UNIT - 2

S Parameters: Scattering parameters, properties of S matrix, Operation and applications of Wave

guide Tee, Hybrid Tee, Hybrid rings (rat-race), attenuators, matched load, waveguide corners,
bends and twists. Operation, applications and S-matrix derivation for Directional couplers,
Circulators and Isolators.
Microwave Measurements: VSWR, power, frequency, impedance, scattering parameters and
dielectric constant measurements. Antenna radiation pattern and gain measurements.

RECOMMENDED READINGS
Text Books
1. Samuel Y. Liao, ―Microwave devices and circuits‖, Third Edition, Pearson Education,
2003.
2. Annapurna Das and Sisir K. Das, ―Microwave Engineering‖, Tata McGraw Hill, 2004

2.1 INTRODUCTION
 A microwave network is formed when several microwave devices and components such as
sources, attenuators, resonators, filters, amplifiers, etc., are coupled together by transmission
lines of waveguides for the desired transmission of a microwave signal. The point of
interconnection of two or more devices is called a junction.
 At low frequencies the physical length of the network is much smaller than the wavelength of
the signal transmitted. Therefore, the measurable input and output variables are voltage and
current which can be related in terms of the impedance Z-parameters or admittance Y-
parameters or hybrid h-parameters or ABCD parameters.
 Measurement of Z, Y h, ABCD parameters are difficult at microwave frequencies due to the
following reasons.
 Non-availability of terminal voltage and current-measuring equipment.
 Short circuit and especially open circuit are not easily achieved for a wide range of
frequencies.
 Presence of active devices makes the circuit unstable for the short or open circuit.
Therefore, microwave circuits are analyzed using scattering or S-parameters.

2.1.1 Advantages of [S] Over [Z] or [Y]

1. In microwave techniques, the source remains ideally constant in power, regards of circuit
changes besides frequency measurement the only other possible measurement
parameters are VSWR, power and phase. These essentially direct correspondences are
not possible with [Z] &[Y] representation.
2. The unitary property of [S] helps a quick check of power balance for lossless structures.
No such immediate check is possible with [Z] or[Y].
3. [S] is defined for a given set of reference plane only. If the reference planes are changed
the S coefficients vary only in phase. This is not the case in [Z] or[Y], because voltage
and current functions of complex impedance & both magnitude and phase change in [Z] &
[Y].
2.2 SCATTERING OR S-MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF MULTIPORT NETWORK

2.2.1 Definition
The scattering matrix of an m-port junction is a square matrix of a set of elements which
relate incident and reflected waves at the port of the junction. The diagonal elements of the s-
matrix represent reflection coefficients and off diagonal elements represent transmission
coefficients.

2.2.2 Explanation
The incident and reflected amplitude of microwave at any port are used to characterize a
microwave circuit. The amplitudes are normalized in such a way that the square of any of these
variables gives the average power in that wave I the following manner:
Input power at the nth port is given as,

Reflected power at the nth port is given as,

Where and represent the normalized incident wave peak amplitude and normalized reflected
wave peak amplitude at the nth port.

In a two port network we can express the normalized waves in terms of normalized voltages:

(2.1)

(2.2)

Where a’s represent normalized incident wave amplitude and b’s represent normalized
reflected wave amplitude at the corresponding ports. Here the total voltage wave is the sum of
incident and reflected voltage waves and respectively,
(2.3)
(2.4)
The numeric suffices represent the port number. The total or net power flow into any port is
given by,
(2.5)
Therefore, in this normalization process, the characteristics impedance is normalized to unity.
For a two-port network the relation between incident and reflected waves are expressed in terms of
scattering parameters Sij’s
b1 = S11 a1 + S12 a2. (2.6)
b2 = S21 a1 + S22 a2. (2.7)
The normalization process leads to symmetrical scattering matrix for reciprocal structures.
The physical significance of S-parameters can be described as follows:
S11= (b1/a1)|a2=0  reflection coefficient at port 1 when port 2 is terminated with matched
load (a2=0).
S22= (b2/a2) |a1=0 reflection coefficient of port 2 when port 1 is terminated with matched
load (a1=0).
S12= (b1/a2) |a1=0 transmission coefficients from port 2 to port 1.
 S21= (b2/a1)|a2=0  transmission coefficients from port 1 to port 2.

In general, since the incident and reflected waves have both amplitude and phase, the S-
parameters are complex numbers.
For a multiport (N) networks or components, the S-parameter equation are expressed by,
[b] = [s] [a] (2.8)

For n-port network,

(2.9)

In microwave devices or circuits it is important to express several losses in terms of S-

parameters when the ports are matched terminated.
In a two-port network if power fed at port 1 is Pi, power reflected at the same port is Pr and
the output power at port 2 is Po, then following losses are defined in terms of S-parameters:
(2.10)

(2.11)

(2.12)

(2.13)

(2.14)
2.3 PROPERTIES OF S MATRIX
1) Zero diagonal element for perfect matched network
For an ideal N-port matched network with matched termination at all ports, Sii=0, since there is
no reflection from any port. Therefore, under perfect matched conditions, the diagonal elements
of [S] are zero.
2) Symmetry of [S] For a Reciprocal Network
A reciprocal device has the same transmission characteristics in either direction of a pair of
ports and is characterized by a symmetric scattering matrix
Sij=Sji (i=j) (2.15)
Which results [St]=[S]. This property is known as symmetry property of S-matrix.
Proof
The impedance Z of a network is given by
[V] = [Z][I] (2.16)
The average power flowing in to the port n may be evaluated using the following relation
an = Vn+ / (2.17)
bn = Vn- / (2.18)
Where, Vn+ = incident
Vn- = outgoing wave
Using above relation Vn and In can be written as
Vn = (Vn+) + ( Vn-) = (an + bn) (2.19)
In = {(Vn+) + (Vn-)} / Z0 =(an – bn)/ Z0 (2.20)
Substituting equation (2.14) & (2.15) in equation (2.13)
[V+] + [V-] = [Z] (⅟ Z0) ([V+] – [V-])
= [Z1] ([V+] – [V-]) (2.21)
Where, Z1= [Z] / Z0
Equation (6) can be written as
{([Z1] + [U] ) [V-] } = {( [Z1] – [U] ) [V+] }
Since (Z1 + U)(V-) = (Z1 – U)(V+)
Where, [U] is the unity matrix.
[V-] = [V+] { ( [Z1] – [U] ) / ( [Z1] + [U]) }
[V-] = ( [Z1] – [U] ) { 1/ ([Z1] + [U]) } [V+]
[V-] = [S] [V+] (2.22)
Where,
[S] = ( [ Z1] – [U] ) {1/ ( [Z1] + [U] )
Writing transpose of [S] ,
[St] = ( [Z1] – [U] )t {1/([Z1] + [U]) }t
As [Z1] and [U] are symmetrical matrixes,
{ 1/([Z1] + [U]) }t = 1/( [Z1]+ [U] )
( [Z1] – [U] )t = ( [Z1] – [U] )
Hence,
[S] = [St]. (2.23)
This indicates that scattering matrix [S] is Symmetrical.
3) Unitary Property for a Lossless Junction
For any lossless network the sum of the products of each term of any one row or of any column
of the S matrix multiplied by its complex conjugate.

