!

University!of!Adelaide!
Elder!Conservatorium!of!Music!
Faculty!of!Arts!
!
!
!

Percussion*performance*:**
challenges*of*the*medium,*technique*and*repertoire*
*
by!
Ryszard*Jan*Pusz*
*
*
Submitted!in!fulfilment!of!the!requirements!
for!the!degree!of!
!
Master*of*Philosophy*
(*MPhil*)*
*
*
Adelaide,!April!2016!
Table*of*Contents* * * * * * * *******Page*

Table!of!Contents*! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!i!
Abstract! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !iii!
Declaration! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!iv!
Acknowledgements! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!v!
List!of!Music!Examples! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !vi!
List!of!Plates! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! xiii!
List!of!Tables! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !xv!
Introduction! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!1!
1. Approach! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!1!
2. Background!and!Context! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!7!
3. Early!compositions!for!percussion! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!9!
4. Review!of!Sources:!Repertoire!and!Literature! ! ! ! !!15!
!
1. Chapter!1!ReTconceiving!the!Percussion!Medium! ! ! ! !!21!
1.1. Membranophones! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!22!
1.2. Mallet!Keyboard!Instruments!! ! ! ! ! ! !!41!
1.2.1.Xylophone! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!42!
1.2.2.!Marimba!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!50!
1.2.3.Steel!Drums! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!60!
!
2. Chapter!2!Evolving!Percussion!Techniques! ! ! ! ! !!69!
2.1. Playing!action!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!71!
2.2. Movement! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!80!
2.3. Sound!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!86!
2.3.1.Grace!notes!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!95!
2.3.2.Long!sounds! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!98!
2.4. Notation! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 106!
2.5. Logistics! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 116!
2.6. Visual!aesthetics! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 117!
!
3. Chapter!3!Solo:!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre!by!Darius!Milhaud! 121!
3.1. Introduction! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 121!
3.2. Background:!early!writing!for!percussion! ! ! ! ! 122!
3.3. Milhaud’s!approach!to!music! ! ! ! ! ! ! 125!
3.4. Instruments! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 135!
3.5. Analysis! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 140!
3.6. Techniques!and!Interpretations!! ! ! ! ! ! 159!
3.6.1.Movement! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 161!
3.6.2.Sound! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 164!
3.6.3.Notation!and!Discrepancies!between!Editions! ! ! ! 171!
3.6.4.Logistics!of!performance!!! ! ! ! ! ! 181!
3.7. Significance!and!Conclusion! ! ! ! ! ! ! 183!
!

! i!
4. Chapter!4!Chamber!music:(Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion!by!Peter!Sculthorpe!!191!
4.1. Introduction! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!191!
4.2. Background! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!192!
4.3. Australian!Influences!and!Intent! ! ! ! ! ! !!196!
4.4. Musicological!perspectives!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!200!
4.5. Interpretation!Performance!Challenges! ! ! ! ! !!207!
4.5.1.!Instrumentation!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!207!
4.5.2.!Playing!Action! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!212!
4.5.3.!Movement! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!217!
4.5.4.!Sound! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!221!
4.5.5.!Notation!and!Discrepancies!between!Editions! ! ! ! !!231!
4.5.6.!Logistics!and!Staging! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!240!
4.6. Conclusion! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!243!
!

5. Chapter!5!Percussion!Ensemble!in!Australia! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!245!
5.1. Introduction! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!245!
5.2. Background:!early!writing!for!percussion!ensemble! ! ! ! !!247!
5.3. Eric!Bryce!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet( ( ( ( ( ((260!
5.3.1.Performance!Challenges! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!266!
5.4. David!Morgan!Loss!for(Percussion(Quartet( ( ( ( ( ((274(
5.4.1.Performance!Challenges! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!301!
5.4.2.Logistics!and!visual!aesthetics! ! ! ! ! ! !!311!
5.5. Legacy! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!316!
5.6. Conclusion! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!323!
Conclusion! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !325!
List!of!Sources! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!337!
! Books! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!337!
! Articles! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!340!
! Dissertations! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!343!
! Scores! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!345!
! Discography! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!351!
! Websites! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!352!
! Workshops! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!355!
! Performance!Biography! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!357!
!

Appendix!A:!A!Performance!in!a!country!town! ! ! ! ! !!374!
Appendix!B:!!Videos!showing:! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!375!
1. diversity!of!some!accessory!and!little!known!instruments!triangles,!!!!
shakers,!scrapers,!woodblocks!and!clapsticks!
!

2. clapsticks!for!use!in!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion!
!

3. toy!drums!in!Morgan,!Loss!
Appendix!C:!Recordings!of!performances!of:! ! ! ! ! ! !!376!
1. Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion(
2. Eric!Bryce,!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet(!
3. David!Morgan,!Loss!for(Percussion(Quartet!!
Appendix!D:!Selected!pages!of!scores!of:! ! ! ! ! ! !377(
Darius!Milhaud,!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre( ( ( (378!
Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion( ( ( ( (391(
Eric!Bryce,!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet(( ( ( ( ( (406!
David!Morgan,!Loss!for(Percussion(Quartet( ( ( ( ( (411

ii! !
 !

Abstract*

This!dissertation!for!the!degree!of!Master!of!Philosophy!at!the!Elder!
Conservatorium!of!Music,!University!of!Adelaide,!examines!the!challenges!to!
percussion!performance!presented!by!the!medium,!techniques!and!repertoire!in!a!
changing!environment.!The!importation,!development!and!adaptation!of!
percussion!instruments,!the!development!of!techniques!in!traditional!and!new!
contexts!and!composers’!searches!for!new!sounds!to!express!a!variety!of!musical!
and!theatrical!ideas!coalesced!over!the!course!of!the!twentieth!century!to!provide!
the!basis!for!these!changes!and!challenges.!This!study!analyses!the!interT
relationships!between!each!of!these!elements!and!consequent!changes!as!they!
affect!performance.!

Percussion!performance!over!the!course!of!the!twentieth!century!in!the!Art!Music!
world!was!elevated!from!a!subsidiary,!backTofTstage!provider!of!rhythm!and!
volume!to!a!centreTstage!presentation!of!performances!in!its!own!right.!This!
change!was!both!quantitative!and!qualitative,!which!in!the!process,!created!a!new!
genre.!By!examining!the!issues!related!to!this!change!the!study!aims!to!provide!an!
understanding!of!the!elements!of!the!instruments,!the!techniques!and!repertoire!
to!be!a!resource!for!future!analyses,!compositions!and!performances.!

The!study,!by!investigating!a!selection!of!representative!instruments!and!major!
techniques,!examines!significant!developments!in!the!medium!and!playing!
techniques!and!the!relationships!that!exist!between!them!and!the!repertoire!and!
investigates!the!challenges!these!elements!present!for!performance.!The!study!
draws!mainly!on!four!significant!works,!the!Milhaud!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(
petit(orchestre,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion,!Bryce!Suite(for(
Percussion(Quintet(and!Morgan!Loss(for(Percussion(Quartet,(three!of!which!I!
performed!in!close!collaboration!with!the!composers!and!analyses!them!in!the!
context!of!musical!intent!and!the!challenges!they!present!to!performance.!
Furthermore!the!study!draws!conclusions!on!the!challenges!these!elements!
present!for!a!cohesive!performance.!

! iii!
!

Declaration*

I!certify!that!this!work!contains!no!material!which!has!been!accepted!for!the!
award!of!any!other!degree!or!diploma!in!my!name,!in!any!university!or!other!
tertiary!institution!and,!to!the!best!of!my!knowledge!and!belief,!contains!no!
material!previously!published!or!written!by!another!person,!except!where!due!
reference!has!been!made!in!the!text.!In!addition,!I!certify!that!no!part!of!this!work!
will,!in!the!future,!be!used!in!a!submission!in!my!name,!or!any!other!degree!or!
diploma!in!any!university!or!other!tertiary!institution!without!the!prior!approval!
of!the!University!of!Adelaide!and!where!applicable,!any!partner!institution!
responsible!for!the!jointTaward!of!this!degree.!

I!give!consent!to!this!copy!of!my!thesis!when!deposited!in!the!University!Library,!
being!made!available!for!loan!and!photocopying,!subject!to!the!provisions!of!the!
Copyright!Act!1968.!!

The!author!acknowledges!that!copyright!of!published!works!contained!within!this!
thesis!resides!with!the!copyright!holder(s)!of!those!works.!I!also!give!permission!
for!the!digital!version!of!my!thesis!to!be!made!available!on!the!web,!via!the!
University’s!digital!research!repository,!the!Library!Search!and!also!through!web!
search!engines,!unless!permission!has!been!granted!by!the!University!to!restrict!
access!for!a!period!of!time.!

iv! !
Acknowledgements!
Firstly!I!acknowledge!my!supervisor,!Professor!Charles!Bodman!Rae,!for!his!
invaluable!insights,!probing!and!provocative!questions!that!challenged,!inspired!
and!guided!my!thinking.!His!encouragement!when!needed!was!appreciated.!His!
depth!of!musical!knowledge!and!the!focused!sessions!of!up!to!four!hours!duration!
in!two!languages!have!been!mentally!invigorating.!For!these!and!the!willing!
assistance,!unstintingly!given,!I!am!very!grateful.!

I!also!wish!to!thank!Associate!Professor!Kimi!Coaldrake!for!guiding!me!through!
the!catacombs!of!academic!processes.!The!extra!assistance,!when!needed,!the!
attention!to!fine!detail!and!the!provision!of!direction!are!all!much!appreciated.!

This!dissertation!is!based!on!a!long!and!extensive!life!of!music!making!with!many!
musicians,!from!whom!I!have!learned!much!about!music!and!performance.!These!
artists!include:!my!teachers,!Richard!Smith!at!the!Elder!Conservatorium!and!
Professor!George!Gaber!of!Indiana!University;!composers,!Peter!Sculthorpe,!Eric!
Bryce,!David!Morgan,!Tristram!Cary,!Felix!Werder,!William!Kraft,!Bozidar!Kos!and!
Ralph!Middenway;!conductors,!Nicholas!Braithwaite!and!Verdon!Williams;!
instrumentalists,!Dennis!Johnson,!Peter!Cobb,!Don!Knispel,!Barry!Quinn,!Michael!
Askill,!Ray!Horne,!Don!Crooke,!Karol!Szymanowski!(jazz!vibist),!Stanisław!
Skoczyński,!Jacek!Wota,!Norman!Weinberg,!Ron!Keezer,!Richard!Hornung!and!
Patricia!Pollett;!and!percussion!instrument!makers,!Bernhard!Kolberg,!Neil!
Grover!and!Remo!Belli.!

Thank!you!specially!also!to!Ann!Kraehenbuhl!for!her!opinions,!advice!and!very!
tangible!support.!I!also!thank!my!fellow!research!students!who!through!their!
research!areas!and!discussions!broadened!my!own!horizons.!I!am!also!grateful!for!
the!assistance!provided!by!the!Elder!Conservatorium,!Faculty!of!Arts!and!
Adelaide!Graduate!Centre!including!Cally!Guerin!for!her!workshops!and!Lucy!
Thomson!for!her!seminars.!

Finally!I!thank!the!Australia!Council,!Arts!South!Australia,!the!Phonographic!
Performance!Company!of!Australia,!Technical!and!Further!Education!Department!
and!the!Helpmann!Academy!without!whose!financial!assistance!many!of!the!
commissions!and!performances!of!my!life!would!not!have!been!possible.!

! v!
Music*Examples*

Chapter*One:*ReHconceiving*the*Percussion*Medium*
Example* Detail* Page*
1.01!! Kraft,!Suite(for(Percussion,(Fanfare,(bongos,!snare!drums,!field,!drum,! 26!
tenor!drum,!bass!drum!p.1!
1.02!! Mahler!Symphony(No.(6,!Movement!1,!p.!3!rute!on!bass!drum!! 33!
1.03! !Stravinsky,(Danse(Sacrale,!timpani!I!excerpt!(stems!down)! 35!
1.04!! Charles!White,!playing!instructions,!Stravinsky,(Danse(Sacrale,! 35!
timpani!I!
1.05! Milhaud,!Les(Choéphores(Présages(–!climax! 37!
1.06!! Stravinsky!L’histoire(du(soldat!notation!of!percussion!across!a! 40!
number!of!staves!for!the!different!instruments!
1.07** Camille!SaintTSaëns!Danse(Macabre,!xylophone!excerpt! 43!
1.08!! Kodály!Háry(János(Suite,!extract!of!Cimbalom!part! 59!
1.09!! Neil!Currie,!Sonata(for(Percussion,!2nd!mvt,!using!steel!drum!in! 61!
percussion!ensemble!
!
Chapter*Two:*Evolving*Percussion*Techniques*
Example* Detail* Page*
2.01!! Chavez,!Toccata(para(instrumentos(de(percusión!Timpani!excerpt! 80!
2.02! !Movement!over!a!big!range!on!Marimba,!ErdmannTAbele,!Waiting( 81!
for…(,!mvt.!1!
2.03!! Playing!at!the!extremities!of!the!instrument,!ErdmannTAbele,! 81!
Waiting(for…,!mvt.!1!
2.04!! Coordination!in!multiTpercussion,!David!Morgan!Angelus(bars!67T74! 82!
2.05!! Coordinating!movement!over!two!different!planes,!Andre! 83!
Oosterbaan,!Time(of(Light,(manuscript,(p!.!35!
2.06!! Theatrical!movement,!G!H!Green,!Log(Cabin(Blues,(bars!53T56! 84!
2.07!! Languid!movement!Pujol/Pusz!Variaciones(sobre(un(tema(de( 84!
Atahualpa(Yupanqui,(arr.!Marimba,(p.1!
2.08!! Dramatic!movement,!Cary,!Black,(White(and(Rose,!manuscript,!p.!14! 84!
2.09!! Piece!for!concert!or!marching!snare!drum,!excerpt!from!Moore!juNO,! 85!
p.43!
2.10!! Different!sounds!on!snare!drum,!R!Pusz!After(M,!bars!41T45! 86!
2.11!! Different!timpani!sounds,!John!Bergamo,!Perpetual(Motion,!p.2( 86!
2.12!! Different!timpani!sounds,!R.!Pusz,!GD,!p.!2.!The!‘x’!designates!rim! 87!
2.13!! Traditional!Bongo!Technique! 87!
2.14!! Bongos!played!with!snare!drum!sticks,!Kraft,!Suite(for(Percussion,(p.1! 88!
2.15!! Different!techniques!on!timpani,!William!Kraft,!Images,(p.!2! 90!
2.16!! Different!beaters!and!stickings,!John!Beck!Concerto(for(Timpani(with( 91!
Percussion(Ensemble,!solo!part,!p.5!
2.17!! Original!markings!in!the!score!Lloyd!Sticks,(p.!1! 92!
2.18!! Using!timpani!as!an!echo!chamber,!Aleksander!Pusz!Polemic,!p.1! 92!
2.19!! Bowing!on!marimba,!Cary,!Black,(White(and(Rose,(p.19! 93!
2.20!! Bowing!and!bending!notes!on!xylophone,!Bryce!Suite(for(Percussion,! 93!
p.!2!
2.21!! Using!a!fingerTscraping!technique!on!snare!drum,!R.!Pusz,!an’(if…?,! 94!
bars!14T16!
2.22!! Representational!use!of!timpani,!Morgan!Loss,!p.14! 94!

vi! !
Example* Detail* Page*
2.23!! Flams!played!in!alternating,!Rudimental!style! 95!
2.24!! Flams!played!in!ostinato!style! 95!
2.25!! Drags!showing!stickings!for!bounced!and!alternated!execution! 96!
2.26!! Different!stickings!of!‘4Tstroke!ruffs’! 96!
2.27!! Single!and!double!grace!notes!on!different!parts!of!the!drum,!R.!Pusz! 96!
After(M,!p.2!
2.28!! A!few!examples!of!grace!note!stickings!to!emphasise!nuances! 97!
2.29!! DoubleTstroke!roll!notation!and!application! 98!
2.30!! MultipleTbounce!roll!notation! 98!
2.31!! OneThanded!tremolo,!Bryce,!Concerto(for(Marimba(and(Vibraphone,( 100!
bars!101T106!
2.32!! OneThand!tremolo!Morgan!Lachy’s(Lullaby,!bars!43T44! 101!
2.33! OneThanded!tremolo,!Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose,(manuscript(p.4! 101!
2.34!! OneThanded!tremolo,!Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose,(manuscript(p.!13! 102!
2.35!! OneThanded!tremolo,!Llewellyn!Song(Ball,(bars!49T52! 102!
2.36!! Using!oneThanded!tremolo,!Hovhaness,!Fantasy(on(Japanese( 102!
Woodprints,(p.6!
2.37!! Becky!Llewellyn,!Song(Web,!‘beatless’!tremolo,!bars!1T6! 103!
2.38!! Finger!technique!on!snare!drum!–oneThand!roll!and!rhythms!R.!Pusz,! 103!
an(if…?,!bars!33T34!
2.39!! ‘StickTbounce’!roll,!W!Benson,!Fandango,(bars(33[35( 104!
2.40!! Conventional!staff!notation,!writing!for!homogenous!sounds! 105!
2.41!! Conventional!staff!notation!with!instructions,!Desportes!Thème(et( 106!
Variations,(bars!184T197!
2.42!! Conventional!notations!with!variations,!Witold!Rudziński,!Variations( 107!
and(Fugue,!Variation(IV,(‘bars’!90T98!
2.43!! Conventional!notations!with!variations,!Witold!Rudziński,!Variations( 107!
and(Fugue,!Variation(VI,!‘bars’!138T141!
2.44!! Conventional!notations!with!variations,!Witold!Rudziński,!Theme,( 108!
bars!8T21!
2.45!! Amended!beams!and!added!sticking!showing!(my!own)!different! 108!
interpretive!possibilities!from!Witold!Rudziński,!Variations(and(
Fugue!
2.46!! Graphic!notation,!Stockhausen!Zyklus,!starting!the!page!on!TomT 110!
toms!and!Bells!
2.47!! Graphic!notation,!Stockhausen!Zyklus,!starting!the!same!page!on! 110!
TomTtoms,!Snare!Drum!and!Vibraphone!
2.48!! Graphic!notation!and!movement,!Stockhausen!Zyklus,!excerpt,! 111!
nominal(p.1!
2.49!! Notation!with!legend,!symbols,!instructions,!William!Kraft,! 112!
Sarabande!from!English(Suite,(bars!53T59!
2.50!! Tremolo!roll!notation! 113!
2.51!! Traditional,!rudimental!roll!notation!! 114!
!

Chapter*Three:*Solo*Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre*by*Darius*Milhaud*
Example* Detail* Page*
3.01!! Combining!sounds,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!22!and!34! 125!
3.02! Voice!and!untuned!percussion!in!opera,!Milhaud,!mvt!IV,!Présages,! 128!
bars!6T9!
3.03!! ‘Rude!et!dramatique’,!Milhaud!Concerto,(bars!8T11! 140!

! vii!
Example* Detail* Page*
3.04!! ‘Atmospheric’,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!92T96! 141!
3.05! Opening!phrase,!orchestra,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!1T4! 144!
3.06!! Opening!phrase,!solo,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!5T9! 145!
3.07! Interplay!between!the!soloist!and!orchestra,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars! 146!
13T14!
3.08!! Interplay!between!the!soloist!and!orchestra,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars! 146!
15T18!
3.09!! Dialogue!between!clarinet!and!solo,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!20T21! 147!
3.10!! Rhythmic!interplay!T!clarinet!and!strings,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!26T 147!
28!
3.11!! End!of!first!section!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!29T30! 148!
3.12!! Juxtaposition!of!motifs!in!different!instrumental!combinations,! 149!
Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!34T36!
3.13!! Juxtaposition!of!rhythmic!patterns,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!64T68! 150!
3.14! 3:3:2!rhythmic!pattern!Milhaud!Concerto,!solo!part,!bars!64T67! 151!
3.15!! Variation!of!the!main!theme,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!73T75! 151!
3.16!! End!of!‘Rude!et!dramatique’!section,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!79T80! 152!
3.17! Opening!‘Atmospheric’!Modéré!section!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!81T86! 153!
3.18! Solo!entry,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!92T105! 154!
3.19!! Sixteenth!note!motifs,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!113T117! 155!
3.20!! Insistent!timpani!pattern,!Milhaud!Concerto!bars!134T141! 156!
3.21!! Explosion!of!sound!with!whip,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!143T145! 157!
3.22!! Ending,!bars,!Milhaud!Concerto!163T168! 158!
3.23! !Original!timpani!figure,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bar!9! 159!
3.24!! Amended!timpani!figure,!Milhaud!Concerto!(Piano!reduction),!bar!9! 159!
3.25! Movement!across!three!types!of!instruments,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars! 160!
8T9!
3.26!! Movement!across!instruments!at!piano!volume,!Milhaud!Concerto,! 161!
bars!22T23!
3.27!! Movement!and!changing!instruments,!Milhaud!Concerto!bars!44T53! 162!
3.28!! Movement!and!changing!instruments,!Milhaud!Concerto!bars!141T 163!
145*
3.!29!! Weights!of!stroke!across!different!instruments,!Milhaud!Concerto,! 165!
bars!20T22!
3.30!! Reading!five!staves,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!22T29! 170!
3.31!! Violin!part!missing!in!reduction,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bar!34! 172!
3.32!! Missing!clarinet!part!in!reduction,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!34T36! 173!
3.33!! Double!bass!part!missing!in!reduction,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bar!37! 173!
3.34!! Brass!parts!missing!in!reduction,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!43T45! 173!
3.35!! Original!timpani!figure,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bar!9! 176!
3.36!! Amended!timpani!figure,!Milhaud!Concerto!(Piano!reduction),!bar!9! 176!
3.37!! Timpani!part!erased!in!reduction,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bar!143! 180!
!
Chapter*Four:*Chamber*music:(Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion*by*Sculthorpe*
Example* Detail* Page*
4.01!! Harrison,!First(Concerto(for(Flute(and(Percussion,!flute,!mvt!3! 191!
4.02!! Harrison,!First(Concerto(for(Flute(and(Percussion,!percussion!mvt!3! 191!
4.03!! Cage,!Forever(and(Sunsmell!excerpt,!bars!24T33! 192!
4.04!! Colgrass,!Variations(for(Four(Drums(and(Viola,(Variation!II,!bars!45T 193!
53!

viii!!
Example* Detail* Page*
4.05a!! QuasiTMahlerian!melody,!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone,!bars!43T 197!
46!
4.05b!! QuasiTMahlerian!melody,!Sculthorpe(Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion( 197!
bars!49T52!
4.06a!! Rapidly!repeated!rhythmic!figure,!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone!bars!53T57! 197!
4.06b!! Rapidly!repeated!rhythmic!figure,!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion( 197!
bars!61T65!
4.07a!! MartialTlike!motive,!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone!bars!79T83! 198!
4.07b!! MartialTlike!motive,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion(bars! 198!
88T94!
4.08a!! Percussive!sounds,!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone,!bars!79T93! 200!
4.08b!! Percussive!sounds!extended!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Viola(and( 200!
Percussion,!bars!87T107!
4.09!! Percussion!answering!viola,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and( 202!
Percussion!bars!87T93!
4.10!! Example!of!percussion!providing!rhythmic!texture!and!timbral! 203!
colour,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion!bars!49T54.!
4.11!! Complete!musical!figure,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion! 203!
bars!89T92.!
4.12a!! Original!instrumentation!(claves),!Sculthorpe!Sonata(bars!67T70! 208!
4.12b!! Amended!instrumentation!(sticks),!Sculthorpe!Sonata!bars!68T70! 208!
4.13!! Opening!figure,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!1T7! 211!
4.14! !Opening!phrase,!Sculthorpe!Sonata!bars!1T6! 212!
4.15!! Sculthorpe!Sonata!bars!7T12,!where!sticking!needs!to!be!decided! 212!
4.16!! Playing!same!figure!as!above!but!with!soft!sticks,!Sculthorpe!Sonata! 213!
bars!21T26!
4.17!! Conveying!‘timelessness’,!through!arm!movements,!Sculthorpe! 213!
Sonata,(bars!7T19!
4.18!! Grace!notes!with!soft!sticks!and!rhythmic!flow!Sculthorpe!Sonata,( 214!
bars!21T26!
4.19!! Forte!bongo!and!diminuendo!tomTtom,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!5T7! 214!
4.20!! Cymbals!and!triangle!entries,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and( 216!
Percussion,!bars!14T16!and!37T8!!
4.21!! Movement!in!cymbals!and!triangle!entries,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for( 217!
Viola(and(Percussion!bars!14T19!
4.22a!! TamTtam!roll!(excerpt)!Sculthorpe(Sonata,!bars!244T250! 217!
4.22b!! China!cymbal!roll!(excerpt),!Sculthorpe!Sonata,!bars!71T74! 217!
4.22c!! Bass!Drum!roll!(excerpt),!Sculthorpe(Sonata,!bars!44T48,! 218!
4.22d!! Bass!Drum!roll!(excerpt),!Sculthorpe(Sonata,!bars!188T194! 218!
4.23!! Example!of!rudimental!roll!notation! 220!
4.24!! Sculthorpe’s!roll!notations!on!cymbals,!tamTtam!and!drums,! 220!
Sculthorpe!Sonata,(pp.!4,!6,!9,!18,!21!
4.25!! Forte!Funeral!March,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!211T220! 222!
4.26!! ‘Deliberate’!articulation,!snare!drum,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!87T93!! 223!
4.27!! Changing!beaters!to!clapsticks,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!55T57! 223!
4.28!! Beaters!and!clapsticks,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!69T72! 224!
4.29!! Beaters!and!clapsticks,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!80T82! 224!
4.30!! Movement!of!beaters,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!12T16! 227!
4.31!! Movement!of!beaters,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!32T39! 227!
4.32!! Notation!of!rolls!in!manuscript!and!printed!edition,!Sculthorpe! 230!
Sonata!figure!8!!

! ix!
Example* Detail* Page*
4.33!! Notational!differences!playing!on!rim!and!sticks,!Sonata!figure!10!! 230!
4.34a!! Notation!of!32nd!notes,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,!figure!24!!T1979!edition! 231!
4.34b!! Notation!of!32nd!notes,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,!figure!24,1960! 231!
manuscript!
4.35!! Notational!difference!in!instrument!between!manuscript!and!printed! 232!
edition,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,!figure!20!
4.36!! Notated!freedom!of!interpretation,!Sculthorpe!Sonata!score,!figure! 232!
24,!printed!edition!
4.37!! Notated!freedom!of!interpretation,!Sculthorpe!Sonata!score!handT 232!
written!score!with!amendments,!p.11!
4.38!! Sculthorpe,!Sonata,(edited(percussion!part! 234!
4.38!! Sculthorpe,!Sonata,(edited(percussion!part! 235!
4.38!! Sculthorpe,!Sonata,(edited(percussion!part! 236!
4.39!! Reading!printed!score,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(1960!edition,(bars!66T70! 237!
4.40!! Reading!original!score,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(original!manuscript,(bars! 237!
67T70!
4.41!! Reading!edited!part,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,!percussion!part!bars!64T77! 237!
!
!
Chapter*Five:*Percussion*Ensemble*in*Australia*
Example* Detail* Page*
5.01!! Grainger,!Eastern(Intermezzo,!manuscript,!1899! 245!
5.02! Milhaud,!Les(Choéphores,!Presages,!climax,!p!116! 249!
5.03!! Shostakovich!The(Nose,(Entracte,(bars!66T70! 250!
5.04!! Suspended!Cymbal!part!in!Italian,!Shostakovich!The(Nose,(Entracte,( 251!
figure!69!
5.05!! Clash!cymbals!part!in!Italian!and!Russian,!Shostakovich!The(Nose,( 251!
Entracte,(figure!70!
5.06!! Amadeo!Roldán,!Ritmica(No.(5,!bars!1T5! 252!
5.07!! Edgard!Varèse!Ionisation,!bars!1T7! 254!
5.08!! Wind!chimes,!bowed!cymbal!and!vibraphone,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!1T 258!
9!
5.09! Bowing!and!bending!notes!on!xylophone,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!20T24! 258!
5.10!! Derabucca,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!42T43! 259!
5.11!! Vibraphone,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!4T5! 259!
5.12!! Opening!melody!on!vibraphone,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!5T9! 260!
5.13!! Mix!of!sounds!with!tubophone!,!vibraphone!1,!vibraphone!2,!bowed! 260!
xylophone,!triangle,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!21T24!
5.14,!! Improvised!section,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!50T54! 260!
5.15!! Variety!of!sounds!from!wooden!idiophones,!Bryce!Games,!bars!7T10! 261!
5.16!! Variety!of!sounds!from!wooden!idiophones,!Bryce!Games,!bars!14T20! 261!
5.17!! Second!subject,!Bryce!Games,!bars!61T75! 262!
5.18!! Tubophone,!Bryce,!Prelude,!bars!25T35! 265!
5.19! Derabucca,!Bryce!Prelude,(bar!51! 266!
5.20!! Derabucca,!Bryce!Prelude,(bar!59! 266!
5.21!! Derabucca,!Bryce!Prelude,(bar!73! 267!
5.22!! Derabucca,!Bryce!Prelude,(bar!92! 267!
5.23!! Guiro!stroke,!Bryce!Games,!bar!10! 268!
5.24! Opening!3rd!mvt,!Bryce!Pranks,!bars!1T8! 270!
5.25! Opening,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!1T21! 273!

x! !
Example* Detail* Page*
5.26!! Snare!drum!martial!motif,!Morgan!Battery!bars!22T63! 274!
5.27! Cup!gongs,!mf,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!30T62! 274!
5.28!! Glockenspiel,!p!Morgan!Battery,!bars!35T62,!! 274!
5.29!! TamTtam,!snare!drum,!cup!gongs,!glockenspiel,!Morgan!Battery,!bars! 274!
30T36!
5.30! ppp!snare!drum,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!64T65! 275!
5.31!! Marimba!entry,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!70T71! 275!
5.32!! ‘Shattering!of!illusions’,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!74T78! 275!
5.33! Martial!motif!at!faster!tempo,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!102T112! 276!
5.34!! Build!up!of!tension,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!126T131! 277!
5.35!! Moment!of!death!(bar!149),!Morgan!Battery,!bars!145T150! 277!
5.36!! Reiteration!of!tuned!motifs!over!snare!drum,!time!after!death,! 278!
Morgan!Battery,!bars!145T158!
5.37!! Opening!Morgan!Funeral(Music!bars!1T4! 280!
5.38!! Juxtaposition!of!time!signatures,!Morgan!Funeral(music!figures!D!&!E! 281!
5.39!! Emotional!turmoil,!Morgan!Funeral(music!figures!F!and!G! 282!
5.40!! ‘Metal!beaters!on!vibraphone’,!Morgan!Funeral(music!figure!H! 282!
5.41!! Welling!up!of!emotion,!Morgan!Funeral(music!timpani!(bottom! 283!
stave),!figure!I!
5.42!! Expressions!of!grief,!Morgan!Funeral(music!figures!MTO! 284!
5.43! Opening!Morgan!Requiem!bars!1T17! 285!
5.44!! Judgement!and!condemnation!on!bass!drum,!Morgan!Requiem!bars! 286!
19T22!
5.45!! Climax!of!judgement!and!Dies(Irae,!Morgan!Requiem!bars!32T35! 286!
5.46!! Ascending!scale!passages,!Morgan!Requiem,!bars!36T41! 287!
5.47!! Descending!scale!passages,!Morgan(Requiem,!bars!51T61! 287!
5.48!! Dies(Belli!‘Day!of!Battle’,!Morgan!Requiem!bars!77T!86! 288!
5.49! Acclaiming!the!glory!of!the!Great!King!and!coming!of!eternal!Light,! 289!
Morgan!Requiem!bars!151T161!
5.50! Emotional!turmoil,!Morgan!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!bars!16T26! 290!
5.51! Cacophony!of!madness,!Morgan!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!bars!27T40! 291!
5.52! More!craziness,!on!casio!and!toy!drum,!Morgan!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,! 292!
bars!41T59!
5.53! Closing!bars,!Morgan!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!bars!60T70! 293!
5.54! Opening!of!Morgan!Fons(Amoris,!bars!1T16! 294!
5.55! ff!interjection!and!scream,!Morgan!Fons(Amoris,!bars!107T117! 295!
5.56!! forte!interjection,!Morgan!Fons(Amoris,!bars!144T146! 296!
5.57!! fff!interjection(Morgan(Fons(Amoris,!bars!159T164! 296!
5.58!! Brief!change!of!mood,!Morgan!Fons(Amoris,!bars!247T254! 297!
5.59!! End!of!piece,!Morgan!Fons(Amoris,!bars!296T299! 298!
5.60!! Tubophone,!Morgan!Fons(Amoris,!bars!225T234! 300!
5.61! Whistles!and!derisive!noises,!Morgan!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!bar!25T26! 300!
5.62!! Coordinating!voice!and!instrument,!Morgan!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!bar! 301!
27T33!
5.63!! Chanting,!Morgan!Requiem,!bars!165T170! 301!
5.64!! Parallel!motion!in!sevenths,!Morgan!Requiem,!bars!52T56! 301!
5.65! Changing!instruments!as!edited,!between!xylophone,!glockenspiel,! 303!
and!snare/bass!drum,!Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figures!E!to!I!
5.66!! Sharing!instruments,!edited!part,!Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figures!FTH! 304!
5.67!! Changing!beaters,!edited!tenor!drum/3!tomTtoms/bass!drum,! 305!
timpani!part,!Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figures!FTH!

! xi!
Example* Detail* Page*
5.68!! Vibraphone!with!metal!beaters,!Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figure!H! 306!
5.69! Changing!beaters,!glockenspiel!to!vibraphone,!Morgan!Funeral( 306!
Music,!figure!I!
5.70! Juxtaposed!time!signatures,!Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figures!DTE! 307!
5.71! vibraphone!entry!points,!Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figure!D! 307!
5.72!! Playing!glockenspiel!and!snare!drum,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!61T74! 311!
5.73!! Playing!glockenspiel!and!woodblocks,!Morgan!Battery,(bars!161T169! 311!
5.74!! Playing!glockenspiel!and!bass!drums,!Morgan!Battery,(bars!113T152! 311!
5.75!! Direction!for!players!1!and!2!to!share!bass!drum,!Morgan,!Funeral( 312!
Music,!figure!C!
5.76! Coordinating!bow!and!mallet,!Morgan,!Fun(and(Games,!bars!109T120! 314!
5.77!! Coordinating!hand!and!foot!playing!grace!notes,!Morgan!Fun(and( 315!
Games,(bars!113T116!
5.78!! 12/8!Time!signature!divided!into!2!+!3!+!3!+!2!+!2,!Morgan!Fun(and( 315!
Games,(bars!34T38!
5.79!! Coordinating!wind!chimes,!cymbal,!snare!drum,!pedal!bass!drum! 316!
and!vibraphone,!Morgan,!Voyage(into(Solitude,!bars!15T33!
5.80!! Fast!changes!of!beaters!and!instruments,!Morgan,!Concerto(for( 317!
Percussion,!Cadenza,!p.!9a!
5.81!! Opening,!third!movement!Bryce,!Jazz(Suite,!(‘Richard’s(Rag’),!bars!1T 318!
8!
5.82!! OneThanded!tremolo,!Bryce,!Concerto(for(marimba(and(vibraphone,( 319!
bars!101T106!
5.83!! Option!of!improvisation,!Bryce,!Uncle(Bill,!bars!34T37! 319!
!

xii! !
List*of*Plates*
!
Chapter*One*ReHconceiving*the*Percussion*Medium*
Plate* Detail* Page*
1.01! Bongos,!tuneable!using!a!spanner,!on!tiltable!stand! 24!
1.02!! Chinese!tomTtom,!concert!toms,!twoTheaded!tom! 27!
1.04!! Kolberg!pedal!TomTtom! 29!
1.04!! Marked!tunings!on!metal!shell!drums!(Kolberg)! 30!
1.05!! Tuned!BooTbams!(Kolberg)! 30!
1.06!! Tango!bass!drum!8”!x!26”!(from!internet)! 31!
1.07!! Bass!drum!beater!selection! 33!
1.08!! Example!of!plank!of!wood!using!(dowel)!beaters!(Peinkofer!and! 39!
Tannigel)!
1.09!! Example!of!hammer!(Peinkofer!and!Tannigel)! 39!
1.10!! FourTrow!xylophone!from!the!player’s!perspective! 43!
1.11!! Original!fourTrow!xylophone!mallets!and!early!types!of!mallets!for! 49!
keyboard!xylophone!
1.12!! Selection!of!mallets!in!use!in!the!middle!of!the!twentieth!century!! 49!
1.13!! Deagan!steel!marimbaphone!with!keys!enabled!for!bowing! 51!
1.14!! Examples!of!contemporary!wound!marimba!and!xylophone!mallets! 53!
1.15!! Relative!thicknesses!and!lengths!of!early!and!contemporary!mallet! 54!
handles!
1.16!! Examples!of!different!types!of!mallets!T‘cluster’,!‘slap’,!snare!drum! 54!
stick!with!metal!and!felt!ends!
1.17!! Song!bells!! 55!
1.18! Tubophone! 56!
1.19!! Vibraphone!3.5!octaves!(Vanderplas)! 56!
1.20!! One!note!of!an!Angklung!! 57!
1.21!! Gambang!with!chromatically!arranged!in!one!row! 57!
1.22!! BooTbams!(Kolberg)! 58!
1.23!! PVC!Pipe!Instrument!(from!internet)! 58!
1.24!! Cimbalom!in!folk!ensemble,!Hungary!(from!internet)! 58!
1.25!! Steel!drums!note!layout!T!Tenor!Steel!pans!(Vistapan)! 62!
1.26!! Steel!drums!note!layout!T!Double!tenor!pans!(Vistapan)! 63!
1.27!! Steel!drums!note!layout!T!Double!seconds!F#3TC#6!(Vistapan)! 63!
1.28!! Steel!drums!note!layout!T!Double!seconds!E3TEb6!(Vistapan)! 64!
1.29!! Steel!drums!note!layout!T!Double!seconds!F#3!–!C#6!(Panyard)! 64!
1.30!! Steel!drums!note!layout!T!Double!seconds!F3TC6!(Panyard)! 65!
1.31! Kolberg!tambourine!showing!the!method!of!mounting,!jingles!and! 66!
method!of!playing!a!long,!uninterrupted!thumb!roll!!
1.32!! Cowbell!with!rounded!(yellow)!plastic!strip!(LP)! 67!
!
Chapter*Two*Evolving*Percussion*Techniques*
Plate* Detail* Page*
2.01!! Traditional!Snare!Drum!grip! 72!
2.02!! Matched!Grip! 72!
2.03!! Wrist!action! 78!
2.04!! Legend!of!stickings!and!placement!on!snare!drum,!R.!Pusz,!After(M! 86!
2.05!! Kraft,!Images,!legend!of!sticking!and!placement! 88!
2.06!! Scraping!technique!on!snare!drum!legend,!R.!Pusz,!an’(if…?,! 93!
2.07!! Legend!of!stickings,!David!George!Choose(Your(Own(Adventure! 99!

