Applications of military and non-military

Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAV)

George Friedrich (ID: 13038)

University of Applied Sciences Stralsund BMS SS14

Current Trends in Science and Technology Prof. Dr. Meyer-Fujara
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

Table of Contents

xii. Table of Figures .............................................................................................................................. 3

xiii. List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... 3
I. Introduction: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) ..................................................................... 5
1. History......................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Scope ....................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Timeline: Technical Development ....................................................................................... 8
II. Main Part ......................................................................................................................................... 9
1. Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Scope ........................................................ 9
2. Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Classification by important
performance specifications ........................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Classification by Weight ...................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Classification by Endurance ............................................................................................... 10
2.3 Classification by Maximum Altitude ............................................................................. 11
2.4 Combined classification by range and altitude ................................................................ 11
2.5 Classification by Wing Loading .......................................................................................... 13
3. Technology Application .......................................................................................................... 14
4. Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): military applications .................... 15
4.1 Micro aerial vehicles (MAVs) .............................................................................................. 17
4.2 Local area support vehicles (LASVs) ................................................................................ 17
4.3 Tactical area support vehicles (TASVs) ........................................................................... 17
4.4 Theater area vehicles (TAV) .............................................................................................. 17
4.5 Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Mission Reach .......................... 18
4.6 Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): scope of military and non-
military applications (U.S. based) ............................................................................................. 20
PROGRAM TRANS-ATLANTIC EURO HAWK® ..................................................................................... 27
5. Export Policy & Foreign UAV Development ....................................................................... 28
6. UAV Costing and circulation ................................................................................................. 29
7. U.S. Drone Strikes .................................................................................................................. 30
8. Civil Applications ..................................................................................................................... 33
8.1 Mission Reach: Earth Science ........................................................................................... 34
8.2 Commercial ........................................................................................................................... 36
8.3 Market for logistic services ................................................................................................. 36
8.4 Market for Internet Services ............................................................................................... 37

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Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)
8.5 News broadcasting .............................................................................................................. 38
8.6 Commercial Photography ................................................................................................... 38
8.7 Land Management ............................................................................................................... 38
III. Conclusion: Future Prospective/Outlook UAVs for Civil Applications ............................ 40
APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................................... 41
APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................................................... 42
APPENDIX C ........................................................................................................................................... 43

xii. Table of Figures

Figure 1: Classification by Weight ......................................................................................................... 10

Figure 2: Classification by Endurance .................................................................................................... 10
Figure 3: Classification by Maximum Altitude ....................................................................................... 11
Figure 4: Combined classification by range and altitude ...................................................................... 12
Figure 5: Classification by Wing Loading ............................................................................................... 13
Figure 6: UAV Military Applications ...................................................................................................... 16
Figure 7: Military UAV Missions ............................................................................................................ 19
Figure 8: DOD UAV Missions ................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 9: DOD UAV Systems .................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 10: Export Policy & Foreign UAV Development ......................................................................... 29
Figure 11: UAV Costing .......................................................................................................................... 30

xiii. List of Abbreviations

ACTDs - Advanced Concept Technology Demonstrations

AIAA - American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
AuRA - Autonomous Robust Avionics
CEO – Chief Executive Officer
CIA – Central Intelligence Agency
CSAR - Network node, Communications relay, Combat Search and Rescue
DARPA - Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Projects
DEAD - Destruction of Enemy Air Defense
DHL - Deutsche Post DHL
DOD - U.S. Department of Defense
EA - Electronic Attack
EASA - European Aviation Safety Agency
ERAST - NASA Program: Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology
ESCD - Earth Sciences Capability Demonstration
FAA - Federal Aviation Administration
FCS - Army’s Future Combat System Robotic Ground Vehicles
HALE - High Altitude, Long-Endurance (HALE)
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Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)
IAI - Isreal Aircraft Industry
ICAO - International Civil Aviation Authority
IMINT- Imigary Intelligence Sensors
IMM - Intelligent Mission Management
IR - Infrared
IT – Information Technology
ISR - Intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
iSTAR - Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and
Reconnaissance (warfare)
LASV - Local Area Support Vehicles
MAV - Micro aerial vehicles
MTCR - Missile Technology Control Regime
NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organization
OAV - Organic Air Vehicles (OAVs)
OEF – Operation ENDURING FREEDOM
(…)
OIF Operation IRAQI FREEDOM
(…)
RAE - British Royal Army Engineers
ROA - Remotely Operated Aircraft
RPV - Remotely Piloted Vehicle
(…)
SAR - Synthetic Aperture Radar
(…)
SEAD- Suppression of Enemy Air Defense
SoS - System of Systems
TASV - Tactical area support vehicles
TAV - Theater area vehicles
TUAV - (p.24)
UAV - Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
UGS - Unmanned Ground Systems (UGS)
UPS - Universal Parcel Service of North America, Inc.
US / USA
USAAC – United States Army Air Corps
USMC – United States Marine Corps
UUS - Unmanned Underwater System
UV - Unmanned aircraft
WWF - World Wide Fund for Nature

4
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

Abstract. The research project is carried out as an undergraduate desk research

program at the Stralsund University of Applied Sciences. The paper is an in-depth
analysis on military and non-military applications of UAVs classifying UAVs according
to technical features and purpose of deployment by giving a fundamental situational
analysis reflecting both global utilization and production of UAVs. Results show that
the UAVs are frequently employed in the military. Civil applications of UAVs are
humble but see increased deployment over the last decade. Implications of the
papers findings are to visualize that military deployment of UAV for the purpose of
drone strikes by the example of the U.S. An increased usage of UAV for drone strikes
will lead result in UAVs reaching the global black market for arms. The main
implication is however to show that drone strikes should be immediately restricted
and finally exhorted as of civilian casualties associated in operations. UAVs should
not be deployed commercially. This may lead to cost reductions in business but will
simultaneously raise unemployment. By way of contrast, UAVs should increasingly
be employed in civil applications, particularly for the purpose of undertaking scientific
research in environments thus far impossible as of danger imposed to mankind

I. Introduction: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), or alias uninhabited aerial vehicle, referred to as

“Drone(s)” are aircraft with no human pilot aboard nor onboard crew or passengers.
Such aircraft are capable of controlled sustained level flight and are powered by a jet,
reciprocating, or an electric engine. The flight of an drone is either controlled
autonomously (autonomous drones) based on onboard computers, i.e.
preprogrammed flight plans versus more complex dynamic automation systems
(remotely operated aircraft (ROA)) or operated by remote control of an pilot at an
ground station versus in another vehicle (remotely piloted vehicle (RPV)).
However, the trend in flying drones tends to be autonomous instead of the commonly
practiced manual control.
The purpose of an UAV, in an obsolete sense, can be obtained by distinguishing it from
its opposite, the cruise missile - a guided missile - as the UAV is recovered after
mission while a cruise missile impacts its target: UAV carry and fire munitions on board
whereas the cruise missile is the munition, which is the weapon itself.
The term “Unmanned Aerial Vehicle” (UAV) expanded to Unmanned Aircraft Vehicle
(UAVS) and was changed to “Unmanned Aircraft System”, by the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), to reflect the fact that these complex systems include ground
stations and other elements next to the actual air vehicle.1
An official definition of an UAV, denoted in the American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics (AIAA) Committee of Standards, “Lexicon of UAV/ROA Terminology”
delineates the terminology as: “An aircraft which is designed or modified, not to carry
a human pilot and is operated through electronic input initiated by the flight controller