For lossless n port device, the total power rating, N port must be equal to the total power input to
these ports. The mathematical statement for this power conservation condition is,
= (2.24)
The relationship between bn and an for two port network may be return as
[b] =[S] [a] (2.25)
Using above relations bn =
sub (2.22) in (2.21)
(2.26)
th
If only i port is executed and all other ports are matched terminated, all an=0 except ai, so that,
= (2.27)
= 1
ie (2.27)
The above equation states that for a lossless network the product of any column of the
scattering matrix with the conjugate of this column equals UNITY. If all an=0 except ai & ak
; for i≠k
This equation states that the product of any column of the scattering matrix with the complex
conjugate of any other column is zero. In matrix notation, the relations are expressed as
[S*] [S]t = [U]
 [S*] = (2.28)
[U] = Unit matrix. A matrix [S] for lossless network which satisfies the above three conditions is
called unitary matrix.
Shifting of reference planes in two port network
(b) Phase shift property
Complex S-parameters of a network are defined with respect to the position of the port (or)
reference planes. For a two port network with unprimed reference planes 1 and 2
( ) = ( ) .( ) (2.29)
Where a1 a2 are incident waves & b1, b2 are out going waves
S-matrix for any network when the reference plane for one of its ports is shifted away along the
transmission line is given by (in fig, shifted reference is mentioned as )
( ) = ). ( ) (for lossless network)

( ) = ( ). ( ) (2.30)
Where, l1 l2 = path length.
β 1 β 2 =phase constant.

This property is valid for any number of ports and is called the phase shift property applicable to
shift of reference planes. The resultant MATRIX is
( ) = ( ) . (S) . ( ) (2.31)
4) Zero property of S matrix
The sum of products of each term of any column (or row) multiplied by the complex conjugate of
the corresponding terms of any other column(or row) as zero and as
S11 + S21 =0 (2.32)
b1 = S11 a1 + S12 a2
b2 = S21 a1 + S22 a2
2.4 WAVEGUIDE TEE
 Tees are junctions having three or more ports. Waveguide tees are used for the purpose of
connecting a branch section of waveguide in series or parallel with main waveguide.
 There two basic types based on the axis of the side arm. They are:
 E-plane (series) tee – parallel to E field in the collinear arms
 H-plane (shunt) tee – parallel to H field in the collinear arms
 Because of junctions, waveguides tees are poorly matched device. For matching reactance,
tuning screws are used.

2.4.1 E-PLANE TEE

 All the arms of E-plane tee lie in the plane of electric field which divide among the arms as
shown in figure 2.1 below:
 Figure 2.1: E- plane Tee
 The E-plane tee is a voltage or series junction. Each junction is symmetrical about the central
arm so that the signal to be split up is fed from it.
 The propagation of an E-field through tee junction when electromagnetic waves in TE10
mode.
 Due to the junction’s symmetry, the power delivered to port 1 and 2 are the same. Also the
electric fields at the two outputs are 180o out of phase.
 When powers P1 and P2 are applied to port 1 and port 2 respectively and if magnitude and
phase of P1 and P2 are same then power at P3 is zero.
 Scattering matrix [S] of E-plane tee is 3x3 matrixes since there are 3 ports.

(2.33)

 When port 3 is perfectly matched S33 = 0

and (2.34)

Therefore, S-matrix is given as

(2.35)

2.4.2 H-Plane Tee

 H-Plane Tee is so called because the axis of the side arm is parallel to the planes of H-field
of the main transmission line. As all three arms of H-plane tee lie in the plane of magnetic
field the magnetic field divides itself into the arms, therefore it is a current junction. Figure 2.2
shows H-plane tee.

Figure 2.2: H-Plane Tee

 If the H-plane junction is completely symmetrical and the electromagnetic wave enters
through the side arm, the wave that comes out from main arms are equal in magnitude and
phase i.e the input power of port 3 is equally split into ports 1 and 2.
 When the same input powers are applied at ports 1 and 2 the output power at port 3 is sum of
input powers.
  Scattering matrix of H-plane Tee is

(2.36)

Applications of E-plane and H-plane tee

 The E and H plane tees are used for impedance matching purposes. Also these are
employed for splitting the power and summing the power.

2.4.3 MAGIC TEE

 A magic Tee is a combination of an E-plane and H-plane tee. It acts as a 4-port hybrid circuit.
It is also called as Hybrid Tee. Figure 2.3 below shows magic tee.

Figure 2.3: Magi Tee

Characteristics of magic tee
 If two waves of equal magnitude and the same phase are fed into port-1 and port-2, the
output will be zero at port-3 and additive at port-4.Hence, the port 3 is called the difference or
E-arm and 4, the sum or H-arm.
 If a wave is fed into port-4 (H-arm), it will be divided equally between port-1 and port-2 of the
collinear arms in phase and will not appear at port-3.
and S34 = 0 (2.37)
 If a wave is fed into port-3 (E-arm)), it will produce an output of equal magnitude but in
opposite phase at port-1 and port-2. The output at port-4 is zero.
and S34 = 0 (2.38)
 If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at port-1 or port-2, it will not appear in the other
collinear arm at port-2 or port-1. Hence two collinear ports 1 and 2 are isolated from each
other (because the E-arm causes a phase delay while the H-arm causes a phase lead).
(2.39)
 Magic Tee is symmetrical about an imaginary plane bisecting arms port-3 and port-4.
 If port-1 and 2 are terminated in matched loads and no reflections take place inside the
junction, entrance of power through either port 3 or 4 results in equal power delivery to arm 1
and 2. Reflections may take place due to severe discontinuities in the junction.
 S matrix of Magic tee
The S-matrix of a magic Tee is given by,

(2.40)

For an ideal lossless magic-T matched at Ports3 and 4, S33 = 0, S44 = 0.