! xiii!
Plate* Detail* Page*
2.08!! Diagrams!of!brush!playing!instructions,!David!George!Choose(Your(Own( 99!
Adventure!
2.09!! Comparison!of!mallet!sizes.!Mallet!(a)!is!for!Llewellyn’s!piece;!(b)!is! 103!
Balter’s!mushroom!head.!
2.10!! Playing!instructions!legend,!R.!Pusz,!Continuity! 104!
2.11!! Diagram!and!pictogram!legend!(fragment),!Stockhausen,!Zyklus! 109!
2.12!! Layout!diagram,!Stockhausen,!Zyklus! 111!
2.13!! Legend,!William!Kraft,!Sarabande!from!English(Suite! 112!
2.14!! Playing!instructions!Kraft!Sarabande! 113!
!
Chapter*Three*Solo*Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre*by*Darius*Milhaud*
Plate* Detail* Page*
3.01!! Notation!legend!Milhaud,!Concerto,(piano!reduction!score! 137!
3.02a!! Setup!diagram,!Milhaud!Concerto! 138!
3.02b! Playing!instructions,!Milhaud!Concerto! 138!
3.03!! RotoTtoms,!Kolberg!catalogue,!2007,!p.12! 164!
3.04!! DoubleTended!mallets!as!suggested!for!the!Milhaud!Concerto! 166!
3.05a!! Bass!Drum/detachable!Cymbal!in!typical!drum!set!used!in!the!theatre! 169!
3.05b!! Bass!Drum/detachable!Cymbal!beater!detail! 169!
3.06!! Alternative!method!of!playing!the!bass!drum/cymbal!and!alternative! 169!
sounds!
3.07!! Instrument!legend!Milhaud(Concerto,!Piano!reduction! 171!
3.08!! Templeblocks!on!stand,!and!general!percussion!stand,!Kolberg! 181!
catalogue!2007!
3.09!! Example!of!a!different!notational!arrangement!for!Milhaud,!Concerto! 182!
!
Chapter*Four*Chamber*music:(Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion*by*Sculthorpe*
Plate* Detail* Page*
4.01! Legend!devised!by!Pusz,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion! 209!
4.02! Clave!in!holder!(Kolberg)! 225!
4.03!! Piccolo!Woodblock!(Kolberg)! 225!
4.04!! Piccolo!Woodblocks!(Steve!Weiss)! 225!
4.05!! Snare!Drum!stick!varieties!(Kolberg)! 226!
4.06a!! Percussion!Instrumentation,!1960!manuscript!Sculthorpe!Sonata!! 233!
4.06b!! Percussion!Instrumentation,!1979!edition,!Sculthorpe,!Sonata!! 233!
4.07!! Setup!without!the!second!Bass!Drum,!Sculthorpe!Sonata! 238!
4.08!! Alternative!setTup,!Sculthorpe,!Sonata! 239!
4.09!! Legend!(amended),!Sculthorpe!Sonata! 239!
!
Chapter*Five*Percussion*Ensemble*in*Australia*
Plate* Detail* Page*
5.01!! Deagan!metal!marimba! 244!
5.02! Example!of!Percy!Grainger's!Instrumentation!and!current!equivalents! 246!
5.03!! Information!on!Ionisation(as!arranged!for!six!players!by(Les( 256!
Percussions(de(Strasbourg!
5.04!! Tubophone! 264!
5.05!! Angles!of!Refraction!when!playing!on!curved!surfaces! 265!
5.06!! Changing!attitude!to!writing!for!percussion,!Morgan,!Fun(and(Games,! 313!
title!page!

xiv!!
List*of*Tables*
!
Chapter*One*ReHconceiving*the*Percussion*Medium*
Table* Detail* Page*
1.01!! Comparison!of!different!types!of!tomTtoms! 27!
1.02!! Types!of!snare!drums!according!to!context!of!use! 29!
1.03!! Sizes!of!various!types!of!bass!drum! 31!
1.04!! Ranges!of!original!keyboard!style!marimbas!made!in!the!USA!by! 46!
Deagan!
1.05!! Sizes!and!tunings!of!preT1922!Deagan!xylophones!in!author’s! 47!
collection!
1.06!! Sizes!and!pitches!of!Deagan!steel!marimbaphones,!with!resonators! 51!
1.07!! Sizes!and!pitches!of!Deagan!Wood!marimbaphones! 52!
!

Chapter*Three*Solo*Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre*by*Darius*Milhaud*

Table* Detail* Page*

3.01!! Sounds!and!ranges!of!the!percussion!instruments!in!the!Milhaud! 135!
Concerto!
3.02!! Genres!from!which!the!percussion!instruments!chosen!for!Milhaud’s! 136!
Concerto!
3.03!! Legend!of!instrument!groupings!in!Milhaud’s!Concerto! 137!
3.04a!! Summary!of!the!action!in!Milhaud’s!Concerto,(Rude(et(dramatique! 142!
3.04b!! Summary!of!the!action!in!Milhaud’s!Concerto,(Modéré! 143!
3.05!! Milhaud’s!use!of!beaters!on!the!various!instruments!in!the!Concerto! 166!
3.06!! Discrepancies!between!editions!(orchestral!part)! 172!
3.07a!! Discrepancies!between!editions!in!the!solo!part!Rude(et(dramatique! 174!
3.07b!! Discrepancies!between!editions!in!the!solo!part!Modéré! 175!
!

Chapter*Four*Chamber*music:(Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion*by*Sculthorpe*

Table* Detail* Page*

4.01!! Comparisons!of!instruments!between!Sculthorpe!Sonata!and! 206!
Stravinsky!L’histoire(
4.02! Discrepancies!between!editions! 229!
(

Chapter*Five*Percussion*Ensemble*in*Australia!

Table* Detail* Page*

5.01!! Tables!of!original!and!edited!instrument!allocation!mvt!1!in!Loss! 308!
5.02! Tables!of!original!and!edited!instrument!allocation!mvt!2!in!Loss! 309!
5.03! Tables!of!original!and!edited!instrument!allocation!mvt!3!in!Loss! 309!
5.04! Tables!of!original!and!edited!instrument!allocation!mvt!4!in!Loss! 309!
5.05! Tables!of!original!and!edited!instrument!allocation!mvt!5!in!Loss! 309!
5.06! Table!of!total!instrument!allocation!for!each!player!in!Loss! 310!
!

! xv!
Introduction*

Approach*

The!twentieth!century!saw!percussion!performance!transform!from!a!backTofT
stage!supportive!medium!providing!rhythmic!definition!and!volume!into!a!
centreTstage!family!of!instruments!presenting!performances!in!its!own!right!and!
in!the!process!producing!a!new!genre.!This!process!of!performance!comprised!
three!elements!–!the!instruments!of!the!medium,1!the!techniques!of!playing!and!
the!repertoire.!However,!these!evolutionary!changes!to!percussion!and!their!
impact!on!the!manner!in!which!percussion!is!used!in!performance!have!not!been!
previously!researched.!This!study!addresses!this!omission.!!

Firstly,!a!large!number!of!instruments!were!imported!into!the!Art!Music!World,!
where!they!then!were!developed!and!adapted.!Art(Music,!in!this!dissertation,!is!
the!generally!accepted!term!used!to!describe!the!form!of!traditional!music!
composed!in!a!classical!tradition!and!requiring!formalised!study!that!originated!
in!Europe!and!also!developed!further!in!specific!cultural!or!music!contexts!in!
other!countries.!The!United!States!of!America!in!the!early!twentieth!century!
typifies!this!satellite!evolution!with!the!energy!of!a!young!and!emerging!music!
culture!injecting!a!burst!of!enthusiasm!into!an!already!established!musical!form!
inherited!from!Europe.!This!example!is!referred!to!in!the!study.!As!a!point!of!
conjecture!the!term!Art(Music!is!preferred!to!the!generic!Western2!as!a!more!
accurate!description!of!this!music!genre!and!accordingly!this!dissertation!has!
adopted!this!reference.3!!

This!crossTcultural!contact!on!a!broad!scale,!through!expansion!of!international!
trade,!mass!migration!and!two!world!wars!brought!people!together!who!
previously!would!have!had!little,!if!any,!knowledge!of!each!other’s!culture!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1!The!terms!‘medium’!and!‘instruments’!are!used!interchangeably!throughout!this!dissertation.!

2!Norman!Davies,!Europe(East(and(West,!London,!Pimlico,!2007,!pp.!46T60.!

3!Bruno!Nettl,!‘Music!in!Contemporary!Western!Culture’,!New(Grove(Dictionary(of(Music(and(
Musicians,(Volume!17!p.428*

! 1!
values.!The!contact!introduced!new!and!different!instruments!to!percussionists!
and!composers.!Accompanying!this!influx!was!a!concomitant!broadening!and!
refinement!of!techniques!needed!to!play!these!instruments.!This!occurred!
simultaneously!at!a!time!when!composers!were!searching!for!new!sounds!and!
new!directions. The!magnitude!of!this!coincidence!has!had!profound!and!ongoing!
implications!for!percussionists!because!of!the!distinct!relationship!between!the!
nature!of!the!instruments!and!the!necessary!changes!or!adaptations!required!for!
the!techniques!of!playing!them.!However,!while!the!transformation!was!global,!
the!details!of!the!changes!were!local!in!terms!of!instrument!adaptation,!
technique!and!compositional!directions.!Because!these!changes!acquired!
distinctly!localised!characteristics!the!developments!collectively!were!not!
uniform!or!standardised,!with!the!deeper!significance!being!that!developments!
in!instrument!use,!technique!and!repertoire!across!the!globe!have!been!
multifarious!in!essence!and!direction.!!

These!random!advances!in!percussion!in!turn!affected!performance!outcomes!as!
well!as!the!style!of!writing!for!percussion!and!are!continuing!to!influence!the!
contemporary!developments!in!the!genre.!Eminent!percussionist,!James!Blades!
recognised!this!trend!in!the!1960s.!

TwentiethTcentury!orchestration!has!demanded!a!dominant!role!from!the!
instruments!of!percussion.!Succeeding!years!have!witnessed!an!everTincreasing!
use!of!the!normal!percussion,!together!with!a!desire!on!the!part!of!composers!to!
exploit!the!possibilities!of!unusual!devices!and!novel!instruments.4!

The!coalescing!of!this!plethora!of!instruments,!variety!of!playing!techniques!and!
moves!by!composers!away!from!the!AustroTGermanic!traditions!of!melody!and!
harmony!saw!percussion!at!the!centrepiece!of!the!emergence!of!a!new!music.!In!
1975!Gordon!Peters,!a!former!Principal!Percussionist!in!the!Chicago!Symphony!
Orchestra!commented!on!this:!

The!fast!growth!of!percussion!ensemble!literature,!changing!attitudes!and!
standards,!and!the!trends!and!potentials!inherent!in!this!movement!today!is!a!
highly!fascinating!study.!Historically,!we!are!now!witnessing!one!of!the!great!
steps!in!instrumental!development.5!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
4!James!Blades,!Percussion(Instruments(and(Their(History,!London,!Faber!and!Faber,!1970,!p.!412!
5!Gordon!Peters,!The(Drummer:(Man,!Wilmette!IL,!KemperTPeters,!1975,!p.!3!

2! !
Although!Peters!is!talking!specifically!about!percussion!ensemble,!the!last!
sentence,!‘one!of!the!great!steps!in!instrumental!development’!can!be!related!to!
the!whole!field!of!percussion!because!of!the!interTrelationship!between!these!
three!elements!of!instrumental!variety,!compatible!playing!techniques!and!
broadening!of!compositional!horizons.6!Accordingly,!this!dissertation!will!
examine!these!interTrelationships!and!the!challenges!presented!and!continuing!
to!be!presented!for!percussion!performance.!The!paucity!of!scholarly!and!other!
published!material!related!to!the!changes!means!any!research!must!of!necessity!
rely!on!primary!sources,!thereby!involving!performances!of!other!percussionists!
and!my!own,!as!well!as!related!observations!and!reflections.!

Performance!of!music!comprises!three!elements!–!the!medium,!techniques!and!
repertoire.!In!relation!to!performance!each!element!requires!analysis!and!with!a!
focus!on!their!interTrelationships.!Because!of!the!relative!newness!of!the!genre!
and!continual!changes!within!it,!the!academic!research!into!percussion!
performance!is!sparse.!This!study!aims!to!rectify!this!situation!and!examine!the!
nature!of!the!percussion!medium,!how!it!changed!over!the!course!of!the!last!
hundred!years!and!the!effects!of!these!changes!on!the!performance.!Intrinsic!to!
this!is!the!examination!of!the!manner!in!which!the!instruments!are!used!in!
performance.!It!also!aims!to!analyse!the!various!techniques!of!percussion,!and!to!
analyse!certain!works!representative!of!solo,!chamber!music!and!percussion!
ensemble!contexts.!The!works!are!Darius!Milhaud!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(
orchestre,!Peter!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion,!Eric!Bryce!Suite(for(
Percussion(Quintet!and!David!Morgan!Loss(for(Percussion(Quartet.!(

Furthermore!it!aims!to!examine!the!relationships!that!exist!between!the!
percussion!medium,!the!techniques!and!the!repertoire!and!to!investigate!the!
challenges!these!elements!present!for!performance.!Finally,!it!aims!to!examine!
how!these!elements!changed!over!the!course!of!the!last!hundred!years!and!the!
effects!of!these!changes!on!the!performance.!This!analysis!will!provide!a!body!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
6!In!discussions!with!Peters!during!the!Chicago!Symphony!Orchestra’s!visit!to!Adelaide!in!1988!
to!perform!at!the!Adelaide!Festival!he!agreed!with!this!observation.!

! 3!
knowledge!about!the!relationships!between!instruments,!technique!and!
repertoire,!and!especially!about!four!works!that!have!not!been!accorded!much!
critical!academic!analysis.!Finally,!it!will!provide!a!basis!for!future!research!on!
these!and!other!topics!arising!from!this!study.!

To!realise!these!aims!the!following!research!questions!will!be!examined.!

1. What!is!the!historical!nature!and!manner!of!use!of!the!instruments?!
2. What!techniques!have!developed!and!are!they!instrument!specific!or!
based!on!a!universal!principle?!
3. What!musical!directions!were!set!by!the!repertoire!and!what!limitations!
and!potentials!of!instruments,!technique!and!sound!set!their!contexts?!
4. What!is!the!nature!of!the!relationship!between!the!three!elements!of!
instruments,!repertoire!and!technique?!
5. What!challenges!do!they!present!for!performance?!

This!study!is!an!analysis!of!the!percussion!medium,!its!techniques!and!repertoire!
and!an!investigation!of!the!construction,!developments!and!manner!of!use!of!
each!of!these!elements,!their!interTrelationships!in!a!changing!environment!and!
the!challenges!this!situation!presents!for!performance.!The!research!is!an!
exploration!of!the!characteristics!of!representative!families!of!percussion!
instruments!in!historical!and!contextual!perspectives.!Furthermore!it!
investigates!the!elements!of!technique!as!applied!to!these!families!of!instruments!
and!how!it!is!used!in!the!repertoire.!Thirdly,!it!analyses!four!works!in!the!
repertoire!representative!of!solo,!chamber!music!and!percussion!ensemble!
performance!contexts!from!the!point!of!view!of!musical!intent!of!the!composers!
and!examines!the!role!of!the!instruments!and!technique!and!performance!
challenges!in!that!context.!Finally,!in!relation!to!the!wider!evolving!percussion!
genre,!the!study!draws!conclusions!about!the!interTrelationships!between!the!
elements!of!medium,!technique!and!repertoire!and!the!challenges!presented!for!
performance.!

4! !
The!dissertation!will!also!examine!issues!arising!from!notation,!approaches!to!
playing,!ensemble,!chamber!music!and!solo!playing!situations,!lack!of!
standardisation,!and!the!continuing!changes!across!all!these!fields.!And!the!
discussion!will!investigate!the!interTrelationships!that!exist!between!repertoire,!
technique!and!instruments!and!their!impact!on!the!artistic!presentation!of!
percussion!performances.!In!addition!examples!of!scores,!recordings!of!the!
Sculthorpe,!Bryce!and!Morgan!works!and!DVDs!showing!some!specific!
characteristics!of!the!medium!will!be!included.!Finally!conclusions!will!be!drawn!
about!the!interTrelationships!between!the!instruments,!technique!and!repertoire!
and!the!challenges!they!present!for!the!presentation!of!percussion!performances.!

This!dissertation!draws!on!the!analyses,!descriptions,!discussions,!notations!and!
sounds!in!other!relevant!dissertations,!books,!articles,!scores!and!recordings.!
Furthermore!it!draws!also!on!my!learnings!and!recollections!of!my!discussions!
with!academics;!as!well!as!over!the!years!by!many!discussions!with!composers,!
percussionists,!other!musicians,!other!academics,!music!publishers!and!
instrument!manufacturers!on!matters!of!technique,!notation,!interpretation,!
theatricality,!instrument!construction!and!elements!of!beaters.!

The!methodology!is!based!on!my!personal!experience!of!fifty!years!of!exploring,!
rehearsing!and!performing!a!large!number!of!works!for!percussion!in!the!
contexts!of!solo,!chamber!music!and!percussion!ensemble,!many!in!close!
collaboration!with!composers,!percussionists,!other!musicians!and!dancers.!This!
has!enabled!me!to!gain!a!deeper!firstThand!understanding!and!appreciation!of!
the!relationship!between!the!instruments,!the!techniques!and!the!music!and!the!
role!each!plays!in!the!realisation!of!musical!performance!and!is!elaborated!on!in!
the!Literature!Review!below.!!

By!linking!these!significant!elements!of!medium,!technique,!and!repertoire!as!
discussed!above,!and!showing!their!critical!interTrelationships,!this!dissertation!
will!provide!a!new!resource!for!percussionists!to!interpret!their!craft,!for!
composers!to!better!understand!the!complex!medium!of!percussion!and!for!
audiences!to!gain!deeper!appreciation!of!the!music!that!results.!
!

! 5!
In!this!dissertation!the!three!elements!of!instruments,!technique!and!repertoire!
will!be!analysed!in!terms!of!their!interTrelationship,!the!impact!they!have!on!
each!other,!and!the!challenges!they!present!to!performance.!!

Chapter!One!will!investigate!the!medium!of!percussion.!The!particular!
instruments!of!focus!are!the!Membranophones!and!Keyboard!Mallet!Percussion!
as!representative!of!the!main!areas!of!the!medium.!!

Chapter!Two!is!an!analysis!of!the!elements!of!technique.!These!comprise!playing!
action,!physical!movement,!sound,!notation,!logistics!and!visual!aesthetics!of!
performance.!

The!major!pieces!of!repertoire!to!be!analysed!are!representative!of!the!areas!of!
solo!performance,!chamber!music!and!percussion!ensemble.!!

Chapter!Three!examines!Darius!Milhaud’s!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(
orchestre!as!the!first!solo!piece!for!percussion.!

Chapter!Four!is!an!analysis!of!Peter!Sculthorpe’s!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion,!
as!the!first!significant!use!of!multiple!percussion!in!the!chamber!music!genre!in!
Australia!together!with!a!distinctive!portrayal!of!Australian!culture.!

Chapter!Five!examines!Eric!Bryce’s!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet!and!David!
Morgan’s!Loss(for(Percussion(Quartet!as!two!important!percussion!ensemble!
pieces!of!early!Australian!compositions!in!jazz!and!symbolic!genres!respectively.!

It!is!important!for!the!collective!music!register!to!include!academic!publications.!
At!present!there!is!a!dearth!of!academic!literature!related!to!the!relatively!recent!
evolution!of!percussion!for!performance!and!its!challenges,!and!this!dissertation!
offers!the!first!of!such!publications.!Accordingly!it!will!provide!an!initial!body!of!
knowledge!about!the!interTrelationships!between!instruments,!technique!and!
repertoire.!Importantly!it!also!analyses!four!significant!works!and!the!challenges!
they!present!for!performance!which!until!now,!except!for!Milhaud,!have!not!been!
seriously!addressed!in!scholarly!publications.!Finally!it!will!provide!a!basis!for!
future!research!on!the!topics!arising!from!this!study.!

6! !
Background*and*Context*

At!the!beginning!of!the!twentieth!century!orchestral!percussionists!had!only!a!
few!instruments!to!play,!and!in!a!manner!that!required!little!technique.!Before!
the!end!of!the!century!over!one!hundred!percussion!instruments!were!in!
evidence!in!the!classical!sphere,!each!with!its!own!technical!and!logistical!
requirements!and!traditions.7!!

This!expanded!range!of!instruments!encompassed!a!depth!of!registral!ambitus!as!
well!as!a!breadth!of!types.!For!example,!the!membranophone!family!saw!the!
introduction!of!handTplayed!instruments!such!as!bongos!and!congas!and!beaterT
played!timbales!from!Cuba!and!tomTtoms!from!China!to!complement!the!
timpani,!snare!and!bass!drums!already!in!use!in!various!musical!contexts!in!
Europe.8!Similar!coalescing!of!cultures!and!sounds!occurred!in!the!metal!and!
wooden!idiophone!families.!This!importation!had!immediate!ramifications!with!
composers!wanting!to!use!these!‘new’!sounds.!Percussionists!were!therefore!
under!pressure!to!learn!a!variety!of!techniques!to!be!able!to!produce!these!
sounds;!and!for!the!instruments!to!be!used!in!various!and!different!musical!
contexts!they!had!to!undergo!changes!to!mounting!and!construction.9!

The!magnitude!of!this!change!was!broad!and!deep,!affecting!as!it!has,!all!aspects!
of!percussion;!and!setting!a!number!of!still!evolving!new!directions.!The!breadth!
and!intensity!of!this!transformation!changed!percussionists’!methods!and!
approach!to!playing,!both!qualitatively!and!quantitatively!and!also!engendered!
new!approaches!to!composition.!This!again!was!recognised!by!Blades:!

…Milhaud’s!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre…!necessitates!no!small!
amount!of!athleticism,!not!the!least!being!the!management!of!the!foot!pedal!
operated!bass!drum!and!cymbal.10!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
7!The!Karl!Peinkofer!and!Fritz!Tannigel!Handbook(of(percussion(Instruments,!translated!by!Kurt!
and!Else!Stone,!London,!Schott,!1975!lists!the!instruments!and!explains!playing!techniques!and!
their!musical!roles.!
8!These!instruments!originally!came!to!Europe!from!Turkey.!

9!As!early!as!1931,!Varèse!called!for!a!variety!of!membranophones!and!idiophones!in!his!
percussion!ensemble!piece!Ionisation,!and!gave!specific!playing!instructions.!Edgard!Varèse,!
Ionisation,!New!York,!Colfranc!Music!Publishing,!1934,!Legend.!
10!Blades,!op.(cit.!p.!416!

! 7!
Such!a!comment!from!this!eminent!percussionist!some!forty!years!after!the!
composition!indicates!the!extent!to!which!percussionists!have!had!to!adjust!their!
technique!and!attitude!to!the!changes.!In!the!process!of!this!change,!the!role!of!
the!percussion!instruments!changed!from!an!incidental!medium!of!a!small!
number!of!instruments!providing!rhythmic!definition!and!volume,!to!the!largest!
of!instrumental!families,!comprising!a!diverse!range!of!instruments!capable!of!
presenting!concerts!in!their!own!right!and!in!a!wide!variety!of!situations.!11!

However,!this!transformation!of!the!percussion!medium!was!far!from!orderly.!
The!change!was!global,!but!the!detail!of!this!process!was!local!as!percussionists,!
composers!and!instrument!makers!contributed!their!own!understandings!of!its!
intricacies!and!place!in!its!overall!evolution.!The!dichotomy!in!this!process!
created!problems!and!conflicts!in!terms!of!technique,!instrumental!knowledge!
and!approaches!to!playing,!presenting!challenges!for!the!performance!of!
percussion.12!This!dissertation!will!examine!these!problems!and!challenges.!

Concomitant!with!this!influx!of!so!many!instruments!came!a!multiplicity!of!
techniques!and!playing!approaches.!The!instruments!came!in!a!variety!of!sizes,!
and!materials!and!were!played!in!different!combinations,!with!an!assortment!of!
beaters.!Many!of!these!instruments!originally!also!had!certain!and,!at!times!
specific,!techniques!relevant!to!their!culture!and!context,!while!for!others!
completely!different!techniques!have!developed.!As!a!result!these!techniques!
have!increased!in!their!complexity!as!they!have!encompassed!an!array!of!issues!
in!their!evolution.!These!issues!continue!to!unfold!and!affect!traditional!versus!
new!approaches,!playing!actions,!sound,!notation,!movement,!logistics!and!visual!
aspects.!The!techniques!moreover,!apply!across!both!tuned!and!untuned!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
11!Compositions!for!percussion!in!solo,!ensemble!and!chamber!music!situations!by!Milhaud,!
Antheil,!Bartók,!Berio,!Cage,!Chavez,!Carter,!Stockhausen,!Hovhaness!and!Xenakis!are!just!an!few!
examples!of!the!extent!of!this!change!over!the!course!of!the!twentieth!century.!
12!The!controversy!over!‘traditional’!and!‘matched’!grips!on!snare!drum,!the!understanding!of!
the!various!names!of!the!instruments!and!the!place!of!rhythm!in!the!musical!spectrum!are!three!
examples!of!the!challenges!and!will!be!examined!in!later!chapters.!

8! !
percussion!instruments,!to!a!wide!variety!of!beaters!and!playing!surfaces!of!
wood,!metal,!skin!and!plastic.13!

These!developments!in!percussion!occurred!when!composers!began!looking!
further!afield!for!new!sounds!and!new!compositional!directions,!exploring!
avenues!of!polytonality,!music!of!other!cultures,!and!rhythmic!nuance.!In!the!
process!they!increasingly!utilised!this!growing!family!of!percussion!instruments!
and!a!variety!of!percussively!played!sound!sources,!including!a!number!that!
were!not!previously!classified!as!instruments,!such!as!planks!of!wood,!ratchets!
and!whips.14!

In!this!context!the!outTofTtune!nature!of!the!percussion!instruments,!which!had!
already!enabled!them!to!be!used!across!all!key!signatures,!was!now!seen!as!less!
important!than!their!ability!to!add!an!extra!dimension!to!the!music,!and!provide!
a!raw!rhythmic!excitement.!This!concept!was!to!have!profound!implications!for!
percussionists!in!terms!of!technique!and!instrument!development;!and!the!
composers!in!the!forefront!of!this!new!direction!were!Igor!Stravinsky,!Percy!
Grainger!and!Darius!Milhaud,!laying!the!groundwork!for!future!compositional!
thinking.!
!

Early*Compositions*for*Percussion*

Stravinsky’s!Le(Sacre(du(Printemps,15!which!received!its!première!in!1913,!
showed!this!extra!dimension!most!emphatically,!through!his!extensive!scoring!
for!percussion!and!an!exploration!of!rhythmic!emphasis.!The!work!had!profound!
implications!for!percussionists,!as!did!his!L’histoire(du(soldat,16!which!presented!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
13!The!disparate!nature!of!the!instruments!and!beaters,!the!contexts!of!their!origins!and!changing!
manners!of!their!use!have!presented!difficulties!for!their!formal!notation!and!study.!Even!Gary!
Cook’s!excellent!tutor,!Teaching(Percussion,!New!York,!Schirmer,!1997,!pp.254T274!can!only!
provide!a!start!to!developing!these!techniques.!
14!This!exemplifies!some!of!the!difficulties!surrounding!percussion.!These!‘nonTinstruments’!
come!in!a!variety!of!sizes!and!sounds,!but!the!only!accurate!description!of!them!is!in!Peinkofer!
and!Tannigel’s!Handbook(of!Percussion(Instruments!(see!footnote!no.!5).!This!excellent!resource!
unfortunately!is!now!out!of!print!and!the!very!few!secondThand!copies!available!are!expensive.!
15!Igor!Stravinsky,!Le(Sacre(du(Printemps,(London,!Boosey!&!Hawkes,!1969!

16!Igor!Stravinsky,!L’histoire(du(soldat,(London,!Chester!Music,!1987,!percussion!part!transcribed!
and!edited!by!James!Blades.!

! 9!
issues!of!notation!and!logistics!as!well!as!asking!for!a!higher!level!of!musical!
artistry,!and!demanding!all!this!on!a!‘new’!instrument!–!multiTpercussion.!To!end!
a!piece!using!only!drums,!for!example,!was!a!very!new!concept.!The!notational,!
logistical!and!aesthetic!aspects!of!technique!and!musicality!will!be!further!
analysed!in!Chapter!Two.!

Moreover!from!the!perspective!of!performance!Stravinsky!was!attracted!by!the!
idea!of!

…the!interest!afforded!to!the!spectator!by!being!able!to!see!these!
instrumentalists!each!playing!his!own!part!in!the!ensemble…!which!facilitate!
one’s!auditory!perceptions?17!

With!this!decision!the!instrumentalists!were!elevated!from!the!‘pit’!to!a!level!of!
artistic!presentation!of!equal!status!with!actors,!dancers,!other!musicians!and!
visual!artists.!In!light!of!Stravinsky’s!comments!about!the!relationship!between!
sight!and!sound,!this!decision!has!had,!and!continues!to!have!ramifications!for!
the!presentation!of!percussion!performance.!The!significance!of!visual!and!aural!
elements!of!performance!will!also!be!further!discussed.!

At!the!same!time!as!Stravinsky!was!developing!the!untuned!percussion!potential,!
Percy!Grainger!began!to!explore!the!range!of!sounds!offered!by!the!tuned!
percussion!instruments.!In!1913!he!set!to!work!on!his!piece,!planned!for!the!
Diaghilev’s!Ballets(Russes,!but!never!performed!by!them,!The(Warriors([(Music(to(
an(Imaginary(Ballet.18!The!work!utilises!a!large!number!of!diverse!tuned!
percussion!instruments,!and!is!the!first!example!of!such!orchestration.19!
Moreover,!this!work,!as!well!as!his!other!pieces!involving!percussion!had!
important!implications!for!percussionists.!The!longer!entries!of!more!complex!
phrases,!at!fast!tempi,!necessitated!development!of!an!exponentially!greater!
technical!facility.!The!work!and!its!significance!to!percussion,!however,!are!
largely!ignored!even!by!Grainger’s!biographers.!The!Grove(Dictionary!mentions!it!
only!as!a!brief!entry!in!his!list!of!works!and!that!listing!making!no!mention!of!the!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
17!Igor!Stravinsky,!Chronicle(of(My(Life,!Trans.!from!the!French.!London.!Gollancz.!1936,!p.!122!

18!Percy!Grainger,!The(Warriors([(Music(to(an(Imaginary(Ballet,(Mainz,!Schott!&!Co,!1926,(Includes!
program!note,!analysis!and!notes!to!the!conductor,!in!German!and!English,!by!the!composer.!
19!John!Anthony!Roscigno,!“Percy!Grainger’s!The!Warriors!–!Music!to!an!Imaginary!Ballet”,!DMA!
Dissertation,!University!of!Arizona,!1998,!p.!57!

10! !
‘tuneful!percussion’,!which!he!regarded!as!a!separate!section!of!the!orchestra.20!
Grainger!continued!to!use!and!advocate!the!use!of!‘tuneful!percussion’!as!a!
separate!section!of!the!orchestra,!and!in!doing!so!bestowed!a!great!legacy.!!

These!works!by!Stravinsky!and!Grainger!elevated!percussion!from!the!pit!and!
the!task!of!mere!time!keeping!to!a!place!on!the!stage!that!demanded!a!higher!
level!of!artistic!talent.!Merging!this!with!music!that!emphasised!rhythm,!or!drew!
its!inspiration!from!nonTEuropean!sources,!diminished!the!hierarchical!
importance!of!the!melody!and!harmony!of!the!AustroTGermanic!tradition!as!seen!
in!the!works!of!Bach,!Mozart!and!Beethoven.!This!visual!and!aural!elevation!of!
percussion!afforded!a!totally!new!direction!to!both!percussion!and!music!
generally.21!

As!important!as!these!composers!were!in!the!progression!of!percussion,!it!was!
Darius!Milhaud!who!would!extend!the!parameters!furthest.!In!his!opera!Les(
Choéphores,!(written!in!1916)!three!movements,(Présages,!Exhortation!and!
Conclusion!are!for!voices!and!percussion!alone,!not!for!the!purpose!of!eliminating!
melody,!but!for!the!dramatic!effect!thus!attained.!22!The!fifteen!percussion!
instruments!were!played!by!fifteen!percussionists,!but!in!1929!Milhaud!wrote!
his(Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre(–!and!scored!sixteen!instruments!for!
one!player!in!the!first!concerto!for!a!multiple!percussion!setTup.23!By!writing!the!
piece!Milhaud!left!a!greater!legacy!than!just!adding!a!piece!to!the!repertoire.!He!
initiated!a!discrete!percussion!repertoire,!created!a!new!genre!and!by!elevating!
the!importance!of!rhythm,!redefined!music.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
20!Malcolm!Gillies!and!David!Pear,!‘Grainger,!Percy,!Aldridge’,!The(New(Grove(Dictionary(of(Music(
and(Musicians,!2nd!ed.,!(Stanley!Sadie!ed.),!Vol.!10,!p.!271.!The!instruments!comprised!Piccolo,!2!
flutes,!2!oboes,!cor!anglais,!bass!oboe,!2!clarinets,!bass!clarinet,!2!bassoons,!doubleTbassoon,!6!
horns,!4!trumpets,!3!trombones,!bass!tuba,!4!timpani!(1!player),!percussion!(8!players),!celeste,!3!
pianos,!2!harps,!strings.!(The!publisher,!Schott,!has!a!revised!edition![ed.!Alessandro!Servadei!
1997]!in!which!they!list!the!parts!as!“orchestra,!3!pianos!and!'tuneful!percussion”!
http://www.schottTmusic.com/shop/leihwerke/show,152167.html!accessed!20!February!2016)!
21!Roscigno,!op.cit.,!pp.83T4!