1
theuav.com [online] UAV, Date: N/A (retrieved: 31-05-14)
5
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)
or by an onboard autonomous flight management control system that does not require
a flight controller intervention”.2
At this point, it becomes crucial to point out that the military role of UAVs is growing at
a constant rate. In the year of 2005, tactical and theater level unmanned aircraft (UV)
alone, had flown over 100,000 flight hours in support of ENDURING FREEDOM (OEF)
and Operation IRAQI FREEDOM (OIF). For the purpose of battle, small Unmanned
Aircraft Systems (SUAS) are increasingly being deployed 3 and while capabilities for
different types of UAV continue to enlarge, nations continue to subsidize research and
development leading to further advances enabling them to perform a multitude of
missions. Germany, for an example, has invested in an UAV program termed
“EuroHawk”, the first international derivative of the combat-proven RQ-4 Global Hawk
UAV. The program was however in Mai 2013, due to uncertainty of receiving a flight
certification by the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)/ International Civil
Aviation Authority (ICAO) cancelled.4

Costs of UAV range in from a few thousand dollars to tens of millions of dollars.
Concerning the size of the aircraft used, one must distinguish between Micro Air
Vehicles (MAVs) weighing less than one pound to large aircraft weighing over 40,000
pounds.5
The U.S. Department of Defense describes military based UAV missions as “the dull,
the dirty, and the dangerous”. The phrase “the dull” refers to UAV being able to survey
an area ten times larger than man would do; “the dirty” referring to the ability of an UAV
to monitor areas contained with e.g. radiological agents without putting human live at
risk and lastly “ the dangerous” referring to the suppression of enemy air defenses
(SEAD missions).6 However, a UAVs usage is not solely military based. UAVs do find
increased usage in civil applications, as Land Management e.g. Wild Life Census,
Commercial e.g. logistics, Homeland Security e.g. border patrol, and especially in
Earth Science, i.e. scientific research programs, such as Hurricane Hunting7.
However, all drones, both military and non-military, before sent on mission, are obliged
to a flight certification acknowledged by the responsible institutions as e.g. the EASA
or Federal Aviation Authority (FAA) on a national basis and the ICAO on an
international level.

2
COX/NAGY/SKOOG/SOMERS/WARNER (Date:N/A): A Report Overview of the Civil UAV Capability Assessment (p. 2) available on: <
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/111760main_UAV_Assessment_Report_Overview.pdf > b (retrieved: 03-06-14)
3
theuav.com [online] UAV, Date: N/A (retrieved: 31.05.2014)
4
defenseindustrydaily.com [online] RQ-4 Global Hawk UAV: Death by Certification, posted by: Defense Industry daily staff. Posted on: 15-03-14
(retrieved: 07-06-14)
5
theuav.com [online] UAV, Date: N/A (retrieved: 31-05-14)
6
Office of the Secretary of Defense: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Roadmap 2002-2027 (p. iv) (retrieved: 06-06-14) available on: <
http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA414908 >
7
COX/NAGY/SKOOG/SOMERS (2004): Civil UAV Capability Assessment, Draft Version (pp.4-29) (retrieved: 03-06-14) available on:
<http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/111761main_UAV_Capabilities_Assessment.pdf>
6
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

1. History

1.1 Scope
The idea of carrying out airborne missions behind enemy lines without having
causalities mesmerized war lords. Major global conflicts as the Vietnam War and the
Cold War thus led to a variety of development programs which have led to several
reconnaissance drones, as the Firebee, the first jet-propelled target drone and the
Lightning Bug, an reconnaissance drone. However, the modern UAV era has not
originated until the early 1970s, having the special ability of sending pictures to the
operator captured by small video cameras. The need for technologies to support an
emerging market for UAVs hence led to a key 1990s NASA-led program which has
initiated with industry partners shifting the potential of a commercial market for UAVs
into focus. The nine year-long NASA program delineated Environmental Research
Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST) helped to redefine UAV technology with
research on engines, sensors and integrated vehicles which would conquer barriers to
high altitude, long-endurance (HALE) aircraft. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) is currently leading a series of efforts and ongoing
developments regarding the capabilities of future UAVs. An practical example of such
projects are the Autonomous Robust Avionics (AuRA): a project focusing on
developing and maturing technology enabling aircraft to fly with reduced or no human
intervention, to optimize flight over multiple regimes and to provide maintenance on
demand. Three main components of AuRa are Intelligent Mission Management (IMM),
Integrated Systems Vehicle Management and Adaptive Flight Controls.
Another example is the Earth Sciences Capability Demonstration (ESCD), a project
oriented towards developing component systems improving UAVs functionality for
science missions.8 Concerning political engagement in usage as well as in research
and development of UAVs, Europe represents the second largest UAV market next to
America. However, the two main countries involved in the development and production
in UAV are the USA using the production prefix RQ and Isreal (which was the pioneer
for many of the current tactical UAV efforts) with the production prefix IAI (Isreal Aircraft
Industry). Both the USA and Israel sell developed UAVs to other world countries,
depending on the demand for reconnaissance or demand for battle purposes. As of
this, there is also a commercial interest for non-military UAVs. This commercial interest
has led to private developers in different countries designing and developing UAVs. 9

8
COX/NAGY/SKOOG/SOMERS (2004): Civil UAV Capability Assessment, Draft Version (pp.8-12) (retrieved: 03-06-14) available on:
<http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/111761main_UAV_Capabilities_Assessment.pdf>
9
ARJOMANDI,Maziar (2007): Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (p.6) (retrieved: 31-05-14)
7
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

1.2 Timeline: Technical Development

Before classifying UAV’s one must note the technical development of UAV’s, a series
of historical events indicating the technological progress of both military as well as civil
drones for gaining an better understanding of the setting of UAV’s role in an historical
as well as in the present context.1011
August 22, 1849 - Earliest recorded use of UAV: Austrians attack Venice with
unmanned balloons loaded with explosives (warfighting) 12
1916 – Earliest attempt at a powered unmanned aircraft vehicle: using Archibald
Montgomery Lows radio control techniques lead to the "Aerial Target"13 (airborne
counterpart of the naval torpedo14) Lawrence and Elmer Sperry created an automatic
pilot system named “aerial torpedo”, however technology was not mature which led to
a project abandonment15
1917 - First test flights of an autopilot-equipped aircraft: Hewitt-Sperry Automatic
Airplane (aerial torpedo: capable of carrying explosives to its target) alias “flying
bomb”16
1922 – First Launch of an unmanned aircraft (RAE [British Royal Army Engineers]
1921) from an aircraft carrier (HMS Argus)
03. September 1924 – First successful flight by radio controlled unmanned aircraft
without safety pilot onboard; performed by British RAE 1921 Target 1921, which flew
39 minutes
1933 – First use of an unmanned aircraft as a target drone; performed by a “Fairey
Queen” for gunnery practice by the British Fleet in the Mediterranean
"Queen Bee" is said to have led to the use of the term "drone" for pilotless aircraft,
particularly when they are radio-controlled17
12 June 1944 – First combat use of an unmanned aircraft (German Fi-103 “V-I”) in the
cruise missile role
19 October 1944 – First combat use of an unmanned aircraft (U.S. Navy TDR 1 attack
drone) in the strike role, dropping 10 bombs on Japanese gun positions on Ballale
Island

