in smal diteneters an winches 6X19 + FC Gay vgihanied TReOFtAY sega by TENSE sTaENGTH S7eNimm!—DIRECTONOFLAG. «righthand ay TOTALNUMBEROF STRANDS. «6 GREASING ne TOTALNUMBIROF WIRES «ne ONREQUEST —“ungatansed TYPE OF cone “hve serene NUMBEROFOUTERWRES «72 Tip tendleg NUMBEROFOUTER STRANGS = 19X7 ‘quan Goieased WOEOFLAY vs ceqularlay TENSILE STRENGTH {960m OIRECTON OF LAY ight handay TOALNUMBEROF STRANDS. “19 GREASING yer TOTALNUMBEROFWIRES +133 ONREQUEST lang vee OF coRE ose “impshaniaed NuMaeror oUTERWORES +7 ay UMOEROF OUTERSIRANDS «12 sfefthandy Ship Kronctedge, a modem enestopedia ‘Nominal Diameter (rm) 10 wa 22 Nominal Diameter (mm) 10 12 14 Nominal Diameter (com) 10 12 14 Nominal Diameter (mm) 8 10 12 14 44,7 51,0 69,8 84,4 100,0 MBF 37,6 58,7 84,6 215 (iy) 34,8 54,4 78,3 107 MBF (kN) 41,1 64,3 92,6 1263.3 Load testing equipment, All equipment intended to be used in lifting gear needs to be certified Regulations for lifting equipment and testing are internationally harmo: nized. This means that material qualities are checked, workmanship is judged and that a load test has to be carried out under the supervision of a regulating body. For ships this is normally the Classification Bureau. All the items in hoisting gear must be covered by a certificate, stating an identification and a test, The load test is caried out to guarantee a Safe Working Load (SWL) or the Working Load Limit (WLL). A crane as a complete unit is tested by lifting a ‘weight, and carrying out the normal movements like hoisting, lowering, slewing and topping. When the power to the crane is interrupted, the brake has to hold the load. ‘The weight for testing is heavier than the WLL, For the smallest cranes this means 25 % overweight, for the biggest cranes itis 5 tons more than the WLL, Individual small items belonging to the erane, such as the hook, shackles etc, are normally tested at twice the WLL. Ship Knowledge. a moder encyclopedia Testing dhe rane using water bags Testing Wifebowt devi using water bows ‘Test weights can be steel weights with a known mass; the modem variant is water bag, which can be filled with water till the required mass is reached. A certified load cell indicates the weight, Water bags are available up to 35 tons3.4 Various parts Various parts explained on these pages - End connect ~ Shackles - Turmbuckles or Bottle screws - Thimbles - Sockets, end connections End connections are needed to be able to connect a wire to something else, Often shackles are used for the connection, Es Description of the above image’ | Gaff socket with rotied connection Cast spelter socket Rolled eye terminal ‘Thimbled talurit eye Spliced eye with thimble ‘Thimbled flamish eye, swaged Wedge socket (not allowed in hoisting). Safety hook A safety hook is depicted in the figure below. It prevents the load from falling out of the hook, even if the load is resting. The book can only be ‘opened by pressing the safety pin. Ship Knowledge, a made onectopeia Say vk 1. Brand o¢ type marking 2. Chain size (chain 7/8 of an inck 3. Clas, grade 8 (high-grade steel) 4. Safety pin 5. Spring = Shackles Shackles can be divided into bow shackles and D-shackles. These can both come with or without a locking pin, Their general purpose is to ‘connect cemtain parts to each other or to the ship. The Sale Working Load bp High tensile steel shackles. To obtain this high srength, fer farsi the shackles are subjected to heat teatmens (Quenched ad Tempered) 1 Bow shackle with safety pin 2. Bow shackle with serew-bolt 3. D-shackle with safety bolt and nut 4. D-shackle with serew-bolt (SWL) can vary from 0.5 ton up 10 over 1000 tons, = Turnbuckles Turmbuckles are used to connect and tension stee) wire or lashing bars. The Doitle screw consists af two screws, ‘one with a left screw thread, and the ‘other with a right serew thread. These are connected by a house, 4 Furnbuckie ae Bote verew to tehien the foremaststey 1 House 2. Thread, one left-, one righthanded 3. Gall 4. Eye = thimbles A thimble is usually made of galvanised steel. Tis function is to protect the eye of a cable from