22!Darius!Milhaud,!Les(Choéphores,!Paris,!Heugel,!1947!

23!Jeremy!Drake,!‘Milhaud,!Darius’,!The(New(Grove(Dictionary(of(Music(and(Musicians,!2nd!ed.!
(Stanley!Sadie!ed.),!Vol.!16,!p.!678.!Curiously,!though,!the!work!is!dismissed!almost!as!an!afterT
thought!and!entered!as,!“He!also!wrote!the!first!Percussion!Concerto!(1929T30)”.!

! 11!
In!their!own!distinctive!and!influential!ways!Stravinsky,!Grainger!and!Milhaud!
left!an!important!and!permanent!legacy,!pioneering!the!significant!
transformation!of!the!role!and!perception!of!percussion!and!percussionists.!They!
broadened!harmonic!and!melodic!possibilities,!and!through!the!elevation!of!the!
untuned!percussion!instruments,!redefined!the!concept!of!music.!In!so!doing,!
they!opened!the!challenge!to!other!composers!to!write!in!new!and!experimental!
ways!for!an!emerging!genre!of!percussion!with!its!varied!set!of!tonalities!and!
new!creative!possibilities.!In!the!1930s!composers!like!Amadeo!Roldán,!Edgard!
Varèse,!Johanna!Beyer,!Henry!Cowell,!Harry!Partch,!Lou!Harrison!and!John!Cage!
all!made!important!further!contributions!in!the!development!in!the!genre!
following!these!important!beginnings.!Yet!Grainger!and!Milhaud!have!been!
largely!ignored!with!only!Stravinsky!receiving!general!acknowledgement.!
Exemplifying!this!omission!was!a!comment!by!eminent!London!percussionist!
James!Holland,24!

Such!composers!as!Stravinsky,!Bartók!and!Varèse!gave!the!element!of!rhythm,!
and!percussion!instruments,!a!new!importance!within!the!orchestra!and!
chamber!ensemble.25!

Concomitant!with!this!influential!development!in!composition!has!been!a!
continual!increase!in!the!number!and!type!of!instruments!used!as!percussive!
sound!sources.!This!has!come!about!through!the!importation!of!instruments!
from!other!cultures,!adaptation!of!instruments!to!suit!particular!playing!
situations,!adoption!of!nonTinstruments!to!meet!compositional!demands!and!
improvements!to!the!construction!and!mounting!of!all!these!instruments!to!
make!their!use!simpler!or!more!flexible.!

Simultaneously,!there!has!been!ongoing!development!in!playing!methods,!
techniques!and!approaches.!With!the!continued!expansion!of!the!body!of!
instruments!in!the!percussion!family,!imported!from!other!cultures,!newly!
invented,!or!adapted!for!different!uses,!has!been!the!accrual!of!attendant!
techniques.!As!a!result,!percussionists!now!are!forced!to!acquire!expanding!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
24!Former!Principal!Percussionist,!London!Symphony!Orchestra!and!BBC!Symphony!Orchestra!

25!James!Holland,!‘Percussion’,!The(New(Grove(Dictionary(of(Music(and(Musicians,!2nd!ed.,!(Stanley!
Sadie!ed.),!Vol.!19,!2001,!pp.!333T4.!The!rest!of!the!article!appears!to!be!more!interested!in!
highlighting!the!eccentricities!of!percussion!rather!than!positing!its!increased!significance.!

12! !
playing!methods,!techniques!and!approaches!and!to!consider!the!musical!effect!
of!their!playing,!while!doing!this!across!a!variety!of!textures!and!sound!sources!
that!also!continue!to!develop.!This!is!a!necessary!prerequisite!to!presenting!the!
artistic!performances!that!now!attend!percussion’s!raison!d’être.!

In!a!discussion!of!performance!issues,!it!is!necessary!to!closely!and!critically!
analyse!the!medium!of!percussion!itself,!its!techniques,!a!selection!of!pieces!
written!for!percussion!from!the!performer’s!perspective,!and!to!discuss!the!
relationship!that!exists!between!the!repertoire,!the!techniques!and!the!medium.!
Four!pieces!will!be!examined!in!depth,!Darius!Milhaud’s!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(
petit(orchestre,!Peter!Sculthorpe’s!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion,!David!
Morgan’s!Loss!and!Eric!Bryce’s!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet.!The!pieces,!which!
each!chart!some!new!pathways,!have!been!chosen!in!order!to!examine!the!place!
of!percussion!in!the!genres!of!solo,!chamber!music!and!percussion!ensemble;!and!
are!works!with!which!I!have!strong!personal!and!musical!connections.26!
Moreover,!they!contribute!to!the!development!of!percussion!across!a!range!of!
genres!and!styles;!and!as!three!of!them!are!Australian,!they!underline!the!
importance!to!interpretation!of!the!collaboration!between!composer!and!
performer,!and!stress!the!influence!of!the!local!situation!to!the!global!evolution.!

Milhaud’s!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre,(as!the!first!solo!piece!written!
for!percussion,!provided!the!benchmark!and!pathway!for!all!compositions!
written!since,!and!it!is!generally!accepted,!caused!a!reTevaluation!of!how!the!
instruments!are!used!and!played.!As!a!result!of!this!Concerto,!a!number!of!works!
have!been!written!for!solo!percussion,!and!in!different!settings.!In!Australia!for!
example,!compositions!for!solo!percussion!have!included!Tristram!Cary’s!Black,(
White(and(Rose,(which(combined!multiTpercussion!with!tape.(Andre!Oosterbaan!
in!his!Time(of(Light(composed!a!piece!for!percussion!solo!with!choir.!Becky!
Llewellyn’s(Song(Ball,!David!Morgan’s!It[Bit,27!and!Eric!Bryce’s!Concerto(for(
Marimba(/(Vibraphone(and(Orchestra!use!extensions!of!guitar!technique.!All!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
26!With!the!assistance!of!the!Australia!Council!I!commissioned!the!works!by!Morgan!and!Bryce,!
and!was!able!also!to!discuss!the!Sonata!with!Sculthorpe!on!a!number!of!occasions.!
27!The!complete!title!of!the!work!is!An(Itsy[Bitsy(Collection,!but!through!use!by!both!composer!
and!performer!is!usually!referred!to!as!It[Bit.!

! 13!
these!works!are!referred!to!illustrate!the!various!appropriate!elements!of!
technique!or!instrument!use.28!

Chamber!music!is!another!area!that!has!only!included!percussion!since!the!
1930s,!and!this!use!has!generally!been!sparse.!Peter!Sculthorpe’s!Sonata(for(Viola(
and(Percussion(is!the!first!Australian!composition!using!multiTpercussion!in!a!
chamber!music!setting;!and!it!has!a!further!significance!in!the!way!he!used!the!
instruments,!not!just!for!rhythm!but!to!symbolise!elements!of!the!Australian!
outback.!This!approach!presented!some!challenges!for!performance!and!for!
these!reasons!it!is!important!to!analyse!the!work!in!depth.!!

Percussion!Ensemble!pieces!as!discrete!entities!also!date!from!the!1930s.!Edgard!
Varèse’s(Ionisation(and(Amadeo!Roldán’s(Ritmicas(5(&(6(were!the!first!percussion!
ensemble!pieces–!the!first!as!a!‘representational’!work!and!the!second!as!a!folkT
based!work.!The!works!of!Bryce!and!Morgan!are!two!further!steps!in!the!
evolution!of!the!genre.!Charting!new!ground!by!firstly!broadening!the!musical!
parameters!and!secondly!through!interpretation!of!theme,!these!Australian!
compositions!for!percussion!ensemble!will!be!investigated!within!the!context!of!
composer’s!musical!intent.!Eric!Bryce!in!his!Suite(for(percussion(Quintet(explored!
and!melded!jazz!and!classical!elements.!And!David!Morgan!wrote!for!MultiT
Percussion!in!his!quartet!Loss(in!which!he!interpreted!the!notion!of!deprivation!
through!political,!military,!religious!and!personal!associations.29!

These!four!works!by!Milhaud,!Sculthorpe,!Bryce!and!Morgan!have!specific!
challenges!of!technique,!instrumentation,!notation,!and!performance!
presentation.!Percussion!techniques!have!been!developing!in!a!number!of!
directions!and!continue!to!do!so.!These!will!be!examined!in!the!following!
chapters!as!well!as!their!impacts!on!the!manner!of!performing!the!works,!with!
implications!for!interpretation.!The!instruments!also!continue!to!undergo!
developmental!changes,!which!affects!the!manner!of!playing!and!instrument!use!
in!the!repertoire.!The!lack!of!a!standardised!basis!for!percussion!notation!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
28!On!all!these!works!(after!the!Milhaud)!I!was!able!to!collaborate!with!the!composers!towards!
their!realisation.!
29!My!knowledge!of!the!musical!intent!of!the!works!is!based!on!discussions!with!both!composers.!

14! !
moreover,!provides!a!further!challenge!in!interpreting!composers’!intents,!
especially!when!works!are!performed!outside!of!the!local!context.!This!issue!
then!of!the!connection!between!composer!and!performer!will!also!be!discussed!
as!appropriate.!These!factors!all!play!a!role!in!the!challenges!of!presenting!
artistic!performances!of!percussion!and!will!be!closely!examined!in!the!
dissertation.!

Review*of*Sources:*Repertoire*and*Literature*

The!literature!consulted!consists!of!primary!sources!and!secondary!sources.!The!
primary!source!material!comprises!two!types.!Firstly,!the!scores,!and!
particularly!the!works!by!Milhaud,!Sculthorpe,!Bryce!and!Morgan!are!the!most!
valid!as!the!pivotal!points!of!the!research!into!repertoire!as!well!as!other!works!
referred!to!when!appropriate.!The!second!type!of!source!is!my!close!
collaboration!throughout!the!whole!process!of!discussion,!rehearsal,!workshop!
and!performance!with!the!three!composers!Sculthorpe,!Bryce!and!Morgan.!

The!first!score,!Milhaud’s!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre!I!performed!in!
1975!in!the!context!of!Grad.!Dip!A.!(Mus)!studies!at!University!of!South!Australia.!
A!deeper!understanding!of!the!piece,!both!practical!and!musical,!was!gained!
through!further!study!in!1977!at!Indiana!University!with!Professor!George!Gaber!
who!performed!the!work!under!personal!guidance!from!Milhaud.!At!the!same!
time!a!search!was!conducted!for!a!necessary!accessory,!which!is!no!longer!
manufactured.!It!comprises!the!attachments!needed!to!play!the!!

‘Grosse(caisse(à(pédale(avec(cymbale(décrochable’((pedal[operated(Bass(Drum(with(
detachable(cymbal).30(

The!discovery!of!the!attachments!enabled!the!first!performance!of!it!in!1977!in!
Australia!using!authentic!instruments,!with!the!Metropolitan!Orchestra,!
conducted!by!Verdon!Williams!who!had!reviewed!the!recording!of!the!work!
under!Milhaud’s!conducting!for!the!World!Record!Club.31!In!1984!a!deeper!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
30!They!are!extremely!difficult!to!source!and!raise!the!issue!of!appropriate!substitution.!

This!recording!was!conducted!by!Milhaud!and!is!one!of!the!sources!for!this!dissertation.!
31

MILHAUD:!Le!Carnaval!d'Aix;!Concerto!for!Viola;!Concerto!for!Percussion.!Carl!Seemann,!piano;!

! 15!
understanding!of!the!work!was!possible!following!a!very!detailed!discussion!of!it!
with!William!Kraft,!Timpanist!with!the!Los!Angeles!Philharmonic!Orchestra,!who!
also!performed!it!with!Milhaud.!Access!to!four!published!versions!of!the!work,!
comprising!the!original!score,!two!piano!reductions,!and!a!miniature!score!have!
enabled!the!analysis!of!its!different!versions.!Further!performances!and!
workshops,!teaching!the!work!to!tertiary!students,!listening!to!the!very!few!
recordings!of!the!work!and!reading!a!variety!of!articles!and!dissertations,!which!
have!analysed!it!musicologically,!and/or!debated!aspects!of!its!performance!
challenges!have!added!to!a!greater!understanding!and!appreciation!of!the!work.!

Performances,!rehearsals,!workshops!and!lessons!on!Sculthorpe’s!Sonata(for(
Viola(and(Percussion,(working!with!different!violists!in!Oman!(2009),!Australia!
(1980T2004),!Europe!(1990,!1992,!1994),!America!(1984T5),!and!have!given!
deeper!insights!into!the!work.!Discussion!on!various!aspects!of!the!work!with!
Sculthorpe!on!a!number!of!occasions,!performance!of!it!in!his!presence!(1998),32!
working!from!manuscript!and!printed!editions!of!the!work,!have!all!further!
enhanced!understanding!of!it.!With!Sculthorpe’s!consent!the!percussion!part!was!
edited!with!the!aim!of!making!it!more!practical!to!perform.!!

The!two!commissioned,!percussion!ensemble!pieces,!Suite(for(percussion(Quintet!
by!Eric!Bryce,!and!Loss!by!David!Morgan!were!developed!with!my!close!
collaboration!with!both!composers!during!the!composition!process!and!their!
realisation!in!rehearsal!and!performance.!Moreover,!my!further!collaborations!
continued!with!both!composers!on!later!works!that!they!composed!for!
percussion!in!solo,!ensemble!and!chamber!music!contexts.33!

In!addition,!my!close!collaboration!with!a!number!of!composers!on!works!for!
percussion!during!the!composing!process!and!in!their!realisation!at!performance!
has!broadened!understandings!of!the!problems!and!potentials!of!the!genre!for!
both!the!composer!and!myself.!The!pieces!covered!a!range!of!performance!
situations!of!solos,!ensembles,!chamber!music,!with!a!variety!of!instruments,!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Ulrich!Koch,!viola;!Fauré!Daniel,!percussion;!Orchestra!of!Radio!Luxembourg,!Darius!Milhaud,!
cond.!Candide!CE!31013
32!See!Performance!Biography!p.!358!
33!See!Performance!Biography!pp.!360T366!

16! !
musical!genres,!including!Contemporary!Classical,!AvantTGarde,!World!Music,!
Latin!and!Jazz.34!These!collaborations!involved!intensive!and!extensive!
discussions!with!the!composers!on!matters!of!musical!intent,!inspiration,!
musical!context,!techniques,!and!instruments.!A!number!of!the!works!were!
workshopped!and!performed!in!Australia!(1984T2015),!the!Middle!East!(2009T
2013),!Europe!(1989T2007),!Asia!(1996)!and!America!(1984T5,!1989);35!and!in!
the!process!of!working!with!these!composers!and!other!musicians!a!better!
appreciation!of!techniques,!instrument!potential!and!the!possibilities!of!
presenting!artistic!performances!has!been!made!possible.!

The!literature!of!secondary!sources!remains!sparse.!The!July!2015!edition!of!
Musicology!Australia!contains!an!article!by!percussionist!Louise!Devenish,!in!
which!she!outlines!the!beginnings!of!the!percussion!ensemble!genre!in!
Australia.36!The!article!does!not!analyse!any!aspects!of!technique!or!instrument!
use,!or!delve!into!any!details!of!the!repertoire!mentioned.!

Percussion!does!not!yet!have!a!large!repertoire!or!a!long!performance!practice!
tradition.!And!the!corollary!of!this!is!that!the!repertoire!does!not!cover!many!
historical!areas.!So!there!are!not!the!documents!or!video!resources!to!analyse!
many!different!performances!or!different!eras.!Moreover,!dissertations!and!
articles!have!tended!to!concentrate!on!particular!aspects!such!as!musicological!
analysis!of!specific!compositions,!instrument!development!or!performance!
problems!associated!with!specific!pieces.!The!research,!while!useful,!has!been!
somewhat!narrow!in!focus.!

However,!James!Lambert!provides!useful!analyses!of!performance!problems!in!
five!multiple!percussion!pieces.37!Liao!WanTChun!presents!from!compositional!
and!theoretical!perspectives!an!analysis!of!Ney!Rosauro’s!two!marimba!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
34!Details!in!Performance!Biography,!Scores!in!List!of!Sources!and!musical!examples!

35!Details!in!Performance!Biography!pp.!352T366!

36!Louise!Devenish,!‘The!Emergence!of!Contemporary!percussion!in!Australia:!1960–1975’,!
Musicology(Australia,!July!2015,!37:1,!pp.!1T27!
37!James!W!Lambert,!“Multiple!percussion!Performance!Problems!as!Illustrated!in!Five!Different!
Works!Composed!by!Stockhausen,!Smith!Brindle,!Colgrass,!Dahl!and!Kraft!Between!1959!and!
1967”,!DMA!Thesis,!University!of!Oklahoma,!1983!

! 17!
concerti.38!!Michelle!Colton!contributes!towards!the!body!of!performanceTbased!
research!by!discussing!the!expression!of!physical!gestures!in!marimba!playing;!
she!does!this!with!reference!to!the!performances!by!ten!different!marimbists!of!
2Tminute!extracts!of!certain!pieces.39!Gauthreaux!adopts!an!historical!approach!
by!charting!the!development!of!the!snare!drum!in!its!various!military!and!
orchestral!settings.40!Parker!also!takes!an!historical!approach!and!tackles!the!
history!of!the!percussion!orchestra,41!and!Nicholas!Ragheb!discusses!the!various!
social!and!musical!roles!of!the!gobletTshaped!drum!in!Turkey.42!!Roberts!
explores!the!historical!and!sociological!bases!of!percussion!works!of!Chavez!and!
Harrison,43!Maricle!analyses!Milhaud’s!Concerto(for(percussion(from!a!
compositional!perspective,44!Moreno!GonzalezTAppling!analyses!the!extent!of!
jazz!in!Milhaud’s!La(Création(du(monde,45(Nozny!presents!a!structural!analysis!of!
three!works!of!Christopher!Rousse,46!Lewis!examines!the!philosophical!and!
aesthetic!principles!underpinning!Długoszewski’s!compositions!for!percussion,47!
and!Lane!discusses!Garland’s!aesthetic!principles!and!their!implications!for!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
38!WanTChun!Liao,!“Ney!Rosauro’s!Two!Concerti!For!Marimba!And!Orchestra:!Analysis,!Pedagogy!
And!Artistic!Considerations”!DMA!Thesis,!University!of!Miami,!2005!
39!Michelle!Colton,!“Typologies!of!Movement!in!Western!percussion!Performance:!A!Study!of!
Marimbists’!Gestures”!DMA!Thesis,!University!of!Toronto,!2013!
40!Guy!Gregoire!Gauthreaux!II,!“Orchestral!Snare!Drum!Performance:!An!Historical!Study:!A!
Monograph”,!DMA!Thesis,!Louisiana!State!University!and!Agricultural!and!Mechanical!College,!
1989!
41
Wesley!Parker,!“The!History!And!Development!Of!The!percussion!Orchestra”,!Doctor!of!Music!
Treatise,!College!of!Music,!Florida!State!University,!2010!
42!Nicholas!Joseph!Ragheb,!“From!Darbuka!to!Dümbelek:!The!Turkish!GobletTshaped!Drum!and!
the!Construction!of!Difference”,!MMus!Thesis,!University!of!Texas,!2012!
43!Shawn!M!Roberts,!“Aztec!Musical!Styles!in!Carlos!Chávez’s!Xochipilli:(An(Imagined(Aztec(Music(
and!Lou!Harrison’s!The(Song(of(Quetzalcóatl:(A!Parallel!and!Comparative!Study”,!DMA Thesis,
West Virginia University, 2010!
44!Sherrie!Maricle,!“An!Analysis!Of!Concerto(Pour(Batterie(Et(Petit(Orchestre!By!Darius!Milhaud!
And!An!Original!Composition!Entitled!Concertino!For!Solo!percussion!And!Orchestra!With!An!
Analysis!And!Performance!Guide”,!PhD!Thesis,!New!York!University!1999!
45!Julio!GonzalezTAppling!Moreno,!“The!Ox!In!The!Concert!Hall:!Jazz!Identity!And!La(Création(Du(
Monde”(MM!Thesis,!Bowling!Green!state!University,!2007!
46!Brian!T!Nozny,!“Christopher!Rouse:!An!Exploration!Of!Three!percussion!Standards”,!DMA!
Thesis,!University!of!Kentucky,!2012!
47!Kevin!D!Lewis,!“The!Miracle!of!Unintelligibility”:!The!Music!and!Invented!Instruments!of!Lucia!
Dlugoszewski,!DMA!Thesis,!University!of!Cincinnati,!2011!

18! !
performance.!48!While!these!dissertations!and!articles!analyse!various!aspects!of!
technique!and!repertoire,!their!focus!is!very!specialised.!

Books!have!also!investigated!instruments,!often!from!an!ethnoTmusicological!
perspective,!or!musicological!analyses!or!biographies!of!composers.!There!are!
two!very!comprehensive!books.!James!Blades!a!leading!London!Percussionist!
wrote!a!tome!Percussion(Instruments(and(Their(History49!in!1970,!in!which!he!
describes!the!origins!and!uses!of!many!percussion!instruments!and!the!place!of!
some!in!the!orchestra.!Gordon!Peters,!Percussionist!in!the!Chicago!Symphony!
Orchestra,!in!The(Drummer:(Man50!builds!on!this,!describes!the!beginnings!of!
percussion!ensemble!activity!in!the!USA!and!lays!down!a!set!of!guidelines!for!
playing!and!teaching!percussion.!Vida!Chenoweth,!a!respected!marimbist,!in!The(
Marimbas(of(Guatemala51!describes!the!marimba!in!its!Guatemalan!context;!
Frank!MacCallum!in!The(Book(of(the(Marimba52!discusses!elements!of!the!
instrument.!Two!New!York!percussionists,!Morris!Lang!and!Larry!Spivack!
produced!a!Dictionary(of(Percussive(Terms53(Joseph!Adato!and!George!Judy!wrote!
The(Percussionist’s(Dictionary54!to!better!acquaint!percussionists!and!composers!
with!specifics!of!percussion.!The!subject!is!given!more!inTdepth!treatment!in!
Peinkofer!and!Tannigel’s!Handbook(of(Percussion(Instruments55(with!descriptions!
of!characteristics,!illustrations,!playing!techniques!and!musical!examples!as!well!
as!a!dictionary!of!names!in!four!languages!and!descriptions!of!beaters.!The!
Encyclopedia(of(Percussion(edited!by!John!Beck56!provides!a!dictionary!(in!
English)!with!short!descriptions!of!a!wide!range!of!instruments!and!terms!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
48!John!Lane,!“Abstracted!Resonances:!A!Study!of!Performance!Practices!Reflecting!the!Influence!
of!Indigenous!American!Percussive!Traditions!in!the!Music!of!Peter!Garland”,!DMA!Thesis,!
University!of!Cincinnati,!2010!
49!James!Blades,!Percussion(Instruments(and(their(History,!London,!Faber!and!Faber,!1970!

50!Gordon!Peters,(The(Drummer:(Man,!Wilmette,!Illinois,!KemperTPeters!Publications,!1975!

51!Vida!Chenoweth,!The(Marimbas(of(Guatemala,!Lexington:!University!of!Kentucky!Press,!1974!

52!Frank!MacCallum,!The(Book(of(the(Marimba,!New!York:!Carlton!Press,!Inc.,!1969!
53!Morris!Lang!and!Larry!Spivack,!Dictionary(of(Percussive(Terms,!New!York,!Lang!Percussion,!
1977!
54!Joseph!Adato!and!George!Judy,!The(Percussionist’s(Dictionary,!New!York,!BelwinTMills,!1984!

55!Karl!Peinkofer,!and!Fritz!Tannigel,!Trans.!Kurt!and!Else!Stone!Handbook(of(Percussion(
Instruments,!London,!Schott,!1969!
56!John!Beck,!ed.!Encyclopedia(of(Percussion,!New!York,!Garland!Publishing,!1995!

! 19!
some!articles!on!their!use.!Gary!Cook’s!Teaching(Percussion!is!an!excellent!
introduction!to!most!aspects!of!playing!percussion,!albeit!from!a!pedagogical!
perspective.57!

All!of!these!offer!meaningful!insights!into!aspects!of!percussion,!but!none!
attempts!to!present!an!analysis!of!the!interTrelationship!between!technique,!
repertoire!and!the!medium!of!percussion!in!the!presentation!of!artistic!
performances!of!percussion,!especially!from!the!perspective!of!Australian!
repertoire.!In!order!to!understand!the!nature!of!these!elements!and!their!interT
relationships,!their!impacts!on!developments!in!percussion!and!significance!for!
the!presentation!of!musical!and!artistic!performances!it!is!necessary!to!analyse!
each!element!both!separately!and!in!relation!to!the!other!two.!The!next!chapter!
will!examine!the!manner!in!which!the!percussion!medium!was!reTconceived!and!
the!relationship!of!this!transformation!to!the!intricacies!of!techniques,!the!
demands!of!composers!and!the!presentation!of!performance.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
57!Gary!D.!Cook,!Teaching(Percussion,!New!York,!Schirmer,!1997!

20! !
Chapter*1*ReHconceiving*the*Percussion*Medium*

The!standard!orchestral!percussion!instruments!at!the!start!of!the!twentieth!
century!comprised!timpani,!snare!drum,!bass!drum,!cymbals,!tamTtam,!triangle,!
tambourine,!castanets,!glockenspiel,!tubular!bells!and!xylophone.!Of!these!only!
the!timpani!and!snare!drum!required!much!technical!facility.!Moreover!players!
generally!were!assigned!only!one!instrument!over!the!course!of!any!piece,!or!
given!time!to!change!if!required!to!play!a!second!instrument.58!

SeventyTfive!years!later!percussionists!were!performing!music!in!a!variety!of!
styles!on!a!vast!and!stillTexpanding!array!of!instruments,!and!presenting!
concerts!in!their!own!right,!not!just!providing!rhythm!and!volume!in!a!secondary!
role.!Marimbas,!vibraphones,!a!numerous!variety!of!drums,!and!idiophones!
comprised!the!percussionist’s!armoury!in!this!venture.59!A!change!of!this!
magnitude!needs!to!be!examined!in!order!to!understand!the!nature!of!this!
impact!on!musicTmaking.!

The!factors!influencing!this!directional!change!were!expressly!related!to!the!
nature!of!the!new!instruments,!compositional!directions,!playing!techniques!and!
their!impacts!on!performance.!Accordingly!this!chapter!will!investigate!the!
transformation!of!the!medium!itself!through!composers’!demands,!resultant!
repertoire!and!contexts!of!performance!use,!all!of!which!initiated!changes!to!the!
instruments.!This!process!highlighted!the!evolution!of!the!medium!from!a!monoT
dimensional!provider!of!rhythm!to!a!set!of!instruments!able!to!present!a!
diversity!of!sophisticated!musicalities.!

However,!this!did!not!happen!universally!or!in!a!standard!manner.!The!
instruments!came!from!different!sources!culturally!and!geographically,!and!
equally!their!destination!was!not!universal.!The!various!changes,!driven!by!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
58!James!Blades,!Percussion(Instruments(and(Their(History,(London,!Faber,!1970.!Blades!traces!the!
introduction!of!these!instruments!into!the!orchestra!through!the!nineteenth!century!(pp.!281T
347).!His!discussion!of!the!playing!techniques!(pp.!348T411)!is!detailed!for!timpani!and!snare!
drum,!while!for!the!others!he!tends!to!dwell!more!on!the!pieces!in!which!they!feature.!!
59!Karl!Peinkofer!and!Fritz!Tannigel,!(trans.!Kurt!and!Else!Stone),!Handbook(of(Percussion(
Instruments,!Mainz,!Schott,!1969!gives!a!very!detailed!exposé!of!the!myriad!of!instruments!in!use!
in!the!middle!of!the!twentieth!century!accompanied!by!photographs!and!instances!of!the!
repertoire!in!which!they!are!included.!

! 21!
political!events,!compositional!requirements!and!manner!of!use!affected!the!
construction!of!the!instruments!and,!in!turn,!effected!further!changes.!!

The!examination!of!this!directional!change!in!percussion!will!include!an!analysis!
of!a!representative!range!of!specific!instruments,!the!resultant!effects!on!the!
instruments!themselves!and!their!changing!role!in!music.!These!instruments!are!
membranophones,!the!marimba/xylophone,!and!steel!pans.60!Focus!will!be!on!
the!essence!of!the!instruments!and!the!sound!they!produce,!their!construction,!
limitations!of!construction!and!use,!methods!of!sound!production!(beaters)!and!
appropriate!stands.!In!addition!a!DVD!shows!examples!of!the!diversity!of!some!of!
the!accessory!instruments!and!the!sounds!that!are!possible!from!them.!The!
instruments!used!are!from!the!author’s!collection.!

MultiTpercussion!is!only!briefly!discussed!in!this!chapter,!because!it!comprises!
any!combination!and!number!of!instruments!for!one!player!and!so!cannot!be!
identified!as!a!standard!and!separate!entity.!To!thoroughly!examine!it!as!a!
discrete!concept!would!be!a!dedicated!study!in!its!own!right,!while!to!do!less!
would!be!incomplete!and!so!possibly!flawed!in!its!conclusions.!So!for!the!
purposes!of!this!dissertation,!sufficiently!representative!examples!of!multiT
percussion!use!are!analysed!in!the!contexts!of!solo,!chamber!music!and!
percussion!ensemble!performance,!which!are!investigated!in!chapters!three,!four!
and!five,!on!Darius!Milhaud!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre,!Peter!
Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(viola(and(percussion,!David!Morgan!Loss(for(Percussion(
Quartet!and!Eric!Bryce!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet.!

1.1*Membranophones*

The!twentieth!century!was!a!period!of!crossTcultural!contact!on!a!broad!scale,!
with!expansion!of!international!trade,!mass!migration!and!two!world!wars!
bringing!people!together!who!previously!would!have!had!little,!if!any,!knowledge!
of!each!other’s!culture!and!values.!This!contact!introduced!new!instruments!to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
60!There!are!various!ways!of!grouping!percussion!instruments!according!to!different!criteria.!
This!grouping!has!been!chosen!as!it!aligns!to!playing!techniques.!

22! !
percussionists!and!composers,!and!combined!with!the!new!compositional!
demands!on!players,!influenced!the!course!of!instrumental!development.61!As!a!
result,!many!new!instruments!came!into!the!Art!Music!sphere.62!The!family!of!
membranophones!was!one!example.!

Membranophones!belong!to!the!family!of!percussion!instruments!that!use!
animal!skins,!such!as!calf!as!the!playing!surface!for!creating!sound.!Some!such!
instruments!like!bongos!from!Cuba!and!djembes!from!Africa!were!easy!to!
transport!and!so!figured!in!the!instrumental!mobility!that!accompanied!
population!movements!in!the!early!twentieth!century.!Although!specific!cultural!
contexts!dictated!their!use!when!in!their!homeland,!these!like!all!other!
percussion!instruments!underwent!changes,!sometimes!in!construction!but!
always!in!their!music!applications!when!different!cultural!and!music!influences!
of!the!new!homeland!penetrated!their!use.!Bongos!from!Cuba!are!a!compact!
example!of!these!changes.!!

Because!of!the!intensity!of!the!economic!and!political!contact!between!Cuba!and!
the!United!States!of!America!in!the!nineteenth!and!twentieth!centuries!
instruments!from!Cuba!migrated!to!America.!As!a!result,!playing!techniques!of!
bongos!and!other!AfroTCuban!instruments!such!as!congas!developed!as!much!in!
an!American!context!as!a!Cuban!context;!and!these!developments!were!seen!in!
cities!of!high!Cuban!migrant!populations!that!therefore!attracted!Cuban!
musicians.63!

Bongos!initially!had!calfskin!heads!that!were!tacked!onto!the!shell!while!wet,!and!
tuned!by!drying,!and!so!shrinking,!in!the!tropical!heat.!The!drums!were!held!
between!the!player’s!knees!and!played!with!fingers!using!specific!techniques.64!
However,!when!the!drums!were!taken!out!of!this!geographical!and!cultural!
context,!changes!occurred!in!their!construction!and!the!manner!of!their!use,!
which!gave!more!flexibility!to!the!sound.!This!had!implications!for!both!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
61!A!further!investigation!of!this!aspect!of!instrumental!history!is!beyond!the!scope!of!this!
dissertation,!but!worthy!of!research.!
62!Art!Music!is!defined!that!field!of!serious!musicTmaking!that!had!its!origins!in!Europe!and!was!
transported!to!other!parts!of!the!world.!It!forms!the!basis!of!discussion!in!this!study.!
63!http://www.lpmusic.com/about!accessed!15!June!2015!

64!Peinkofer!and!Tannigel,!op.(cit.,!pp.!106T8!

! 23!
technique!and!repertoire!that!in!turn,!also!affected!the!design!of!the!instruments.!
In!1960!the!embargo!placed!by!the!United!States!of!America!on!trade!with!Cuba!
after!the!communist!revolution!there!prevented!their!import!so!bongos!and!
other!AfroTCuban!percussion!instruments!were!then!made!in!the!United!States.!
The!construction!of!the!bongos!was!modernised!with!the!skin!attached!via!a!
metal!frame!by!which!the!drums!could!be!more!easily!‘tuned’!to!overcome!the!
problems!of!weather!variation.65!

As!well,!a!stand!was!added!to!facilitate!playing!flexibility!with!the!added!benefit!
of!more!workable!instrument!arrangements!(see!ex.!1.01).!The!drummer!for!the!
Ed!Sullivan!Show!and!staff!musician!at!CBS!asked!Martin!Cohen!to,!

make him a pair of bongos and also to create a bongo stand so Powell could play them
standing up. Cohen fashioned a mounting system without having to drill into the shell of the
drum, which would alter its tone.66

!
Plate!1.01!Bongos,!tuneable!using!a!spanner,!on!tiltable!stand!(author’s!collection)!

This!and!similar!requests!led!to!the!establishment!of!the!LP!(Latin!Percussion)!
instrument!making!company.!!

These!developments!had!immediate!and!obvious!effects!on!technique!and!
repertoire.!Bongos!could!now!be!played!while!standing,!which!also!meant!they!
could!be!incorporated!into!a!percussion!setTup!in!a!way!that!allowed!easy!
movement!between!instruments.!For!example,!they!could!be!combined!with!
congas,!extending!the!scope!of!both!instruments!in!the!cultural!context!of!their!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
65!https://www.x8drums.com/v/blog/2007/03/historyTofTbongoTdrum.asp!accessed!30!
November!2015!
66!http://www.lpmusic.com/about!accessed!15!June!2015!

24! !
origins,!but!also!had!implications!for!technique.!Playing!the!bongos!and!congas!
together!and!therefore!moving!quickly!between!them!involved!changing!the!
traditional!method!of!playing.!Using!the!rotating!action!between!fingers!and!
thumb!on!the!left!hand!was!too!cumbersome,!and!in!this!situation!the!bongos!
would!often!be!played!using!the!fingers!only!to!allow!an!easy!transition!to!
playing!the!congas!with!the!hands.!The!sound,!while!not!strictly!the!same,!was!
sufficiently!similar!to!the!original!to!be!musically!acceptable.67!This!playing!
efficiency!was!a!direct!result!of!changes!in!construction!by!adapting!traditional!
instruments.!

This!development!was!still!within!the!bounds!of!traditional!playing!methods.!
However,!by!putting!the!bongos!on!a!stand!also!opened!possibilities!for!their!use!
outside!the!original!cultural!context.!William!Kraft,!then!Percussionist!in!the!Los!
Angeles!Philharmonic!Orchestra,!wrote!a!Suite(for(Percussion,!which!included!a!
pair!of!bongos!to!be!played!with!snare!drum!sticks!(player!1),!in!combination!
with!two!snare!drums!(player!2),!field!drum!and!tenor!drum!(player!3)!and!bass!
drum!(player!4);!and!the!work!was!premiered!in!1961!(see!ex.!1.01).!In!other!
movements,!player!1!also!played!some!bells,!tuned!gongs,!a!hand!drum,!and!a!set!
of!standard!orchestral!percussion!instruments.!So!the!bongo!part!was!not!an!
improvisation!to!be!played!by!a!specialist!bongo!player,!but!was!written!for!a!
classically!trained!percussionist;!and!the!instrument!was!seen!as!providing!the!
high!sounds!in!a!membranophonic!quartet.!By!this!action,!the!bongos!were!
extended!from!being!merely!an!instrument!of!specific!cultural!connotations!to!
providing!a!new!set!of!sounds!in!the!higher!register!of!percussion!timbres.!This!
radical!departure!from!tradition!of!using!snare!drum!sticks!to!play!bongos!
produced!a!different!nuance!of!sound!and!so!opened!a!new!path!for!their!wider!
use!as!a!sound!source.68!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
67!This!issue!of!technique!is!discussed!in!more!detail!in!the!next!chapter.!
68!In!the!notation!of!the!piece,!the!two!bongos!are!placed!a!long!way!apart!on!the!stave,!as!are!the!
two!snare!drums!(player!2)!and!the!field!and!tenor!drums!(player!3).!This!could!be!an!indication!
that!the!reading!skills!of!percussion!players!in!1963!were!still!rudimentary!as!only!timpani!and!
keyboard!percussion!parts!called!for!more!refined!reading.!In!more!contemporary!scores!the!two!
drums!would!be!placed!closer!together!on!the!stave.!This!is!further!elaborated!on!in!this!chapter!
and!Chapter!Five.!