10
ARJOMANDI, Maziar (2007): Classification of unmanned aerial vehicles (p.5) (retrieved: 31-05-14) available on:<
http://www.academia.edu/2055673/Classification_of_Unmanned_Aerial_Vehicles >
11
globalspec.com [online] NEWCOME, Laurence R. (2004): Appendix A: Significant Dates in Unmanned Aviation (retrieved: 01-06-14)
12
terrorhunter.co.uk [online] Hello World, Date: N/A (retrieved: 01-06-14)
13
hosted.comm100.com [online] pilotless aircraft, posted on: 03-03-14, posted by: corlor (retrieved: 01-06-14)
14
ctie.monash.edu.au [online] The “Aerial Target” and “Aerial Torpedo” in the USA, Date: N/A, published by: SLEEPER, Phineas T. (retrieved: 01-
06-14)
15
COX/NAGY/SKOOG/SOMERS (2004): Civil UAV Capability Assessment, Draft Version (p.8) (retrieved: 03-06-14) available on:
<http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/111761main_UAV_Capabilities_Assessment.pdf>
16
uavglobal.com [online] Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, Introduction (retrieved: 01-06-14)
17
barthworks.com [online] Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, Courtesy Marilyn Monroe as a Drone Technican, edited on: 12-10-13, edited by: BARTH,
David (retrieved: 01-06-14)
8
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)
1944 – At the Van Nuys Radioplane factory Army photographer David Conover saw a
young lady, working as a drone technician, named Norma Jeane, and thought she had
potential as a model. This "discovery" led to fame for Jeane, who soon changed her
name to Marilyn Monroe18
April 1946 – First use of unmanned aircraft for scientific research; performed by a
converted Northrop P-61 Black Widow for flights into thunderstorms by the U.S.
Weather Bureau to collect meteorological data
1946 – USA uses of drones for collecting radioactive data: conversion of eight USAAC
B-17 Flying Fortresses by American airman into drones used on Bikini Atoll (Operation
Crossroads: series of two nuclear weapon tests) to gather samples from inside the
radioactive cloud19
1955 – First flight of an unmanned aircraft designed for reconnaissance; performed by
the Northrop Radioplane SD-1 Falconer/Observer, later fielded by the U.S. and British
armies
12 August 1960 – First free flight by an unmanned helicopter; performed by the
Gyrodyne QH-50A at NATC Patuxrnt River, Maryland
20.-21. August 1998 – First trans-Atlantic crossing by an unmanned aircraft;
performed by the Insitu Group’s Aerosonde Laima between Bell Island, Newfoundland,
and Benbecula, Outer Hebrides, Scotland
22-23 April 2001 – First trans-Pacific crossing by an unmanned aircraft; performed by
the Northrop Grumman Global Hawk “Southern Cross II” between Edwards AFB,
California, and RAF Edinburgh, Australia

II. Main Part

1. Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Scope

As of the fact that UAVs are used in a variety of applications based on military and civil
usage, it is difficult to develop one classification system encompassing all UAVs. One
must distinguish thus between applications based on military UAV usage, that is
military applications, mission reach, as well as the various UAV systems deployed for
achieving the latter and applications based on civil UAV usage, that is civil applications
and mission reach. However, before the differentiation, one must distinguish between
various important performance specifications.20

18
hampton.newsvine.com [online] Radioplane OQ-2 – Marilyn Monroe and the UAV, posted on: 11-04-11, posted by: larrrs (retrieved: 01-06-14)
19
airspacemag.com [online] Were drones used in the Bikini bomb tests? Published on: 02-07-13, published by:HOVERSTEN, Paul (retrieved: 01-
06-14)
20
ARJOMANDI,Maziar (2007): Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (p.2) (retrieved: 31-05-14) available on: <
http://www.academia.edu/2055673/Classification_of_Unmanned_Aerial_Vehicles >
9
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

2. Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Classification

by important performance specifications

2.1 Classification by Weight

Designation Weight Range Example

Super Heavy >2000 kg Global Hawk
Heavy 200-2000 kg A160 Hummingbird
Medium 50-200 kg Raven
Light 5-50 kg Dragon Eye
Micro < 5 kg SilentEyes
Figure 1: Classification by Weight

UAV’s cover a wide range of weights, reaching from Micro UAV’s to massive global
UAV’s. The first designation “Super Heavy Weight” addresses UAVs having greater
weight more than 2 tons (1000kg=1t), e.g. the X-45, Darkstar, Predator B and Global
Hawk. The second class, “Heavy Weight” highlights UAVs with weights ranging from
200-2000kg, e.g. the Fire Scout. The third classification “Medium-Weight” describes
UAVs with the weights from 50-200kg, e.g. the RPO Midget. Another classification is
the “Light Weight” which categorizes UAVs with weights ranging from 5-50kg, e.g. the
Dragon Eye. The last classification category “Micro Weight” addresses UAVs with a
weight < 5kg, e.g. SilentEyes.

2.2 Classification by Endurance

Designation Endurance Range Example

High >24 hours >1500km – Predator B
22000km
Medium 5-24 hours 100-400km Shadow 600
Low < 5 hours < 100 km Pointer
Figure 2: Classification by Endurance

The two parameters endurance and range, interrelated, give an overview of how long
an UAV can stay airborne, hence the larger its radius of operation. This classification
helps when choosing upon and the appropriate UAV based on how far mission object
is from the launch site. The first designation “High Endurance, High Range” indicates
UAV’s being able to stay airborne for 24 hours or more reaching from 1500km up to a
maximum of 22000km, e.g. the Global Hawk.
Medium endurance UAV’s, which are considered the most common type of UAV’s,
have an endurance between 5 and 24 hours can reach a maximum of 100-400 km,

10
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)
e.g. shadow 600 or Predator. Low endurance UAV’s can only stay airborne for less
than 5 hours. Such drones are e.g. largely used for reconnaissance missions.

2.3 Classification by Maximum Altitude

Designation Maximum Altitude Example

Low < 1000m DragonEye
Medium 1000-10000m Finder
High < 1000m Darkstar
Figure 3: Classification by Maximum Altitude

The maximum operational altitude, i.e. flight ceiling is an important performance criteria
of UAVs, e.g. military situations require low visibility to avoid being detected and
destroyed by the enemy, therefore an high altitude plays an crucial role. Also for
imaging and reconnaissance, a high altitude is required to obtain images of the
maximum amount of terrain. Low altitude UAVs can fly up to 1000m. Such UAVs are
described as micro UAVs, e.g. DragonEye. Such UAVs do not have much use at this
stage and are primarily experimental. Medium altitude UAVs, the majority, have a
maximum flight ceiling between1000-10000m whereas high altitude UAVs have the
ability to fly over 10000m, e.g. the x-45, Predator B, Darkstar and the Global Hawk.

2.4 Combined classification by range and altitude

At this point, it becomes crucial to point out that the range and altitude of UAV’s can
be classified in another school of thought, that describes nine main types, which have
been advanced as relevant at such industry events as ParchAberporth Unmanned
Systems forum, a technology park specially developed to test and trial unmanned
aircraft, for both military and civilian use (see figure below).21

21
Wired.co.uk [online] Former WW2 airfield in Wales transformed into drone testing ground, posted: 05th Novembe9uswr 2012, published by: Mark
PIESING (retrieved: 31-05-14)
11
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

I. HANDHELD (low altitude, low endurance)

II. CLOSE

III. NATO TYPE

IV. TACTICAL

V. MALE (medium altitude, long endurance)

VI. HALE (high altitude, long endurance)

VII. HYPERSONIC

VIII. ORBITAL

IX. CIS LUNAR EARTH-MOON TRANSFER

Figure 4: Combined classification by range and altitude

The nine main types differ in terms of altitude and range, increasing along the
numerical expression from low altitude, low endurance: handheld 2,000 ft (600m)
altitude, about 2 km range, close 5,000 ft (1,500m) altitude, up to 10 km range, NATO
type 10,000 ft (3,000m) altitude, about 160 km range, MALE (medium altitude long
endurance) up to 30,000 ft (9,000m) and range over 200 km, HALE (high altitude, long
endurance) over 30,000 ft and indefinite range, HYPERSONIC high speed; supersonic
(Mach 1-5) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) 50,000 ft (15,200 m) or suborbital altitude, range
over 200km, ORBITAL low earth orbit (Mach 25+), CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer.

12
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)
2.5 Classification by Wing Loading

Designation Wing loading kg/𝑚2 Example

Low >50 hours Predator B

Medium 50-100 hours Silver Fox
High >100 hours Pointer
Figure 5: Classification by Wing Loading

One can further categorize UAVs according to their wing loading capacity. The wing
loading of an UAV is calculated by dividing the total weight of a given UAV by the total
wing area of a given UAV.