By the symmetry property,

(2.41)

Then S-matrix is given by,

(2.42)

From the unitary property to rows 1 and 2, we get,

(2.43)
(2.44)
Subtracting the above equations, we get,
(2.45)

From the unitary property applied to rows 3 and 4, we get,

(2.46)

Substituting these values n equation (2.25), we get,

(2.47)

Therefore S-matrix becomes

(2.48)

Applications of magic Tee

1. As an isolator
2. As a matching device
3. As a phase shifter
4. As duplexer
5. As mixer

2.5 HYBRID RING

S-matrix for a matched magic-T with collinear ports 1 and 2, E and H ports 4 and 3
respectively,
 (2.49)

When all the reference plans are moved away from the junction by without altering
the isolation property between 1, 2, 3 and 4,

(2.50)

The new S-matrix becomes

(2.51)

Here, For a lossless network, the unitary

property of gives:

Now,
By associative property of matrix operations

S that,

(2.52)

Thus the admittance matrix may be synthesized by lines for the positive coefficients and
3 lines for the negative coefficients of admittance:
(2.53)
Here, the self-admittances y11, y22, y33 and y44 = 0, since y12 = y34 = 0 and y21 = y43 = 0, there
is no direct element between ports 1 and 2 and between ports 3 and 4. The following elements are
required to be inserted:
Between Ports 1 and 3, a element of normalized characteristics admittance
Between Ports 1 and 4, a element of normalized characteristics admittance
Between Ports 2 and 3, a element of normalized characteristics admittance
Between Ports 2 and 4, a element of normalized characteristics admittance
A schematic circuit and its practical realization in coaxial line form is shown in figure 2.4
below.

Figure 2.4: Hybrid ring or Rat-race

2.6 ATTENUATOR
 A passive device used to control the amount of microwave power transferred from one point
to another on a microwave transmission system by absorbing the transmitted signal wave is
called microwave attenuator.
 Attenuators can be classified as fixed or variable type.
2.6.1 Fixed Attenuator
 Fixed attenuators are used where fixed amount of attenuation is required.
 Fixed attenuator consists of a thin dielectric strip coated with resistive film and placed at the
center of the waveguide parallel to the maximum E field. Induced current on the resistive film
due to the incident wave results in power dissipation, leading to attenuation of microwave
energy.
 The dielectric strip is tapered at both ends up to a length of more than half wavelength to
reduce reflections.
 The resistive vane is supported by two dielectric rods separated by an odd multiple of quarter
wavelength and perpendicular to the electric field
Figure 2.5 shows side view of fixed attenuator in a waveguide.

Figure 2.5: Fixed Attenuator

 The amount of power that a fixed attenuator can absorb depends on
a. Strength of dielectric field.
b. Location of pad within waveguide.
c. Area of pad.
d. Frequency of operation.
e. Pad material used for power absorption.
2.6.2 Variable Attenuator
 A variable-type attenuator can be constructed by moving the resistive vane by means of
micrometer screw from one side of the narrow wall to the center where the E field is
maximum or by changing the depth of insertion of a resistive vane at an E field maximum
through a longitudinal slot at the middle of the broad wall as shown in figure 2.6
 A maximum of 90 dB attenuation is possible with VSWR of 1.05.
 The resistance card can be shaped to give a linear variation of attenuation with the depth of
insertion.
 Figure 2.6: Variable Attenuator
 A precision-type variable attenuator makes use of a circular section (C) containing a very thin
tapered resistive card (R2), to both sides of which are connected axisymmetric sections of
circular-to-rectangular waveguide tapered transitions (RC1 and RC2) as shown in figure 2.6
 The center circular section with the resistive card can be precisely rotated by 360o with
respect to the two fixed sections of circular to rectangular waveguide transitions. The induced
current on resistive card R2 due to the incident signal is dissipated as heat producing
attenuation of the transmitted signal.
 The incident TE10 dominant wave in the rectangular waveguide is converted into a dominant
TE11 mode in the circular waveguide.
 Avery thin tapered resistive card is placed perpendicular to the E field at the circular end of
each transition section so that it has a negligible effect on the field perpendicular to it but
absorbs any component parallel to it. Therefore, a pure TE11 mode is excited in the middle
section.
 If the resistive card in the center section is kept at an angle θ relative to the E field direction of
TE11 mode, the component E cos θ parallel to the card gets absorbed while the component E
sin θ is transmitted without attenuation. This later component finally appears as electric field
component E sin2 θ in a rectangular output guide. Therefore, the attenuation of the incident
wave is,

(2.54)

Therefore, the precision rotary attenuator produces attenuation which depends only on the
angle of rotation θ of the resistive card with respect to the incident wave polarization.

Attenuators are normally matched reciprocal devices, so that,

And
(2.56)
Where, the VSWR is measured at the port concerned. The S-matrix of an ideal precision
rotary attenuator is,
(2.57)

2.7 MATCHED TERMINATION

A matched load is a single port device having its ideal parameters:
 The load is located at the center of the smith chart as the reference point.
Uses:
Matched terminations are used in coaxial lines, strip lines and waveguides to absorb the
incident power without appreciable reflection and radiation.

2.8 WAVEGUIDE CORNERS, BENDS AND TWIST

2.8.1 Waveguide Corner
 The waveguide E and H plane corners and bends are used to alter the direction of the guide
to any convenient angle as shown in figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: Waveguide Corner

 Corners arrangements produce discontinuities and as a result, reflection of propagation
waves takes place at any point of the discontinuities. In order to cancel the reflected waves
from both ends of the waveguide corner, the mean length L between the junctions of corners
is kept an odd multiple of the quarter wave length.
2.8.2 Waveguide Bend
For waveguide bends, the discontinuity effects are reduced by keeping the minimum radius of
curvature R=1.5b for an E bend and R = 1.5a for an H bend.
2.8.3 Waveguide Twist
A waveguide twist is used to change the polarization of the propagating wave by 90 degrees.
The length of the twist is again kept equal to an odd multiple of the quarter guide wavelength.