! 25!
 !
Ex.!1.01!Kraft,!Suite(for(Percussion,!New!York,!Mills!Music,!1963,!p.!1!

This!new!direction!was!reflected!among!other!percussion!instruments!such!as!
tomTtoms,!snare!drums!and!bass!drums,!the!development!of!which!was!
determined!by!manner!of!use.!Tom–toms!developed!initially!in!the!United!States!
from!imported!Chinese!tomTtoms,!into!more!tuneable!instruments,!through!the!
use!of!screw!systems!for!attaching!heads!to!shells,!having!previously!been!
attached!by!ropes!or!tacks.!Examples!of!tomTtom!styles!are!shown!below!(see!
plate!1.02!and!table!1.01).!

26! !
 !
Plate!1.02!from!left:!Chinese!tomTtom!(author’s!collection),!set!of!6!concert!toms,!twoT
headed!tomTtom.69!

!
! ! ! !

!
! !
!
!
Type* Drum!set! Concert!Toms! Concert!Toms! Marching! RotoTtomsT!
SingleTheaded! DoubleTheaded! Toms!T diameters!
diameters!
Sizes* !!8”!x!7”! 10”!x!10”! 10”!x!10”! 6! 6”!
10”!x!7”! 12”!x!10”! 12”!x!12”! 8”! 8”!
12”!x!8”! 13”!x!10”! 13”!x!13”! 10”! 10”!
14”!x!14”! 14”!x!12”! 14”!x!14”! 12”! 12”!
16”!x!16”! 15”!x!12”! 15”!x!15”! 13”! 14”!
! 16”!x!12”! 16”!x!16”! 14”! 16”!
18”!x!17”! 18”!
20”!x!18”! !
!
Table!1.01!TomTtoms!courtesy!Kolberg!&!Steve!Weiss70!

These!doubleTheaded!tomTtoms!were!developed!on!drum!sets!to!provide!a!more!
predictable!sound,!and!are!now!also!available!as!separate!drums!on!their!own!
stands.!The!double!head!allows!for!a!better!projection!of!the!full!tone!of!the!
drum.!Moreover,!the!larger!toms!in!fact!produce!lower!sounds!than!the!higher!
bass!drums,!a!fact!which!allows!the!player!a!greater!flexibility!in!performance,!
especially!as!there!is!no!longTstanding!tradition!of!type!of!beaters!to!be!used.!
With!the!drum!set!of!course!snare!drum!sticks!were!the!most!common,!but!as!the!
toms!have!shifted!in!focus!to!being!a!sound!source,!almost!any!beaters!that!
produce!a!musically!acceptable!sound!can!be!deployed.!This!seemingly!opens!up!
a!wide!spectrum!of!possible!sounds,!though!in!reality!wooden,!plastic!and!rubber!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
69!http://www.kolberg.com/products/en_GB/404/category.html!and!
http://www.steveweissmusic.com/category/drumTsetTaddTons!accessed!10!July!2015!
70ibid.(Table!compiled!by!author!

! 27!
mallets!will!produce!the!same!sound,!and!wound!or!felt!mallets!will!produce!two,!
maybe!three,!readily!discernible!degrees!of!softness.71!But!it!does!increase!the!
flexibility!of!their!use!in!combination!with!other!percussion!instruments!
producing!a!greater!variety!of!sound!sources!with!more!expediency!in!mallet!
selection!and!this!is!the!result!of!instrument!adaptation!that!accompanied!
demographic!movements.!

A!similar!outcome!exists!with!the!changes!in!snare!drums.!Developed!from!a!
mistaken!understanding!of!a!heard!sound,72!the!original!snare!drums!consisted!
of!calfskin!heads!mounted!with!a!ropeTtuning!system!on!a!shell,!and!with!a!gut!
snare!stretched!across!initially!the!top,!or!batter!head.!By!the!middle!of!the!
twentieth!century,!their!construction!had!improved!with!plastic!heads,!tuning!
rods,!and!a!variety!of!snare!materials!of!gut,!wire,!or!cord!operated!by!a!more!
convenient!method!of!engaging!and!releasing!the!snares.!Although!the!snare!
drums!are!only!mounted!on!individual!stands,!they!are!nonetheless!seen!as!a!
sound!source!of!various!timbres!(see!table!1.02).!The!snare!drum!family!includes!
the!street!drum,!military!drum,!field!drum,!tarole!(or!piccolo!snare!drum),!and!
(European)!provincial!drum.!They!can!just!as!easily!be!played!with!rubber,!
plastic!or!wound!mallets!as!well!as!the!traditional!snare!drum!sticks.!The!only!
difficulty!arises!if!a!roll!is!required,!as!this!can!be!problematic!with!some!mallets!
other!than!traditional!snare!drum!sticks.73!!

Nevertheless,!the!range!of!sounds!offered!by!the!snare!drum!family!is!now!
exponentially!much!greater!than!in!the!1920s.!The!constancy!of!sound!of!plastic!
heads!and!subtle!differences!produced!by!the!various!beaters!allow!for!the!
exploration!of!nuances!within!each!drum!as!well!as!the!differences!in!sound!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
71!The!sound!has!an!increased!presence!with!the!harder!beaters!from!the!greater!contact!sound,!
often!described!as!‘sharper’.!The!softer!beaters!will!produce!a!more!reactive!or!‘warmer’!sound.!
To!date!this!difference!in!nuance!has!not!been!much!explored.!
72!Turkish!bass!drums!were!played,!on!the!battlefield,!with!one!felt!and!one!cane!beater.!At!times!
the!cane!beater!was!held!against!the!head!while!the!drum!was!beaten!with!the!felt!beater!to!
produce!a!‘rattling’!effect.!This!sound!was!heard!by!the!European!armies,!and!replicated!by!
stretching!a!snare!across!the!head.!Source!of!information:!Percussion!Instrument!History!Class!
with!Professor!George!Gaber,!Indiana!University,!1977.!
73!The!balance!of,!for!example!wound!marimba!mallets,!is!very!different!from!that!of!snare!drum!
sticks,!with!a!greater!weighting!in!the!head!of!the!mallet;!and!the!shaft!is!thinner.!The!slight!
differences!in!the!grip!therefore!and!in!the!balance!demand!a!greater!focus!to!control!the!
bouncing!action!of!the!rolls.!

28! !
across!the!drums.!Consequently,!performances!benefit!from!the!richer!spectrum!
of!timbres!available,!but!playing!techniques!need!to!be!continually!refined!to!
express!these!sonorities.!
!

Snare*Drum*Type* Sizes:*Small*to*Large*
Symphonic! 5”!x!14”! 6.5”!x!14”!
Drum!Set!Snare!Drums! 3”!x!14”! 5”!x!14”!
Show!(Broadway)!Drums! 5”!x!14”! 6.5”!x!14”!
Circus!Drums! 7”!x!15”!
Marching!Drums! 12”!x!15”! 14”!x!16”!
Provinces!of!Europe! 12”!x!16”!
Tarole! 3”!x!13”! 3”!x!14”!
Table!1.02!Types!of!snare!drums!according!to!context!of!use74!

Another!interesting!development!in!recent!years!which!has!expanded!the!use!
and!expression!of!snare!drums!and!tomTtoms!is!the!manufacture!of!pedal!tomT
toms!by!Kolberg!(see!plate!1.03),!which!according!to!the!catalogue!

are!fitted!with!snares!and!have!a!tensioning!pedal,!enabling!a!glissando!effect!
over!a!maximum!range!of!a!sixth.!This!opens!up!a!wide!sound!spectrum!from!a!
bright,!clear!snare!drum!to!a!warm,!deep!bass!tomTtom!T!depending!on!the!
tension!of!the!head!and!whether!the!snares!are!engaged.!The!standard,!two!
headed!instruments!with!snare!release!mechanism!are!available!in!two!different!
sizes!and!are!fitted!with!REMO!Renaissance®!heads.!The!Kolberg!pedal!tomT
toms!with!their!powerful,!voluminous!sound!are!a!convincing!alternative!to!the!
no!longer!produced!REMO!pedal!RotoToms.75!

!
Plate!1.03!Kolberg!pedal!TomTtom76!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
74!Source!of!information:!Percussion!Instrument!History!Class!with!Professor!George!Gaber,!
Indiana!University,!1977.!Some!names!may!differ!and!pertain!to!certain!locales,!but!the!context!of!
use!is!the!same.!
75!http://www.kolberg.com/products/en_GB/410/group/516.html!accessed!29!July!2015!

76!ibid.!

! 29!
This!contemporary!development!has!opened!up!possibilities!of!an!additional!
spectrum!of!sound!sources!–!pitched!snare!drums.!The!pedal!RotoTtoms!referred!
to!were!an!attempt!to!provide!schools!with!a!cheap!alternative!to!timpani,!but!
were!not!successful!as!the!pitch!of!the!drums!did!not!project,!and!they!sounded!
like!tomTtoms.77!This!new!pedal!tom!however,!having!two!heads!could!come!
closer!to!the!concept!of!projecting!a!pitched!sound,!even!on!snare!drum.!In!fact!
the!various!drums!can!be!tuned!as!evidenced!in!these!photos!of!small!drums,!and!
tuned!booTbams!in!Kolberg’s!showroom,!though!it!must!be!admitted!that!there!
are!limitations!to!this!tuning!as!the!nature!of!the!instrument!is!such!that!the!
pitch!does!not!project!well,!especially!at!loud!volumes!(see!plates.!1.04!and!1.05).!

!
Plate.!1.04!marked!tunings!on!metal!shell!drums78!

!
Plate.!1.05!Tuned!BooTbams79!
!
Bass!drums!too!have!changed!in!size!and!material.!The!shells!now!are!made!from!
wood,!metal!or!plastic,!the!hoops!from!wood!or!metal,!and!the!heads!from!a!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
77!Conversation!with!Remo!Belli!during!a!visit!to!his!factory!in!1984.!
78!Kolberg!showroom!photo,!obtained!23!March!2015!

79!Kolberg!catalogue!2007!

30! !
variety!of!skins,!or!plastic.!Tensioning!has!changed!from!rope!to!a!system!of!
screws,!which!has!rigidified!the!sound!as!the!screws!hold!the!head!tightly!in!
place,!whereas!the!rope!permitted!some!movement!of!hoop,!which!allowed!the!
head!to!‘breathe’!and!so!vibrate!more!freely.!This!rigidity!is!ameliorated!when!
the!bass!drum!is!suspended!within!a!frame,!preferably!tiltable,!making!it!more!
flexible!and!easier!to!play!in!different!situations.80!The!name!bass!drum,!applied!
to!nine!different!sizes!of!drum,!is!perhaps!more!of!a!concept!than!a!specific!
sound!as!the!following!table!and!plate!show!(see!table!1.03!and!plate!1.06).!

Drum* Smallest* Largest*

Concert!Bass!Drum! 14”!x!18”! 24”!x!40”!
Deep!Shell!Bass!Drum! 24”!x!20”! 40”!x!30”!
Scotch!Bass!Drum! 8”!x!26”! 10”!x!28”!
Tango!Bass!Drum81! 6”!x!22”! 8”!x!26”!
Drum!Set!Kick!Drum! 12”!x!20”! 14”!x!26”!

Table!1.03!bass!drum!Sizes82!

!
Plate!1.06!Tango!bass!drum!8”!x!26”83!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
80!These!differences!in!construction!can!be!seen!in!the!catalogues!of!the!various!percussion!
instrument!manufacturers.!
81!This!name!is!used!only!for!the!vintage!drums!as!seen!in!the!photo.!Different!makers!use!
various!names!to!describe!the!bass!drums!as!seen!in!catalogues!of!Steve!Weiss!
(http://www.steveweissmusic.com/)!and!Kolberg!(http://www.kolberg.com/en_GB/home.html)!
accessed!15!May!2015!
82!Source!of!information:!Percussion!Instrument!History!Class!with!Professor!George!Gaber,!
Indiana!University,!1977.!

! 31!
In!fact!it!is!tempting!to!say!‘two!concepts’,!because!the!first!two!drums!in!the!
table!are!used!for!their!resonance!as!well!as!depth!of!sound,!whereas!the!other!
three!need!to!portray!a!dull,!rhythmic!‘thud’.84!The!Scotch!bass!drum!provides!
the!beat!for!the!marching!band,!and!the!other!two!are!easier!to!record!as!their!
unTresonant!sounds!do!not!interfere!with!the!sound!of!the!string!or!electric!bass.!!

The!search!for!new!sounds!in!the!field!of!untuned!percussion!also!realised!a!
proliferation!in!the!number,!sizes,!and!types!of!drums!and!other!idiophones!
during!the!course!of!the!twentieth!century.!These!percussion!instruments!from!
varied!cultures!such!as!AfroTCuban!from!Cuba!and!Nigerian!from!West!Africa,!
and!different!contexts!such!as!meditational!accompaniment!in!Buddhist!temples!
and!harvest!celebrations!in!Japan,!have!different!playing!methods,!which!have!
undergone!changes!to!meet!the!demands!of!contemporary!performance!
requirements.!It!is!important!to!examine!how!they!were!used!by!composers,!
which!will!be!investigated!in!Chapters!three,!four!and!five,!while!the!technical!
impacts!will!be!investigated!in!the!next!chapter.!

The!beaters!for!these!drums!also!vary!enormously!with!cork!or!felt!pedalT
operated!beaters!used!on!the!tango!and!kick!drums,!and!hard!felt!on!the!Scotch!
drums.!Beaters!for!concert!bass!drums!however,!come!in!various!shapes!and!
sizes,!incorporating!also!a!variety!of!proportions!of!materials,!such!as!
thicknesses!of!felt!to!different!sized!cores!of!cork,!wood!or!plastic!as!the!makers!
try!to!exude!as!much!tone!as!possible!from!the!differentTsized!drums.!In!addition!
there!are!a!number!of!‘special!effects’!beaters!such!as!the!‘rute’,!a!bundle!of!canes!
that!Mahler!called!for!in!his!The!Sixth(Symphony!to!play!on!the!shell!of!the!bass!
drum!(see!ex.!1.02).!Milhaud’s!request!to!play!a!bass!drum!with!timpani!beaters!
also!explored!timbral!nuances.85!So,!bass!drums!now!fulfil!diverse!functions!of!
providing!a!range!of!low!membranophonic!resonances,!emphases,!and!some!
slightly!unusual!effects!when!played!on!the!shell!or!rubbed!with!rubber!mallets!
(see!plate!1.07).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
83!http://americanpercussion.com/Vintage.html!accessed!22!February!2016!
84!These!differences!can!be!heard!in!the!different!performance!situations!of!concert!hall!as!
opposed!to!outdoor!marching!band!and!popular!music!venues.!
85!Darius!Milhaud,!Les(Choéphores,!Paris,!Heugel,!1947!

32! !
 !
Ex.!1.02!Mahler!Symphony(No.(6,!Movement!1,!p.!3!bass!drum!part86!
!

Plate!1.07!Bass!drum!beaters!selection!from!author’s!collection.!On!the!right!is!a!
selection!of!orchestral!bass!drum!beaters,!with!the!softest!at!the!top!grading!to!
extremely!hard!at!the!bottom.!In!the!middle!are!twoTheaded!beaters!for!oneThanded!
rolls.!On!the!left!are!(from!the!top)!taiko!beaters,!kick!drum!beaters,!marching!beaters!
and!novelty!beaters!(one!of!tape!and!a!pair!of!hard!plastic).!

The!‘outTofTtune’!nature!of!most!percussion!instruments,!which!enabled!them!to!
be!used!across!all!key!signatures,!became!less!important!than!their!ability!to!
broaden!the!sound!spectrum!of!the!music!and!provide!a!raw!rhythmic!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
86!http://burrito.whatbox.ca:15263/imglnks/usimg/5/54/IMSLP44703TPMLP10553TMahlerT
Sym6.TimpPerc.pdf!accessed!1!July!2015!

! 33!
excitement.87!This!notion!was!to!have!profound!implications!for!percussionists!
in!terms!of!technique!and!instrument!development;!and!composers!in!the!
forefront!of!this!new!direction!were!Igor!Stravinsky!and!Darius!Milhaud.!

Stravinsky’s!Le(Sacre(du(Printemps,!which!received!its!première!in!1913,!showed!
this!new!direction!most!emphatically,!with!extensive!use!of!percussion!and!
exploration!of!rhythmic!emphasis.!The!work!had!profound!implications!for!
percussionists.!At!the!turn!of!the!twentieth!century!

…about!the!best!one!hoped!for!in!an!orchestral!Percussionist!was!an!ability!to!
count!rests!and!some!discretion!and!tact!in!dynamics!and!tone…The!appearance!
in!1913!of!Stravinsky’s!Le(Sacre(du(Printemps(changed!all!that.!Percussionists!
now!had!to!be!virtuosos!and!artists…88!

The!percussion!parts!in!this!piece!comprised!six!timpani!played!by!two!
timpanists,!tamTtam,!triangle,!tambourine,!bass!drum!and!cymbals.!At!the!time!
they!were!seen!as!difficult!by!percussionists,!primarily!because!of!the!changing!
time!signatures.!However!this!also!heralded!the!dramatic!change!in!attitude!by!
some!composers!as!to!a!heightened!expectation!of!percussionists’!capabilities!as!
well!as!recognition!of!the!potential!of!this!set!of!instruments.!This!attitude!did!
not!immediately!manifest!itself!within!the!percussionists’!mindsets.!In!1965!
Charles!White,89!produced!a!set!of!instructions!for!playing!Le(Sacre!as!the!work!
was!still!seen!as!extremely!difficult!(see!exs.!1.03!and!1.04).90!In!the!original!the!
parts!are!indicated!by!the!large!noteTheads!(and!downward!stems)!and!set!
against!the!other!instrumental!parts!(small!noteTheads!and!upward!stems).!The!
Instructions!contain!insertions!of!beats!to!count,!changes!of!time!signature!with!
imaginary!barlines!and!instructions!on!what!beat!to!watch!for!from!the!
conductor.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
87!Exemplified!in!The(Dance(of(the(Earth!in!Stravinsky’s!Le(Sacre(du(Printemps,!Paris,!Edition!
Russe!de!Musique,!RV!197/197b,!1921,!Republished!with!corrections,!London,!Boosey!&!Hawkes,!
1948!
88!Michael!Steinberg,!"Program!Notes!on!Concerto!for!Percussion!and!Small!Orchestra”!The(San(

Francisco(Symphony(Program(Book:(October(30[November(1(1986!(1986),!pp.!17AT18.!It!is!
interesting!to!compare!this!comment!on!the!virtuosity!of!percussionists!with!the!implications!of!
the!notation!in!Kraft’s!Suite!for!Percussion!(see!ex.!1.02)!and!the!comment!by!Slonimsky!on!the!
recording!of!Varese’s!Ionisation!in!1933!in!Chapter!Five.!
89!Timpanist!with!the!Los!Angeles!Philharmonic,!1919T1962!
90!Charles!White,!Tympani(Instructions(for(playing(Igor(Stravinsky’s(Le(Sacre(du(Printemps,(The(
Rite(of(Spring,!Los!Angeles!CA,!Charles!L.!White,!1965!

34! !
 !
Ex.!1.03!Stravinsky,(Danse(Sacrale,!timpani!I!excerpt!(stems!down)91!

Ex.!1.04!Charles!White,!playing!instructions,!Stravinsky,(Danse(Sacrale,92!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
91!Igor!Stravinsky,!Sacre(du(Printemps,!New!York,!Boosey!and!Hawkes,!n.d.!(after!1933)!p.14!

92!Charles!White,!Tympani(Instructions(for(playing(Igor(Stravinsky’s(Le(Sacre(du(Printemps,(The(
Rite(of(Spring,!Los!Angeles!CA,!Charles!L.!White,!1965,!p.!6!

! 35!
Working!in!a!similar!genre,!Darius!Milhaud,!in!his!opera!Les(Choéphores,!(1916),!
wrote!three!movements,(Présages,!Exhortation!and!Conclusion!for!voices!and!
percussion!alone!for!dramatic!effect.!As!Kelly,!a!wellTrespected!scholar!and!
researcher!on!Milhaud,!states!

By!dispensing!with!melody!and!text,!Milhaud!could!focus!on!the!short!repeated!
rhythmic!patterns!of!Percussion!writing,!while!retaining!a!human!element!
within!the!overall!sound!panorama.!NonTverbal!sounds!such!as!breathing!and!
hissing!add!a!primitive!dimension!to!the!menacing!chanting!on!the!libationT
bearer…!He!builds!in!the!maximum!complexity!into!the!climax!on!p.116!bar!1,!
creating!ten!simultaneous!rhythmic!patterns!with!the!choir,!Percussion!
instruments!and!solo!voice.!It!is!a!powerful!moment!in!which!Percussion!and!
voices!fuse!to!form!one!rhythmic!and!contrapuntal!force.93!

The!hemiola!in!the!climax!is!a!powerful!statement,!made!more!poignant!in!the!
diminuendo!that!followed!(see!ex.!1.05).!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
93!Barbara!L!Kelly,!Tradition(and(Style(in(the(Works(of(Darius(Milhaud(1912[1939,!Aldershot,!
Ashgate,!2003,!p.!51!

36! !
 !

Ex.!1.05(Présages(T!climax94!

The!drama!of!pounding!beats!has!been!obvious!for!centuries!as!seen!in!nonT
musical!contexts!such!as!war!dances,!funeral!marches!and!carnivals.!In!each!of!
these!settings!emotions!are!moved.!Milhaud!developed!the!drama!further!by!
combining!a!multiplicity!of!measured!timbres!in!polyTrhythmic!motion!and!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
94!Milhaud,!Les(Choéphores,(Paris,!Heugel,!1947,!p.!116!

! 37!
juxtaposing!rhythms!in!wood,!metal!and!skin!timbres!against!a!female!voice.!The!
percussion!instruments!were!whip,!suspended!cymbal,!bells,!triangle,!metal!and!
wooden!castanets,!tambourine,!tambour!provençale,!two!bass!drums!(one!
played!with!timpani!mallets,!the!other!with!a!bass!drum!beater),!tamTtam,!snare!
drum,!field!drum,!muffled!drum,!and!a!plank!of!wood!hit!with!a!hammer!(see!
plates.!1.08!and!1.09).!!

Even!without!further!direction,!the!two!bass!drums!clearly!are!to!convey!two!
types!of!sound!and!intensity!the!dramatic!effects.!The!timpani!mallets!will!give!a!
short!accented!‘thud’!while!the!bass!drum!beater!will!produce!a!resonant!‘boom’.!
This!has!obvious!implications!for!sizes!of!the!two!bass!drums,!and!types!of!
beaters.!A!larger!bass!drum!will!provide!the!‘boom’!and!should!be!played!with!a!
large!beater,!no!harder!than!medium;!the!short!sound!could!then!be!played!on!a!
smaller!bass!drum!with!hard!timpani!mallets.!This!timbral!register!is!increased!
with!the!muffled!drum,!which!could!then!be!played!with!snare!drum!sticks!to!
add!another!level!of!register!and!link!it!to!the!Snare!and!field!drums,!also!played!
with!snare!drum!sticks.!

As!well!as!using!instruments,!Milhaud!scored!a!plank!of!wood!hit!with!a!hammer.!
This!experimental!nonTinstrument!was!first!used!by!Mahler!in!his!Sixth(
Symphony!(1903T4),!and!by!other!composers!in!a!few!operas!over!the!following!
quarter!century!before!falling!out!of!favour!until!Orff!scored!for!it!in!Prometheus!
in!1968.95!Importantly,!there!is!more!to!this!instrument!than!simply!hitting!a!
plank!of!indeterminate!size,!especially!as!this!would!not!produce!much!
resonance.!The!plank!could!be!of!any!wood,!though!a!hardwood!plank!would!
withstand!the!force!of!the!hammer!better!than!a!softwood!plank.!The!size!used!
generally!measured!67cm!x!36cm!x!2.3!cm,!and!to!project!more!resonance,!the!
plank!was!placed!upon,!and!importantly,!across,96!a!timpano,!and!could!be!
played!with!wooden!dowels,!like!Japanese!bachi,97!or!a!wooden!mallet!(see!plate!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
95!Karl!Peinkofer!and!Fritz!Tannigel,!op.cit.!pp.!151T152!

96!Placing!it!across!the!timpano!ensures!it!rests!on!the!frame!and!cannot!therefore!damage!the!
drum.!Moreover,!resting!across!the!drum!produces!a!greater!resonance.!
97!‘Bachi’!are!the!dowels!used!to!play!Taiko.!They!come!in!different!sizes!with!the!larger!bachi!for!
the!OTdaiko!(large!drum).!

38! !
1.09).!The!nuances!of!sound!in!the!percussion!family!were!now!being!recognised!
and!used!to!increase!and!intensify!the!registral!character!and!dramatic!effects.98!

!
Plate!1.08!example!of!plank!of!wood!using!(dowel)!beaters99!

!
Plate!1.09!example!of!hammer100 !

Stravinsky!and!Milhaud!continued!to!give!percussion!a!more!prominent!role!in!
their!ballets!and!operas.!Milhaud’s!biographer!Paul!Collaer!comments,!

L’Homme(et(Son(Désir,!the!Choephores!and!La(Creation(Du(Monde,![are]!works!in!
which!Milhaud!assigned!not!only!rhythmic!but!also!an!expressive!role!to!
Percussion!instruments.101 !!

This!assessment!is!supported!by!Milhaud!who!says!of!L’Homme(et(son(Désir!

The!Percussion!faithfully!evoked!for!me!the!nocturnal!sounds!of!the!forest;!I!
used!it!unaccompanied…in!the!scene!in!which!the!elements!tempt!Man!as!he!
sleeps.102 !!
This!work,!performed!in!1921!required!seventeen!percussionists,!though!since!
then!has!been!successfully!reduced!to!six,!concomitant!with!the!improvements!in!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
98!Moreover,!this!indicates!that!careful!thought!needs!to!be!given!to!understand!seemingly!
simple!directions.!
99!Karl!Peinkofer!and!Fritz!Tannigel,!op.cit.!p.!151!

100 !ibid.!p.!152!

101 !Paul!Collaer!Darius(Milhaud,!trans.!Jane!Hohfeld!Galante,!San!Francisco!CA,!San!Francisco!
Press,!1988,!p.!227!
102 !Milhaud,!op.(cit.!pp.!69T70!

! 39!
the!playing!ability!of!percussionists.103!This!is!a!fine!example!of!how!evolution!of!
percussion!has!seen!the!relational!link!between!compositional!demands!and!
increased!player!abilities,!which!continues!to!influence!directions!today.!

Clearly,!one!very!important!reason!for!the!growth!of!the!percussion!instruments!
was!the!demand!from!composers!for!new!sounds!and!this!demand!had!further!
ramifications.!Some!sounds!were!produced!by!nonTinstruments!and!some!
composers!demanded!a!higher!level!of!playing!from!percussionists.!Two!works,(
L’histoire(du(soldat!by!Stravinsky,!written!in!1918,!and!the!1929!Concerto(pour(
batterie!by!Milhaud!stand!out!as!watershed!compositions!in!the!history!of!
percussion.!For!financial!reasons!Stravinsky!needed!a!small!touring!ensemble!
and!as!a!result!combined!triangle,!tambourine,!cymbals,!bass!drum,!snare!drum,!
tenor!drum!and!field!drum!for!one!player,!thus!writing!the!first!Multiple!
Percussion!part.!The!work!presented!Percussion!with!issues!of!notation!and!
logistics!as!well!as!asking!for!a!higher!level!of!artistry;!and!demanded!this!on!a!
new!instrument!–!MultiTPercussion!(see!ex.!1.06).!

Ex.!1.06!Stravinsky!notated!the!part!across!a!number!of!staves!for!the!different!
instruments.!Unsnared!drum!on!the!top!stave,!small!(high)!and!large!(low)!snare!drums!
on!the!next!two!staves,!bass!drum!on!the!fourth!and!cymbals!on!the!bottom!stave.104 !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
103 !Roger!Nichols,!Conversations(with(Madeleine(Milhaud,!London,!Faber!&!Faber,!1996,!p.!100!

104 !Stravinsky!L’histoire(du(soldat,!London,!Chester,!1924,!p.12!

40! !
!

Multiple!percussion!is!predicated!on!the!principle!that!if!one!can!play!on!one!
drum,!one!can,!without!much!extra!effort,!play!on!two,!three!or!four,!which!was!
already!the!case!with!timpani.!If!that!was!the!case,!it!should!by!implication!be!
possible!to!play!on,!for!example,!three!tomTtoms,!two!cymbals,!tamTtam,!
woodblock,!cowbell,!tambourine!and!bass!drum!with!the!foot!and!add!a!whip!
and!castanets.!As!a!result!of!this!reasoning,!composers!have!experimented!with!
combining!various!and!often,!disparate!instruments.!This!in!turn!has!raised!
issues!of!technique,!logistics!and!notation,!which!will!be!examined!in!the!next!
chapter.!Furthermore,!these!issues!have!also!impacted!on!the!evolution!of!the!
instruments.!Demands!for!better!and!more!consistent!sounding!
membranophones!that!can!be!mounted!more!conveniently,!as!well!as!beaters!
that!can!educe!a!greater!variety!of!timbres!and!nuances!have!forced!
improvements!in!construction!and!materials.!

1.2*Mallet*Keyboards*

Growth!in!development!of!the!mallet!keyboard!section!of!percussion!has!initially!
been!in!the!context!of!searching!for!new!sounds,!resulting!in!a!number!of!new!or!
adapted!instruments!entering!the!percussion!family.!These!instruments!however!
have!often!presented!problems!or!challenges!for!the!performer!in!matters!of!
logistical!arrangement!of!instruments,!technique!or!music,!details!that!have!
prompted!changes!to!the!construction!and!use!of!the!instrument,!or!to!the!
development!of!new!techniques!or!to!composition.!In!some!instances!the!
instruments!have!fallen!into!disuse!and!ceased!production!because!their!
usefulness!has!been!shortTterm.!Subsequently!they!were!superseded!by!further!
developments!or!simply!not!justified!in!musical!terms.105!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
105 !Peinkofer!and!Tannigel,!op.cit.,!p.!71!

! 41!
The!mallet!keyboard!family!grew!from!the!xylophone106!and!glockenspiel!in!use!
at!the!beginning!of!the!twentieth!century!to!a!large!instrument!family!comprising!
marimba,!xylophone,107!glockenspiel,!vibraphone,!song!bells,!steel!drums,!
tubophone,!tubular!chimes,!tuned!gongs,!tuned!cowbells,!crotales,!angklung,!
gambang,!metallophone,!and!cimbalom.!This!quantitative!growth!was!influenced!
by!the!desire!of!composers!such!as!Percy!Grainger,!for!more!resonant!sounds!
and!lower!harmonies!that!the!current!tuned!instruments!did!not!supply.!This!
new!direction!was!coupled!with!the!desire!of!American!instrument!
manufacturers!to!create!more!percussion!instruments!after!hearing!the!
marimbas!with!resonators!used!by!the!marimba!bands!from!Central!America!in!
their!concert!tours!of!the!United!States!of!America.!

1.2.1*Xylophone**

The!xylophone!was!known!in!Europe!as!a!folk!instrument!brought!to!
prominence!in!the!nineteenth!century!through!the!performances!of!the!maestro,!
Michał Józef!Guzików.108!However,!that!instrument!was!very!different!from!the!
one!used!today.!It!consisted!of!four!rows!of!notes!resting!on!beds!of!straw,!had!
no!resonators,!and!was!played!with!wooden,!spoonTshaped!mallets,!with!the!
player!standing!at!the!low!end!(see!plate!1.10).*!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
106 !The!fourTrow!or!Continental!xylophone!as!described!by!James!Blades,!Percussion(Instruments(
and(Their(History,!London,!Faber!and!Faber,!1970,!pp.!306T7!
107 !The!xyloTmarimba!is!a!hybrid!of!the!xylophone!and!marimba,!and!the!marimbaphone!is!
another!name!for!marimba.!Thus!they!are!effectively!covered!by!the!terms!marimba!and!
xylophone.!
108 !James!Blades!op.cit.,!p.!307.!Guzików!is!variously!described!in!different!articles!and!books!as!a!
Polish,!Russian!or!Jewish!xylophonist!who!travelled!round!the!Continent!and!impressed!the!
various!courts!and!a!number!of!composers!with!his!skill.!In!fact,!it!is!rumoured!that!Mendelssohn!
wrote!a!piece!for!him,!but!unfortunately!it!has!been!lost.!

42! !
 *
Plate!1.10!–!fourTrow!xylophone!as!seen!from!the!player’s!perspective!(author’s!
collection)!

This!instrument!produced!a!hard,!dry!sound!and!precisely!for!this!effect,!was!
scored!for!by!SaintTSaëns!in!his!Danse(Macabre(in!1874!(see!ex.!1.07).!

!
Ex.!1.07*Camille!SaintTSaëns!Danse(Macabre,!xylophone!excerpt,!bars!121T133.109*!

Towards!the!end!of!the!nineteenth!century!Percy!Grainger,!dissatisfied!with!
“yesterday’s!music”,110!began!to!explore!the!range!of!sounds!offered!by!the!new!
tuned!percussion!instruments.!!

What!irritated!Grainger!most!was!that!Western!music!seemed!to!be!suffering!
from!arrested!development!because!of!its!allegiance!to!the!fixed!steps!of!
yesterday's!music!...111!

So!one!obvious!way!to!move!away!from!these!restrictions!was!to!use!what!were!
considered!unusual!instruments.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
109 !Raynor!Carroll,!Orchestral(Repertoire(for(the(Xylophone,!Pasadena!CA,!Batterie!Press,!2000!

110 !Malcolm!Gillies,!‘Grainger!the!composer’!p.!10,!ed.!David!Pear!Facing(Percy(Grainger.!National!
Library!of!Australia!in!association!with!the!Grainger!Collection,!the!University!of!Melbourne!
Canberra!2006.!
111 !Malcolm!Gillies,!op.cit.,!p.!10!!

! 43!
 …!as!early!as!1899!he!was!composing!his!own!works!and!arranging!those!of!
others!for!odd!instrumental!combinations.!Works!such!as!Eastern(Intermezzo,!
Gamelan(Anklung,!and!Random(Round!were!composed!by!Grainger!for!various!
combinations!of!instruments!and!include!extensive!writing!for!tuneful!
percussion.112!

The!works!reflected!Grainger’s!cultural!interest!in!the!music!and!instruments!of!
Indonesia,!and!Polynesia,!an!interest!he!was!able!to!develop!during!his!time!in!
London.!There!he!arranged!with!the!manufacturers!Boosey!&!Hawkes!to!see!an!
extensive!collection!of!oriental!instruments,!thus!giving!himself!exposure!to!new!
sounds.!113!!This!experience!he!further!developed!by,!

…borrow[ing]!from!them!a!Percussion!instrument,!master[ing]!the!necessary!
technique!and!return[ing]!it!in!exchange!for!another!novelty…!he!was!taken!to!
see!the!wonderful!collection!of!oriental!instruments…Among!the!collection!was!a!
collection!of!tuned!Gongs!used!in!Balinese!orchestras.!He!was!fascinated!by!the!
sound!they!made!and!this!experience!reinforced!his!desire!to!incorporate!
‘tuneful!Percussion’114 !instruments!into!his!orchestrations.115!