𝑼𝑨𝑽 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝒌𝒈)

= 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑼𝑨𝑽 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝒎𝟐 )

UAVs with a wing loading of less than 50 Kg/𝑚2 are classified as low loading, UAVs
with a loading greater than 50 kg/𝑚2 reaching 100 kg/𝑚2 or lower are classified as
medium loading whereas UAVs with a loading of above 100kg/𝑚2 are classified as
high loading. In general, values range from e.g. the Dragon Eye with an wing loading
of 5.34kg/𝑚2 (small) to the high tech X-50 with an maximum wing loading capability of
211.84kg/𝑚2 . UAVs can further be categorized by their engine type i.e. Turbofans, Two
strike, Piston Rotary, Turboprop, Push and Pull, Electric and Propeller. Another option
categorizing UAVs would be according to Power/Thrust Loading.

13
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

3. Technological Application

An unmanned aircraft system may include a System of Systems (SoS). For example,
an Unmanned Surface Vehicle (USV) may host an Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS)
and an Unmanned Underwater System (UUS), or a UAS can provide inflight refueling
to another UAS, or a UAS may be deployed as a communication relay station for
Unmanned Ground Systems (UGS). Unmanned systems may be part of a greater
system including manned elements as well. Technology developments must assess
the impact each has across the rest of the system components or other systems.22
Airborne Sense and Avoid Systems (ABSAA) / Sensors and Displays
ABSAA development efforts focus on an onboard capability to perform both self-
separation and collision avoidance to ensure an appropriate level of safety. The work
is being done to enable autonomous action by the aircraft, or pilot-on-the-loop
operations, where the system can identify and react to conflicts. UAS sensors, e.g.
thermal sensors or infrared sensors, or electro-optical sensors must be customized to
the mission environment. The miniaturization of sensors allows additional capabilities
on smaller UAVS and/or will enable the capability to collect more information aboard a
single platform.

22
Unmanned Systems Integrated Roadmap 2013-2038 (p.84-86) available on: < http://de.calameo.com/read/000009779be1c597c68fd >
14
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

4. Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): military

applications

The military role of UAVs is growing at unprecedented rates. In the year of 2005 for an
example, tactical and theater level unmanned aircraft (UAV) alone, had flown over
100,000 flight hours in support of ENDURING FREEDOM (OEF) and Operation IRAQI
FREEDOM (OIF).23
UAV military based applications can be categorized into four main roles of mission
support, viz.: micro-aerial vehicles, local area support vehicles, tactical area support
vehicles, theatre area support vehicles.24 Crucial to note is that the operating
environment of the unmanned system is a critical factor in determining the appropriate
level of autonomy and the capability to maneuver as needed to accomplish the
mission.25

23
theuav.com [online] UAV, Date: N/A (retrieved: 31-05-14)
24
COX/NAGY/SKOOG/SOMERS (2004): Civil UAV Capability Assessment, Draft Version (p.14-15) (retrieved: 05-06-14) available on:
<http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/111761main_UAV_Capabilities_Assessment
25
Unmanned Systems Integrated Roadmap 2013-2038 (p.81) available on: < http://de.calameo.com/read/000009779be1c597c68fd >
15
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

Microaerial
Vehicles

Theatre Military
Local area
area UAV
support
support Mission vehicles
vehicles Support

Tactical
area
support
vehicles

Figure 6: UAV Military Applications

16
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

4.1 Micro aerial vehicles (MAVs)

Micro-aerial vehicles are defined by their physical dimensions, being no larger than 12
inches (.3m) in any given direction with total weights ranging from .2lbs (.1kg) to a few
pounds with payload weights on the order of fractions of pounds. Operated by one
individual remotely or autonomously, the primary use is for reconnaissance support of
the individual solider or squad of soldiers. The payload is a miniaturized camera.
Examples of these vehicles include the Black Widow, ducted fan iSTAR and the Wasp.

4.2 Local area support vehicles (LASVs)

Local area support vehicles, carried in a backpack or on a ground transport vehicle to

support squad or platoon level operations are operated by one or two individuals
generally through the use of waypoint guidance or autopilot interface and remotely
piloted mode. Total weight for such vehicles range from 5-50 pounds (2.3 -23 kg) with
payload weights from 1-5 pounds (.45 -2.3kg). Typical payloads are electro-optical
(EO) cameras and at times included included infrared (IR) cameras.
Mission objective is “over-the-hill” type reconnaissance. Practical examples are,
ducted fan iSTAR, Pointer, Dragon Eye and Raven.

4.3 Tactical area support vehicles (TASVs)

Tactical area support vehicles are operated by a crew in support of brigade, battalion,
division, or corps level commanders. Total weights range from 300 lbs (136kg) to about
2000 or 3000 lbs (907 or 1360 kg). The mission reach is reconnaissance with increased
ranges over previous classes, anywhere from 50 to 150 nm (92.5 to 278 km). Practical
examples are the Shadow, Hunter and Dragon Warrior.

4.4 Theater area vehicles (TAV)

Theater area vehicles provide support for theater level commanders. Total weights
range from 2000-35000 pounds (907-15,900 kg) [fighter aircraft size]. Mission reach is
defined as tactical and strategic reconnaissance as well as strike capability. Such
vehicles operate form an airport or carrier and flown remotely piloted or with a higher
level of autonomy. An extraordinary distinction to other UAVs is the reach of endurance
beyond 24 hours. Payloads include EO/IR cameras, synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
and in case of the Predator and Predator B aircraft, Hellfire air to ground missiles.

17
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

4.5 Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Mission Reach

Military-based UAV missions are manifold. One can distinguish between 9 diverse core
aims of military applications UAVs being deployed for, viz.: Intelligence, surveillance,
and reconnaissance (ISR) missions [predominant type], electronic attack (EA), strike
missions, suppression of enemy air defense (SEAD); destruction of enemy air defense
(DEAD), network node, communications relay, combat search and rescue (CSAR),
deviations of themes listed.26

26
theuav.com [online] UAV, Date: N/A (retrieved: 07-06-14)
18
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

Intelligence,
surveillance, and
reconnaissance (ISR)

Electronic attack (EA)

Suppression of
enemy air defense
(SEAD)

Destruction of
Military UAV
enemy air defense
Missions
(DEAD)

Network Node

Communications
Relay

Combat search and

rescue (CSAR)

Figure 7: Military UAV Missions

19
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

4.6 Classification of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): scope of military and

non-military applications (U.S. based)

In the U.S. UAV systems are subdivided into two main pillars, i.e. into U.S. Department
of Defense (DoD) missions and Civil Applications.

Operational

DoD Developmental

Other

U.S. UAV
Missions Earth Science

Commercial
Civil
Applicatios
Land
Management

Homeland
Security
Figure 8: DOD UAV Missions

20
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

Department of Defense (DoD) distinguished between operational and developmental

as well as other UAV systems. Operational UAV systems are those currently within the
hands of field units whereas developmental UAV systems are those undergoing
evaluation for eventual fielding with such units. Other UAV systems are residual UAV
systems, i.e. where the U.S. retains residual hardware of several UAV programs that
are not current programs of record but have deployed with operational units using
trained and uniformed operators in recent years; concept exploration platforms, i.e.
Advanced Concept Technology Demonstrations (ACTDs) practical examples of the
past are the Predator and the Global Hawk; and Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency Projects (DARPA) programs, i.e. developing two unmanned rotorcraft projects:
A160 Hummingbird and the 50 Dragonfly. DARPA and the Army are both exploring
designs for both Micro-Air Vehicles and (MAVs) and Organic Air Vehicles (OAVs) to
accompany the Army’s Future Combat System (FCS) robotic ground vehicles, where
a MAV is suitable for backpack deployment and single man operation and the OAV
suitable for larger system transported aboard an FCS ground vehicle.27