2.9 DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

A directional coupler is a four port passive device commonly used for coupling a known
fraction of the microwave power to the port (coupled port) in the auxiliary line while flowing from the
input port to the output port in the main line. The remaining port is an ideally isolated port and
matched terminated. There are three basic types of directional couplers.
1. Multiple aperture waveguide type
2. Coupled coaxial or strip or microstrip line
3. Branch line couplers.
Branch line coupler is as shown in figure.

Figure 2.8: Directional Coupler

  The theory of waveguide coupler was established by ‘Bethe’, using a single hole in the
common broad wall of two rectangular waveguide commonly known as Bethe-hole directional
coupler. Practical waveguide directional coupler are multi-hole coupler in which the
desired coupling response Vs frequency can be achieved by proper selection of the number
of the holes and the size of the holes.
 Waveguide couplers are forward couplers since the coupled power in the ancillary guide
flows in the same direction as the input power in the main guide, whereas coaxial, strip and
microstrip couplers are backward couplers because the coupled energy travels in the
opposite direction of the input energy flow.

2.9.1 Characteristics of the directional coupler

The performance of the directional coupler is measured in terms of four basic parameters
when matched:
1. Coupling
2. Transmission loss
3. Directivity
4. Return Loss

2.9.2 Coupling factor

It is defined as the ratio of input power and output power at auxiliary arm.

C (dB) =10log10 (Pi/Pa) (2.58)

Pi =input power to primary guide.
Pa=power output at auxiliary arm.
C=10log10 (P1/P4) (2.59)

2.9.3 Transmission Loss

Transmission Loss (dB) =10 log(P1/P2) (2.60)
2.9.4 Directivity
It is defined as the ration of power in the auxiliary arm due to power in forward direction to the
power at the same port due to power in the reverse direction.
D (dB) = 10 log 10 (Paf/Par) (2.61)
Paf = power in the auxiliary arm due to power in forward direction.
Par= power in the auxiliary arm due to power in reverse direction.
D=10log10 (P4/P3) (2.62)
Return loss (dB)=10 log (P1/Pr) (2.63)
2.9.5 Multi-Hole Coupler
 The structure of a multi-hole coupler is symmetrical with respect to a transverse plane. For an
input at port 1 of forward direction of port 4, the successive openings are spaced quarter
wavelength apart at a designed frequency. So that the coupled waves travelling back towards
port 3 will be out of phase and cancelled: whereas the forward- coupled waves are in phase.
Thus reinforce each other. Thus port 3 ideally isolated ports and matched terminated for
absorbing any coupled power flows in practical situation, such a coupler is called a forward
coupler.
 For an input to port 2, the coupled gets absorbed at port 3 and port 4 is isolated. Since in
practice due to non-ideal mechanical configuration there is some coupled power available in
 the isolated port, the matched directional coupler is designed from specifications of two basic
parameters – Coupling and finite directivity.
For the reciprocal matched coupler, the scattering matrix of a directional can derived as
following: The S-matrix of a magic Tee is given by,

(2.64)

In a directional coupler all four ports are completely matched. Thus, diagonal elements of the
s-matrix are zeros and S11 =S22 =S33=S44 =0
As noted, there is no coupling between port 1 and port 3 and between port 2 and port 4.
Thus, S13 =S31 =S24=S42 =0
Consequently S matrix of a directional coupler becomes

(2.65)

Since for a lossless network the S-matrix is unitary

(2.66)
(2.67)
(2.68)
(2.69)

Form the equation (2.66) and (2.67), we get,

(2.70)
And from the equation (2.68) and (2.69), we get,
(2.71)
Further by choosing reference plane of port 1 with respect to that of port 2 and reference
plane of port 3 with respect to that of 4, we can make S-parameters real
(2.72)
Where, is a positive real number. Then equation (5) can be written as,

Since, , (2.73)
Further, selecting the reference plane of port 4 with respect to port 1, we can make S14 real,
so that,
(2.74)

(2.75)
Therefore,

(2.76)

Where, for conservation of energy.

- transmission factor and
 – coupling factor
From the above, the coupling, directivity and transmission loss for a matched directional
coupler can be expressed in terms of S-parameters as,

(2.77)

Where
The amount of coupling (3dB, 6dB, 10 dB, 20 dB, 30 dB, etc.,)and the directivity (30-40 dB)
depend upon the sizes and locations of the holes in the common wall.

2.10 CIRCULATOR:
 A microwave circulator is a multiport device n which power is circulated from one port to next
immediate port in one direction only.
 Working of circulator is based on principle of Faraday rotation.
 A four port circulator is most commonly used. Figure 2.9 shows a four port circulator

Figure 2.9: Circulator

 Circulator is a non-reciprocal component. All the four ports are matched and transmission of
power takes place in cyclic order only. An ideal circulator is perfectly lossless.
 Four port circulator can be constructed from two magic-Ts and a non-reciprocal 180o phase
shifter or a combination of two 3 dB side hole directional couplers with two non-reciprocal
phase shifts as shown in figure.

2.10.1 Three-port Circulator

 A three-port circulator is formed by a 120o H-plane waveguide or strip line symmetrical Y-
junction with a central ferrite post or disc.
 A steady magnetic field Ho is applied along the axis of the disc as shown in figure 2.10.
Depending on the polarization of the incident wave and the direction of Ho, the microwave
signal travels from one port to the immediate next one only.
 Figure 2.10: Three port circulator
 For a perfectly matched, lossless, non-reciprocal three port circulator, the S-matrix is,

(2.78)

If the terminal planes are properly chosen to make the phase angles of S13, S21 and S32 zero,
(2.79)
Thus, the S-matrix of three-port circulator is given as,

(2.80)

The matching of the junction can be achieved by placing suitable tuning elements in each
arm. Since in practice losses are always present, the performance is limited by finite isolation and
non-zero insertion loss.