After!visiting!a!display!of!the!Indonesian!kolintang!(wooden!idiophone),!
angklung!(bamboo)!and!gamelan!(metallophones!–!gongs!and!keyboards)!in!the!
Netherlands!Ethnographical!Museum!at!Leyden,!Grainger!set!to!work!on!The(
Warriors([(Music(to(an(Imaginary(Ballet((begun!in!1913!and!completed!in!
1916).116!The!work!utilises!a!large!number!of!diverse!tuned!percussion!
instruments!and!is!the!first!example!of!such!orchestration.!Grainger!continued!to!
advocate!the!use!of!‘tuneful!percussion’!as!a!separate!section!of!the!orchestra,!
and!apart!from!the!untuned!percussion!section.!In!particular,!he!wanted!mallet!
keyboards,!both!metal!and!wood,!in!the!lower!registers!to!balance!the!high!
sounds!of!the!glockenspiel!and!xylophone.!However,!to!give!his!music!a!fullT

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
112 !John!Anthony!Roscigno,!“Percy!Grainger's!The!Warriors!T!Music!To!An!Imaginary!Ballet:!
Innovations!In!Orchestration!TThe!Addition!Of!The!Melodic!Percussion!Section!As!An!Equal!Force!
In!20th!Century!Orchestral!Writing”*DMA,!University!of!Arizona,!1998,!p.!53.!In!the!period!
FebruaryTApril!1933!Grainger!made![a!new]!version!for!Tuneful!Percussion.!It!is!written!for!
Trumpet,!Double!Bass,!Harmonium,!2!Pianos,!Glockenspiel,!'Shaker',!Chimes!and!other!Bells,!
Dulcitone!and!Staff!Bells,!Metal!Marimba!(Vibraphone)!and!Tubular!Bells,!Xylophone,!and!
Wooden!Marimba.!!
113!Jonathon!Bird,!Percy(Grainger,!Paul!Elek,!London,!1976,!p.!71!

114 !'Tuneful!percussion'!is!the!term!he!used!to!describe!all!percussion!instruments!with!clear!
intonation!and!thus!capable!of!playing!melodies.!
115 !Jonathon!Bird,!op.cit.,!p.!71!
116 !The!work!was!planned!for!Diaghilev’s!Ballets(Russes,!but!never!performed!by!them!(Bird,!
op.cit.!p.!147)!

44! !
bodied!resonance,!he!required!the!keyboards!to!have!resonators!similar!to!those!
on!the!Indonesian!instruments.!

He!was!particularly!interested!in!those!instruments!which!encompassed!the!
lower!octaves.!He!had!long!wanted!to!balance!the!high!octaves!of!the!
glockenspiel!and!xylophone!with!warmer!and!more!mellow!tones!of!lowerT
voiced!instruments.!When!he!later!included!their!European!equivalents!in!his!
scores!he!became!a!pioneer!in!the!orchestral!use!of!tuneful!percussion!
instruments.117 !

In!his!quest!for!this!expanded!range!of!tuned!percussion!harmonies,!Grainger!
looked!further!afield,!and!turned!to!the!United!States!of!America.!In!the!1910s,!
percussion!instrument!makers!there!were!experimenting!making!instruments!
with!greater!resonance,!having!been!introduced!to!the!idea!via!concert!tours!by!
marimba!bands!from!Guatemala.118!These!Guatemalan!marimbas!evoked!a!more!
mellow!tone!than!the!fourTrow!xylophone,!with!the!projection!of!a!fullTbodied!
sound!achieved!by!the!use!of!resonators;!and!these!marimbas!were!made!in!
keyboard!layout!form.!This!allowed!for!greater!sound!projection!and!bigger!note!
range.!The!benefits!for!expanded!composition!and!more!repertoire!performance!
for!percussionists,!resulted!directly!from!this!instrument!adaptation.!

The!instrument!was!made!in!two!sizes!with!the!larger,!the!marimba(grande,!
being!approximately!six!octaves!plus!four!semitones,!and!the!smaller,!marimba(
cuache,!three!octaves!plus!ten!semitones.!This!form!and!size!accommodated!the!
group!style!of!playing!that!characterised!the!marimbero!ensembles,!and!could!be!
the!reason!for!the!keyboard!layout.!It!is!of!course!not!possible!to!prove!
causation,!but!form!generally!follows!function,119!and!Vida!Chenoweth’s!keen!
observation!of!the!function!does!tend!to!indicate!a!close!relationship!to!the!form.!

As!a!rule!four!men!play!the!at!the!larger!instrument!while!three!are!at!the!
smaller!one.120!
She!elaborates!this!point,!with!the!following!comment!on!the!place!of!marimba!in!
Guatemalen!society.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
117!J.!Bird,(Percy(Grainger,!Paul!Elek,!London,!1976,!p.!147!

118 !Vida!Chenoweth,!Marimbas(of(Guatemala,!Lexington,!University!of!Kentucky!Press,!1974,!p.!
76!
119 !This!was!expounded!by!the!ChicagoTbased!architect,!Louis!Sullivan!(1856T1924),!and!became!
the!governing!principle!of!the!modernist!schools!of!arts!practice.!!
120 !Vida!Chenoweth,!op.(cit.,!p.!19!

! 45!
 Marimba!playing!in!Guatemala!is!often!a!family!institution!with!the!elder!
members!of!the!family!training!the!younger!ones.!It!is!not!uncommon!to!discover!
that!all!seven!marimberos!of!a!marimba!doble!are!related...121!!

Percussionists!and!composers!were!captivated!by!the!mellow!sound!of!these!
instruments,122!and!by!1918!the!first!marimbas!were!produced!in!the!United!
States,!made!in!keyboard!layout!(see!table!1.04).!The!xylophones!were!also!then!
produced!in!this!form,!and!at!the!same!time,!the!makers!began!experimenting!
with!adding!resonators!to!both!instruments!to!produce!a!fullTbodied!tone,!rich!in!
the!fundamental!of!the!note!and!to!provide!greater!projection!of!sound.123!

!
Table!1.04!Deagan!marimbas124 !

Mellower!tones!on!marimbas!were!accomplished!initially!by!making!the!bars!
thinner!in!relation!to!their!length!than!xylophone!bars.!After!1926!the!notes!
were!more!sophisticatedly!tuned!to!include!overtones!of!two!octaves!higher,!and!
a!further!minor!third!above!that.!This!was!in!contrast!to!the!xylophone!tuning!of!
an!octave!and!a!fifth,!or!quint!tuning.125!This!was!not!done!in!a!standard!manner.!
The!marimbas!were!offered!in!three!sizes,!and!were!available!in!two!pitches,!
A=454!for!the!British!(and!Empire)!market,!and!A=461!for!the!American!market!
(see!table!1.05),!before!standardisation!of!tunings!at!A=440!in!1922.126!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
121 !ibid.,!p.!20!

122 !This!was!epitomised!by!Clair!Omar!Musser!who!changed!from!xylophone!to!marimba!and!
formed!marimba!ensembles!that!performed!through!America!and!Europe.!Percussive(Notes,!April,!
1999,!pp.!6T17!
123 !Page!on!marimbaTxylophone,!http://www.deaganresource.com/!accessed!7!July!2015!

124 !http://www.deaganresource.com/!accessed!7!July!2015!

Bill!Youhass,!“The!Art!and!Science!of!Mallet!Instrument!Tuning”,!Percussive(Notes,!August!
125

2007,!p.!45!
126 !http://www.deaganresource.com/!accessed!7!July!2015.!This!conclusion!regarding!the!two!
markets!is!supported!by!the!fact!that!in!the!author’s!collection!are!two!Deagan!xylophones,!nos.!
844!and!872,!listed!in!the!online!catalogue!as!‘low!pitch’,!and!obtained!by!the!author!at!the!
original!pitch!of!A!=!454,!which!is!currently!known!as!‘high!pitch’!against!the!A=440!standard.!
The!European!standard!then!was!A!=!435.!

46! !
 !

Table!1.05!Sizes!and!tunings!of!the!Deagan!xylophones!in!the!author’s!collection127!

In!contrast,!the!fourTrow!xylophone,!at!times!referred!to!as!the!Continental!
xylophone,128!remained!the!preferred!form!of!the!instrument!in!Poland!(and!
possibly!the!Soviet!Union!and!its!other!satellites)!for!a!long!time.!It!was!taught!in!
the!Warsaw!Music!Academy!until!1963!and!in!the!Wrocław!Music!Academy!until
1970;!and!performances!were!still!being!given!on!it!in!Poland!in!2010.129!In!fact,!
according!to!Percival!Kirby,!

*European!xylophones!were!never!fitted!with!resonators!until!recent!times…!
From!America!the!new!resonated!xylophones!…!found!their!way!to!Europe!and!
became!regular!constituents!of!symphony!orchestras.!But!in!their!new!dress!
they!completely!stultify!the!effect!intended!by!nineteenth!century!composers!
who!wrote!for!the!nonTresonated!instrument,!such!as!SaintTSaens!in!his!Danse(
Macabre.130!

This!is!a!very!interesting!comment!on!possible!negative!effects!of!progress!in!
adapted!and!new!instrument!development.!What!is!perceived!as!an!‘improved!
sound’!is!not!necessarily!compatible!with!original!compositional!effect;!and!this!
carries!with!it!a!constant!dilemma!for!percussionists!in!the!context!where!the!
original!instrument!scored!for!is!not!available.!While!it!is!not!practicable!to!buy!
the!old!European!fourTrow!xylophone!and!learn!the!different!technique!of!
playing!it,!the!work!should!be!played!with!the!resonators!either!covered!or!
removed,!and!preferably!using!wooden!mallets,!to!retain!the!authenticity!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
127 !http://www.deaganresource.com/!accessed!7!July!2015!

128 !James!Blades,!Percussion(Instruments(and(Their(History,!London,!Faber!and!Faber,!1970,!p.!
307!
129 !Conversation!by!telephone,!May!27,!2015,!with!Jacek!Wota,!Principal!Timpanist!Wrocław!
Philharmonic!Orchestra,!and!Professor!of!Percussion,!Wrocław!Academy!of!Music,!who!began!his!
xylophone!lessons!on!the!fourTrow!instrument!in!1968T9.!It!had!been!replaced!by!the!keyboard!
xylophone!in!Warsaw!in!1963!as!confirmed!by!Stanisław!Skoczyński,!Principal!Percussionist,!
Warsaw!Radio!Symphony!Orchestra!and!Professor!of!Percussion!Warsaw!Academy!of!Music.!
130 !Percival!Kirby,!“The!Origin!of!Certain!African!Musical!Instruments”,!African(Studies,!Vol.!XXV,!
No.!1,!1966,!pp.!12T13!

! 47!
sound!written!for!by!SaintTSaëns.131 !This!conflict!of!interests!between!the!
original!compositional!intent!and!the!practicability!for!percussionists!of!working!
with!newly!adapted!and!available!instruments!is!one!that!is!always!present!for!
the!player;!and!must!be!resolved!by!further!adaptation!of!the!instrument!or!
changed!mallet!use,!as!in!this!case!by!covering!or!removing!resonators!as!well!as!
using!wooden!mallets.!This!flexiblity!in!approach!to!adapt!new!instruments!and!
their!use,!affords!more!authentic!realisation!by!the!percussionist!of!the!original!
compositional!intent.!

The!range!of!the!fourTrow!xylophone!was!two!to!twoTandToneThalf!octaves,!
usually!G4!–C7,132!and!sometimes!extended!down!to!the!F4!or!E4,!as!shown!in!
the!photo!above!(see!ex.!1.19).!American!manufacturers!began!to!offer!these!new!
xylophones!in!different!versions,!of!three,!threeTandToneThalf,!and!four!octaves.!
They!were!also!sometimes!called!xyloTmarimbas,!or!xylorimbas,!as!the!
instrument!was!extended!down!a!further!halfToctave!into!the!marimba!range.133!
This!caused!confusion!in!some!music!circles!further!away!from!Europe!and!
America,!where!the!name!appeared!in!literature!with!no!explanation.!It!was!
imagined!to!be!a!much!bigger!instrument,!and!composers!were!often!dismayed!
to!find!that!such!an!instrument!did!not!exist.!This!discrepancy!in!nomenclature!is!
another!example!of!the!lack!of!standardisation!that!is!seen!throughout!
percussion.!

!Nevertheless!the!new!keyboard!principle!underlying!the!construction!of!both!
marimbas!and!xylophones!changed!the!playing!techniques!of!percussionists!and!
gave!composers!a!new!perspective!on!writing!for!them.!Thus!it!determined!the!
future!of!the!instruments.134!The!addition!of!the!resonators!also!changed!the!
sound!of!the!instrument,!which!in!itself!paved!the!way!for!other!changes!via!the!
implements!used!to!produce!the!sound,!the!beaters.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
131 !A!further!dilemma!for!future!performances!will!come!as!the!already!evident!shrinking!supply!
of!the!rosewood!used!to!make!the!bars!forces!makers!to!develop!the!plastic!material!such!as!
kelon!currently!used!for!xylophones!and!marimbas!in!Drum!Corps.!
132 !This!was!possibly!influenced!by!the!range!of!the!glockenspiel!

133 !Peinkofer!&!Tannigel,!op.(cit.,!p.10,!p.!42!

134 !More!details!on!this!story!can!be!read!in!William!Cahn!‘The!Xylophone’,!Encyclopedia(of(
Percussion,!(John!Beck!ed),!New!York,!Garland,!1995!pp.!147T161!and!Peters!The(Drummer:(Man,!
Wilmette,!Illinois.!KemperTPeters!Publications.!1975,!pp.!125T177!

48! !
The!beaters!for!the!xylophone!underwent!changes!from!the!original!wood!
beaters!as!players!sought!to!elicit!the!fullTbodied!tone!that!was!possible!with!
resonators.!Manufacturers!used!materials!such!as!rhinoceros!horn,!Bakelite!and!
later!plastic!to!educe!the!bright!tone!that!characterised!the!instrument.!When!the!
lower!notes!were!added,!rubber!and!wound!beaters!of!different!hardnesses!were!
introduced!and!gave!a!variety!of!mellower!tones!to!the!instrument;!and!other!
types!of!mallets!have!been!designed!since!to!produce!special!effects,!or!enable!
ease!of!mallet!changes.!Some!examples!are!seen!in!the!following!plates!(see!
plates!1.11T1.12).135!

(a)! (b)! !

Plate!1.11!(a)!original!xylophone!mallets!(b)!Early!types!of!mallets:!2!hard!rubber,!1!felt,!
4!bakelite!(with!and!without!crocheted!head)!and!rhinoceros!horn!(extreme!right)!from!
the!author’s!collection!

Plate!1.12!Selection!of!mallets!in!use!in!the!middle!of!the!twentieth!century.!From!left;!!
felt,!wound,!rubber!(homeTmade!from!a!rubber!doorstopper!and!a!basketTweaving!cane!
handle),!wound!(Japanese,!1970)!from!the!author’s!collection.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
135 !A!comprehensive!listing!of!mallets!and!photos!is!provided!by!Peinkofer!and!Tannigel,!op.cit.,!
pp.!19T30!

! 49!
1.2.2*Marimba*

This!mellowness!of!tone!was!of!course!much!more!pronounced!on!the!marimba,!
which!was!made!in!a!lower!register!than!the!xylophone;!and!this!characteristic!
was!emphasised!by!the!makers,!by!tuning!the!marimbas!to!the!minor!third!above!
the!twoToctave!harmonic.!!While!this!produced!a!very!mellifluous!sound,!it!
limited!the!application!of!the!instrument,!as!the!sound!was!too!soft!to!be!played!
as!a!solo!instrument!with!orchestral!accompaniment.!However,!tuning!to!the!
major!third,!while!producing!a!much!brighter!tone,!remedied!this!and!allowed!
for!the!composition!of!marimba!concertos.!Interestingly,!the!two!tunings!make!
the!instrument!incompatible!with!itself!should!they!be!played!together.136!

The!marimba!has!been!made!in!various!sizes!from!two!octaves!to!fourTandToneT
third!octaves,!in!a!variety!of!nonTstandardised!ranges,!and!initially,!in!two!
versions!with!bars!of!either!steel!or!wood.!From!the!midT1920s!it!was!made!from!
wood!only,!and!extended!to!five!octaves!in!which!form!it!is!currently!the!
standard.137!There!was!also!an!instrument!produced!by!Deagan!that!the!
manufacturer!called!a!marimbaphone!with!a!mechanism!that!allowed!the!bars!to!
be!upended!to!allow!the!notes!to!be!bowed,!and!also!made!in!two!versions,!with!
alloy!steel!bars,!and!with!wooden!bars,!but!it!was!not!popular!as!the!technique!of!
bowing!was!basic!and!clumsy,!and!production!ceased.138!Again!the!tables!of!sizes!
show!the!lack!of!standardisation!of!the!instrument!(see!plate!1.13!and!tables!
1.06!and!1.07).!The!name!marimbaphone,!however,!did!not!disappear,!as!it!is!
also!(in!appropriate!spellings)!the!name!of!the!marimba!in!French,!German!and!
Italian;!and!this!caused!some!confusion,!with!composers!and!percussionists!
wondering!(in!vain)!whether!it!was!another!instrument,!maybe!incorporating!
electronics,!and!possibly!capable!of!producing!long!sounds.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
136 !This!was!demonstrated!at!the!1990!Adelaide!Festival!of!Arts!by!the!Steve!Reich!Ensemble!
who!played!on!borrowed!instruments!of!both!tunings.!They!found!that!the!marimba!that!was!
tuned!to!the!minor!third!was!significantly!softer!than!the!other,!and!sounded!flat.!It!was!further!
demonstrated!at!a!workshop!presented!by!Steve!Reich!at!the!Flinders!Street!School!of!Music!
during!the!Festival.!
137 !With!the!supply!of!suitable!wood!diminishing,!manufacturers!are!increasingly!looking!to!
synthetic!materials!as!possible!substitutes.!
138 !http://www.deaganresource.com/!accessed!7!July!2015.!While!I!have!been!unable!to!find!an!
exact!date!for!the!end!of!manufacture,!it!is!likely!to!be!by!the!midT1920s,!after!the!introduction!of!
standard!pitch!as!the!catalogues!refer!only!to!high!and!low!pitch.!

50! !
 !

Plate!1.13!Deagan!steel!marimbaphone!with!keys!enabled!for!bowing139!

!
Table!1.06!Table!of!sizes!and!pitches!of!Deagan!steel!marimbaphones140 !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
139 !http://www.deaganresource.com/!accessed!7!July!2015!

140 !http://www.deaganresource.com/!accessed!7!July!2015!

! 51!
 !

Table!1.07!Table!of!sizes!and!pitches!of!Deagan!Wood!marimbaphones141!

As!faster!and!more!complex!compositions!required!more!rapid!wrist!
movements,!especially!in!the!rolls,!beaters!for!the!marimba!also!developed!in!the!
use!of!new!materials.!!From!basic!rubber!mallets!they!expanded!the!materials!to!
latex,!felt,!and!wound!beaters!with!heads!of!different!sizes!and!degrees!of!
hardness!(see!plate.!1.14).!The!handles!too!were!made!of!thicker!cane!and!later!
of!wood!to!reduce!any!springiness!resulting!from!the!action!of!playing!(see!plate!
1.15).!This!development!was!necessary!as!faster!and!more!complex!music!
required!faster!wrist!movements,!especially!in!the!rolls!and!any!springiness!
would!impede!control!of!the!mallets,!and!hamper!smooth!playing.142!Beaters!also!
were!refined!in!response!to!the!demands!of!specific!playing!situations!(see!plate!
1.16).!To!extend!the!range!of!chord!voicings!longer!handles!were!developed;!to!
evoke!different!characters!of!sound!various!types!and!sizes!of!beaters,!had!yarn!
or!wool!wound!round!wood!or!plastic!cores;!and!to!balance!the!weight!of!the!
beater!thicker!cane!(rattan)!or!wood!was!used!for!the!handles.143!The!range!of!
beaters!that!has!been!developed!now!allows!percussionists!to!educe!a!rich!
diversity!of!sounds!from!these!mallet!keyboard!instruments,!and!accordingly!it!is!
now!necessary!to!have!a!large!supply!of!mallets!of!different!hardness,!weight!and!
material!to!do!so!and!to!develop!an!awareness!of!the!sound!potential!of!each!set.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
141 !http://www.deaganresource.com/!accessed!7!July!2015!

142 !This!was!not!tested!in!a!scientific!manner,!but!is!proven!by!continuing!and!popular!practice!
as!players!adopted!the!new!mallets!and!have!continued!to!do!so.!
143 !See!ex.!1.26!above!

52! !
This!range!developed!further!as!players!demanded!a!greater!range!of!sounds!to!
fulfill!composers’demands!(see!ex.!1.25!T!1.27).!

Plate!1.14!examples!of!contemporary!wound!marimba!and!xylophone!mallets!–
extremely!soft!(L),!powerful,!flexible,!medium,!mediumThard,!hard!and!extremely!hard!
(R)!from!the!author’s!collection!

! 53!
 ! !

Plate!1.15!relative!thicknesses!and!lengths!of!early!(R)!and!contemporary!(L)!mallet!
handles,!from!the!author’s!collection!

!! ! ! !

Plate!1.16!Examples!of!different!types!of!mallets!(from!left)!‘cluster’!mallet!of!2!
hardnesses,!‘slap’!mallet,!snare!drum!stick!with!metal!ends!for!playing!glockenspiel,!and!
felt!end!for!playing!marimba!as!well!as!other!idiophones!(author’s!collection)!

54! !
PostTWorld!War!One!saw!tuned!keyboards!exemplifying!the!aural!richness!of!
percussion!and!it!was!in!this!time!period!that!a!variety!of!tuned!instruments!
added!to!the!panoply!of!percussion!sounds,!quite!possibly!influenced!by!
Grainger’s!compositions!from!1899.!These!tuned!instruments!will!be!summarily!
identified!because!in!themselves!they!were!not!developed!further!or!
transformed!into!more!sophisticated!instruments!and!fell!into!disuse!because!of!
design!limitations.!However!they!still!demand!a!recognition!on!the!register!of!
important!stages!of!percussion!instruments!because!from!these!elementary!
soundTsources!others!more!appropriate!were!created.!One!such!instrument!was!
a!set!of!song!bells,!a!mallet!keyboard!of!steel!of!similar!range!to!a!glockenspiel,!
though!an!octave!lower!(see!plate!1.17).144!

!
Plate!1.17!–!Song!bells!(from!the!author’s!collection)!

Another,!the!tubophone!(originally!tubuscampanophone),!was!really!a!
glockenspiel!of!tubes!rather!than!bars.!Although!produced!a!very!clear!tone,!the!
sound!lasted!too!long,!with!no!convenient!way!of!dampening!it!(see!plate!1.18).!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
144 !Hal!Trommer,!‘The!Vibraphone’,!Encyclopedia(of(Percussion,!J!Beck!(ed.),!New!York,!Garland,!
1995,!p.!340!

! 55!
 !
Plate!1.18!–Tubophone!(from!the!author’s!collection)!

Both!instruments!fell!into!disuse,!the!song!bells!in!the!1920s,!and!tubophone!
after!World!War!II.145!

Song!bells!also!were!superseded!by!the!development!of!the!vibraphone!from!the!
steel!marimba;!and!this!instrument!is!continuing!to!develop!with!a!3.5Toctave!
version!now!available.!Moreover!there!are!vibraphones!that!have!a!MIDITpickup,!!
improved!vibrato!control,!and!chemically!treated!bars!that!produce!a!longer!
sustain!with!more!even!decay!across!the!harmonics!(see!plate!1.19).146!

Plate!1.19!Vibraphone,!3.5!octaves147!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
145 !After!Khachaturian’s!use!of!tubophone!in!1942!in!his!Gayaneh(Ballet,!London,!Boosey!&!
Hawkes,!1943,!there!is!no!evidence!of!it!in!the!repertoire!until!used!by!Bryce!in!1980!(see!
chapter!5).!
146 !http://www.vanderplastal.com!/index.php/instruments!accessed!January!15,!2016!
147 !http://www.vanderplastal.com/index.php/instruments!accessed!January!15,!2016.!For!a!
while!the!company!offered!a!4Toctave!vibraphone,!but!it!seems!lack!of!demand!has!changed!this.!

56! !
On!the!other!hand,!tubular!bells,!or!chimes,!introduced!from!1910,!have!
cemented!a!place!in!orchestral!repertoire,!despite!the!peculiarity!of!their!
acoustics.148!Tuned!Gongs,!tuned!cowbells,!and!crotales!are!occasionally!used!in!
orchestras,!percussion!ensembles!and!in!some!solo!pieces.!Vibraphones!are!
played!in!various!ensembles,!across!a!variety!of!genres.!!

Other!keyboards!have!interTcultural!importance.!The!angklung!(see!plate!1.20)*
and!gambang!or!bamboo!xylophone,!(see!plate!1.21)*are!not!much!played!
outside!of!the!Indonesian!folk!context.!!

!
Plate!1.20!–!One!note!of!an!Angklung!(from!the!author’s!collection)149!
!

!
Plate!1.21!–!Gambang!(from!the!author’s!collection).!The!notes!on!this!particular!
instrument!are!chromatically!arranged!in!one!row.150!

BooTbams,!(see!plate!1.22)!originally!bamboo!and!now!PVC!tubes!with!a!head!of!
skin!or!plastic!on!one!end!are!scored!for!in!some!compositions,!and!without!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
148 !The!length!of!the!tubes!in!proportion!to!the!diameter!produces!an!outTofTtune!harmonic,!
which!fortunately!does!not!project.!
149 !Blades,!op.cit.,!pp.!104T6!

150 !This!might!be!another!example!of!confusion!about!the!nature!of!percussion!instruments.!
Blades,!op.cit.,!p.!104!refers!to!the!gambang!as!a!trough!xylophone!of!wooden!keys.!Gordon!
Peters,!The(Drummer:(Man,!Wilmette!IL,!KemperTPeters,!1975,!p.!188,!and!Peinkofer!and!
Tannigel,!op.(cit.,!p.!53!identify!it!as!having!metal!keys.!I!was!told!by!percussion!teachers!in!
Indonesia!that!the!name!refers!to!the!bamboo!instrument!shown!above.!Clearly!this!area!of!
percussion!could!be!further!researched.!

! 57!
head!(and!then!called!PVC!Pipe!Instruments,151!or!similar![see!plate!1.23])!are!
used!in!community!ensembles.!!

! ! ! ! !

!!!Plate!1.22!BooTbams152! ! !!!!! Plate!1.23!PVC!Pipe!Instrument153!

The!cimbalom!(see!plate!1.24!and!ex.!1.08)*is!a!specialty!instrument!played!in!
folk!ensembles!of!Central!and!Eastern!Europe!and!only!very!occasionally!in!
orchestras.154 !

!!

Plate!1.24!Cimbalom!in!folk!ensemble,!Hungary155!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
151 !In!Australia!they!are!also!called!thongTaTphones!after!the!‘mallets’!used!to!play!them!–!the!
rubber!sandals!that!Australians!call!thongs.!
152 http://www.kolberg.com/products/en_GB/366/product/422.html#prettyPhoto!accessed,!9!
July!2015!
153 !http://frugalfun4boys.com/2015/03/18/howTtoTmakeTpvcTpipeTxylophoneTinstrument/!
accessed!9!July!2015!
154 !Zoltán!Kodály!Háry(János(Suite!is!one!such!piece.!

58! !
 !
Ex.!1.08!Kodály!Háry(János(Suite,!extract!of!Cimbalom!part156!

!As!these!instruments!at!the!present!time!have!limited!applications!they!are!not!
deeply!analysed!in!this!dissertation.!If!however,!they!reTinvent!themselves,!as!
happened!with!the!European!xylophone,!they!could!add!a!further!timbral!depth!
to!the!tuned!percussion!section.!So!the!song!bells!and!tubophone,!despite!
producing!their!own!quality!of!sound!have!not!found!a!sustainable!place!in!the!
music.!On!the!other!hand!the!different!musical!roles!such!as!textural!harmony!or!
instrumental!colour,!assigned!to!tuned!gongs,!tuned!cowbells!and!crotales,!even!
though!it!is!not!significant,!have!justified!the!continued!existence!of!these!
instruments.157!

In!essence!then,!the!mallet!keyboard!family!is!a!concept!of!sound!character,!and!
is!still!best!defined!by!Grainger’s!idea!of!high,!cutting!wooden!and!metal!sounds!
of!xylophone!and!glockenspiel!balanced!by!their!respective!low!and!mellow!
sounds!of!marimbas!and!vibraphones.158 !To!this!can!be!added!other!special!
effects!of!tuned!instruments!such!as!the!tuned!gongs!and!cowbells.!However,!in!
all!cases!it!is!important!to!recognise!that!none!of!the!instruments!is!standard!in!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
155!!https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HungaryT0223_T

_Cimbalom_%287338659240%29.jpg!!accessed!9!July!2015.!The!similarity!of!mallets!for!
Cimbalom!and!the!fourTrow!xylophone!is!possibly!more!than!coincidental.!
156 !Zoltán!Kodály!Háry(János(Suite,!Vienna,!Universal!Edition,!1927,!p.!1!
157 !Peinkofer!and!Tannigel,!op.(cit.,!pp.!41T82!

158 !J.!Bird,(Percy(op.(cit.,!p.!147!

! 59!
terms!of!tuning!details,!octave!size,!width!of!bars,!and!details!of!beaters!used!and!
has!therefore!provided!a!more!nuanced!selection!of!sound!sources!for!both!the!
composer!and!performer.159!

1.2.3*Steel*Drums*

An!unusual!tuned!percussion!instrument!family!and!one!finding!a!niche!in!the!
spectrum!of!percussion!performance!and!so!worthy!of!examination,!is!the!steel!
pan.!Created!in!the!backyards!of!Trinidad!in!the!1930s!and!1940s,!from!oil!
drums,!during!a!period!when!the!colonial!government!banned!public!musicT
making,160!the!instruments!continued!to!develop!and!gained!a!certain!amount!of!
popularity.161!Because!of!its!distinctive!construction!and!technique!application!
the!steel!drum!family!as!another!member!of!the!mallet!percussion!family!
requires!separate!investigation.162!Although!it!is!not!strictly!a!keyboard!
instrument!because!of!the!eccentricities!of!the!layout!of!notes!it!is!however!
classified!in!the!tuned!mallet!family!because!it!deploys!mallets!to!elicit!notes.163!
Its!unconventionality!lies!in!its!major!use!as!a!complete!ensemble!in!various,!
flexible!ensemble!combinations!and!while!it!began!within!the!specific!musical!
genre!of!Calypso,!has!expanded!into!other!genres!of!Jazz,!World!Music!and!
Classical.!Moreover,!occasional!pieces!of!the!Contemporary!Classical!repertoire!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
159 !Peinkofer!and!Tannigel,!op.(cit.,!pp.!41T82!
160 !Michael!Anthony,!Port[of[Spain(in(a(World(at(War,(1939[1945,!Port!of!Spain,!Ministry!of!
Sports,!Culture!and!Youth!Affairs,!n.d.,!pp.!108T109!
161 !There!are!a!number!of!books!that!detail!the!history!of!this!family!of!instruments.!An!excellent!
beginning!is!Jacob!Elder’s!From(Congo(Drum(to(Steel(Band,(UWI,!St.!Augustine,!Trinidad,!1969.!
Many!others!are!mentioned!in!the!Encyclopedia(of(Percussion,!pp.!328T331.!
162 !The!information!on!the!steel!drum!family!is!based!on!three!periods!of!practical!research,!a!
residency!at!the!University!of!the!West!Indies,!Port!of!Spain,!Trinidad,!in!1992,!the!establishment!
of!a!steel!pan!tuning!and!playing!course!in!Adelaide!in!1993!and!the!establishment!of!the!
steelband!for!the!Sultan!of!Oman!in!2009T13.!In!1992!I!studied!with!steel!pan!makers,!teachers,!
composers!and!players!and!had!privileged!access!to!the!UWI!library.!In!1993,!with!Clifford!
Alfred,!a!tuner!I!organised!a!short!course!in!steel!pan!tuning!and!playing,!which!led!to!the!
establishment!of!a!steelband.!In!2009!I!was!asked!to!institute!the!Royal!Guard!of!Oman!steelband.!
I!worked!with!Ron!Matthews!a!tuner!from!Trinidad!to!develop!the!steelband!and!a!course!in!pan!
making!as!well!as!working!with!the!steelband!members!to!compose!pieces!combining!Omani!and!
Calypso!music.!My!starting!point!in!1992!was!Jacob!Elder’s!From(Congo(Drum(to(Steel(Band,(UWI,!
St.!Augustine,!Trinidad,!1969.!
163 !These!mallets!however,!are!specific!to!the!instruments!and!comprise!essentially!different!
thicknesses!of!rubber!tubing!on!the!end!of!quite!short!pieces!of!dowel.!

60! !
include!one!or!more!of!the!instruments!in!more!heterogeneous!ensembles!(see!
ex.!1.09).!

!
Ex.!1.09!Neil!Currie,!Sonata(for(Percussion,!manuscript,!1993,!2nd!mvt,!p.7!

It!is!worth!noting!some!of!their!peculiarities!however!as!they!present!challenges!
to!the!player.!Firstly,!using!only!one!surface!to!produce!a!number!of!notes!has!
meant!that!all!the!notes!would!sound!whenever!one!note!was!played.!So!a!
system!had!to!be!devised!that!lessened!this!impact.!Grooves!between!the!notes,!
gave!a!certain!amount!of!separation!of!sound,!and!placement!of!adjacent!notes!
that!give!sympathetic!tones!has!determined!the!layout!of!instruments.!However,!
this!did!not!produce!standard!instruments,!as!the!details!of!note!placement!were!
usually!decided!by!the!pan!maker!and!the!arrangement!of!the!pans!was!decided!
by!the!personal!preference!of!the!player.164!

There!are!eight!different!instruments!that!comprise!the!steel!drum!family,!with!
separate!functions!of!lead,!harmony,!and!bass,!and!each!has!its!own!layout.!An!
examination!of!the!pans!that!provide!the!melody!will!serve!as!a!sufficient!
example!of!the!extent!of!these!differences.!

The!lead!instrument!is!the!tenor!pan,!and!there!are!two!of!these,!a!high!tenor!
with!a!pitch!range!of!D4!to!F#6,!and!a!low!tenor!from!C4!to!E6.!The!notes!on!both!
of!these!are!arranged!in!a!cycle!of!fourths/cycle!of!fifths!(see!plate!1.25).!Some!
tenor!pans!have!also!had!the!notes!‘separated’!by!drilling!holes!in!the!grooves,!
which!has!led!to!a!clearer!sound.!These!drums!are!known!as!bore!pans,!but!they!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
164 !Discussions!with!Ron!Matthews,!pan!tuner!from!Trinidad!with!whom!I!had!many!discussions!
on!the!details!of!pans!(2009T2012).!This!situation!grew!out!of!the!intense!rivalry!between!the!
various!steelbands!and!is!well!documented!by!George!‘Sonny’!Goddard,!Forty(Years(in(the(
Steelbands(1939[1979,!London,!Karia!Press,!1991,!Chapter!Two,!pp.!45T62!

! 61!
have!not!replaced!the!usual!tenor!pans!as!the!sound!is!not!as!fullTbodied.!Rather!
they!are!used!in!some!steelbands!in!conjunction!with!the!other!pans!to!introduce!
more!clarity!into!the!overall!sound.!Trinidad!pan!maker!John!Hines,!of!Vistapan,!
explains,!

The!“D”!lead!pan!is!often!used!in!large!steel!band!orchestras!where!there!are!
other!instruments!in!the!pan!family!that!are!assigned!the!low!C!and!C#!notes!in!
musical!arrangements.!If!the!instrument!is!to!be!used!alone!or!with!smaller!
groups,!it!is!very!beneficial!to!play!a!low!“C”!pan,!since!those!two!notes!(low!C!
and!C#)!add!significantly!to!the!low!range.!It!is!true!that!the!“D”!lead!has!two!
notes!at!the!upper!end!of!its!range!that!the!low!“C”!does!not,!but!these!particular!
notes!are!much!less!useful!or!significant!than!those!at!the!lower!range.!They!are!
seldom!played,!except!by!professional!pan!players.!For!these!reasons,!we!
recommend!the!low!“C”!pan!for!its!great!versatility,!except!in!those!instances!
where!a!steel!band!director!of!a!larger!orchestra!prefers!all!“D”!leads.165!

!! ! !
Plate!1.25!Tenor!pans166!

Supporting!the!tenor!is!the!double!tenor!(see!plate!1.26),!of!slighter!larger!range!
of!F3!to!B5!on!two!drums.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
165 !http://vistapan.com/!accessed!11!April!2010!