27
Office of the Secretary of Defense: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Roadmap 2002-2027 (p.5-20) (retrieved: 06-06-14) available on: <
http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA414908 >
21
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)
MQ-1 Predator (Air
Force)

RQ-2 Pioneer
(USMC)
Operational

RQ-5 Hunter (Army)

RQ-7 Shadow 200

(Army)

RQ-4 Global Hawk

MQ-9 Predator B

Air Force

Desert Hawk

RQ-8 Fire Scout

Neptune

Developmental Navy

DoD UAV Systems X-45/46/47

Army UCAR/DARPAR

Dragon Eye

USMC

Dragon Warrior

BQM-147 Dragon
Drone (USMC)

FQM-151 Pinter
(NAVY)
Residual Systems
Loitering Electronic
Warfare Killer
[LEWK]

SilentEyes
(Airfroce)
Other

X-50 Dragonfly
DARPA UAV
Programs
A160 Hummingbird
Concept
Exploration
Systems

Figure 9: DOD UAV Systems

22
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

4.6.1 Operational UAV Systems

MQ-1 Predator
The Air Force MQ-1 Predator was one of the first Advanced Concept Technology
Demonstration (ACTD), a program for the Office of the Secretary of Defense in 1994
and transitioned to an Air Force program in 1997. Since 1995, Predator has flown
surveillance missions over Iraq, Bosnia, Kosovo, and Afghanistan. In 2001, the Air
Force demonstrated the ability to employ Hellfire missiles from the Predator, leading
to its designation being changed from RQ-1 to MQ-1.
Weight: 2250 lb
Length: 28.7 ft
Wingspan: 48.7 ft
Payload: 450 lb
Ceiling: 25,000 ft
Radius: 400 nm
Endurance: 24 hr +
RQ-2 Pioneer
The Navy/Marine RQ-Pioneer has served with Navy, Marine, and Army units,
deploying aboard ship and ashore since 1986. The main objective of the drone is
reconnaissance and surveillance missions. Since 1991, Pioneer has flown
reconnaissance missions during the Persian Gulf, Bosnia, and Kosovo conflicts.
Weight: 452 lb
Length: 14 ft
Wingspan: 17ft
Payload: 75 lb
Ceiling: 15000 ft
Radius: 100 nm
Endruance: 5hr
RQ-5 Hunter
Originally a joint Army/Navy/Marine Corps Short Range UAV program, the hunter
deployed to Macedonia to support NATO Balkan operations in 1999, 2000, 2001, and
2002.
Weight: 452 lb
Length: 14 ft
Wingspan: 17 ft
Payload: 75 lb
Ceiling: 15,000 ft
Radius: 100 nm
Endurance: 5hr

23
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

RQ-7 Shadow 200

The Army selected the RQ-7 Shadow 200 formerly tactical UAV (TUAV) in December
1999 to meet its Brigade level UAV for support to ground maneuver commanders.
Weight: 327 lb
Length: 11.2 ft
Wingspan: 12.8 ft
Payload: 60 lb
Ceiling: 15,000 ft
Radius: 68 nm
Endurance: 4 hr
Developmental UAV Systems
RQ-4 Global Hawk
The Air Force RQ-4 Global Hawk is a high altitude, long endurance UAV designed to
provide wide area coverage of up to 40,000 nm2 per day. Global Hawk's mission is to
provide a broad spectrum of ISR collection capability to support joint combatant forces
in worldwide peacetime, contingency and wartime operations. The Global Hawk is
produced in four distinct blocks, where for an example Block 30 is a multi-intelligence
platform that simultaneously carries electro-optical, infrared, synthetic aperture radar
(SAR), and high and low band SIGINT sensors. Eleven Block 30s are currently fielded
with IMINT sensors and support every geographic combatant command as well as
combat missions in Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom/ New Dawn.
Block 30s also supported Operation Odyssey Dawn in Libya and humanitarian relief
efforts during Operation Tomodachi in Japan.28
Weight: 26,750 lb
Length: 44,4 ft
Wingspan: 116,2 ft
Payload: 1950 lb
Ceiling: 65,000 ft
Radius: 5400 nm
Endurance 32 hr

28
military.com [online] RQ-4 GLOBAL HAWK (retrieved: 07-06-14)
24
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

MQ-9 Predator B
Predator B is a larger, more capable, turboprop-engined version of the Air Force MQ-
1B/Predator developed jointly by NASA and General Atomics as a high altitude
endurance UAV for science payloads. The Predator has the ability to carry up to ten
Hellfire missiles.
Weight: 10,000 lb
Length: 36,2 ft
Wingspan: 64 ft
Payload: 750 lb internal/3000 lb external
Ceiling: 45,000 ft
Radius: 400 nm
Endurance: 24+hr
A practical example of the MQ-9 Predator B in use is the U.S. Customs and Border
Protection, which currently has a fleet of 10 Predator drones, using the unmanned
aircraft to patrol the southern border with Mexico 24 hours a day, seven days a
week.2930Customs and Border Protection also employs drones within a 25-mile-wide
corridor along the nation’s northern and southern borders, as well as over the
Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.31

29
cronkite.asu.edu [online] U.S. Set to Deploy More Drones Along U.S. Borders, Despite Concerns about Effectiveness and Cost, published by:
JONES, Trahern, published on: 24-09-.13
30
The Economist (June 22nd-28th 2013) vol. 407 no. 8841, The US-Mexico border, Secure enough (pp.37-38)
31
washingtonpost.com [online] National Security, Border-Patrol drones being borrowed by other agencies more often than previously known,
posted by: WHITLOCK, Craig; TIMBERG, Craig, posted on: January 2014
25
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

4.6.2 Other UAV Systems

Residual UAV Systems

FQM-151Pointer

Approximately 50 hand-launched, battery powered FQM-151 Pointers have been

acquired by the USMC and the Army since 1989 and were employed in the Gulf War.
Recently, the Navy used the Pointer to help clear the Vieques, Puerto Rico, range of
demonstrators. Pointers have served as test-beds for numerous miniaturized sensors
(e.g. chemical agent detectors) and have performed demonstrations with the Drug
Enforcement Agency, National Guard, and special operations forces.

Weight: 10lb
Length: 6ft
Wingspan: 9ft
Payload: 2 lb
Ceiling: 1000 ft
Radius: 3 nm
Endurance: 1hr

26
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

Concept Exploration Platforms

Silent Eyes

An Air Force effort originated as an Information Warfare Battlelab intitiative

(Microglider) has evolved into SilentEyes. Dropped from a Predator wing pylon, it
deploys stowed wings, glides unpowered over a preprogrammed route, and circles its
target returning color still images for battle damage assessment prior to impact.

Weight: 10 lb
Length: 1.6 ft
Wingspan: 2.3 ft
Payload: 5lb
Ceiling: 25,000 ft (release in glide)
Radius: 33 nm (glide)
Endurance: 20 min

For information on DARPA UAV programs, please refer to the section: Classification
of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): scope of military and non-military applications
(U.S. based).