2.10.2 Four-Port Circulator

A four-port circulator can be constructed from two magic-T’s and a non-reciprocal 180o phase
shifter or combination of two 3 dB side hole. Directional coupler with two non-reciprocal phase
shifter is as shown in figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11: Four Port Circulator

 Here, an input signal at port is split into two in phase and equal amplitude waves in the
collinear b and d of the magic-Tee, T1 and added up to emerge from port 2 in the magic-tee,
T2. On the other hand a signal at port 2 will be split into two equal amplitude and equi-phase
waves in the collinear arms of the magic-tee, T2 and appears at the point b and d out of
phase due to the presence of the non-reciprocal 180o phase shifter. These out-of-phase add
up and appear from port 3 in the magic-tee, T1.
 In a similar manner, an input signal at port 3 will emerge from 4, an input at port 4 will appear
at port 1. Thus the circulator property is exhibited.
 In figure, each of the 3 dB of the couplers introduces a 90o phase shift. An input signal at port
1 is split into two components by the coupler 1 and the coupled signals are again split into
two phase shifters produces additional phase shift so that the signal components at port 2 are
in phase, and at port 4 they are out-of-phase.
 Since port 3 is the decoupled port for the directional coupler, at the input signal at port 1
appears in port2. Similarly, the signals from port2 to port 3, port 3 to port 4 and port 4 to port
1, a perfectly matched, lossless and non-reciprocal four-port circulator has S- matrix:
 (2.81)

Typical characteristics can be represented by,

Insertion loss < 1 dB
Isolation = 30-40 dB
VSWR < 1.5

2.10.3 Applications of Circulator

 Isolation of transmitters and receivers connected to same antenna e.g. in radar system.
 Isolation of input and output in two terminal amplifying devices e.g. parametric amplifiers.

2.11 ISOLATOR
 Isolator is a non-reciprocal ferrite transmission device. Isolators are generally used to
improve the frequency stability of microwave generators.
 Isolators transmits electromagnetic wave only in one direction, the reflected wave is
attenuated (absorbed). Thus microwave generating active devices are isolated.

Figure 2.12: Isolator

 An ideal isolator completely absorbs power of propagation in one direction and provides loss
less transmission in the opposite direction.
 The Faraday rotation provides 1 dB insertion loss in forward transmission and about 20 to 30
dB isolation in reverse direction.
 Isolators can be produced by inserting a ferrite rod along the axis of a rectangular waveguide
as shown in figure 2.13 below:
 Figure 2.13:
 Let the incident wave has E in x-direction when it propagates through ferrite rod, it is rotated
by 45o. It is launched into waveguide which is at 45o.
 Reflected wave from load travels in reverse direction and is again rotated by 45o by ferrite
rod. Reflected E appearing at resistive vane-1 is in Y-direction and it is completely
attenuated.
 The performance of an isolator is measured in terms of two basic parameters.
Insertion Loss (IL)
Insertion loss is defined as the ratio of power at the input power to the power received at the
output port. It is expressed as,

Where, P1 Power launched at input port ; P2 Power received at output port
Isolation loss (Is)
Isolation is defined as the ratio of power reflected from the output port to the power at the
input port. It is expressed as

Where, P1’ Power at input port

P2’ Power launched from output port
For an ideal lossless matched isolator
I S21 I=1, IS12 I = IS11 I= I S22 I=0

Application of Isolator
 In Klystrons and Magnetrons to improve the frequency stability.

2.12 MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS

2.12.1 VSWR MEASUREMENT

 Two commonly method used methods for measuring VSWR are:

1. Slotted Line Technique – for Low VSWR(S < 20)
2. Double Minimum Method – for High VSWR(S > 20)
  When a load impedance is not equal to source impedance, standing waves are produced. By
inserting a slotted line section in the transmission line, standing waves can be traced by
moving the carriage with a tunable probe detector along the line.

 VSWR can be measured by detecting Vmax and Vmin in the VSWR meter:

S=Vmax / Vmin

 The setup for measuring VSWR using slotted line technique is shown in the figure 2.14
below:

VSWR Tunable Probe

Meter detector

AM Microwave Frequency Variable Slotted Line

Isolator Section
Source Meter Attenuator

Matched
Termination

Figure 2.14: Slotted Line Method of VSWR Measurement - Basic Experimental Setup

 The variable attenuator is adjusted to 10dB. The microwave source is set to required
frequency. The 1 KHz modulation is adjusted for maximum reading on the VSWR meter in a
30dB scale. The probe carriage stub is tuned for maximum detected signal in VSWR meter.
 The probe carriage is slided along the non-radiating slot from the load end until a peak
reading is obtained in VSWR meter. The meter’s gain control is adjusted to get the meter
reading at 1.0 or 0dB corresponding to the position of voltage maximum.
 The probe is moved towards the generator to an adjacent voltage minimum. The
corresponding reading in VSWR meter directly gives the VSWR = Vmax / Vmin on the top of
SWR normal scale for 1≤S≤4 or on the Expanded scale for 1 ≤S≤1.33.
 The experiment is repeated for other frequencies as required to obtain a set values of S Vs f.
 For VSWR between 3.2 and 10, a 10dB lower range should be selected and reading
corresponding to Vmin position should be taken from the second VSWR normal scale from
the top.

2.12.2 POWER MEASUREMENT:

Power is defined as the quantity of energy dissipated or stored per unit time. The range of
microwave power is divided into three categories – low power(less than 10mW), medium power
(from 10mW to 10W) and high power (greater than 10W).
 The average power is measured while propagation in a transmission medium and is defined
by,
(2.82)
 Where, T is the time period of the lowest frequency involved in the signal and n cycles are
considered. For pulsed signal

(2.83)

Where τ is the pulse width, T is the period and fr is the pulse repetition frequency. The most
convenient unit of power at microwaves is dBm.

(2.84)

 The sensors are used for power measurements are the schottky barrier diode, bolometer and
the thermocouple.
1. Schottky barrier diode Sensor
 A zero biased schottky barrier diode is used as a square-law detector whose output is
proportional to the input power.
 Since diode resistance is a strong function of temperature, the circuit is designed such that
the input matching is not affected by diode resistance as shown by the equivalent circuit
as shown in figure 2.15.