166 !Details!of!the!steel!pans!courtesy!Vistapan!in!Trinidad,!from!whom!I!ordered!a!set!for!the!
steelband!of!the!Sultan!of!Oman,!http://vistapan.com/!accessed!11!April!2010!

62! !
 !
Plate!1.26!Double!tenor!pans167 !

This!pan!is!less!used!nowadays!as!its!function!of!doubling!the!melody!can!just!as!
easily!be!supplied!by!the!double!second!pan.168!

The*double*second*pan*also!uses!two!drums!but!with!slight!variations!in!the!
range!and!note!placement!between!manufacturers.!They!can!be!E3!to!Eb5,!F3!to!
C6!or!F#3!to!C#6,!with!variations!of!note!placement!(see!plates!1.27!and!1.28).!
As!with!the!double!tenor,!this!drum!can!double!the!melody,!play!a!counter!
melody!and!harmony!and!so!add!a!depth!to!the!sound,!as!it!is!lower!than!the!
tenor.169!!

!
Plate!1.27!Double!seconds!F#3TC#6170!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
167 !ibid.!
168 !Discussions!with!Ron!Matthews!

169 !Discussions!with!Ron!Matthews!

170 !http://vistapan.com/!accessed!11April!2010!

! 63!
 !
Plate!1.28!Double!seconds!E3TEb6171!

Double!seconds!are!laid!out!in!a!“wholeTtone”!arrangement.!Essentially!this!
means!that!a!chromatic!scale!on!the!instrument!is!played!by!alternately!playing!
notes!from!the!left!and!right!drums…!The!advantage!to!this!layout!is!that!the!
notes!can!be!“synchronised”.!Notes!on!the!left!drum!are!a!semiTtone!higher!than!
the!notes!in!the!same!position!on!the!right!drum…!Double!tenors!are!laid!out!
using!an!arrangement!whereby!diatonic!major!are!played!by!alternately!playing!
notes!from!the!left!and!right!drums!but!chromatic!scales!require!two!notes!from!
the!left!drum!followed!by!two!notes!from!the!right!drum…172!

The!double!seconds!above!are!made!by!Vistapan!and!are!offered!in!two!ranges.!
The!double!seconds!below,!provided!by!Panyard!however!encompass!a!different!
layout!of!notes!(see!plate!1.29)!and!a!different!range!(see!plate!1.30).!

!
Plate!1.29!Double!seconds!F#3!–!C#6,!Note!the!different!layout!of!the!inner!ring.!173!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
171 !http://vistapan.com/!accessed!11!April!2010!
172 !http://vistapan.com/!accessed!11!April!2010!

173 file:///Volumes/My%20Passport/Finale%20in%20Oman%202010/steelbandT
%20june%202011/Pan%20Info/Panyard%20pans/pans.php.html!accessed!15!April!2010!

64! !
 !
Plate!1.30!Double!seconds!F3TC6174!

This!lack!of!standardisation!exists!throughout!the!range!of!the!pans.!The!layout!
of!notes!on!each!instrument!varies!to!such!an!extent!from!the!others!that!they!
effectively!are!different!instruments.!With!such!radically!dissimilar!layouts!there!
is!no!similarity!of!movements!between!notes,!or!chords,!across!the!different!pans!
so!players!tend!to!specialise!on!just!one!instrument.!On!the!multiTpan!
instruments!moreover,!there!is!no!standard!setTup!and!players!make!their!own!
decision!about!placement!of!the!individual!pans.!In!addition!the!ranges!vary!
between!some!of!the!pans.!So!it!is!often!not!possible!for!ensembles!to!play!on!
borrowed!instruments;!and!occasionally!pieces!need!to!be!adapted!to!suit!
certain!ranges.175!

It!can!be!seen!then!that!the!search!for!new!sounds!in!the!keyboard!mallet!
percussion!family!led!to!myriad!developments!in!the!construction,!materials,!
tuning,!beaters!and!playing!approach,!all!of!which!have!had!a!significant!effect!on!
composition!for!them!and!manner!of!their!use.!At!the!same!time!these!two!
factors!have!impacted!on!their!construction!as!seen!in!the!changes!to!marimbas!
and!xylophones,!the!development!of!the!vibraphone!and!the!steel!drum!family.!
These!developments!continue!to!impact!on!the!total!evolution!of!percussion.!

There!is!also!a!range!of!instruments!known!variously!as!Accessory,!Orchestral!or!
Latin!Percussion!instruments,!each!with!their!own!specific!playing!techniques.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
174 !ibid.,!accessed!15!April!2010!
175 !Jeffrey!Thomas,!“Steel!Band/Pan”,!Encyclopedia(of(Percussion,!J!Beck,!(ed.),!New!York,!
Garland,!1995,!p.!316!

! 65!
As!the!first!label!suggests!they!have!been!regarded!as!incidental!and!so!of!not!
great!consequence,!but!while!a!detailed!analysis!is!beyond!the!scope!of!this!
study,!it!is!important!to!note!that!they!also!are!developing,!however,!in!two!
directions.!A!desire!for!more!control!over!the!texture!and!quality!of!sound!is!a!
factor!in!developing!better!and!more!consistent!sound!sources.!This!is!well!
demonstrated!by!the!development!of!a!tambourine!that!provides!three!types!of!
jingles!that!can!be!easily!changed!in!a!variety!of!combinations,!and!by!changing!
the!playing!technique,!enables!the!playing!of!a!very!long!thumb!roll.!It!was!
developed!by!percussion!instrument!manufacturer!Kolberg!in!1995T6!(see!plate!
1.31).!

!!!!! !!!! !

Plate!1.31!Kolberg!tambourine!showing!the!method!of!mounting,!range!of!jingles!and!
method!of!playing!a!long,!uninterrupted!thumb!roll!(Kolberg!catalogue!2007)!

At!the!same!time,!some!compositions!have!also!explored!the!often,!raw!sounds!of!
sound!sources.!So,!for!example,!shakers!and!scrapers!are!made!from!bamboo,!
wood,!metal!or!plastic.!Some!examples!of!these!instruments!and!the!range!of!
sounds!even!this!small!selection!encompasses!are!shown!in!the!accompanying!
DVD.!The!instruments!demonstrated!are!shakers,!scrapers,!triangles!and!
woodblocks,!as!well!as!examples!of!clapsticks!used!by!Sculthorpe!and!toy!drum!
substitutes!scored!for!by!Morgan!(see!Appendix!B!for!more!detail).!

Also!of!interest!is!a!simple!adaptation!to!the!cowbell!of!an!addition!of!a!rounded!
strip!of!plastic!(see!plate!1.31),!which!enables!it!to!be!played!with!a!Snare!Drum!
stick!on!the!edge!for!a!full!tone!without!damage!to!the!stick.!If!this!idea!were!to!
be!extended!to!the!tuned!cowbells!it!would!enable!them!to!be!played!in!a!similar!
manner,!which!would!produce!a!different!sound!also!and!also!allow!them!to!be!
more!flexibly!used!in!multiTpercussion!settings.!Augmentation!of!such!novel!

66! !
soundTsources!continues!to!contribute!significantly!to!further!compositional!and!
performance!variations!and!possibilities.!

!
Plate!1.32!Cowbell!with!rounded!(yellow)!plastic!strip176!

These!examples!demonstrate!the!intricacy!of!the!relationship!between!the!
medium,!the!technique!and!repertoire.!Developments!to!the!instrument!lead!to!
different!ways!of!playing,!which!can!either!extend!the!original!technique,!or!
completely!change!it!to!suit!the!new!situation.!Moreover,!different!uses!of!the!
instrument!in!the!repertoire!influenced!changes!to!the!instrument!and!
techniques!of!playing!it.!Essentially,!the!development!has!been!somewhat!
paradoxical,!as!shown!above.!The!instruments!themselves!have!changed!in!the!
manner!of!their!construction!and!use!as!a!response!to!increasing!compositional!
and!technical!demands.!Accordingly!many!of!them!have!been!simplified!in!
construction!or!for!convenience!of!use.!However!the!result!for!percussion!has!
been!the!creation!of!increasing!complexity!for!the!players!as!they!are!used!in!
everTmore!demanding!and!changing!contexts.!The!percussion!medium!is!a!
changing!soundscape!of!types,!numbers!and!intricacies!of!instruments,!which!
both!affect!and!are!affected!by!the!music!for!which!they!are!scored!and!the!
manner!in!which!they!are!played.!Furthermore,!unlike!other!instruments,!there!
is!no!standardisation!of!the!instruments.!These!issues!affect!matters!of!
nomenclature,!playing!techniques,!notation,!and!manner!of!use!of!the!
instruments,!each!of!which!will!be!examined!in!the!following!chapters.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
176 !Courtesy!John!Reynolds!Music!City,!Adelaide,!2015!

! 67!
68! !
Chapter*2*Evolving*Percussion*Techniques*

It!is!generally!accepted!that!the!purpose!of!technique!is!to!produce!as!wide!a!
range!of!sounds!as!is!possible!from!the!instrument,!in!a!manner!that!is!not!
damaging!to!either!instrument!or!player.177*In!essence!it!aims!to!create!a!relaxed!
control!of!the!medium!in!order!to!present!a!musical!performance.!Technique!is!a!
means!to!a!performance!outcome!and!as!such!needs!to!be!developed!in!the!
context!of!musical!and!dramatic!purpose.!The!elements!of!technique!that!will!be!
analysed!are!playing!action,!movement,!sound!(including!a!section!on!grace!
notes!and!long!sounds),!notation,!logistics!and!visual!aesthetics.!!

The!elements!of!technique!that!will!be!analysed!are!playing!action,!physical!
movement!of!the!player,!sound!(including!a!section!on!grace!notes!and!long!
sounds),!notation,!logistics!and!visual!aesthetics.!Firstly,!the!playing!action!is!
directly!related!to!the!percussion!sound!produced.!This!is!the!physical!
movement!of!the!beater!and!at!times!the!whole!body!of!the!performer.178!The!
manner!of!the!action!moreover!also!has!ramifications!for!the!player!in!terms!of!
repetitive!strain.179!Also!consideration!of!physical!movement!and!logistical!and!
visual!aspects!of!playing!is!required!because!of!the!numbers,!types!and!sizes!of!
the!instruments!and!the!manner!of!their!use.180 !Overall!the!playing!action!
determines!the!detail!of!the!sound!that!is!produced.!Moreover,!the!diverse!
systems!used!by!composers!to!instruct!the!players!in!the!ways!of!producing!that!
sound!in!a!musical!context!have!added!notation!to!the!technical!requirements!of!
playing.!The!notation!suggests!the!type!of!sound!that!is!wanted!to!produce!the!
desired!musical!effect,!which!in!turn!impacts!on!the!playing!action!and!finally,!
the!logistics!decide!the!movement!that!is!needed!to!facilitate!the!playing!action.!
Finally,!because!the!movement!of!percussionists!is!so!obvious!the!aesthetics!of!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
177 !While!my!research!has!not!produced!any!clear!enunciation!of!this!point!it!is!alluded!to!by!
Gary!Cook,!Teaching(Percussion,!New!York,!Schirmer,!1997,!pp.!5T6!
178 !The!player!needs!to!be!in!specific!positions!to!play!the!various!instruments,!and!because!of!
their!sizes,!needs!to!move!between!instruments!or!parts!of!the!instrument!to!do!so.!
179 !The!nature!of!the!instruments!is!such!that!playing!involves!a!lot!of!repetition!of!the!same!
action.!Under!stressful!conditions!this!can!result!in!tenosynovitis.!
https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001242.htm!accessed!3!February!2016!
180 !Some!examples!of!the!types!of!instruments!and!their!various!sizes!were!discussed!in!the!
previous!chapter.!

! 69!
those!movements!need!to!match!the!music.!Because!these!elements!are!
intricately!interTrelated!an!examination!of!the!challenges!they!impart!to!the!
presentation!of!percussion!performances!is!required.181!

For!percussionists!technique!is!complicated!by!two!external!factors:!the!nature!
of!the!medium!itself!and!the!types!and!styles!of!repertoire.182The!influx!of!so!
many!instruments!of!disparate!size!and!nature!and!the!conglomeration!of!
associated!beaters!have!brought!with!them!diverse!techniques!and!approaches!
to!playing.!Some!of!these!are!culturally!specific,!while!others!have!developed!in!
certain,!usually!local,!contexts!or!playing!situations.183!!These!playing!techniques!
will!be!examined!in!terms!of!their!relevance!in!contemporary!performance!as!
played!on!membranophones,!mallet!percussion,!and!multiTpercussion.!Particular!
attention!is!paid!to!grace!notes!and!long!sounds.!

Percussion!repertoire!is!the!other!complicating!factor.!Generally!compositions!
encompass!a!wide!range!of!styles!and!genres,!using!a!variety!of!notational!
systems.!In!the!process!of!repertoire!expansion!for!percussion!a!body!of!diverse!
and!disparate!pieces!has!been!created,!requiring!the!mastery!of!an!equally!
diverse!set!of!techniques.!This!complex!process!of!development!was,!and!is,!
contingent!upon!the!vagaries!of!local!contexts,!not!only!in!the!interpretation!of!
the!instruments!themselves!but!also!in!consideration!of!localised!cultural!
overtones.!Another!complicating!factor!has!been!that!repertoire!has!been!
created!in!isolation!from!developments!elsewhere,!affecting!technique!therefore!
in!specific!ways.184!As!a!result!of!the!complexities!resulting!from!the!nature!of!
the!medium!itself!and!the!types!and!styles!of!repertoire,!percussion!technique!
has!developed!as!a!multiTfaceted!concept,!and!will!be!further!examined!in!that!
context.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
181 !Gary!Cook,!op.(cit.,!chapters!2T9.!This!is!alluded!to!by!his!examination!of!the!specifics!of!
playing!the!different!instruments.!
182 !ibid.,!chapter!1!

183 !ibid.,!chapters!2T9!
184 !These!effects!of!the!disparate!nature!of!the!instruments,!the!broadness!of!the!repertoire!and!
the!influence!of!local!elements!on!technique!do!not!appear!to!have!been!researched.!

70! !
2.1*Playing*Action*

It!is!the!contention!of!this!dissertation!that!all!the!techniques!are!based!on!one!
single!action!–!a!wristTinitiated!upstroke,!and!adapted!to!the!exigencies!of!the!
particular!instruments!and!playing!situations.185!Competent!acquisition!of!this!
elementary!wristTaction!directly!impacts!the!quality!of!performance.186 !This!
hypothesis!will!be!tested!by!an!analysis!of!technique!used!in!playing!
membranophones,!mallet!percussion,!and!multiTpercussion!and!will!consider!the!
ramifications!for!the!challenge!it!presents!to!performance.!

Central!to!development!of!technique!is!the!understanding!and!application!of!a!
playing!action!that!allows!for!a!relaxed!control!of!the!beaters!in!order!to!produce!
a!fullTbodied!tone!without!causing!undue!physical!stress!to!the!player.!The!focus!
of!this!playing!action!starts!from!the!fact!that,!in!accordance!with!Newton’s!Third!
Law!of!Motion,!when!the!beater!hits!the!surface!it!naturally!rebounds!from!it.187!
Consequently,!it!is!necessary!to!understand!the!implications!of!this!law!and!how!
it!can!be!efficiently!applied!to!the!playing!action.!!

In!the!action!of!playing!one!can!use!fingers,!wrist!or!arm!action!to!manipulate!the!
beater.!Using!only!the!fingers!will!produce!fast!playing!but!with!little!volume!
range;!playing!only!with!arm!action!will!produce!loud!playing,!but!without!much!
speed.!Playing!with!a!relaxed!wrist!action!will!produce!both!loud!and!fast!playing!
without!the!extremes!of!either,!and!so!would!logically!be!the!preferred!action!for!
most!playing.!This!is!the!playing!action!advocated!by!Richard!Smith188!and!
George!Gaber,189!both!recognised!as!outstanding!players!and!teachers!of!
percussion.!Furthermore,!following!the!logical!consequence!of!Newton’s!Law,!the!
action!would!naturally!be!an!upstroke!with!the!beater!returning!to!its!original!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
185 !This!differs!from!approaches!promulgated!by!some!American!percussionists!who!advocated!
more!arm!movement!such!as!Sanford!A!Moeller,!The(Moeller(Book.!Boca!Raton!FL,!Ludwig!Music!
Publishing,!1954.!This!approach!however,!is!based!on!the!action!used!in!marching!drumming!and!
not!applicable!across!the!range!of!percussion!instruments,!making!it!limited!in!efficacy.!
186 !Gary!Cook,!op.(cit.,!p.!5!

187 !For!every!action,!there!is!an!equal!and!opposite!reaction.!

Louise!Devenish,!“...!And!Now!for!the!Noise:!Contemporary!Percussion!in!Australia,!1970T
188

2000”,!DMA!dissertation,!University!of!Western!Australia,!2015,!p.!23.!!
189 !Dr.!D.!Richard!Smith,!‘George!Gaber:!Master!Percussionist/Professor!of!Music’,!Percussive(
Notes(Vol.!17!No.!3!Spring/Summer!1979,!pp.!29T31!

! 71!
starting!position!after!bouncing!off!the!playing!surface.!There!is!a!compelling!
argument!to!apply!this!principle!to!the!playing!action!to!work!in!congruent!
harmony!with!the!natural!law,!and!produce!therefore!a!fullTtoned!sound!with!the!
most!efficient!effort.!Developing!this!relaxed!action!would!give!the!player!a!
greater!degree!of!control!over!the!sounds!and!also!focus!the!playing!on!the!music!
in!performance.!This!principle!applies!equally!to!playing!with!the!hands.!To!
facilitate!this!enquiry!the!details!of!the!playing!action!will!now!be!investigated!in!
the!contexts!of!the!membranophonic!percussion!as!exemplified!on!Snare!Drum!
and!Hand!percussion!and!the!Marimba,!as!representing!idiophonic!percussion!
and!implications!for!performance.!!

The!snare!drum!developed!in!Europe!as!the!main!drum!for!playing!rhythmic!
phrases!and!as!such!has!a!recognised!body!of!technique!using!specific!beaters.190!
The!various!contexts!of!use!of!the!snare!drum!has!led!to!the!development!of!two!
grips!–!a!‘traditional’!or!military!grip!(see!plate!2.01)!and!a!‘’matched’!grip!(see!
plate!2.02).!This!traditional!grip!developed!in!the!military,!as!the!alternative!
name!suggests,!being!used!as!a!convenient!way!of!playing!while!marching!with!a!
drum!slung!to!one!side.!It!remained!the!preferred!grip!until!teachers!such!as!Jack!
McKenzie!and!Paul!Price!in!the!United!States!experimented!with!alternatives!in!
the!1960s.191!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
190 !The!techniques!however,!developed!in!distinct!ways!in!different!countries,!and!the!two!major!
codifications!of!basic!rudiments!were!tabulated!in!Switzerland!and!the!United!States!of!America.!
These!have!now!been!combined!and!are!available!on!the!Percussive!Arts!Society!website!
http://www.pas.org/docs/defaultTsource/defaultTdocumentT
library/pasdrumrudiments2015.pdf!accessed!11!May!2015!
191 !Discussions!with!Jack!McKenzie!in!September!1989.!Further!information!from!Thomas!Siwe,!
‘Jack!H.!McKenzie:!Matched!Grip!Pioneer’,!Percussive(Notes,(Vol.!49,!No.!2,!March!2011,!pp.!24T27!

72! !
 !
Plate!2.01!Traditional!Snare!Drum!grip192!

!
Plate!2.02!Matched!Grip193!

A!detailed!comparison!of!these!grips!is!beyond!the!scope!of!this!dissertation,!
save!to!say!that!the!latter,!as!a!more!convenient!and!natural!method!of!holding!
the!sticks,!is!more!universally!deployed!and!so!is!the!focus!of!this!study.!
Whichever!grip!is!used!however,!it!is!important!to!understand!the!details!of!the!
grip!within!the!context!of!the!aboveTmentioned!principle!of!natural!motion!and!
apply!the!specific!grip!to!the!particular!playing!situation.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
192 !R.!Pusz,!Percussion:(A(Comprehensive(Approach,!EauTClaire!WI,!Really!Good!Music,!2008,!p.!2!

193 !ibid.,!p.!2!

! 73!
For!the!grip!to!be!effective!it!needs!to!relate!to!the!natural!movement!of!the!stick!
as!used!in!the!playing!action.!There!is!a!point!on!the!snare!drum!stick!that!is!a!
natural!fulcrum,!whereby!the!stick,!while!resting!on!that!point,!bounces!freely!on!
the!drum.!This!point!is!approximately!oneTthird!of!the!length!of!the!stick!from!
the!butt!end.!It!follows!logically!then!that!if!the!stick!is!held!at!that!point,!and!
only!at!that!point,!it!will!be!possible!to!use!that!fulcrum!in!playing.194!The!
importance!of!this!cannot!be!overTemphasised.!By!allowing!the!stick!a!certain!
amount!of!freedom!in!its!movement,!the!resultant!sound!is!fullTbodied!and!free!
of!tension;!and!less!effort!is!needed!to!produce!a!given!dynamic.!On!the!other!
hand,!holding!the!stick!elsewhere!or!too!tightly!chokes!the!stick!and!therefore!
chokes!the!sound,!robbing!it!of!much!of!its!tone;!and,!of!course,!more!effort!is!
needed!to!produce!an!equivalent!dynamic.!Moreover,!a!tight!grip!is!indicative!of!
a!tense!grip,!which!will!lead!to!repetitive!strain!injuries.!In!its!detail!the!stick!is!
held!between!the!thumb!and!second!joint!(the!joint!closer!to!the!knuckle)!of!the!
forefinger,!and!the!forefinger!is!then!wrapped!round!the!stick.195!Therefore!the!
stick!is!held!at!three!points!round!the!fulcrum,!in!a!grip!that!is!only!tight!enough!
to!prevent!the!stick!from!dropping.!Moreover,!slightly!more!pressure!is!applied!
by!the!end!of!the!forefinger!than!the!thumb!and!second!joint;!this!ameliorates!
possible!repetitive!stress!problems.196!

Using!this!wrist!action!in!conjunction!with!the!‘fulcrum’!grip!described!above,!
will!determine!that!the!stick!will!bounce!freely!off!the!drum,!and!the!wrist!and!
stick!will!rebound!to!the!starting!position,!and!so!be!in!preparation!for!the!next!
stroke.!This!action!then!has!effectively!two!fulcrums,!at!the!grip!and!at!the!wrist.!
Furthermore!mastery!of!this!‘Double!Fulcrum!Dynamic’!in!a!relaxed!style!is!the!
most!effective!playing!action!for!producing!fullTbodied,!unTchoked!sounds!thus!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
194 !The!leftThand!traditional!grip!is!slightly!more!complicated!and!is!not!considered!here,!as!it!is!
specific!to!the!Marching!Band,!and!not!always!used!even!there.!
195 !Some!percussionists!advocate!holding!it!between!thumb!and!first!finger!joint.!In!the!opinion!
of!the!author!and!his!teachers!however,!this!necessitates!also!holding!the!butt!of!the!stick!with!
the!little!finger,!which!impedes!full!dynamic!expression.!This!was!developed!by!William!Ludwig,!
The(Ludwig(Drum(Method,!Chicago,!Ludwig!Drum!Co,!1962!
196 !There!are!other!slightly!different!grips!and!actions!that!have!been!advocated!by,!among!
others,!such!teachers!as!William!F.!Ludwig!and!Sanford!Moeller.!They!are,!however,!applicable!to!
certain!situations!or!contexts!and!as!such!not!always!relevant!to!contemporary!playing.!

74! !
affording!greater!control!over!quality!performance!outcomes.197!This!
development!of!a!relaxed!control!of!the!action!and!production!of!musical!sounds!
with!minimum!effort!also!counteracts!any!tendency!towards!tenosynovitis,!thus!
extending!the!playing!life!of!the!player.!

This!‘double!fulcrum!dynamic’!is!applicable!across!the!range!of!membranophonic!
percussion!instruments,!though!differences!in!construction!and!tuning!of!the!
various!instruments!require!some!adaptations!in!the!detail!of!the!action.!TomT
toms!for!example,!come!in!a!variety!of!sizes!and!timbral!registers!and!tightness!
of!head.!The!rebound!off!the!head!then!differs,!with!a!greater!rebound!off!the!
more!tightly!tuned!Toms.198!As!a!result!a!more!deliberate!wrist!action!is!needed!
to!move!the!beater!off!the!head!in!order!to!produce!a!fullTtoned!sound.!This!wrist!
movement!also!needs!to!be!a!freeTflowing,!relaxed!action!for!reasons!of!
occupational!safety!as!well!as!musicality.199!

Although!the!playing!action!of!the!timpani!is!also!based!on!the!‘double!fulcrum!
dynamic’,!as!the!beaters!bounce!off!the!drumhead,!because!of!different!
instrument!construction!and!purpose,!there!are!significant!modifications!to!this!
action.!Generally!the!beaters!have!felt!heads!and!the!drums,!usually!in!sets!of!
four,!have!four!different!tensions!of!head.!Consequently!the!rebound!off!each!
drumhead!is!different,!and!also!alters!with!every!change!of!tuning.!As!a!result!the!
wrist!needs!to!move!the!beater!more!deliberately,!and!to!a!different!extent!in!
relation!to!the!natural!rebound!between!each!drum.!It!is!also!important!to!move!
the!beater!off!the!head!quickly!in!order!to!produce!a!pure,!fullTtoned!sound,!and!
again!the!movement!needs!to!be!a!relaxed!guiding!of!the!beater.!Furthermore!
because!the!drums!themselves!are!sizable!the!physical!movement!by!the!player!
between!them!is!also!expanded.!So!in!addition!to!the!wrist!movement!to!play!the!
notes,!there!is!a!necessary!extended!arm!movement!to!move!from!drum!to!drum.!
This!movement!also!needs!to!be!a!relaxed,!freeTflowing!movement!and!accordant!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
197 !The!title!of!‘Double!Fulcrum!Dynamic’!has!not!been!enunciated!as!such!though!it!is!obviously!
in!use!by!a!number!of!players.!
198 !There!are!also!differences!in!rebound!from!different!parts!on!the!head!and!from!different!
types!of!beater.!
199 !The!matter!of!occupational!safety!is!a!crucial!element!in!percussion!technique,!which!has!not!
been!addressed!in!sufficient!detail.!!

! 75!
with!the!wrist!movement,!again!for!both!sound!and!occupational!health.!200 These!
issues!of!sticking!and!movement!have!further!implications!for!technique!and!
performance!and!are!further!discussed!below!in!the!contexts!of!movement!and!
sound.!!

Drums!that!use!even!more!arm!action!are!the!taiko!from!Japan.!These!are!large!
drums,!which!can!configure!either!vertically!by!being!suspended!on!stands,!or!
horizontally!and!are!played!theatrically!and!generally!produce!a!loud!volume.201!
Nonetheless,!the!action!is!only!a!variation!on!snare!drum!action,!with!the!thick!
beaters!held!comfortably!in!the!hands;!and!the!final!part!of!the!stroke!a!wrist!
action!in!relaxed,!‘upstroke’!style.202.!This!allows!the!drum!to!resonate!and!also!
does!not!lead!to!problems!associated!with!tension,!such!as!Repetitive!Strain!
Injury.!203!

There!are!also!a!number!of!instruments!that!employ!hand!techniques.!In!many!
cases!these!techniques!have!been!developed!in!the!context!of!local!musical!
traditions!and!performance!situations.!It!is!important!to!examine!the!playing!
action!as!the!instruments!are!used!across!all!genres!and!styles.!Just!as!hitting!a!
drum!with!a!beater!using!a!rebound!upstroke!action!produces!a!fullTbodied!tone,!
so!hitting!a!drum!with!fingers!or!hands!using!a!similar!action!will!produce!a!
similar!tone.204!

In!the!case!of!bongos,!derabuccas!and!djembes!the!playing!action!is!a!
combination!of!wrist!and!finger!movement,!with!both!moving!relaxedly!and!the!
fingers!‘bouncing’!off!the!drumhead.!In!their!traditional!contexts!there!are!
limitations!to!the!playing!action!because!of!the!manner!of!use!of!the!drums.!The!
Middle!Eastern!derabucca!is!held!on!the!lap!and!played!mainly!with!the!fingers,!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
200 !Gary!Cook,!op.(cit.,!pp.!177T206!also!discusses!other!playing!techniques!
201 !Taiko!technique!acquired!1995T2002!as!founding!member!of!both!Ataru[taru(Taiko!and!Kin(
No(Taiko.!The!playing!action!also!needs!to!be!coordinated!with!fast!and!big!body!movements.!
202 !‘Upstroke’!is!a!generic!term!for!moving!the!beater!off!the!drum.!At!times!the!drum!is!not!in!an!
upright!position!so!the!stroke!could!be!at!an!angle!to!the!vertical!action.!Nonetheless!it!is!in!the!
context!of!this!dissertation!classified!as!‘upstroke’.!
203 !Inflammation!and!swelling!of!a!tendon,!typically!in!the!wrist,!often!caused!by!repetitive!
movements.!https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001242.htm!accessed!3!
February!2016!
204 !This!use!of!technique!I!acquired!informally!and!over!many!years!of!playing!on!a!variety!of!
surfaces,!mixed!with!an!introduction!to!Bongo!playing.!

76! !
and!the!djembe!from!Africa!is!held!between!the!legs!and!played!with!fingers!and!
hands.!However,!taken!out!of!their!cultural!contexts!the!drums!can!be!mounted!
on!stands!or!held!differently,!thus!allowing!for!a!greater!flexibility!of!approach.!
Consequently,!the!playing!action!is!again!similar!to!the!Snare!Drum!and!is!mostly!
a!wrist!action!supported!by!similar!finger!and!arm!actions!as!appropriate.!
Playing!technique!on!the!congas!is!based!on!aiming!to!produce!open,!closed!and!
slap!(or!‘pop’)!sounds!with!the!hands;!that!action!again!is!essentially!a!wrist!
action!similar!to!that!used!on!the!snare!drum,!with!variations!of!hand!position!to!
alter!the!nuance.205 !The!nuances!of!sound!of!membranophones!are!further!
discussed!in!the!section!on!sound.!

There!is!also!a!range!of!instruments!known!variously!as!accessory,!orchestral!or!
Latin!Percussion!instruments,!each!with!their!own!specific!playing!techniques,!
but!still!mostly!based!on!variants!of!the!snare!drum!action.!The!different!
scrapers!involve!moving!a!thin!rod!up!and!down!a!serrated!cylinder,!applying!
different!degrees!of!pressure,!and!using!different!parts!of!the!rod!for!dynamic!
and!timbral!contrast.!Similarly,!the!shaking!action!needed!to!play!maracas!and!
other!shakers!is!either!a!direct!adaptation!of!the!upTandTdown!snare!drum!
action,!or!a!movement!of!arms!and!wrists!along!a!horizontal!plane.206!

A!different!case!presents!itself!with!the!mallet!keyboard!instruments.!The!
mallets!do!not!rebound!easily!off!the!surface,!be!it!wood!or!metal.!However,!
bringing!the!mallet!off!the!bar!quickly!allows!the!bar!to!resonate!freely;!so!the!
action!again!should!be!very!similar!to!the!snare!drum!action.!The!mallet!should!
be!held!between!the!thumb!and!forefinger!in!a!similar!way!to!the!snare!drum!
stick!and!allowed!a!certain!freedom!of!movement!in!a!relaxed,!upstroke.!
Moreover,!lifting!the!mallet!off!the!bar!immediately!in!this!upstroke!action!brings!
the!mallet!into!the!playing!position!for!the!next!note,!saving!preparation!time,!
and!preventing!any!crossTsticking!problems.!Furthermore,!this!action!is!again!in!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
205 !These!are!essentially!basic!actions!that!are!developed!further!by!masters!of!the!particular!
instruments,!and!usually!in!a!cultural!context.!They!can,!however,!also!be!developed!out!of!that!
context!and!in!a!direction!which!is!as!yet!undetermined.!!
206 !This!is!demonstrated!in!the!accompanying!video.!Gary!Cook,!op.(cit.,!chapter!6.!

! 77!
accordance!with!the!laws!of!physics!regarding!action!and!reaction!and!as!such!is!
the!most!efficient!use!of!energy.207!

As!with!the!snare!drum!and!timpani!mallets!there!are!debates!on!the!best!grip,!
and!with!the!mallet!keyboard!instruments,!this!debate!is!over!the!most!efficient!
way!to!hold!four!mallets.!The!details!of!the!grips!are!well!known!and!need!no!
further!explanation,!save!to!say!that!the!differences!in!sound!produced!by!each!
of!the!grips!do!not!seem!to!be!great.!At!this!stage!of!development!of!percussion!
there!is!no!definitive!principle!guiding!this!issue;!and!pieces!are!performed!well!
by!proponents!of!each!of!the!three!grips!in!a!similar!way!to!successful!
performances!by!Pianists!using!different!fingerings.208!

FourTmallet!grip!was!not!an!issue!until!the!1970s.!Up!till!that!time!most!
keyboard!playing!was!with!two!mallets,!using!mainly!alternate!sticking;!and!four!
mallets!were!only!used!for!straight!and!rolled!chords!–!usually!in!slow!sections!
of!the!music.!In!1973!American!jazz!vibist,!Gary!Burton,!proposed!that!mallet!
keyboards!could!be!played!more!pianistically,!with!a!more!flexible!approach!to!
sticking,!independence!of!the!hands!and!voicing!of!chords.209!That!sparked!
interest!in!more!details!of!playing,!and!the!grip!became!an!issue!of!debate.!Some!
have!taken!this!further,!advocating!the!use!of!six!mallets,!the!most!successful!of!
these!being!the!Polish!jazz!vibist!Karol!Szymanowski210!and!American!
percussionists!Dr!Dean!Gronemeier!and!his!former!student!Dr!Tim!Jones.211!In!all!
cases!however,!wrist!action!still!plays!a!central!technical!role,!with!sixTmallet!
playing!also!involving!more!of!a!‘rolling!wrist!action’.!

It!can!be!seen!then!that!despite!the!huge!variation!in!these!percussion!
instruments!and!their!specific!playing!techniques,!they!all!share!a!common!
denominator!of!the!basic!wrist!movement,!which!is!at!the!centre!of!all!playing!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
207 !The!maxim!according!to!George!Gaber!is:!“Use!the!wrist!to!play!the!note!and!the!arm!to!move!
from!note!to!note.”!This!action!has!not!changed.!
208 !An!excellent!exposé!on!the!issue!is!by!Lynn!Glassock,!Four!Mallet!Grips,!Percussionist(Vol.!11!
No.!1!Fall!1973,!pp.!2T11!
209 !Gary!Burton,!‘Evolution!of!Mallet!Techniques…1973’,!Percussionist(Vol.!10!No.!3!Spring!1973,!
pp.!74T82!
210 !He!is!no!relation!to!the!composer;!nor!is!he!deliberately!named!after!him.!

211 !Conversation!with!Dr!Gronemeier!in!Adelaide,!14!March!2016!

78! !
actions!of!these!instruments.!It!has!accommodated!further!development!of!
flexible!approaches!of!technique!application!to!performance!(see!plate!2.03).!!

Plate!2.03!wrist!action212!

Techniques!including!doubleTfulcrum!dynamic!on!snare!drum,!coordination!on!
drum!set,!fourT!and!sixTmallet!independent!playing!on!mallet!keyboards!and!a!
variety!of!handTdrumming!techniques!are!all!developed!from!this!basic!wrist!
movement.!The!movement!then!is!pivotal!to!the!acquisition!of!the!techniques!
needed!to!play!musically!and!with!longevity,!without!incurring!problems!of!
physical!stress.!

On!this!final!point!it!is!critical!to!understand!that!the!issue!of!physical!stress!is!
crucial!as!the!effective!development!of!technique!hinges!on!this!playing!action!
and!as!a!result!directly!affects!performance,!both!in!the!expression!of!the!music!
and!the!ability!to!continue!playing!as!a!career.!In!2009!a!study!was!undertaken!
by!medical!researchers!C.!Sandell,!M.!Frykman,!K.!Chesky,!A.!FjellmanTWikund!in!
North!Texas!into!Playing[related(Musculoskeletal(Disorders(of(Percussionists.213!(
The!study,!one!of!the!first!to!survey!percussionists’!health!problems,!interviewed!
4,017!percussionists!across!a!range!of!musical!genres!and!found!that!89%!of!
Keyboard!Percussionists!and!74%!of!Membranophone!Percussionists!reported!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
212 !R.!Pusz!op.cit.,!p.!4!