PROGRAM TRANS-ATLANTIC EURO HAWK®

The program EuroHawk is i.e. was developed and built for the German Ministry of
Defence. The program is the first international derivative of the combat-proven RQ-4
Global Hawk. Northrop Grumman and Cassidian, global manufacturers of UAV,
initiated the trans-Atlantic EURO HAWK® program in 2000 with the goal of
developing an unmanned, wide-area, surveillance and reconnaissance system that
would bring together the companies' respective expertise in UAS and sensor
technology. A bilateral agreement between the U.S. Air Force and the German
Ministry of Defence signed in October 2001 included the operation of the HALE UAS
concept, sensor integration and the Nordholz flight demonstration program in the
EURO HAWK® development. In June 2010, the EURO HAWK® successfully
completed its first flight from Northrop Grumman's Palmdale, Calif., facility to
Edwards Air Force Base, Calif.32 However, in Mai 2013 Germany has decided to end
the Euro Hawk project, due to uncertaintiy of receiving an EASA/ICAO flight
certification.33

32
northropgrumman.com [online] EUROHAWK, Overview/History/Specifications (retrieved: 07-06-14)
33
defenseindustrydaily.com [online] RQ-4 Global Hawk UAV: Death by Certification, posted by: Defense Industry daily staff. Posted on: 15-03-14
(retrieved: 07-06-14)
27
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

Specifications
Wingspan: 130.9 ft (39.9m)
Length: 47.6 ft (14.5m)
Height: 15.4 ft (4.7m)
Maximum Altitude: 60,000 ft (18.3 km)
Loiter Velocity: 310 knots TAS (True Air Speed) vs. Landing speed of a Boeing 747 is
e.g. 135-138 at landing34
Maximum Endurance: 30+ hours

5. Export Policy & Foreign UAV Development

UAVs fall under the terms of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) (see
APENDIX A), an informal and voluntary political agreement among 33 countries to
control the proliferation of unmanned rocket and aerodynamic systems capable of
delivering weapons of mass destruction.35
Currently, more than 32 nations are developing or manufacturing more than 250
models of UAVs; 41 countries operate some 80 types of UAVs, primarily for
reconnaissance. Germany for an example, has employed CL-289s with success in
Bosnia and Kosovo. All are essentially jet engines with cameras attached which fly at
low altitude at high subsonic speed to increase survivability. Manufacturers of UAV
systems are diverse (see APPENDIX B).

34
kgbanswers.co.uk [online] What is the stalling speed in knots of a boeing 747? Updated: 03-02-2012 (retrieved: 07-06-14)
35
Office of the Secretary of Defense: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Roadmap 2002-2027 (pp. 14-23) (retrieved: 06-06-14) available on: <
http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA414908 >

28
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

Figure 10: Export Policy & Foreign UAV Development

Predator and Global Hawk both fall under Category I definitions (vehicles capable of
carrying 500 kg of payload to a range of 300 km) of the MTCR and were therefore
subject to a strong presumption of denial for export under the existing agreement.
Military based UAVs will continuously be developed by nations (see APPENDIX C).

6. UAV Costing and circulation

During the 1990’s the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) has invested over $3 billion
in UAV development, procurement and operations and since 2000, it has invested
another $1 billion and has foreseen investing $10 billion by 2010. Further, in the year
of 2002, it had 90 UAV in the field and forecasted to quadruple its inventory. 36 A
congressional research service shows that in 2010 the inventory increased to 7,500
and that DoD spending on UAS has increased to $3.3 billion with possessing five UAVs
in large quantities: Air Force’s Predator, Reaper, and Global Hawk; and the Army’s
Hunter and Shadow.37

36
Office of the Secretary of Defense: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Roadmap 2002-2027 (p. iv) (retrieved: 06-06-14) available on: <
http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA414908 >
37
GEERTLER, Jeremiah (2012): Congressional Research Service - U.S. Unmanned Aerial Systems (p.2) available on: <
http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R42136.pdf >
29
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

Figure 11: UAV Costing

Concerning the costing of an individual mission: mission conducted from the NASA
Dryden Flight Research Center, an aeronautical research center operated by NASA,
saw total cost per flight hour of $ 12,500.38

7. U.S. Drone Strikes

On May 29th 2013, an American drone was said to have killed the deputy head of the
Pakistani Taliban. Mr Obama, the President of the U.S.A made clear that drone strikes
would continue, arguing that secret, precise drone strikes carry lower risks of civilian
casualties and diplomatic fallout than attacks with conventional aircraft or special-
forces. However, drone strikes of the US carry a high amount of civilian casualties.
According to an anonymous US officials, a drone strike killed 13 civilians during a
Yemeni wedding party in December 12th, 2013. A mid-level Al-Qaeda leader was the
initial target according to officials. Since the year 2002, UAVs piloted by the CIA and
the Pentagon, overseen by Yemeni Intelligence, have killed hundreds of individuals
including members of al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, but also dozens of civilians
including children. “Between a Drone and Al-Qaeda” – a report published in October
2013, by the Human Rights Watch – found that the US carried out 80 targeted

38
COX/NAGY/SKOOG/SOMERS (2004): Civil UAV Capability Assessment, Draft Version (p.38) (retrieved: 05-06-14) available on:
<http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/111761main_UAV_Capabilities_Assessment.pdf>
30
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)
operations in Yemen since 2009.39 A few phrases passed by congress passed by
congress days after the September 11th 2001 give the president broad war-making
powers in the name of self defence. Beyond this, the U.S. government seeks guidelines
codifying standards for lethal drone strikes. The government would prefer to move
away from CIA strikes (which are secret and deniable) towards drone attacks controlled
by the armed forces (which would be more “transparent”). Mr Obama suggested new
controls, e.g. a special court with powers to “authorize killings”, or an independent
overseer with the executive branch.
The war on “terror” has lasted for long, i.e. since the beginning of the Bush-invasion in
IRAQ 2002, and shows no sign of ending. The constant spread of technology plays
thereby also a crucial role. Other countries will soon have killer drones too. America
thus needs to “specify” its “legal framework” for drown strikes.
Americas efforts in its foreign military killing operations thus have damaged its
diplomatic standing worldwide and especially, especially, to its image among
Muslims.40
The author of this paper strongly recommends the U.S.A. not only to restrict its drone
strike attacks in foreign operations but also to immediately exhort these, as the
“enemy” will in near future be also in the possession of such arms, responding with
counter attacks - “terrorist attacks” on e.g. national objectives, as for an example
9/11, resulting in an never ending cycle of the war of “terrorism”. Another argument to
stop drone strikes is the fact the country exercises not only killings on individuals
possibly associated in “terrorism” but also individuals that are not, i.e. civilians –
individuals.
In Yemen, Afghanistan, civilians killed by missiles fired by drones are assumed to be
up to 132, between 2002 and 2014. Exact numbers are unknown.41

39
aljazeera.com [online] Yemenis seek justice in wedding drone strike, published by: Rooj Alwazir, Updated:
21.03.2014 (retrieved: 28-06-14)
40
The Economist (June 1st-7th 2013) vol. 407 no. 8838, Killer drones, Out of the shadows (retrieved 07-06-14)
41
policymic.com [online] 8 Stories of Civillians Killed by U.S. Drone Strike in Yemen, posted by: AL-SHAMAHI, Abubakr, posted on: 09-05-14
31
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

32
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

8. Civil Applications
The usage of an UAV in an obsolete sense for military based operations has unlocked
new markets beyond military requirements for diverse civil and commercial
applications operated by a wide range of international public service agencies.42
In the U.S. civil applications of UAVs can be divided UAV into four sections: Land
Management, Commercial, Earth Science and Homeland Security, according to the
NASA Civil UAV Capabiltiy Assessment (2004)43.