wear and damage. Thimble 23This iv the correct was of apptving pulls part of the cabled Steel wire clamps steel wire clamp can be used to quickly make an eye in a cable. The U-bolt of the clamps should be attached to the part of the eable that is free from pulling forces. The bolts should be attached to the “dead” part, where no pulling forces are acting on the cable Steel wire clamps may not be used for lifting purposes, with an exception for guys and keg sockets to make sure that the cable does not slip. k Compass) wire clang om a eso + Sli When lifting objects, often slings are needed. A sling is a wire with at each end an eye spliced or clamped. The eye can be long or short, all depen- ding on the purpose. When the item to be lifted has lugs welded on it, a sling with talurits and shackles can be used. In other cases long eyes are more versatile. These eyes can be talurit- clamped, but better is a flamish eye, ‘with a swaged clamp. A flamish eye is a very simple but very strong splice. From a wire with an even umber of strands, the strands. are turned loose over the double length of the eye. Over that length the wire is Ship Knowledge, « modem eneytopedia wire champs to a cable (all U-bolts on the no split in 10 sets of strands, Half the ‘number of strands are laid in a bend in one direction, the other half into the other direction, meeting together in opposite direction, forming an eye. The strands are turned into each other, forming a wire. Where the ends come together a conical steel bush is placed on forehand, which is pressed to- gether, preventing the wire ends from jumping loose. The strongest sling is the grommet. A wire is turned around a circular rod, say six times the circumference, forming a cable, wherafier the rod is pulled out, and the wires, acting as strands, remain, turned around them: selves. The ends are put away inside the rope. A grommet is very flexible and very strong. The heaviest grommets, for offshore lifts, reach a calculated MBL of 7500 tons, Testing is not possible, but the MBL of the individual wires is a knowa figure, found from a breaking test of a sample. Cable-tait sting Cable-laid. slings are very heavy cables, constructed from steel cables with varying diameters, to fill the available diameter as well as possible. Eyes are spliced at each end, The built-up rope diameter can go as high as 350 mm. The calculated MBL can ‘20 as high as 4000 tons. Moder slings are fabric, Woven from modern fibres very light and strong band-type slings are made, with one disadvantage: they can easily be damaged by sharp items, But strength-weight ratios canbe extremely high, when modern fibres as Dyneema, Aramide, or other carbons are used. Very flexible and soft slings are made from Dyneema in long straight threads, not laid. inside a canvas tubing. This type of sling is very friendly to machined or polished steel objects. 3.5 Forces and stresses Some definitions Safe Working Load (SWL) or Working Load Limit (WLL) is the ‘maximum acceptable load on an item (shackle, hook, wire, derrick, crane, ete), bod: SHEL 60H? wn 2MMinimum Breaking Load (MBL) is the guaranteed minimum load at which an item, when tested to desteuction as a sample for a large number of identical items, will fal So, on average, most items will fail at 2 higher Joad. The Joad-stretch diagram below shows that the tested chain actually failed at a higher load than the MBL. The diagram also shows that proof loading by the ‘manufacturer is done to 2.5 times the safe working load, For a re: certification test, the proof load will be 2 times the SWL. Normally used figures for the ratio WLLIMBL (or SWLIMBL) are For chains: ld For steel wires and shackles: 1:5 For ropes: 1:6 or 7 = 4 nar (400 tons SWE) The gre onthe ight shows the 1O00N is lifted, and how the force in § of the angle between the components. e Wen tt angle eee 3 the \ | increase is excessive. Between 120° 2 and 150° the forces run up to I950N, § e The angle is therefore not allowed to exceed 120°. The material used for the wire does not influence the forces. Aiea engine being loudedd