213 !C.!Sandell,!M.!Frykman,!K.!Chesky,!A.!FjellTmanTWikund,!‘PlayingTrelated!Musculoskeletal!
Dosirders!and!StressTrelated!Health!Problems!Amonmg!Percussionists’,!Medical(Problems(of(
Performing(Artists;!Dec!2009,!Volume!24,!number!4,!pp.!175T180!

! 79!
damage!in!the!elbows,!extensor!muscles!of!the!forearm,!ligaments!of!the!wrist,!
muscles!of!the!hands!and!base!of!the!thumb,!as!well!as!some!damage!to!
shoulders.!Allowing!for!statistical!error!and!possible!misdiagnosis!of!the!
problem!by!the!players,!these!figures!very!strongly!suggest!the!critical!need!to!
develop!a!standardised!playing!action!that!gives!anatomical!attention!to!the!
player’s!technique!acquisition!and!playing!action!that!will!avert!any!
physiological!problems!or!damage.!On!the!other!hand,!if!committed!attention!to!
safe!and!harmonious!technique!and!action!acquisition!is!not!paid,!and!
incrementally!flawed!body!actions!are!overlooked,!the!many!hours!spent!in!
intensive!practice!aimed!at!perfecting!repetitive!action!can!obviously!have!
deleterious!immediate!and!ongoing!effects!for!both!the!player!and!
performance.214!!With!industry!implications!it!is!clear!that!research!into!
remedial!action!for!faulty!practices!must!be!undertaken!to!facilitate!riskTfree!
playing!in!performance.!

2.2*Movement*

Closely!related!to!the!issue!of!playing!action!is!that!of!movement,!which!has!
developed!as!a!consideration!of!technique!during!the!second!half!of!the!
twentieth!century,!concomitant!with!the!increase!in!musical,!artistic!and!
technical!demands!of!the!repertoire.!The!issue!of!movement!is!also!multiTfaceted.!
The!first!and!most!obvious!consideration!is!the!movement!of!the!arms!from!
‘sound’!to!‘sound’,!whether!this!is!from!note!to!note!on!keyboard!percussion,!
drum!to!drum!or!one!type!of!idiophone!to!another.!In!all!cases!the!arm!
movements!need!to!be!as!relaxed!as!possible!to!prevent!any!repetitive!strain!
injury,!and!to!aid!the!playing!action!in!educing!a!fullTtoned!sound!from!the!
instrument.215!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
214 !An!extreme!example!was!presented!to!me!in!1990!by!a!Percussionist!who!came!asking!
advice,!as!playing!for!a!mere!thirty!seconds!per!day!caused!excruciating!pain.!The!problem!was!
purely!technical,!but!it!took!two!years!to!remedy.!More!research!is!needed!on!this!aspect!of!
technique.!
215 !This!aspect!of!technique!has!also!not!been!enunciated,!but!Gaber’s!maxim!can!be!applied.!

80! !
The!extent!of!the!movement!can!be!seen!for!example,!in!the!timpani!part!in!
Chavez’!Toccata((see!ex.!2.01)!where!the!arms!need!to!travel!across!a!large!area!
at!a!fast!tempo.216!

!
Ex.!2.01!Timpani!excerpt,!Carlos!Chavez,!Toccata(para(instrumentos(de(percusión,(New!
York,!Mills!Music!1964,!Timpani!part,!p.!8!

In!addition!pieces!now!call!for!percussionists!to!play!over!a!large!area!that!
require!movement!of!the!feet,!as!in!Erdmann’s!Waiting(for…!for!marimba!(see!ex.!
2.02).!This!example!demonstrates!how!big!and!obvious!body!movements!are,!as!
a!range!of!almost!five!octaves!requires!that!the!mallets!move!over!a!distance!of!
two!metres.!This!distance!is!too!great!to!play!from!a!stationary!position,!so!a!
strategy!of!when!to!move!must!be!devised!and!practised.!As!much!as!possible!
this!movement!should!be!silent!and!must!also!be!definite!to!end!in!a!position!
whereby!the!next!bar!can!be!executed!authoritatively!to!end!the!phrase.!
Moreover,!if!possible,!a!movement!that!is!reflective!of!the!intent!of!the!music!
would!also!enhance!the!presentation!of!the!piece.217!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
216 !At!80cm!between!playing!spots!on!each!drum!the!total!distance!to!be!covered!if!four!timpani!
are!used!for!the!piece!(from!F!to!E!to!F)!is!4.8m!within!the!space!of!a!second.!
217 !As!is!often!the!case,!these!movements!are!specific!to!the!piece!and!the!player!and!as!such!it!is!
not!possible!to!give!definitive!principles!on!which!to!base!an!approach!to!applying!them.!

! 81!
 *

Ex.!2.02!Movement!over!a!big!range!on!Marimba,!ErdmannTAbele,!Waiting(for…(,!mvt.!1,!
p.1!

A!further!demand!in!the!repertoire!is!the!fast!movement!between!extremities.!
For!example,!later!in!the!same!piece,!the!player!has!to!play!in!the!top!octave!of!
the!marimba!and!leap!quickly!to!the!bottom!octave!and!back!again!(see!ex.!2.03).!

*
Ex.!2.03!Playing!at!the!extremities!of!the!instrument,!ErdmannTAbele,!Waiting(for…,!mvt.!
1,!p.3!

82! !
The!most!extreme!examples!of!movement!are!found!in!the!area!of!multiT
percussion,!where!movement!can!be!across!large!distances!or!involve!the!
simultaneous!movement!of!more!than!one!limb.!!

For!example,!composers!are!increasingly!writing!pieces!that!call!for!the!player!to!
use!all!four!limbs,!hence!demanding!the!adaptation!of!the!coordination!used!on!
drum!set!to!more!classical!settings.!David!Morgan!in!his!Voyage(into(Solitude!
(duo!for!multiple!clarinets!and!multiple!percussion)!asks!the!percussionist!to!
coordinate!between!a!number!of!instruments!and!playing!actions.!In!the!fourth!
movement,!Angelus,!the!percussionist!at!one!point!has!to!play!bass!drum!with!
one!foot,!while!the!other!is!on!the!vibraphone!pedal!ready!to!pedal!the!next!
section.!Meanwhile!one!beater!is!used!to!scrape!the!cymbal,!as!the!other!plays!
tomTtoms!(see!ex.!2.04).!So!one!hand!is!moving!in!a!scraping!action!while!the!
other!is!moving!in!an!upTandTdown!motion,!one!foot!is!playing!while!the!other!is!
in!preparation!&!playing!soon!after!while!the!hand!that!was!scraping!is!now!
playing!in!an!upTandTdown!motion,!while!the!other!is!playing!at!an!angle!on!the!
triangle.!This!is!all!executed!in!a!standing!position!and!so!requiring!precise!
balance.!

q .!=!132

!
!
Ex.!2.04!Coordination!in!multiTpercussion,!David!Morgan!Angelus,(Voyage(Into(Solitude,(
mvt.!4,!bars!67T74!

Clearly!a!flexible!approach!is!needed!to!play!the!movements!associated!with!
coordination.!This!is!further!shown!in!the!following!example,!moving!the!beaters!
across!two!different!planes!simultaneously,!in!this!case!vibraphone,!played!with!
the!left!hand,!and!glockenspiel!played!with!the!right!(see!ex.!2.05).!The!bars!of!
the!two!instruments!are!of!different!widths;!so!moving!the!same!intervallic!
distances!means!moving!different!physical!distances!in!order!accurately!to!
execute!the!figures.!!

! 83!
 !

!Ex.!2.05!Coordinating!movement!over!two!different!planes,!Andre!Oosterbaan,!Time(of(
Light,(manuscript,(p.!35!

Furthermore,!playing!the!two!instruments!with!very!different!mallets,!plastic!or!
metal!for!the!steel!notes!of!the!glockenspiel,!and!hard!wound!mallet!for!the!
vibraphone’s!aluminium!alloy,!requires!different!sensitivities!of!stroke!to!educe!
the!same!dynamic,!and!not!have!a!harsh!difference!between!them.!Moreover!the!
glockenspiel!is!either!further!away!from!the!player,!so!the!movement!needs!to!be!
practised!so!as!not!to!look!awkward,!or!at!an!angle!to!the!vibraphone!so!the!
movement!is!in!two!directions.!!

In!addition!to!these!movements!there!is!an!extension!of!the!playing!action,!the!
gestural!movement.!This!type!of!movement!takes!a!variety!of!forms.!Most!
commonly!it!is!used!as!an!extension!of!the!playing!action!to!emphasize!aspects!of!
the!musical!phrase!or!mood.!For!example,!when!playing!loud!notes!on!the!taiko,!
after!striking!the!drum!the!arm!moves!up!or!back!in!an!exaggerated!motion!to!
underscore!the!dynamic,!and!give!the!illusion!of!filling!the!space!with!a!greater!
resonance!than!is!actually!there.!

There!is!also!the!negative!movement!of!theatrically!stopping!all!body!movement!
to!emphasize!a!particular,!and!usually!sudden,!silence,!or!providing!a!visual!
contrast!between,!for!example,!the!accompaniment!at!the!end!of!a!phrase!and!
the!solo!part!playing!a!cadenzaTlike!figure.!In!the!example!below,!the!penultimate!
bar!just!before!the!Trio!has!three!beats!rest!in!the!accompaniment.!At!this!point,!
if!the!accompanying!parts!(the!piano!part!divided!among!two!or!three!
marimbists)!stop!all!body!movement!the!impression!is!created!for!just!a!second!
that!the!piece!is!over.!Then!the!soloist!plays!the!solo!and!everyone!begins!
moving!again!in!the!last!bar!before!the!Trio!(see!ex.!2.06).!

84! !
 !
Ex.!2.06!Theatrical!movement,!G!H!Green,!Log(Cabin(Blues,(Xylophone(Rags,!Fort!
Lauderdale!FL,!Meredith!Music,!1984,!p.!12,!bars!53T56!

Movement!is!also!used!to!reflect!the!dynamics!and!atmosphere!of!a!piece,!so!the!
arms!and!body!will!move!slowly!to!capture!a!languid!mood!(see!ex.!2.07).!
Variaciones sobre un tema
de
Atahualpa Yupanqui

œ. œ œ. œ œ nœ #œ ˙
M Pujol arr. R Pusz

? b 43 œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ . Jœ œœ œ . œJ œœ œ # œ n œ æ˙ Œ
Tema (Vidala litúrgica)

œ J J æ
P
? 3 
b 4 œ Œ œ œ Œ œ œ œ œ ˙æ œ Œ œ Œ œ ˙æ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ !
˙
? œ . œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ. Œ œ œœ .. œœ œœ œœ .. œœ œœ œœ # n œœ n # œœ ˙ œ œæ. j
9 Tambora (w/ shafts of beaters)

b J J J J æ
Ex.!2.07!Languid!movement,!Pujol/Pusz!Variaciones(sobre(un(tema(de(Atahualpa( & œ . œœ œœ
Yupanqui,(arr.!marimba,(p.!1 218 !
f
?b j j Œ œ Œ œ
œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ œ ˙æ Œ 
9

œ . œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
The!movement!can!also!be!dramatic,!where!a!sharp,!sudden!movement!can!
accentuate!the!musical!and!dramatic!effect!of!a!climax!in!the!music.!In!this!piece!
jj œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ
& b œæ. j œœæ.. œœ œ ˙æ jœ
18

œ. œ œ # ˙˙ æ æ J
# œœ .. œ œ œ œ . œ œœ # œœœ ... œ œœ œœ # œœ ˙˙ æ J
by!Cary!the!tamTtams!(square!noteTheads)!were!positioned!behind!the!player!
P g ˙ F # œ . œ œ œœ .. œœ œœ
œ . œ œ
g
g ˙ . œ œ œ ˙æ Œ æ J æ J
and!in!certain!places!played!with!the!player’s!back!to!the!audience!(see!ex.!2.08).!
?b     ggg
18

g œ ˙

j j j
& b œæ. œ œ ˙æ œ œ . œ œ œ . œ œ œ œœæ.. œœj œ œæ. j œœæ.. œœj œ
27

˙ œ œ #˙ œ # œœ .. œ œ œ
œœ .. œ œ #œ ˙ œ f
?b æ J œ œ œ œ œ œ
 Œ Œ œ #œ œ n œ ˙˙ Œ   
27

j ? œ. œ
jœ œ œ . œ œ. œ œ œ œ Œ œ
& b # ˙˙æ Œ
Ex.!2.08!Dramatic!movement,!Cary,!Black,(White(and(Rose,!manuscript,!p.!14!
36 219!! Tambora (w/ shafts of beaters)

œ. œ œœ œœ # œœ ˙˙æ J
˙ œ œ . œ œœ # œœœ ... œ ˙
J
P gg ˙ .
g
?b   ggg œ œ œ ˙æ j j
œœ . œœ œœ œœ . œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ Œ œœ
36

g œ ˙ œ
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! . . .
#œ ˙ %
? b œœ .. œœ œœ œœ .. Jœœ œœ œœ # n œœ n œ ˙ 9 9
8 .. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
218 !Original!piece!for!guitar:!Máximo!Pujol!Variaciones(sobre(un(tema(de(Atahualpa(Yupanqui,(
45

J æ ! 8
&
œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ
Columbus,!OH,!Editions!Orphée!Inc,!2001,!p.!1
219 !In!Cary’s!Black,(White(and(Rose,!at!one!point,!following!a!crescendo!on!the!Marimba,!I!turned!

? 9 9
b Œ œ Œ œ ˙æ Œ 8  8 .. Œ.
45
quickly!to!play!the!TamTtams,!which!were!positioned!behind!me.!With!my!back!to!the!audience,!
œ œ œ œ œ ˙ ˙. œ. œ. œ.
after!playing!I!held!the!pose!with!my!arms!in!the!air.!I!repeated!it!at!the!climax!of!the!crescendo!
on!Woodblocks.!The!action!took!only!a!few!seconds,!but!the!effect!of!the!drama!was!palpable!and!
met!with!Cary’s!approval.! !
& b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ #œ œ #œ nœ œ
52

œ œ œ œ œ œ
! 85!
?b Œ. Œ. Œ. œ. Œ. œ. Œ.
52

œ.
œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ.
The!nature!of!the!instruments!means!these!movements!extend!beyond!the!orbit!
of!the!instruments!and!as!such!are!obvious!to!the!audience.!These!movements!
are!rarely!notated,!and!are!dependent!on!the!performer’s!interpretation!of!the!
music.!However,!it!is!the!performer’s!responsibility!to!portray!the!intent!of!the!
music!through!complementary!body!language.!This!dichotomy!could!pose!a!
possible!conflict!between!the!music!and!performance,!and!raises!the!question!
about!the!relative!importance!of!visual!and!aural!aspects!of!performance!in!the!
communication!of!abstract!ideas!to!the!audience.!This!issue!is!beyond!the!scope!
of!this!dissertation,!but!is!worthy!of!further!investigation.!

2.3*Sound*

It!is!necessary!also!to!analyse!the!intricacies!of!sound!as!applied!to!percussion.!
As!with!all!instruments,!the!music!must!be!clearly!articulated!and!for!percussion!
this!relates!to!the!playing!spots!on!the!instruments,!the!choice!of!beaters,!and!the!
performance!context.!The!developments!in!the!understanding!of!the!medium,!
and!concomitant!exploration!of!its!potential!have!taken!the!instruments!out!of!
their!traditional!contexts,!and!resulted!in!them!being!seen!as!sound!sources!as!
much!as!being!providers!of!culturally!distinct!rhythms!and!societal!roles.!
Consequently,!the!roles!played!by!the!instruments,!the!beaters!used!and!the!
ways!of!playing!have!developed!on!a!twoTfold!path.!But!more!importantly,!
percussionists!and!composers!have!become!increasingly!aware!of!the!nuances!of!
sound!in!the!various!instruments.!For!example,!some!solos!are!being!written!for!
snare!drum!that!reflect!its!martial!connections,!using!various!rudiments!such!as!
flams,!paradiddles,!drags!and!measured!doubleTstroke!rolls!(see!ex.!2.09).!

!
Ex.!2.09!excerpt!from!juNO!T!piece!for!concert!or!marching!Snare!Drum,!written!2015,!
Rhythm(Scene,!Vol.!2,!No.!4,!Indianapolis!IN,!2015,!PAS,!p.!43!

At!the!same!time!other!snare!drum!pieces!explore!the!different!sounds!and!
playing!techniques!of!the!drum.!In!this!piece!three!distinct!sounds!are!called!for!

86! !
 on!the!drumhead,!two!on!the!rim,!two!on!the!sticks!and!one!that!combines!stick!
and!head!sounds.!While!this!piece!uses!some!elements!from!rudiments!of!
drumming!their!musical!effect!is!more!important!than!the!details!of!their!
after
execution!(see!plate!2.04!and!ex.!2.10).! M
Ryszard Pusz

œ œ
stick on stick stick on stick

‹ ‹ œ
while rolling 1 neck on rim shaft on rim edge normal centre

w œ œ
ã z
1 Rest one stick loosely on the drum and hit it with other in a manner that produces a roll.
!
Allegro {m q = c 120}

4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ >œ œ œ >œ œ œ >œ œ œ >œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ

Plate!2.04!Legend!of!stickings!and!placement!on!snare!drum,!R.!Pusz,!After(M!EauTClaire!
ã 4WI,!Really!Good!Music,!2015,!p.!1!
s/on

J J
f
2 after M

‹ œ œ ‹ œ œ ‹ ‹ œ œ ‹ œ œ ‹ œ œ ‹ . ‹ ‰ ‹ ‹ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ ‹J ‹ ‹ ‰ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ Œ
rim shot
(stick on stick)

œj œ œ. œ œ œ œ J J œ œ
41

ã
ã œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œJ ‰ œ œ œ œ @œ æœ J@œ œ œ œ @œ œ œ œ Œ œ œ œ œf Œ œ @œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ @œ
j j
5

P
F
!
œ œ œœœ ‹ œœ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ œœœ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹‹‹ œœœœœ œ
ã œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœœ œœ œœœœ œ œ œœ œœ œ œ œ œœœ œ œ œ œ œ ! œ‰ J œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
46
Ex.!2.10!Different!sounds!on!snare!drum,!After(M,!bars!41T45
ã œ œ œP œ‰œœœœ‰œœœœ ‰ ‰ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ 45 œ œ œ œ œ zP œ 44
z
9

F
P
Similarly!timpani,!once!respected!for!their!harmonic!contributions,!are!seen! F
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ œ œ œ œ œ œw œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ ‹!‹!‹ ‹ ‹!‹!‹ œ œ œ œ œw œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
ãz zz z z z
50

more!as!a!sound!source!with!a!diverse!set!of!sounds!educed!from!different!parts!
4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ 45 œ œ œ œ œ zœ œ œ 44 œ F œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
z
14

ã 4of!the!instrument!in!which!the!pitch!is!not!necessarily!the!primary!consideration.!
P
œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ œzj œ œ œ ‰ œzj œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ
For!example,!John!Bergamo,!in!his(Four(Pieces(for(Timpani!calls!for!the!timpanist!
œ
55

ã J
ã œ œPœ œ œ ‹ ‹
œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙. z œœœœ
œ œ ‹ ‹
œto!play!in!the!centre!of!the!‘D’,!‘A’!and!‘B’!timpani!and!in!the!normal!playing!
œ œœœœ œ
œ ‹ ‹ Fœ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ œ œ
19

F
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œz œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ pœ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
position!on!the!‘F’;!and!at!the!end!of!the!phrase!all!four!drums!are!to!be!
œœœ œœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
‰ ‰ ‰ z z zJ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹
60

ã J J
(soundlessly)!muted!(see!ex.!2.11).!Placement,!the!deliberate!playing!on!a!
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ . œ œ œ œ œj œ œj œ œj œ ‹‹
j j
œ œ œ ! œ œ j
œ œ ‰ Jj
œ ‰ J ! !J ‰ J‰ J‰ œ œ Œ
24

ã particular!spot,!is!no!longer!confined!to!the!one!spot!that!gives!the!most!resonant!
œ œ

‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ œ ‹ œP œ œ œ œ œ˙ . œ œ œ œ œ œw œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ ‹!‹" ‹‹‹‹‹
! ! ! œ œ!œ!œ œ œ!œ!œ
z
64

ã z
sound,!but!now!needs!more!concentration!as!different!nuances!of!sound!are!
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ œ œ ‹ ‹ œ œ ‹ ‹ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œP
œcalled!for.!
œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ
29

ã
F ‹‹‹‹ œ
(‰=‰)

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 6 ‰ œ œ œ œ ˙.
soft stick or fingers

œ ! œ ! œ ! œ œ æ @ œ 8 . .
69

ã ! ! ! @ æ
‹ œ œ ‹ œ œ ‹ œ ‰F j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ p
‹ ‹ ‹
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ z s/on ‹ ‹ ‹ z (‰=‰)z zrim z z z œœ œœ œ œœœœœœœ
œ œ œ
33

ã sd sticks

P œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ æ œ. j ‰ (audibly) ‹ ‹ on‹ ‹stick)‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹f ‹

shot

‹ 4 œœœ œœœ œœœ œœœ

4 (stick

œ œœ œ. æ œ œ
75

ã 4
4 4 4

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ ‹ ! ‹ ‹ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ! f œ œ ! œ œ ‰ œ œ ‹ œ ‹ œ ‹ œ œ ‹ ‹ œ ‹ œrim‹ œshotœ ‹
ã œœ œœœ œœœ œ œ œ
37

!
‹ ‹ ‹ œ œ œ > œ œP > > ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹
ã ‹‹‹ ‰ J ‰ œ œœœœœ F ‹ ‹ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œœœœ œœ œœ œœ œœœ œ‰
81
j j (stick on stick)

!!!Ex.!2.11!Different!timpani!sounds,!John!Bergamo,!Perpetual(Motion,!New!York,!Music! J
for!Percussion,!1962,!p.!2(

œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ ‹ œ œ ‹ œ ‹ œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹ œ œ œ œ œ œ >œ . >œ . >œ

© 2014

œœœ œœœ
㉠J‰ Jœ œ Œ
The!range!of!Timpani!sounds!has!been!further!expanded!with!the!use!of!the!rim!
œ œ œ œœ œœ
86

(see!ex.!2.12).! æ æ æ
> > > > >j
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
ã zw zw œ‰ Œ Ó
91

J
! 87!
 !
Ex,!2.12!Different!timpani!sounds,!R.!Pusz,!GD,!p.!2.!The!‘x’!designates!rim.!

As!well!as!finding!the!sounds!available!in!different!parts!of!drums,!some!
composers!have!explored!the!potential!of!using!different!beaters!to!produce!
musical!effects.!And!done!so!on!a!variety!of!membranophones.!Bongos,!for!
example,!were!traditionally!played!with!the!fingers!using!a!specific!hand!
movement!(see!ex.!2.13).!
66
Latin Instruments

Bongos

The bongos (tightly tuned and a third or fourth apart) are held between the knees or on a stand. They are played with the fingers
in the following sequence:

1. first finger of the right hand (r)

2. first 2 fingers of the left hand (lf)
3. first finger of the right hand (r)
4. thumb of the left hand (l.th)
They are played near the edge of the drums

There are 3 basic patterns which form the basis of bongo playing. The bongos are essentially improvisatory instruments; so when
these rhythms are mastered, experiment with variations.

1. ã C .. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ..
r lf r l.th r lf r l.th

2. ã C .. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ..
r lf lf r l.th r lf r l.th

ã C .. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ..
3 3

3.

r lf r lf r l.th r lf r l.th
*
Ex.!2.13!Traditional!Bongo!Technique220!
!

By!placing!them!on!stands!a!greater!flexibility!of!approach!allows!them,!with!
Congas

their!thicker!skins,!to!also!be!played!with!a!variety!of!beaters.!William!Kraft,!in!
These large instruments are often used to provide bass sounds. Start with 2 basic sounds - a dep booming sound in the centre
(played with a cupped hand) and a higher sound at the edge (with the flat of the hand).

A full set consists of 3 drums - tumba (lowest), conga (middle), and quinto (highest). But you can provide a good conga sound
with just 1 or 2.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
> >> > > >> >
220 !Ryszard!Pusz,!op.cit.,!p.!66!
ã C .. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ..

88! !
his!Suite(for(Percussion!called!for!them!to!played!with!snare!drum!sticks!(see!ex.!
2.14).221!

!
Ex.!2.14!Bongos!played!with!snare!drum!sticks,!Kraft,!Suite(for(Percussion!New!York,!
Mills!Music,!1963,!p.!1!

Kraft!also!thought!of!the!timpani!as!a!sound!source!to!be!played!with!a!variety!of!
beaters.!The!extent!and!complexity!of!these!sounds!with!their!associated!beaters!
necessitated!a!detailed!legend!and!set!of!playing!instructions!(see!plate.!2.05).!

!
Plate!2.05!Kraft,!Images,!legend!of!sticking!and!placement!

The!pitches!of!the!drums!were!seen!more!as!a!springboard!to!produce!a!
multiplicity!of!nuances,!including!combining!metal!and!skin!sounds!with!the!
inverted!cymbal!on!the!low!timpano!(see!ex.!2.15).!!

He!said!of!his!Images!for!four!timpani,!five!cymbals,!and!large!tamTtam,!
composed!in!1978,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
221 !Varèse!initiated!the!idea!in!Ionisation,!where!he!suggested!the!Bongos!could!be!played!with!
either!fingers!or!thin!wooden!beaters.!The!direction!is!the!same!in!both!French!and!English.!E.!
Varèse,!op.cit.,!Nomenclature!of!Instruments.!

! 89!
 Images!was!written!with!the!desire!to!write!unaccompanied!pieces!for!timpani!
which!would!be!musically!expressive.!Therefore,!there!are!moments!of!lyricism!
as!well!as!other!moments!of!drama!and!virtuosity.222!

Clearly,!his!aim!was!to!use!the!percussion!instruments!as!a!medium!through!
which!to!present!a!piece!of!music!rather!than!to!write!a!piece!for!percussion!as!
that!set!of!instruments!was!traditionally!understood.223!As!a!result,!the!
techniques!required!to!play!the!piece!include!playing!with!hands,!fingers!and!
marimba!mallets.!Moreover,!playing!on!the!inverted!cymbal!demands!a!
refinement!of!the!normal!timpani!playing!action!to!ensure!the!nuances!are!
brought!out!and!that!the!cymbal!does!not!fall!off!the!drum.!Similarly!the!
specifically!indicated!fingers!and!hand,!and!mallets!also!demand!a!more!exacting!
playing!technique,!which!again!needs!greater!concentration!to!realise!the!
musical!phrasing.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
222 William!Kraft,!Images,!Van!Nuys!CA,!New!Music!West,!1978,!note!on!the!work,!p.!1!

223 !This!I!was!able!to!confirm!in!conversation!with!Kraft!in!1984.!

90! !
 !

Ex.!2.15!Different!techniques!on!timpani,!William!Kraft,!Images,(p.!2!

The!sound!spectrum!of!percussion!has!also!been!extended!through!the!diverse!
use!of!stickings.!John!Beck!in!his!Concerto(for(Timpani(and(Percussion(Ensemble!
asks!for!snare!drum!sticks!and!fingers!as!well!as!timpani!mallets!and!specifies!
stickings!to!produce!particular!sounds!that!are!different!from!those!produced!
with!alternate!sticking.!This!does!make!the!movement!between!drums!easier,!
but!also!requires!a!different!approach!to!deliver!the!effect.!The!‘paradiddle’!
stickings!for!example!(RLRR!or!LRLL),!are!reminiscent!of!sixteenthTnote!
marching!patterns,!which!fact!determines!the!character!of!the!phrases;!and!at!

! 91!
the!same!time!facilitates!an!easier!movement!between!the!drums.!Moreover,!
using!one!hand!to!play!repeated!notes!as!in!the!sixth!and!eighth!bars!of!letter!J!
has!the!effect!of!emphasising!that!part!of!the!rhythm,!and!from!the!fourteenth!
bar!also!makes!it!possible!to!pick!up!the!mallets!for!the!next!section!(see!ex.!
2.16).!However,!concentration!is!needed!on!the!sound!being!produced!to!prevent!
the!repeated!notes!sounding!muffled.!So!the!player!needs!to!focus!on!both!the!
action!of!picking!up!the!beater!and!the!sound!s/he!is!making!on!the!drum,!firstly!
with!the!fingers,!and!then!with!the!mallet,!and!with!no!change!of!dynamics.!

!
Ex.!2.16!Different!beaters!and!stickings,!John!Beck!Concerto(for(Timpani(with(Percussion(
Ensemble,!New!York,!Kendor,!1985,!solo!part,!p.!5!

The!use!of!different!stickings!to!create!specific!musical!effects!is!also!amply!
demonstrated!in!the!minimalist!composition!Sticks!by!Robert!Lloyd.!There!is!no!
indication!in!the!music!as!to!how!it!should!be!played!(see!ex.2.17).224!!Using!
alternate!sticking!at!the!marked!tempo!(MM!=!100)!the!piece!sounds!relaxed!
with!a!gradual!buildTup!of!volume,!as!other!players!enter.!At!MM=!180!however,!
and!playing!with!one!hand,!the!musical!effect!is!much!more!intense,!and!gives!
the!work!a!sense!of!direction.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
224 !In!discussions!with!Robert!Lloyd!he!has!always!stated!that!the!essence!of!his!pieces!should!be!
determined!by!the!players.!Adelaide(Percussions!initially!approached!the!piece!using!alternate!
sticking,!but!at!one!rehearsal!one!of!the!players,!for!no!particular!reason,!played!the!opening!
figure!using!only!one!stick.!After!a!brief!discussion!the!group!decided!to!adopt!this!approach!for!
the!whole!first!section,!and!to!play!the!piece!faster!than!indicated!to!instil!in!it!a!sense!of!
excitement!and!urgency.!

92! !
 !
Ex.!2.17!Original!markings!in!the!score!Lloyd!Sticks,(manuscript,!1984,!p.!1
I - Polemic !

Some!percussion!instruments225!can!also!be!used!as!resonating!chambers!as!in!
by Aleksander Pusz

œbongoes
this!short!piece!using!a!more!theatrical!presentation.!The!first!movement,!
œ œ œ 44
÷ œ œ
timbales snare drum bass drum cymbals woodblock cowbell whip

œ œ œ œ
œ
Polemic,!calls!for!the!whip!to!be!played!while!held!over!and!close!to!the!timpani!
(see!ex.!2.18).!So!even!though!the!drum!itself!is!not!hit,!nonetheless!the!matter!of!
Notes in brackets indicate that the whip is to be played over those instruments, causing them to sound.

placement!of!exactly!where!over!the!head!the!whip!is!played!is!an!important!
I - Polemic
q»§º
÷ 44 45 œ
44
45
with authority

technical!consideration.! Ó Œ Œ Ó
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
f sempre timbales
by Aleksander Pusz

œ œ
÷? 44 œ œ∑ œ 5 œ œ 44 (b œ œ b œ œ ) 4
45
bongoes snare drum bass drum cymbals woodblock cowbell whip

œ4 ∑
œ œ
Notes in brackets indicate that the whip is to be played over those instruments, causing them to sound.
!
÷ 45q»§º with authority
ΠΠ4
4 œ Œ œ Œ œ œ œ Ó Ó (œ ) Œ (œ ) Œ
4

÷ 44 œ œ œ œ Ó 4
5 Œ Œ œ 44œ œ œ Ó œ 5
4
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
? 45 (fb œsempre
bœ œ œ ) 4 bœ bœ ) ∑ ∑ ∑
4(
?4 ∑ 54 ∑ 4
4( b œ bœ œ ) 45 !
4
!Ex.!2.18!Using!timpani!as!an!echo!chamber,!Aleksander!Pusz!Polemic,!1999,!personal!
copy,!p.!1!
(œ ) 5 ( œ ) Œ (œ œ œ ) Œ 4
œ
÷ Œ Œ Œ
9 3:2

4 4
3

÷ 45 œ œ œŒ Œœ 44 œ Œœ œ Œ œ œ œ Ó œ œÓ œ œ(œ )œ Œ œ (œœ) œŒ œ
In!the!search!for!more!sounds!from!the!percussion,!some!composers!have!
4

œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
? (b œ b œ 54 ∑ ∑ 44 ∑
notated!nonTpercussive!techniques.!Tristram!Cary!in!Black,(White(and(Rose!asks!
)
? 45 (b œ b œ œ œ ) 44 b œ b œ ) ∑ ∑ ∑
(
for!two!bows!on!the!marimba!(see!ex.!2.19).!

÷ (œ ) (œ ) (œ ) (œ œ œ œ œ )
3

(œ ) 3
œ
Ó Ó
13 3 3:2 3

œ œ œ œ œ (œ œ) œ 5 œœ )œ Œœ œ œ œœ œ )œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œŒ œ œ4œ œ 3:2 œ œ œ 3 œ
÷ 3:2 Œ ( ( Œ Œ
9

œ
œ œ œ 4 œ3:2 œ œ œ
œ
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! œ œ œ œ 4 œ œ œ v œ v œv œ œ œ

? (b œ b œ 45 ∑ ∑ 44 ∑
)
225 !Timpani,!Bass!Drums,!Snare!Drums!and!TamTtams!are!obvious!examples.!!
© A. Pusz 1999

! 93!
÷ (œ ) (œ ) (œ ) (œ œ œ œ œ )
3

(œ ) 3
3:2œ
Ó Ó
13 3 3

œ œ œ œ œ œœœ œ œ œ œ œ œœœ œ œ œ œ œ œœœ œ œ œœœ œ œœ

 !

Ex.!2.19!Bowing!on!marimba,!Cary,!Black,(White(and(Rose,(1991,(p.!19!

Eric!Bryce!in!his!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet!also!calls!for!the!xylophone!to!be!
played!with!the!bow,!and!for!the!notes!to!be!bent!(see!ex.!2.20).!

Ex.!2.20!Bowing!and!bending!notes!on!xylophone,!4th!stave,!Bryce!Suite(for(Percussion,!
manuscript,!1980,!p.!2!

Other!instruments!are!also!played!nonTpercussively,!such!as!the!snare!drum!(see!
plate!2.06!and!ex.!2.21).! an' if...?
Ryszard Pusz

œ œ œ- œ. .
œ œ-æ z‹ w
2

ã
edge normal middle 1 3 4 5

z
1 Scrape drumhead w/ fingernail for duration of note
2 Scrape drumhead in rhythm as indicated
3 Strike with end of finger
4 Flick snare strainer
5 Roll with fingers (one hand). Articulate the concomitant rhythmic figures with nails, or vice versa.

The flams can be executed with any 2 fingers of 1 hand while rolling with the other hand. Similarly, the multiple grace
notes can be executed with any combination of fingers of either hand or both hands.
!
Plate!2.06!Scraping!technique!on!snare!drum!legend,!R.!Pusz,!an’(if…?,
q = 72
!EauTClaire!WI,!
Really!Good!Music,!2015,!p.!1 !
ã 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ! œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ! œ œ œ ‰ . Rœ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ
s/off

- - - .. - .- . - - - - œ œ- . œ œ- . œ œ- œ œ- œ
ã œ œ œ œ . œ œJ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ . Rœ œ . œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ
5

94! !
- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -
ã œ œ œ œ œ ! œJ . ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
10
 J R
3

- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -
ã œ œ œ œ œ ! œJ . ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
10

œ- œ œ- œ œ- œ œ- œ œ- œ œ- œ œ- œ œ- œ œ- œ œ- œ œ- œ œ- œ Œœ Œ ! œ œ œ œ œ !œ œ!œ œœœ œœ œœ
-. w-
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
14

ã
- - - - - - - -æsimile æ
!
j j
œw œ œ œ ! œ œ ‰ œ œ ! œ œ -w! œ œœœ œ œ . œ œw- . œ ‰ œ ‰ œ œ- œ œ œ ! œ œ œ Œ ‹. œ ‹. œ ! œ œ œs/on
- ‹ œœ
w a niente z z z
Ex.!2.21!Using!a!fingerTscraping!technique!on!snare!drum,!R.!Pusz,!an’(if…?,!EauTClaire!
17

ã
æ æ æ æ
WI,!Really!Good!Music,!2015,!p.!1,!bars!14T16 !