Earth Science

Commercial
Civil
Applications
Land
Management

Homeland
Security

42
COX/NAGY/SKOOG/SOMERS (2004): Civil UAV Capability Assessment, Draft Version (p.18) (retrieved: 03-06-14) available on:
<http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/111761main_UAV_Capabilities_Assessment.pdf>
43
COX/NAGY/SKOOG/SOMERS (2004): Civil UAV Capability Assessment, Draft Version (pp.4-29) (retrieved: 03-06-14) available on:
<http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/111761main_UAV_Capabilities_Assessment.pdf>
33
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

8.1 Mission Reach: Earth Science

Missions involve both in situ and remote sensing applications. The unanimous
consensus44 among scientist is that UAV missions augment rather than replace
satellite observations. Potential Suborbital Science Missions are manifold and could
lead to scientific breakthroughs, as UAVs put to use can operate in situations that
would be dangerous for mankind. However, for the purpose of this research, only
selected missions (based on self-interest appeal) will be elaborated (distinguished
black).45

EARTH SCIENCE
Repeat Pass Interferometry for Surface Deformation
Cloud and Aerosol Measurements
Stratospheric Ozone Chemistry
Tropospheric Pollution and Air Quality
Water Vapor and Total Water Measurements
Coastal Ocean Observations
Active Fire, Emissions, and Plume Assessment
O2 and CO2 Flux Measurements
Vegetation Structure, Composition, and Canopy Chemistry
Aerosol, Cloud, and Precipitation Distribution
Glacier and Ice Sheet Dynamics
Radiation – Vertical Profiles of Shortwave Atmospheric Heating Rates
Ice Sheet Thickness and Surface Deformation
Imaging Spectroscopy
Topographic Mapping and Topographic Change with LIDAR
Gravitational Acceleration Measurements
Antarctic Exploration Surveyor
Magnetic Fields Measurements
Cloud Properties
River Discharge
Snow – Liquid Water Equivalents
Soil Moisture and Freeze/Thaw States
Cloud Microphysics/Properties
Focused Observations – Extreme Weather
Forecast Initialization
Hurricane Genesis, Evolution, and Landfall
Physical Oceanography, Meteorology, and Atmospheric Chemistry

44
Einstimmig – eine Meinung
45
For further information on other missions listed please refer to:
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/111761main_UAV_Capabilities_Assessment.pdf (pp. 22-32).
34
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

Repeat Pass Interferometry for Surface Deformation

Geographic processes associated with natural hazards as earthquakes, landslide and

volcanoes as they are manifested by deformations in earths curst, could be measured
as the UAV platform could carry an interferometric synthetic aperture radar (SAR).

Glacier and Ice Sheet Dynamics

This mission measures the dynamics of the breakup of polar glacier and polar ice
sheets. Measurements enable direct observation of the evolution in time of ice and
land topography, iceberg volume, glacier profiles and glacier channel profiles.

Antarctic Exploration Surveyor

Within this mission, a small, easily deployed autonomous low-cost aircraft platform
would provide coordinated magnetometer and LIDAR measurements allowing basic
mapping to determine ice sheet bed characteristics and ice sheet elevation. This data
would allow scientists to examine geologic controls on ice sheet dynamics.

Hurricane [Hunting] Genesis, Evolution, and Landfall

The mission objective is to accomplish observations of hurricanes, to improve

predictions of hurricane paths and landfalls, using high altitude remote sensing to
gather data on precipitation, clouds, electrical phenomenon, microphysics, and dust,
i.e. cruising on the air currents spinning through a storm, possibly even orbiting a
hurricane’s eye-wall ( 7pound approx. 3,2kg - micro drone)46.
For an example, NASA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) and Northrop Grunman grouped for a three year, experiment to use long-
range UAVs to analyze storms as they evolve. The programs Global Hawk drones
can stay airborne for 30 hours and fly 11,000 miles (17,700 km) with 116-foot (35-
meter) wingspans. This lets it reach and stay in stormy areas that manned aircraft
cannot, performing valuable surveillance.
Another example is the University of Florida, which is currently approaching the same
mission objective via employing a swarm of six inch long drones launched with a
laptop, which can be carried by wind water current as well as underwater to ride
through massive storms. Information gathered as e.g. on temperature pressure
humidity and location could lead to a scientific breakthrough without putting the
human at risk.47

46
nhregister.com [online] Drones are the newest hurricane research tools, posted on: 27-0514, published by: The Associated Press (retrieved: 01-
06-14)
47
news.nationalgeographic.com [online] Daily News, 5 Surprising Drone Uses (Besides Amazon Delivery), posted by: HANDWERK, Brian,
published on: 02-12-2013 (retrieved: 06-06-14)
35
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

8.2 Commercial

Commercial uses for UAVs can be broken down a diverse field of subcategories. 4849
In order to highlight main categories of commercial applications of UAVs, four main
markets - where drones are and will likely be employed in future - were selected, viz.:
Market for Logistic Services, Market for Internet Services, News Broadcasting and
Market for Commercial Photography/Cost Watch.

Market for Logistic

Services

Market for
Internet Services

Commercial
Applications
Market for News
Broadcasting

Market for
Commercial
Photography/Cost
Watch/Land
Management

8.3 Market for logistic services

A practical example is the market for logistic services. Drones could allow businesses
to deliver products to customers without having to send (or even to hire) an employee
for carrying out the labor, e.g. Amazon.com,Inc. an American international electronic
commerce company, announced a drone delivery initiative “ 60 Minutes “. The
company is testing drones that could deliver packages in as little as half an hour after
an online purchase. With the help of buckets, the drones are designed to handle loads
of up to five pounds, which account for about 86 percent of Amazon deliveries.
However, the process being reviewed by the Federal Aviation Authority (FAA) the
national aviation authority of the United States. Jeff BEZOS, founder and CEO, is
however confident that the drones will take off in the next 4-5 years.50 In response to
the announcement of BEZOS drone initiative, Universal Parcel Service of North
America, Inc. (UPS) one of the largest shipment and logistics companies in the world,
has announced researching delivery drones that could compete with Amazon, that is
an own version of flying parcel carriers. In an article of the year of 2013, a company
spokes-man said that “The commercial use of drones is an interesting technology and
we’ll continue to evaluate it. UPS invests more in technology than any other company
48
boston.com [online] Business, 7 commercial uses for drones, posted by: DUSSAULT, Joseph, posted on: 14-03-14 (retrieved: 06-06-14)
49
news.nationalgeographic.com [online] Daily News, 5 Surprising Drone Uses (Besides Amazon Delivery), posted by: HANDWERK, Brian,
published on: 02-12-2013 (retrieved: 06-06-14)
50
intellitrack.net [online] IntelliTrack Blog, Date: N/A (retrieved: 06-06-14)
36
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)
in the delivery business, and we’re always planning for the future”. Apart from this,
founder of FedEx, an American global courier delivery services company, Fred SMITH
has also spoken repeatedly about to move to a fleet of unmanned aircraft, something
he believes could generate major cost savings.51
In the year of 2013, Deutsche Post DHL, the world’s largest courier company, has also
tested an UAV (small helicopter) flying a package of medicine from a pharmacy from
Bonn to Deutsche Post DHL headquarters on the other side of the Rhine River.
However, Deutsche Post DHL has no plans yet to start actual drone deliveries. 52
Also in the year of 2013, Domino’s Pizza an American international franchise pizza
delivery, has addressed the drone delivery initiative by showing an eight-rotor
Domicopter carrying Pizzas over the English countryside in a video on YouTube.53

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-CYT4PFV_Hs&safe=active]

8.4 Market for Internet Services

In the year of 2031, an U.S. start-up based solar product company Titan Aerospace
unveiled designs for the world’s first solar-powered atmospheric satellite termed
“Solara 50”. The UAV, 15 meters in length with a wingspan of 50 meters (solar panels:
over 3,000 photovoltaic cells capable of generating up to 7 kilowatts spread over wings)
and with a payload of just 70 pounds, having a single, high-efficiency motor it would
be completely powered by solar energy staying airborne for five years with a mission
range of over 4 million kilometers, positioning itself in Earth's atmosphere between
60,000 and 70,000 feet, above nearly all weather patterns in a zone where winds are
typically less than 5 knots (5.75 miles/hour) allowing the sun to charge its solar
batteries. The drone would be able to perform tasks usually reserved for satellites at a
much lower cost. The drone would be utilized for multiple application e.g. for
multispectral Earth imagery; comparing Landsat's to using an atmospheric satellite, a
drone could be put up quickly, for much less initial capital. At the same time, it would
provide targeted imagery at a cost of less than $5 per square kilometer—versus $35
per square kilometer from a satellite—while still offering the large area of coverage of
a satellite.
Another application would be mobile communications; providing coverage for 17,800
𝑘𝑚2 enabling one individual Solara platform provide a greater reach than100 terrestrial
cell towers.
The Solara offers about an 18-mile radius of coverage, e.g. easily covering New York
City’s five boroughs. 5455
Facebook, an online social networking service, has announced plans to acquire Titan
Aerospace (2014) with the aim to provide wireless internet to remote parts of the world
using the Solara to act as movable wireless access point. However just after Facebook
announced its acquisition plans in public, Google Inc. an American multinational
corporation specializing in internet-related services in products purchased the solar
drone manufacturer for an undisclosed sum.56