Figure 2.15: Schottky Barrier diode

 The diode detectors can be used to measure power levels as low as 70 dBm.
2. Bolometer Sensor
 A bolometer is a power sensor whose resistance changes with temperature as it absorbs
microwave power.
 The two most common types of bolometer are the baretter and the thermistor.
 The baretter is a short thin metallic (Platinum) wire sensor which has a positive
temperature co-efficient of resistance and can be easily mounted in microwave lines as
shown in fig below due to its smaleer and more compact size.
 The impedances of these bolometers are in the range 100-200 ohm.
 However, barretters are more delicate than thermistors, hence they are used only for very
low power (<few mW).
 Medium and high power are measured with a low-power thermistor is limited to about 20
dBm.
 The thermistor mount provides good impedance match, low loss, good isolation from
thermal and physical shock and good shielding against energy leakage.

3. Power Meter
 The power meter is basically constructed from a balanced bridge circuit in which one of
the arms is the bolometer as shown in figure below:
 The microwave power applied to this arm will change the bolometer’s resistance causing
an unbalance in the bridge from its initial balance condition under zero incident power.
 The non-zero output is recorded on a voltmeter which is calibrated to read the level of the
input microwave power.
 The main disadvantages with using a single bridge are that (1) the change of resistance
due to a mismatch at the microwave input port results in incorrect reading, and (2) the
thermistor is sensitive to changes in the ambient temperature resulting in false reading.
 These problems are eliminated by using double identical bridges – the upper bridge circuit
measures the microwave power, and the lower bridge circuit compensates the effect of
ambient temperature variation (V1=V2).
 The added microwave power due to mismatch is compensated automatically through a
self-balancing circuit by decreasing the dc power V2 carried by the RF sensing thermistor
until bridge balance is restored or net change in the thermistor resistance is zero due to
negative dc feedback.

 The initial zero setting of the bridge is done by adjusting V2=V1=Vo with no microwave
input signal applied, when R is the resistance of the thermistor at balance. Without and
with microwave present, the dc voltages across the sensor at balance are V1/2 and V2/2,
respectively.
 The average input power is .
 For any change in temperature if the voltage changes by ΔV, the change in RF power is
(2.85)
4. Thermocouple Sensor
 A thermocouple is a junction of two dissimilar metals or semiconductors (n-type Si). It
generates an emf when two ends are heated up differently by absorption of microwaves in
a thin film tantalum-nitride resistive load deposited on a Si substrate which forms one
electrode of the thermocouple as shown in figure 2.16 below:

Figure 2.16: Thermocouple Power Sensor

 This emf is proportional to the incident microwave power to be measured.
 Here C2 is the RF by-pass capacitor and C1 is the input coupling capacitor or dc block.
 The emf generated in the parallel thermocouples are added to appear across C2. The
output leads going to the dc voltmeter are at RF ground so that the output meter reads
pure dc voltage proportional to the input microwave power.
 For a square modulated microwave signal the peak power can be calculated from the
average power measured as
Where, T is the time period and τ is the pulse width.
High Power Measurements by the Calorimetric Method:
 High power microwave measurements can be conveniently done by the calorimetric
method which involves conversion of the microwave energy into heat, absorbing this heat
in a fluid ( usually water) and then measuring the temperature rise of the fluid as shown
below:. There are two types: one is the direct heating method and another is the indirect
heating method.
  In direct heating method, the rate of production of heat can be measured by observing the
rise in the temperature of the dissipating medium.
 In direct heating method, heat is transferred to another medium before measurement. In
both the methods static calorimeter and circulating calorimeter are used.
Static calorimeters
 It consists of a 50 ohm coaxial cable which is filled by a dielectric load with a high
hysteresis loss. The load has sufficient thermal isolation from its surrounding. The
microwave power is dissipated in the load.
 The average power input is
Where, m – mass of the thermometric medium in gms
Cp – its specific heat in cal/gms
T – Temperature rise in 0C
T – time in sec
Circulating Calorimeters
 Here the calorimeter fluid (water) is constantly flowing through a water load. The heat
introduced into the fluid makes exit temperature higher than the input temperature.
 Here average power is

Figure 2.17: Microwave Calorimeter

Where, v – rate of flow of calorimeter fluid in cc/sec
d – Specific gravity of the fluid in gm/cc
T – Temperature rise in 0C
Cp – specific heat in cal/gm
 A disadvantage of calorimeter measurements is the thermal inertia caused by the lag
between the application of microwave power and the parameter readings.

2.12.3 FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT:

Microwave frequency is measured by the following:
 Frequency counter
 Cavity wave meter.
The frequency also can be computed from measures guide wavelength in a voltage standing
wave pattern along the short circuited line by using a slotted line.

Wavemeter method:
 Typical wavemeter is a cylindrical cavity with a variable short circuit termination which
changes resonance frequency of the cavity by changing the cavity length.
 TE011 mode is most suitable for wavemeter because of its higher Q and absence of axial
current. Since this is higher order mode, possibility of generation of lower order modes exists.
 Hence for practical purposes, dominant TM010 mode is used in wavemeter applications.
 Wavemeter axis is placed perpendicular to the broad wall of the waveguide and coupled by
means of a hole in the narrow as shown in figure 2.18 below.

Figure 2.18: Wavemeter Method of Frequency Measurements

 This excites TM010 mode in the cavity due to the magnetic field coupling. A block of absorbing
material (polytron) placed at the back of the tuning plunger prevents oscillation on top of it.
Thus the cavity resonates at different frequencies for different plunger positions.
 The tuning can be calibrated in terms of frequency by known frequency input signal and
observing the dip in the display unit.(power meter) connected at the output side of the
waveguide.
 The accuracy of such a wavemeter is in the range of 1% to 0.005% for available Q of 1,000-
50,000, respectively. Since the power is absorbed in the wavemeter at resonance. This is
called absorption type wavemeter.

Slotted Line method:

The distance dmin between two successive minima of voltage standing wave pattern in a short
circuited line is half wavelength , frequency can be determined from the relations,

(2.86)

by the slotted line probe carriage.