51
theverge.com [online] UPS researching delivery drones that could compete with Amazon’s Prime Air, published by: POPPER, Ben, published
on: 03-12-13 (retrieved: 06-06-14)
52
dw.de [online] Drones, Deutsche Post DHL tests delivery drone, published: 09-12-13 (retrieved: 06-06-14)
53
news.yahoo.com [online] The Sideshow, Domino’s carries out world’s first pizza drone delivery, published by: PFEIFFER, Eric, published on: 04-
06-13 (retrieved: 06-06-14)
54
gogreenner.wordpress.com [online] World’s First Solar Powered Atmospheric Satellite Drones, posted on: 02-12-13, posted by: andrew994
55
arstechnica.com [online] Almost orbital, solar-powered drone offered as “atmospheric satellite”, posted on: 08-18-13, posted by: GALLAGHER,
Sean (retrieved: 06-06-14)
56
cnet.com [online] Google buys solar-powered drone company Titan Aerospace, posted by: STATT, Nick, posted on: 14-04-14 (retrieved: 06-06-
14)
37
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

8.5 News broadcasting

The market for news broadcasting also increasingly deploys drones for acquiring
footage as UAVS – equipped with cameras – can fly lower into smaller areas than
larger manned aircraft. Instead of wide aerial shots of the freeway in a high speed
chase, viewers could get a view into the driver’s side window of a speeding car on the
local news.

8.6 Commercial Photography

Commercial photography may benefit from civil UAVs. Using UAVs- real estate agents
could get aerial shots of a property, and festival organizers for an example could
conduct accurate headcounts using overhead photos. Another example would be the
market for cost watch, e.g. within the agricultural industry, where large scale farmers
could utilize aerial views from UAVs to monitor crop growth and crop dusting.
Other institutions/firms or application areas using UAVs in an commercial sense are
for an example Aerovironment, General Atomics, NavTech/JohnDeere, Caterpillar or
the U.S. Department of Commerce (National Institute of Standards and Technology
[NIST]).57

8.7 Land Management

Land Management covers activities based on managing human-environmental

interactions. Its mission operations are diverse and involves communications of people
and institutions.

LAND MANAGEMENT
Forest Fire Mapping
Forest Fire Communications
Forest Fire Damage Assessment
Forest Fire Retardant Application
Wild Life Census
Animal Tracking
Invasive Plant Assessment

57
COX/NAGY/SKOOG/SOMERS/WARNER (Date:N/A): A Report Overview of the Civil UAV Capability Assessment (p.5) available on: <
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/111760main_UAV_Assessment_Report_Overview.pdf > b (retrieved: 04-06-14)
38
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)
Forest Fire Mapping/Communications/Damage Assessment
Forest Fire Mapping mission determines the location of active fires in support of fire-
fighting agencies.
Forest Fire Communications mission provides a communications relay between the
field commander center and personnel in the field fighting the fire.

The Forest Fire Damage Assessment mission then determines the level of damage to
an area following a fire.

Wild Life Census/ Animal Tracking

Wild Life Census mission is to conduct aerial surveys of wildlife species of interest to
estimate population size, composition, distribution, and status. The Animal Tracking
mission on the other hand monitors thousands of animals through radio transmitters
from a fixed wing aircraft collecting data such as, viz.: location of animal, topography
and vegetation at location.
Another example: "The Department of the Interior, the Bureau of Land Management,
and the United States Geological Service for an example use UAVs as small Ravens,
to monitor wildlife populations. Drones are also used in the fight against poaching. The
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) an international non-governmental organization
working on issues regarding conservation, research and restoration of the environment
plans to launch (2013) (or has launched) surveillance drone in Africa, where poaching
is driving iconic species like rhinos toward extinction and is fuelling a massive illegal
trade in wildlife items like horns and ivory.58

Homeland Security

Homeland security has the mission to secure the nation from threats faced. 59One
example of homeland security is coastal patrol – a U.S. Coast Guard Surveillance
Mission of maritime traffic of the shores of the USA (east & west coast, Alaska &
Hawaii) where missions traverse coastal waters 50- miles (106.5-1065km).
Another example is the surveillance patrol at the U.S. – Mexico border - combating
drug smuggling and human trafficking, illegal immigration (surveillance drone Predator
B drone).60

58
news.nationalgeographic.com [online] Daily News, 5 Surprising Drone Uses (Besides Amazon Delivery), posted by: HANDWERK, Brian,
published on: 02-12-2013 (retrieved: 06-06-14)
59
dhs.gov/about-dhs [online] About DHS (retrieved: 05-06-14)
60
themonitor.com [online] Aerial surveillance drone to start patrolling border today, published on: 31-08-10, published by: JANES, Jared (retrieved:
01-06-14)
39
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

III. Conclusion: Future Prospective/Outlook UAVs for Civil

Applications

Technology of UAVs have advanced much over the last decade, which has allowed
non-military applications to emerge. Contemporary, only government agencies, a few
public universities and a handful of private firms hold a limited amount of UAVs
approved by the FAA to fly private.
Technology is thus evolving rapidly challenging regulatory authorities to keep pace with
needed rules and regulations.61
There is however a concern that such UAVs may interfere with commercial and military
manned aircraft. Therefore high tech collision avoidance systems are being developed
and integrated into UAV’s flying in populated airspace.
Utilizing UAVs for civil applications, as in the free economy, non-military based UAV’s
could lead to major cost reductions.
If UAVs were to be implemented into business operations to facilitate functioning of
business departments, e.g. logistics to cut cost structures, especially within those of
courier companies human labor will increasingly be unemployed as the dispositive
factor would be replaced by the derivative factor of production, i.e. technology. This
could thus drive up unemployment rates
Non-military based UAVs utilized for civil applications such as in science a pose a
major advantage. UAVs employed for science facilitate scientific research applications
which could possibly lead to scientific breakthroughs as information gathered by UAVs
supplement only limited information gathered by mankind as of safety reasons for
scientific applications of UAVs.
On the other hand, military based UAVs also facilitate operations in terms of human
safety and strategic information enhancements and tactical operations in military
applications, bettering the strategic positioning of an individual nation.
However, drones frequently employed by military, especially by the U.S. military in
foreign operations, could and most likely will result in the fact that “the enemy” will use
the same weaponry against its attacker when UAVs e.g. will reach or have already
reached the global black market for arms. This inevitably will lead to counter attacks
by defenders at the national level which are frequently being described as “terrorist
assaults” in communal politics (local, regional dimensions).
The author of this paper strongly recommends the U.S.A. not only to restrict its drone
strike attacks in foreign operations but also to immediately exhort these, as the “enemy”
will in near future be also in the possession of such arms, responding with counter
attacks - “terrorist attacks” on e.g. national objectives - as for an example 9/11,
resulting in an never ending cycle of the war of “terrorism”. Another argument to stop
drone strikes is the fact the e.g. the U.S. exercises not only killings on individuals
possibly associated but also individuals that are not, i.e. civilians – individuals.

61
Unmanned Systems Integrated Roadmap 2013-2038 (p.91) available on: < http://de.calameo.com/read/000009779be1c597c68fd >
40
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)
APPENDIX A

41
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

APPENDIX B

42
Applications of military and non-military Unmanned Aircraft (UAV)

APPENDIX C

43