Down Conversion Method

 An accurate measurement of microwave frequency can be done by means of a heterodyne
converter. A heterodyne converter down converts that unknown frequency f x by mixing with
an accurately known frequency fa, such that the difference fx – fa = fIF is amplified and
measured by the counter.
 The frequency fa is selected by first multiplying a local oscillator frequency (known) to a
convenient frequency f1 and then passing it through a harmonic nf 1 = fa is selected by the
tuning cavity such that fa can be added with fIF and display fx, the unknown frequency .
  In practice, the system starts with n=1 and the filter frequency is selected by a feedback
mechanisms from IF stage until an IF frequency in the proper range is present. Typically f1 =
100 to 500 MHz for a range of f x up to 20 GHz. For better accuracy a low noise oscillator and
noiseless multiplier are to be selected.

Figure 2.19: Down Conversion Method

2.12.4 IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT:

Impedance can be measured by the following two methods
i. Slotted Line Method
ii. Impedance measurement by reflectometer
i. Slotted Line Method:
 For high frequencies, the impedance will be complex. The complex impedance ZL of the
load can be measured by measuring the phase angle фL of the complex reflection co-
efficient ГL from the distance of first voltage standing wave minimum (dmin) and the
magnitude of the same from the VSWR, S.
 The equation below gives the relation between the load impedance and the reflection co-
efficient for the computation of ZL.
(2.87)
Where, and

Tunable Probe
Detector VSWR Meter

Unknown
Slotted line load or short

Figure 2.20: Determination of load impedance using slotted line

 The method of using slotted line to determine an unknown impedance is explained as follows:
1. Adjust the probe depth of the slide screw tuner to an approximate level.
2. Move the probe position of the SWR, to a minimum and note down the Verne reading
(d1).
 3. Also note down the corresponding SWR value (S) on the SWR meter.
4. Remove the load and connect only the tunable detector or movable short.
5. Move the probe position of SWD carefully in any one direction and note down the Vernier
reading (d2) for two successive minima d1 and d2.
6. Calculate the guide wavelength, λg as, λg= 2×distance between successive minima i.e
λg = 2(d1-d2) and

7. Now the phase angle can be calculated by the formula,

8. The unknown impedance of the load is the calculated from the above said relation,

(2.88)

Figure 2.21: Determination of dmin

 To ease the calculation, smith chart ZL from the measurements of S and dmin as following:
1. Draw a circle on the Smith chart corresponding to the SWR values (S).
2. Locate the point X on the chart.
NOTE: (a) d1-d2 > 0 (corresponding to wavelength towards load)
(b) dL-dS1<0 (corresponding to wavelength towards generator).
3. Draw the line from the point (1+j0) to X.
4. Identify the ZL as the impedance at the point of intersection of S circle and the line joining
(1+j0) and X. Therefore,
ZL = (impedance obtained from Smith chart)*(characteristics impedance ).
 For Example. Let us consider VSWR(S) = 2 and (dmin / λg) = 0.2 say,
 Draw the VSWR circle centered at 0 (r=1) with radius cutting the r-axis at S=2.
 Move from the short circuit load point A on the chart along the wavelengths toward load scale
by distance (dmin / λg) B. join OB.
 The point of intersection between the line OB and the VSWR circle gives the normalized load
and hence the complex load
ZL = Zo × (1.0 +j 0.7)
ii) Impedance Measurement by Reflectometer
 The reflectometer arrangement with tuners TA and TB , a movable short and a sliding load of
low VSWR (< 1.02) is shown in figure 2.22.
 Sliding Load Detector
4 3

Microwave Tuner 2 Tuner

source TB TA
1
Figure 2.22: Reflectometer with tuners for amplitude and phase measurements
 Tuner TA is adjusted to make constant. While he phase of is varied by changing
the position of a sliding load at port 4. This makes B=0.
 The tuner TB is adjusted to make constant as the phase of is varied by changing
the position of a sliding short at port 4, then C=0. Hence,

=
(2.89)
 For a given bridge, K is determined by noting using a fixed short of known reflection
co-efficient of -1 at port 4 and therefore by measuring , the magnitude of reflection co-
efficient of any load at port 2 can be determined.
 In order to measure the phase of the load reflection co-efficient, 4 identical directional coupler
reflectometers can be used as shown in figure above. The procedure of phase measurement
is as follows:
 First a fixed short is placed at XX’ plane of the precession waveguide section at port 2. The
movable short at port 4 and the attenuator are adjusted to obtain null in the detector output at
port 3.
 The fixed short at port 2 is replaced by the test load and a shift x of the movable short at port
4 is measured to obtain null in the detector output at port 3.
 The phase of is then given by,
Thus,
(2.90)
 The accuracy of phase measurement depends on the sensitivity of the detector for null
reading and the Vernier scale reading of the movable short.

2.12.5 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT MEASUREMENT:

 The dielectric constant εr is defined by the permittivity ε of the material with respect to that
εo of air or free space
 Due to presence of non-zero conductivity, dielectric material exhibits loss resulting in
complex value represented by,
 The loss tangent,
 The measurement of the complex dielectric constant is required not only in scientific
application but also for industrial applications such as microwave heating or ovens and to
study the biological effects of microwaves.
 The dielectric constant is not independent of frequency hand for most common microwave
applications. On the other hand, the percent variation in ε’’r is almost always greater than that
of ε’r so that ε’’r should be measured near the frequency or frequencies of interest.
 There are several methods available for dielectric constant measurement. The following
sections describe two commonly used two methods: the waveguide method and cavity
perturbation method.
Waveguide Method
 In this method it is assumed that the material is lossless. A dielectric sample AB completely
fills a length of the waveguide and the end is terminated in a short as shown in figure:
 A voltage standing wave minimum is observed in the slotted line at C (say)
Let, le = AB = the dielectric sample length lo = BC
 Then the distance of Vmin from short circuit = le+lo = AC. For a dielectric filled guide of
characteristics impedance Ze, input impedance at β is purely reactive,

 Using this Zin’ as termination at β, input impedance at C for the empty guide is

Therefore,
Or,
Assuming nonmagnetic dielectric in the waveguide,

Or,
Substituting this value, we get,

(2.91)
For dominant mode,
Which can be measured by the slotted line, lo and le are also measured in the slotted line.
Therefore, the left hand side of the above transcendental is known and it can be written as

The above equation can be solved for determining , now

(2.92)

Since is known, . Hence two different lengths of sample are taken for two sets of
solutions.
For length le: X = X1,X2,……;
For length l’e:X = X1’,X2’,……;
2.12.6 GAIN OF THE ANTENNA:
There are three basic methods that can be used to measure the gain:
1. Standard Antenna Method
2. Two antenna method
3. Three antenna method
1. Standard Antenna Method
 This method uses two sets of measurements with the test and standard gain antennas. Using
the test antenna of gain Gr in receiving mode, the received power, Pr is recorded in a
matched recorder.
 The test antenna is then replaced by a standard gain antenna of gain Gs and the received
power, Ps is again recorded without changing the transmitted power and geometrical
configuration. Then,

Or, (2.93)
 Thus by measuring the received power with test and standard gain antennas and knowing
gain Gs of the standard gain antenna, the gain of the test antenna can be found.
2. Two Antenna Method
 In this method, the signal is transmitted from a transmitting antenna of gain Gt, and the signal
is received by the test antenna of gain Gr placed at far-field distance R. The received power
is expressed by,

Where, Pr is the received power and Pt is the transmitted power. When the two antennas are
selected identical, Gr = Gt so that
(2.94)
 By measuring R, λ and Pr / Pt, the gain Gr can be determined.

AM Directional
Variable Tune
Microwave Coupler Tuner
Attenuator Tx Rx r
Source

Attenuator

Power Meter Power Meter

Figure 2.23: Block Diagram of Antenna Gain Measurements

3. Three Antenna Method

 In two antenna method if the measuring systems are not exactly identical, error will be
introduced. Hence three antenna method is the most general method to find gain of all the
three antennas. Any two antennas are used at a time i.e 1 and 2, 2 and 3, and 3 and 1,
respectively.
  The following equations can be developed for the received and transmitted powers.

(2.95)

 Since R and λ are known and (Pr/Pt)’s are measured, the right hand side of the above
equations are known. The three unknown quantities G1, G2 and G3 can be determined from
the above three equations.
 For accuracy of the measurements, care must be taken so that
1. All antennas meet the far field criteria:
2. The antennas are aligned for bore=sight radiation face – to face.
3. The measuring system is frequency stable.
4. Impedance mismatched in the system components is minimum.
5. Polarization mismatch is minimum.
6. Reflection from various background and support structure is minimum.

2.12.7 RADIATION PATTERN OF ANTENNA

 The radiation pattern is a representation of the radiation characteristics of the antenna as a
function of elevation angle θ and azimuthal angle φ for a constant radial distance and
frequency.
 The three-dimensional pattern is decomposed into two orthogonal two–dimensional patterns
in E and H field’s planes where the Z-axis is the line joining the transmitting and receiving
antennas and perpendicular to the radiating apertures.
 Due to the reciprocal characteristics of antennas, the measurements are performed with the
test antenna placed in the receiving mode.
 The source antenna is fed by a stable source and the received signal is measured using a
receiver.
 Or capacitive causes error in measurement. The output of the receiver is fed to Y-axis input
of an XY receiver.
 The receiving antenna positioner controller plane and the angle information is fed to X-axis
input of the XY recorder.
 Thus the amplitude Vs angle plot is obtained from the receiver output.
 Initially two antennas are aligned in the line of their maximum radiation direction by adjusting
the angle and height by the controller and the antenna mast. Effects of all surrounding are
removed or suppressed through increased directivity and low side lobes of the source
antenna, clearance of LOS, and absorption of energy reaching the range surface.
 The following precautions are taken for better accuracy in the measurements:
1. Effects of coupling between antennas-inductive or capacitive causes error measurements.
The former exists at lower microwave frequencies and negligible if range R ≥ 10 λ. Mutual
coupling due to scattering and retardation of energy by test and source antenna causes
error in measurement.
2. Effect of curvature of the incident phase front produces variation over the aperture of test
antenna and this restricts the range R. for a phase deviation at the edge ≤ π/8 radians, R
≤ 2D2 λ, where D is the maximum size of the aperture.
 3. Effect of amplitude taper over the test aperture will give deviation of the measured pattern
from the actual. This occurs if the illuminating field is not constant over the region of the
test aperture. Tolerable limit of amplitude taper is 0.25 dB, for which decrease in gain is
0.1 dB,
4. Interference from spurious radiating sources should be avoided.

2.12.8 PHASE MEASUREMENT OF ANTENNA

The phase of the radiated field is a relative quantity and is measured with respect to a
reference as shown in figure 2.24 below:

Figure 2.24: Phase pattern Measurement

 This reference is provided either by coupling a fraction of the transmitted signal to the
reference channel of the receiver or by receiving the transmitted signal with a fixed antenna
placed near the test antenna. The fixed antenna output is fed to the reference channel of the
receiver and the phase pattern is recorded as the antenna under the test is rotated in the
horizontal plane.

2.12.9 POWER DIVIDER

 A power divider is a device to split the input power into a number of smaller amounts of
power at multiple ports (N) to feed N number of branching circuits with isolation between the
output ports.
 For simplicity, a two-way equal power divider is shown in figure 2.25 below is a lossless
three-port junction.
 Figure 2.25: Two-way power divider (a) microstrip configuration (b) Equivalent Circuit
(c) Even and Odd Symmetries
 For equal power division, the device consists of two quarter wave sections with characteristic
impedance Zo connected in parallel with the input line, which also has characteristic
impedance Zo.
 A resistor R=2Zo is connected between ports 2 and 3 which are matched terminated. Since
the input impedance at port 1 is now Zo/2, a quarter wave matching transformer with
characteristic impedance Zo/ is used to transform the port 1 input impedance into the
feeder line impedance Zo. This also maintains zero current in the resistance R when ports 2
and 3 are matched terminated.
 With a help of even and odd mode analysis, it can be shown that the power applied to port 1
divides equally between ports2 and 3 with zero loss in the balancing resistor R, and the
voltage at either output port lags that at the input port by 90o.
 Thus, the device is a 3 dB, 90o power divider.
 It can be shown that the configuration also acts as a 3 dB power combiner when fed from the
ports 2 and 3 with the output taken at port 1.