It!is!also!important!to!note!that!even!when!the!instruments!are!used!in!a!more!
ã œ @œ œ @œ œ œ œ œ @œ œ œ œ œ œ @œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ @œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ @œ œ @œ œ @œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
22

traditional!manner,!the!aim!of!the!sound!is!to!produce!something!greater!than!a!
rhythmic!phrase.!David!Morgan!in!Loss!wrote!a!part!for!the!timpani!in!the!
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

œœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœ œœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœ œœœœœ œœ œœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœ

second,!Funeral!Music!movement,!that!symbolised!the!crying!and!tears!
24

ã@ @ @ @ !!! !
associated!with!such!an!event!(see!ex.!2.22).!Thus!the!technique!of!playing!has!a!
purpose!beyond!rhythmic!phrasing!with!the!first!three!notes!building!up!as!the!
Copyright 9.3.2015 by Ryszard Pusz
welling!up!and!the!glissando!roll!representing!the!expulsion!of!air.!
Published by Really Good Music, LLC.
www.reallygoodmusic.com

!
Ex.!2.22!Representational!use!of!timpani,!Morgan!Loss,!1982,!p.!14,!Timpani!on!the!
bottom!stave!

Clearly!these!multifarious!intricacies!of!sound!need!to!be!understood!and!
mastered!in!order!to!perform!on!such!a!variety!of!sound!sources!in!different!
performing!situations!and!remain!true!to!the!musical!intent!of!the!piece.!
!
2.3.1*Grace*notes*

Central!to!the!discussion!of!sound!is!the!fact!that!the!nature!of!the!instruments!
poses!a!big!challenge!to!both!the!composer!and!the!performer.!The!execution!of!
the!notes!is!affected!by!the!surface!being!struck,!the!beaters!used,!and!the!
musical!context.!Two!examples!will!suffice!to!demonstrate!this!–!grace!notes!and!
long!sounds.!!

! 95!
 Grace Notes

Grace notes are used to decorate the sound; they have no time value. There are 3 main types - one grace note (called a "flam"),
two grace notes ("drag" or "ruff"), and three grace notes ("4-stroke ruff").

Flam
A!single!grace!note!and!main!note!following,!for!example,!is!traditionally!called!a!
Hold one stick higher above the drum or pad than the other, and bring them both down onto the drumhead at gthe same speed.
One should strike slightly before the other.
‘flam’,!with!the!‘fl’!sound!representing!the!relative!volume!and!placement!of!the!
The player should hear two sounds, but only just. Otherwise 226
the flam is too open (eq), or too closed (q).
grace!note!itself!in!relation!to!the!main!note. !However,!this!technique!was!
developed!in!a!military!context!and!is!limiting.!Grace!notes!can!be!interpreted!in!
Practise the flam each of the following 3 ways; also practise the "flam tap" and "flam accents", and add them all to your daily
practice schedule.
a!number!of!ways!depending!on!the!type!and!timbre!of!the!surface!being!played,!
on!their!function!in!the!piece,!and!on!the!effect!being!sought!to!portray.!Playing!
Flam

ã .
. œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
j j j j
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
j j j j
œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
j j j j
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
j j j j
œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
j j j j
on!different!parts!of!the!same!drumhead,!for!example,!produces!different!sounds,!œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
j j j j
..
and!so!the!time,!space,!or!volume!difference!between!grace!and!main!notes!could!
l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R
change!too.!Moreover,!a!‘flam’!played!on!a!drum!of!lower!timbre!or!during!a!
.. œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ ..
ã rallentando!will!usually!have!the!two!notes!further!apart.!Rudimentally,!a!series!
of!‘flams’!will!usually!be!played!in!alternating!fashion!(see!ex.!2.23).!
r L r L r L r L Daily
r L r L r L Practice
r L r L r L r L r L r L r L r L r L r L r L r L r L r L r L r L r L
Grace Notes
ã .. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œ œj œ œj œ œj œ œ œj œ œj œ œj œ ..
j j j j j j j j j
œ œ œ œ œ

Grace notes are used to decorate the sound; they have no time value. There are 3 main types - one
l R r L l R r L ! l R r L l R r L35 l R r L l R r L
aily Practice l R r L l R r L l R r L l R r L l R r L l R r L
two grace notes ("drag" or "ruff"), and three grace notes ("4-stroke ruff").
Grace Notes
Ex.!2.23!Flams!played!in!alternating,!Rudimental!style
Flam 227!
Flam exercises Hold one stick higher above the drum or pad than the other, and bring them both down onto the d
One should strike slightly before the other.
Grace notes are used toThe
wo grace notes ("drag"
The!effect,!however,!is!very!different!if!they!are!played!with!ostinato(style!
decorate the sound;
following
or "ruff"),
exercises
and three
they have no
employ thetime
flam,value.
and 2There
of its are 3 main types
derivatives, - onetap
the flam grace
(ex.note (called
2) and a "flam"),
rthe flam accents (ex. 3). Follow the
marked sticking as yougrace
play,notes ("4-stroke
and count. Youruff").
will notice that the grace note itself has no time value, but it changes the sound by
The player should hear two sounds, but only just. Otherwise the flam is too open (eq), or too closed
Flam sticking,!producing!an!increasing!intensity!of!sound,!without!necessarily!playing!
decorating the note to which it is attached.
Hold one stick higher above the drum or pad than the other, andthe
bring
flamthem
eachboth down onto the3 drumhead
ways; alsoatpractise
gthe same
the speed.

43 œ Œ Œ œ Œ Œ œ œ œ œ Œ Œ œ Œ Œ œ Œ Œ œ œ œ
One should strike slightlya!crescendo!(see!ex.!2.24).!It!would!also!be!the!sticking!adopted!for!playing!a!
Practise of the following "flam tap" and "flam accents", a
j j j j j j j
ã series!with!one!sound!for!the!grace!notes!on!one!part!of!the!drum!such!as!the!
j j j j j
œ Œ Œ
before the other.
œ œ
practice
œ œ œ
schedule.
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
The player should hear two sounds, but only just. Otherwise the flam is too open (eq), or too closed (q).
rim,!and!another!sound!for!the!main!note!played!on!another!part!such!as!a!
l R
1 2 3
l R
1 2 3
Flam
l R l R l R
1 2 3
l R
1 2 3
r L
1 2 3
r L
1 2 3
r L r L r
1 2
L
3
r L
1 2 3

ã .. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ jœ œ œ j œ œ œ œ œ
j j j j j j j j j j j j
j j
Practise the flam each of the following 3 ways; also practise the "flam tap" and "flam accents", and add them all to your daily
j j
j j j
practice schedule. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
certain!point!on!the!head.!Indeed!it!would!also!allow!for!different!series!of! œ œ œ œ œ œ

ã 42 .. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œl Rœ l ‰R œ œ lœR‰l ..R l
j j j j j j j j j j j j j j
Flam Tap
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
J JJ
sounds!in!contrasting!patterns.!
l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R l R
Flam

ã .. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
j j j j j
œ œrj œL1 œ&Lj œl œR2j œ&R œ œ 㜠..œjrœœjL1œ &Lœj œœlj œR2œj œœ&Rj œœj œrœjL1œ rœjœ&Ljœœ2 œjlœœj&Rœœj œœR1j œœrj œ&œLj œL2 œjlœœj&Rœ œjR1œœj rœœj&Lœœj L2œœj œlœj&Rœ œjR1œjœœr ..&Lœj œL2 œlj œ&R œj 1œ r &L œjL2œ œj œ œj
r jL L j l R jR
l R R rL L l R R rL L l R R r L L l R l R r L L l R R r L L l R R r L L l R R r L l R R
œ œ 1 &œ 2œ &

. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ !œ œ!orœ! œ !œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ! œ Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Flam Accent no.1 Flam Accent no. 2

ã c .
l R lj R l 3R l R j
œ œ
l 3 R l Rj l R 3 l rR L jr L
J J
l Rr3 L l Rj l rR3L r L
J
jl Rr 3Ll Rr Ljl R 3l rR Lj r Ll 3Rr Ll Rr jLl R 3l rR L r L jr L 3r L j
J J
l R l R l R l R l Rr L r L r L r 3

.
ã . œ œ œ
j j j j
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
j j j j
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .
œ œœ
j j j j j j j 228
Ex.!2.24!Flams!played!in!ostinato!style
1 & a 2 & a
œ
l R L R r L R L l R L. R r L R ! L
3ã & a
œ œœ œ
œ
4 & a
œœ œœ œ
œ œ œ
1
œœœ a
œ œ
œ œ
2
œ œœ œ
a
œ
l R R r L L l R R r L œ
œ œ
3
œ œœ
a
œ œ
4
œ
j j j j j j j j j j j j jj j j j j j j jj j j j
œ œ
œL
a
œ
œ œ
œ œœ œ
l R L R .
œ œ
1 & a 2
œœ .œ œ l R Rœ r L œ Rœ œL œ œ
œ œ
3
œ
a
j j j
4 & a

㌜ œ œ œ œ œ œj œ 3 œ œj œ œ3 œ œj œ 3 œ Œ œj œ 3 œ Œ œj œ Œ œj œ ‰ œj œ ‰ œj œ ‰ œj œ œj œ œj œ œj œ ..
j j
r L r L r L r L r L r L3 r L r L3 r L r L r L r lLR r rL Ll rR Lr L
r L r lLR r rL Ll rR3 Lr L
r L r lLR r 3L
r Ll R
r Lr L
r 3L r lLR r L l R r L l R r L l
œ
J J J J j j Jj j J
.
ã . œ œ œ œ
j j j j
œ œ œ œ œ œ
j j j j
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
j j j j
œ œ œ œ œ œ
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
r L L l R L R r L L Flam
œ œ
l R exercises
œ
L R r L L
œ
j j j j
œ œ œ œ
l R R
œ œ œ œ
r L
œ œ œ œ
lR
œ œ œ
r L
œ
j j j j
œ œ
l R
œ œ ..r L l R r L l R
1 2 a 3 & a 4 a 1 & a 2 a 3 3 a 1 a 2 3 & a 4 & a 1 2 3 4
226 !The!‘flam’!played!in!this!context!produces!essentially!‘two!sounds,!but!only!just’.!The!
l R r L l R r L l R r L l R r L l R r L lThe
R rfollowing
L l R exercises
r L l R remploy
L l the
R rflam,
L l and
R r 2
L of its derivatives,
l R r L l R r the
Lflam tap (ex. 2) and rthe flam
marked sticking as you play, and count. You will !notice that the grace note itself has no time value
onomatopoeic!name!is!a!legacy!of!the!Marching!Band!origins!of!the!sound.
decorating the note to which it is attached.
227 !R.!Pusz!op.(cit.,!p.!35!
228 !R.!Pusz!op.(cit.,!p.!35!

ã 43 œ Œ Œ
Flam exercises
œ
j
The following exercises employ the flam, and 2 of its derivatives,
j j j j
œ (ex. 2) and rthe
the flam tap œ flam
œ accents
œ
j
œ Œ Œ j
œ(ex. 3). Follow œthe œ
j
œ œ œ œ œ Œ Œ œ Œ Œ œ Œ Œ
marked sticking as you play, and count. You will notice that the grace note itself has no time value, but it changes the sound by
96! it! is attached.
decorating the note to which
l R l R l R l R l R l R r L r L
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

3 œj œ Œ Œ œ
j
œ Œ Œ œ
j
œ œj œ œj œ œ
j
œ ŒFlamŒ Tapœj œ Œ Œ œ
j
œ Œ Œ œ
j
œ œj œ œj œ œ
j
œ Œ Œ
 J J
f P
œœœœœœ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰‹ ‹ ‹ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ œ œ œ œ
œœœ
J z zz œ z
48

ã
F P
Double!grace!notes,!known!as!‘drags’!or!‘ruffs’!after!the!traditional!way!of!playing!

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹‹ ‹ ‹ œ œœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœœœœ œ
œœœœ œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰
(‘dragging’!the!stick!in!a!bouncing!action!across!the!drumhead)!or!the!sound!

ã zw !! !! w
z Œ
52

produced!can!also!be!played!using!single!sticking!(see!ex.!2.25).!Like!the!single!
F P
grace!notes!they!can!be!played!in!an!ostinato!or!alternating!style.!

ã œ œ ‰ œz œ
œ jœ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
‰ ‰ J z z
57

J J
F

ã œz œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ zœJ œ œ œ œ
(a) !!or!! ! ! (b)!! !!or! !
œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ œ œœœ œ ‹ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ œ ‹ œ
62

Ex.!2.25!Drags!(a)!bounced!and!(b)!alternated!

Triple!grace!notes!(‘4Tstroke!ruffs’)!are!played!in!different!ways!(see!ex.!2.26).!
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ œœœœ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ œ œ œœ œ œ œœœ œ
˙ . w œ œ œ œ
œ œ z ! ! ! ! œ œ œ
66

ã z !! !! !! !!
P F !
229!(‰=‰)
‹œœœ œœœœœ‹œœœ‹ œ œœœ œ œ œ 6 ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ4œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ4œ œ œæ œ
Ex.!2.26!Different!stickings!of!‘4Tstroke!ruffs’
œ ˙ . œ œ
soft stick or fingers 4

œ œ œ œ . œ . . æ
71

ã æ @ @ 8
4

æ
p
Clearly,!this!is!an!aspect!of!technique!that!lends!itself!to!different!interpretations!
that!are!dependent!on!instruments,!beaters,!musical!context!and!compositional!
(‰=‰) sd sticks

j‰ ‹ 4 ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ œ œ œ >œ œ œ >œ œ œ > œ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹

rim shot

œ œ œ ‹ ‹ ‹
s/on

œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ J‰
intent!in!the!execution!of!specific!effects.!However,!it!is!also!an!aspect!that!is!
(stick on stick)

㜠œ œœœ œ
78

4
(audibly)

developing!further!as!the!nuances!of!sound!are!explored!more!on!the!various!
f
membranophones!(see!ex.2.27).!!

‹ ‹ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ œ œ œ ‹ œ œ ‹ œ ‰ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‹
rim shot

‹‹‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ Œ œœœ
j j
‰ ‰ œ
(stick on stick)

œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ
œ œ
83

ã J J J
!
> > >>
œœœ ‹œœ‹œœ‹œ ‹œœ‹‹ ‹ œ œ œ œ !œ œ >œ . >œ . >œ œw œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œw œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Ex.!2.27!Single!and!double!grace!notes!on!different!parts!of!the!drum,!R.!Pusz!After(M,!
œ œ‰Œ Ó
ã œ œ æ æ æ z z
œœ œœ
88
EauTClaire!WI,!Really!Good!Music,!2015,!p.2
J
Moreover,!the!triple!grace!notes!give!even!further!scope!to!develop!these!
nuances!with!the!following!example!demonstrating!how!the!different!stickings!of!
grace!notes!can!be!used!when!playing!at!the!edge,!offTcentre!and!centre!of!a!
drum!(see!ex.!2.28).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
229 !These!stickings!produce!subtly!different!effects,!but!also!are!used!in!different!contexts.!The!
first!2!bars!show!the!American!rudimental!approach,!while!the!last!2!bars!would!be!used!in!the!
symphonies!of!Shostakovich,!as!the!tempo!is!too!fast!for!any!other!sticking.!

! 97!
 !
Ex.!2.28!A!few!examples!of!grace!note!stickings!to!emphasise!nuances!

Clearly!then,!this!is!an!extension!of!sound!possibilities!that!has!implications!for!
the!further!development!of!technique!and!is!applicable!across!the!range!of!
membranophones.!

2.3.2*Long*sounds*

A!similar!problem!exists!as!regards!‘long!sounds’.!This!concept!is!a!paradox!as!it!
is!impossible!to!play!a!long!sound!in!percussion.!Rather,!one!plays!a!series!of!
short!sounds!evenly!at!a!sufficiently!fast!tempo!for!the!listener!to!‘hear’!a!long!
sound.!Initially,!and!again!in!a!military!context!these!‘long!sounds’!were!
produced!by!playing!‘rolls’,!achieved!by!bouncing!each!stick!twice!per!wrist!
movement!and!effectively!playing!thirtyTsecond!notes,!which!at!a!march!tempo!
of!120!quarter!note!beats!per!minute!give!the!impression!of!‘one!long!sound’.!In!
percussion!parlance!these!are!called!‘doubleTstroke’!or!‘rudimental’!rolls.!!

Over!the!course!of!the!twentieth!century!there!has,!however,!developed!a!greater!
diversity!of!these!‘long!sounds’,!produced!by!bouncing!the!stick!one,!two,!three,!
four,!or!even!five!times!per!wrist!movement.!These!actions!are!called!
respectively!‘singleT‘,!‘doubleT‘,!‘tripleT‘,!‘quadrupleT‘!and!‘quintupleTstroke’!rolls,!
and!have!their!own!applications.230!The!first!is!generally!used!on!Timpani,!Bass!
Drums,!Suspended!Cymbal,!TomTtoms,!and!the!Mallet!Keyboard!instruments.!
The!doubleTstroke!(also!called!measured!or!rudimental)!roll!is!used!in!marches,!
notated!in!musical!shorthand!(see!ex.!2.29).!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
230 !William!Schinstine,!Three(Means(to(an(End,!New!York,!Kendor,!1977.!The!second!movement!
of!this!Snare!Drum!piece!begins!with!a!quintupleTstroke!roll!and!moves!through!the!gamut!of!
rolls!to!doubleTstroke!rolls!and!ends!in!reverse.!In!between!the!player!has!to!alternate!between!
quintupleT!and!doubleTstroke!rolls!played!at!the!centre!and!offTcentre!respectively.!

98! !
 ã4 Œ
Ÿ~~~~ Ÿ~~~~~ Ÿ~~~~~~~
1.

œ
ãJ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
J J Ÿ~~~~~~~~
J Ÿ~~~~~~
1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 1 & 2 & 3

Ÿ~~~~~
1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 1 ã&œ . 2 &J 3
œ œ.
& 4J &
œ œ œ œ œ œ.
1 & 2 &

Ÿ~~~~
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ played
œœ œŸ~~~~
œ œœ œ œœ œœ œ œ œ œŸ~~~~~
w
1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4
'5-stroke' roll

z zor
'7-stroke' roll

ã œ . œz ãœJ œ œz œ Jœ œzœ œ œ œ œ zJ
written
ã @œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
written
œ
played
J
Percussion
1 & 2
æ
& 3 &
@
4 & 1 1& & 22 && 3 3& 4& & 4 1 &
& 2 1& &
3 &2
R R L L R R R L L R R L !
œ œ œ œ œ œ
! ! ! ! ! !ã z ! z! zœ !œ zœ œ zœ
8

Perc. ã Ex.!2.29!doubleTstroke!roll!notation!and!application,!R.!Pusz,!op.cit.,!p.!33!
1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 1 & 2 & 3

The!multipleTbounce!action!of!this!and!the!other!rolls!is!used!in!all!other!

! ! ! Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
! ! ! ! ! !
17

ã
situations!and!produces!long!sounds!of!smoothness!and!intensity;!and!so!it!also!
2
ã4 ˙ œ œ œ œ Œ œ œ œ Œ
Perc.
opens!a!door!to!changing!the!character!of!the!long!sound!while!playing!it.!The!
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
2.
2
26 method!of!notating!these!rolls!is!not!yet!standardised!though!
2. ã 4
˙ !and!‘z’! œ œ œ œ Œ
Perc. ã ! ! 1
! & 2
notations!do!indicate!that!a!smooth!sound!is!asked!for!(see!ex.!2.30).231! ! & 1
!& 2
!
& 1 &
! 2 &
! 1 & 2

Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~
1 & 2 & 1 & 2 & 1 &

㜠œ œ œ ‰ ‰ œœ œ œœ
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~‰ œ
J ãzJ œ ‰J ‰ œœ z œ ‰‰
!
J zJ
1 & 2 & 1 & 2 1
& & 12 &
& 21 && 2 1& 1
& & 2 2
Ex.!2.30!MultipleTbounce!roll!notation!

㜠œ œ œ
z œ œ œ zœ œ œ œ œœ zœ œ
ã œ zœ œ œ œ œ
z z z
This!lack!of!standardisation!does!however,!raise!issues!that!are!not!easy!to!
resolve.!Timpani!rolls!are!notated!both!ways,!yet!traditionally!have!been!played!
1 & 2 & 1 & 2 & 1 &

the!one!way!–!with!single!strokes.
1 &
232 !Suspended!cymbal!rolls!have!traditionally!
2 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 2
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ãz
z z
been!played!using!single!strokes.!Very!different!kinds!of!sounds!can!be!educed!
playing!multipleTbounce!rolls!with!snare!drum!sticks!on!the!timpani!or!on!the!

㜠œ œ œ
z œ œ œ œ
z œ œ œ
z œ œ œ
z
1 & 2 & 1 & 2 & 1 &
bell,!bow,!or!edge!of!the!cymbal;!but!the!notation!in!itself!is!insufficient!direction,!
without!a!legend!or!specific!instruction.!
1 & 2 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 2
Other,!and!softer,!‘long!sounds’!are!produced!using!brushes,!by!dragging!the!
brush!across!or!around!the!drumhead!for!a!smooth!sound,!or!by!moving!the!
brush!quickly!back!and!forth!in!imitation!of!the!rolls!mentioned!above.!There!is!
also!a!third!technique,!a!‘flapTlike!roll’!produced!by!rolling!the!brush!back!and!
forth!along!the!head!with!the!handle!resting!on!the!rim!of!the!drum.!These!
techniques!are!used!by!David!George!in!his!snare!drum!piece!Choose(Your(Own(
Adventure((see!ex.!2.37!and!plates!2.07!and!2.08).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
231 !A!slightly!different!approach!is!advocated!by!Gary!Cook,!op.(cit.,!pp.!47T65!
©
232 !ibid.,!pp.!193T198!

! 99!
 !
Plate!2.07!Legend!of!stickings,!David!George!Choose(Your(Own(Adventure!Brisbane,!
Rhythmscape,!2015,!playing!instructions!!

!
Plate!2.08!Diagrams!of!brush!playing!instructions,!David!George!Choose(Your(Own(
Adventure!

Rolls!on!the!keyboard!percussion!instruments!have!developed!in!a!number!of!
directions.!The!need!to!create!the!illusion!of!long!sounds!has!led!percussionists!
to!research!this!area!and!the!more!flexible!fourTmallet!approach!encouraged!this!
even!more.!The!most!obvious!roll!technique!is!essentially!an!extension!of!the!
twoTmallet!roll!–!alternate!sticking.!This!developed!into!a!more!arpeggiated!style!
through!a!looser!grip!of!the!beaters,!allowing!them!to!roll!in!a!ripple!effect,!
leading!to!an!independent!action!in!both!hands,!which!allowed!a!roll!in!one!hand!
and!independent!movement!in!the!other.233!A!third!roll!technique!is!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
233 !Gary!Cook,!‘Four!Mallet!Keyboard!Performance:!A!Concept!For!Beginning!Independent!Roll!
Development’!Percussive(Notes(V17N3(Spring/Summer(1979,!pp.!56T57.!Scott!Herring,!Developing!
the!Independent!Roll!on!Marimba,!Percussive(Notes(Vol.!39!No.!4!August!2001,!pp.!46T49!

100!!
‘mandolin’!roll!with!one!hand,!with!beaters!above!and!below!the!note;!this!only!
works!on!the!natural!keys.234!

There!is!also!a!fourth!roll!method,!more!illusory!of!a!long!sound,!and!more!
difficult!to!achieve.!This!method!is!essentially!an!adaptation!of!guitar!technique,!
and!employs!a!sticking!of!either!LRRR!or!RLLL,!which!in!sixteenth!notes!at!
Allegro!to!Vivace!tempos!creates!the!impression!of!one!sound.!A!number!of!South!
Australian!composers!have!written!for!it!as!seen!in!the!following!examples.235!

Eric!Bryce!used!it!for!a!large!portion!of!the!slow!movement!of!his!Concerto(for(
Marimba(and(Vibraphone!for!the!melody!with!a!moving!chordal!line!in!the!left!
hand!with!some!simple!doubleTstopping!in!the(ostinato!(see!ex.!2.31).!

Ex.!2.31!OneThanded!tremolo,!Bryce,!Concerto(for(Marimba(and(Vibraphone,(bars!101T
106236!

David!Morgan!wrote!for!it!for!Lachy’s(Lullaby,!one!of!the!pieces!in!his!Itsy[Bitsy(
Collection(and!incorporated!double!stops!in!the!chordal!accompaniment((see!ex.!
2.32).!It!is!written!in!the!higher!register!of!the!marimba,!in!order!to!imitate!the!
register!of!a!mother!singing!a!lullaby!to!her!son.!This!register,!however,!lacks!
resonance,!making!it!difficult!to!present!a!convincing!‘continuity!of!sound’.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
234 !Joshua!D.!Smith,!‘Extended!Vibraphone!Techniques!in!Deane’s!The(Apocryphal(Still(Life’,!
Percussive(Notes,(Vol.!47,!No.!2,!April!2009,!pp.!56T58!
235 !This!technique!I!developed!in!the!early!1980s!to!play!Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra!by!Tarrega!

236 !Eric!Bryce,!Concerto(for(Marimba(and(Vibraphone,(manuscript,!solo!part,!p.!10,!bars!101T106!

! 101!
Transposing!the!work!down!an!octave!adds!a!resonance!and!overcomes!this!
problem,!though!it!does!change!the!character!of!the!piece,!bringing!it!into!a!bassT
baritone!register.!

Ex.!2.32!OneThand!tremolo!Morgan!Lachy’s(Lullaby,!bars!43T44!

Tristram!Cary!incorporated!it!in!Black,(White(and(Rose(and!added!double!stops!
and!changing!chords!(see!ex.!2.33).!The!tremolo!is!played!in!both!left!and!right!
hands!and!though!the!change!is!interspersed!between!traditional!tremolos!it!
does!represent!an!extension!of!the!technique!(see!ex.!2.34).!The!effect!is!to!allow!
the!tremolo!to!portray!either!melody!or!harmony.!

!
Ex.!2.33!OneThanded!tremolo,!Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose,(manuscript(p.!4!

102!!
 !
Ex.!2.34!OneThanded!tremolo,!Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose,(manuscript(p.!13!

The!most!difficult!technically,!is!Becky!Llewellyn’s!Song(Ball,!in!which!the!
tremolo!alternates!quickly!between!hands,!and!between!oneThand!and!normal!
tremolo!(see!ex.!2.35).!In!this!piece!it!is!also!necessary!to!adapt!this!technique!to!
the!demands!of!the!tempo!and!feel!and!at!times!play!LRR!instead!of!LRRR.!

!
Ex.!2.35!OneThanded!tremolo,!Llewellyn!Song(Ball,(bars!49T52!

The!technique!also!has!wider!applications.!The!Fantasy(on(Japanese(Woodprints!
by!Alan!Hovhaness!when!played!using!traditional!alternate!sticking!has!issues!of!
accuracy!in!the!last!section;!employing!a!LRRR!(or!RLLL)!sticking!eliminates!this!
problem!and!allows!for!a!different!emphasis!in!the!phrasing!(see!ex.!2.36).!

!
Ex.!2.36!Using!oneThanded!tremolo,!Hovhaness,!Fantasy(on(Japanese(Woodprints,(
London,!C.F.!Peters,!1964,!p.!6!

Whichever!roll!technique!is!used,!the!choice!of!mallets!will!determine!the!
character!of!the!sound.!This!is!well!illustrated!in!Becky!Llewellyn’s!Song(Web,!in!
which!there!are!to!be!no!discernible!‘beats’!created!by!the!contact!sound!of!the!
mallets!on!the!keys!(see!ex.!2.37).!The!direction!to!play!‘with!4!mushroom!heads’!
means!to!use!extremely!soft!mallets,!which!produce!a!‘waffly’!sound.!It!does!not!
refer!to!the!‘mushroomTshaped’!heads!of!the!Mike!Balter!mallets!(see!plate!2.09).!

! 103!
 (a)! ! ! (b)! !
Plate!2.09!Comparison!of!mallet!sizes.!Mallet!(a)!is!for!Llewellyn’s!piece;!(b)!is!Balter’s!
mushroom!head.237!

!
Ex.!2.37!Becky!Llewellyn,!Song(Web,!‘beatless’!tremolo,!bars!1T6!

The!‘oneThanded’!roll!technique!is!also!transferable!to!membranophones!and!
metal!idiophones.238!It!is!currently!the!subject!of!experimentation!on!a!variety!of!
these!instruments,!exploring!the!extent!of!its!musical!applicability.!Furthermore!
the!concept!is!applicable!to!finger!technique!as!shown!here!(see!ex.!2.38).!

!
Ex.!2.38!Finger!technique!on!Snare!Drum!–!playing!a!roll!in!one!hand!and!rhythmic!
figures!(stems!up)!with!the!other.!R.!Pusz,!an(if…?!EauTClaire!WI,!Really!Good!Music,!2015,!
p.!2,!bars!33T34!

Finally,!there!is!a!roll!technique!that!is!based!on!an!idea!proposed!in!1961!by!
Warren!Benson!in!his!Three(Dances(for(Solo(Snare(Drum.!The!technique!is!a!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
237 !http://www.mikebalter.com/!accessed!23!February!2016*
238 !At!times!others!have!referred!to!it!as!‘the!Pusz!roll’!

104!!
‘stickTbounce’!roll!and!essentially!is!played!by!resting!one!stick!on!the!Drum!and!
striking!it!with!the!other!so!that!it!bounces!on!the!head,!producing!two!sounds,!a!
stick!click!and!the!normal!snare!drum!sound!(see!ex.!2.39).239!

!
Ex.!2.39!‘StickTbounce’!roll,!W!Benson,!Fandango,(Three(Dances(for(Solo(Snare(Drum,!Los!
Angeles,!Chappell,!1962,!p.!5,(bars!33T35(

Benson’s!intention!was!to!produce!two!sounds!–!sixteenth!notes!of!a!snare!drum!
sound!and!eighth!notes!of!stick!clicks;!and!the!effect!was!discrete!from!preceding!
or!following!actions.!This!however!can!be!expanded!to!play!a!roll!with!a!double!
or!greater!bounce!for!every!hit!of!the!stick;!and!the!effect!and!the!technique!of!
producing!it!are!currently!also!the!subject!of!experimentation,!exploring!
different!nuances!of!sound!from!the!Snare!Drum!(see!ex.2.10).!!

!
Plate!2.10.!Playing!instructions!legend,!R.!Pusz,!Continuity!manuscript,!2015!

This!has!further!technical!implications!for!refining!the!accuracy!of!stick!
placement!to!bring!out!the!nuances!of!sound,!implications!that!will!lead!to!
further!development!of!mallet!control.!

A!deeper!analysis!of!the!problems!and!potential!associated!with!long!sounds!is!
beyond!the!scope!of!this!dissertation,!but!is!worthy!of!further!investigation.!
Clearly,!the!sounds!of!the!percussion!instruments!present!an!intricate!picture.!
The!manner!of!their!execution!is!affected!by!the!nature!of!the!instruments,!by!the!
types!of!beaters,!by!the!musical!context!and!the!compositional!intent.!On!the!
other!hand!the!range!of!nuances!of!these!sounds!continues!to!increase!and!in!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
239 !This!roll!does!not!have!a!name.!‘StickTbounce’!is!the!name!I!have!given!it!as!it!describes!the!
action!of!playing.!

! 105!
 turn!affect!manner!of!playing,!beaters!used,!sound!sources!and!compositional!
possibilities.!
!
2.4*Notation*

As!evidenced!above,!the!notation!of!these!different!sounds!is!also!quite!variable.!
In!the!absence!of!universal!compositional!guidelines!for!this!hybrid!and!
changeable!instrument!of!multiTpercussion,!composers!have!usually!written!in!a!
local!context,!using!the!specific!instruments!of!their!locality,!and!done!so!in!a!
notation!system!that!accorded!with!their!cultural!and!personal!understanding!of!
the!instruments!and!music.!As!a!result!percussionists!have!had!to!learn!five!
completely!different!systems!of!notation.!This!situation!is!peculiar!to!percussion!
only.240 !

The!first!system!is!a!conventional!staff!notation!in!the!appropriate!clef!with!time!
and!key!signatures!and!traditional!use!of!notes!and!musical!signs.!Obviously!its!
usage!is!restricted!to!situations!where!no!further!explanation!is!required,!such!as!
the!Tuned!percussion!instruments.!However!this!is!only!relatively!successful!in!
Score

its!transferability.!It!can!also!be!used!in!multiTpercussion!works!written!for!a!
Score
homogeneous!sound!such!as!four!tomTtoms.!In!this!case!it!can!be!safely!assumed!
that!principles!of!register!apply!in!a!relative!sense,!and!there!is!no!doubt!as!to!
4 œ œ ? 4 œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ ˙ ! ! !
which!are!the!high!and!low!sounds!(see!ex.!2.40).!!
Timpani œ ˙
? 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ ˙ ! ã 44 œ œ! œ œ œ œ! œœ œœ !˙
Timpani 4 œ œ ˙ œ œ ˙ ! ! !
!!!!or !
4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ ˙ 7? !
ã 4 œ œ ˙ ! ã œ !œ œ œ œ œ !œ œ œœ œœ ! ˙˙
Ex.!2.40!Conventional!staff!notation,!writing!for!homogenous!sounds!
Timp. ! ! !

? ! ã œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ ˙˙ ã ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
7
!However,!for!a!piece!containing!dissimilar!instruments!such!as!woodblock,!
7

Timp.
cowbell,!cymbal!and!tomTtom,!this!system!of!conventional!notation!would!be!

! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !
7
inadequate!without!explanation!or!legend.!A!further!limitation!is!that!it!is!
ã ! ! ! !
14

ã Timp.
incapable!of!addressing!logistical!playing!difficulties!of!disparate!instruments.!

! ! ! ! !ã ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
14 14

Timp. ã !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! ! ! ! Timp. !ã ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
14
240 !I!first!researched!this!aspect!of!percussion!during!my!studies!under!Professor!George!Gaber!
23

ã at!Indiana!University!in!1977!and!wrote!a!seminar!paper.!R.!Pusz,!A(Brief(Consideration(of(
Notational(Problems(Associated(with(Multi[Percussion(Solos.!

! ! ! ! ! !
23

!! ! ! !ã ! ! !
23

Timp. ã 106!

! ! ! ! ! ! !
23
Furthermore,!in!a!multiple!instrument!setting!even!where!only!one!instrument!
at!a!time!is!played,!conventional!notation!requires!discrete!instructions!for!each!
instrument!including!also!which!beaters!are!needed.!This!system!is!evident!in!
the!‘Paris!Conservatoire!School’.!It!is,!nonetheless,!limited!in!its!usefulness!to!
situations!where!the!player!has!sufficient!time!to!read!and!make!the!upcoming!
changes!(see!ex.!2.41).!In!more!contemporary!multiTpercussion!arrangements!
however,!the!time!to!read!multiple!discrete!directions!as!well!as!make!changes!is!
often!not!available!to!the!player!and!so!this!‘conventional!with!instructions’!form!
of!notation!is!inappropriate.!The!piece!by!Desportes,!though!sparsely!notated!
demonstrates!this.!

!
Ex.!2.41!Conventional!staff!notation!with!instructions,!Desportes!Thème(et(Variations,(
Paris,!LeDuc,!1948,!(Four!Timpani,!Bas!Drum,!Snare!Drum!two!TomTtoms,!Tambourine,!
Cymbal,!Castanets,!Woodblock,!TamTtam!Bells,!Cowbell,!Triangle,!Xylophone,!
Vibraphone),!bars!184T197!

Thirdly,!in!an!attempt!to!better!express!musical!ideas,!some!composers!have!still!
used!conventional!notation!but!with!deviations!from!the!norm!by!using!symbols!
differently!and!inventing!others.!Some!examples!are!the!modified!use!of!staves,!
time!signature,!note!groupings!and!symbols.!As!these!deviations!are!not!
standard!the!percussionist!has!to!learn!each!set!of!symbols!as!they!apply!to!the!
specific!piece.!For!example,!in!Rudziński’s!Variations(and(Fugue!(see!ex.!2.52T
2.54)!staves!are!not!five!lines,!but!related!to!the!number!of!instruments!used!in!
any!one!group;!and!not!all!the!staves!used!are!necessarily!present!at!any!one!
place!if!that!group!of!instruments!is!not!being!used.!While!this!gives!the!
composer!more!flexibility!it!can!be!confusing!to!the!performer,!especially!if!used!
excessively;!and!although!the!wide!spacing!of!staff!lines!makes!for!easier!reading!
within!any!one!group,!the!six!staves!together!take!up!half!a!page!of!manuscript!

! 107!
making!the!whole!piece!an!unwieldy!twentyTfive!pages!long.!The!difficulty!of!
turning!pages!when!both!hands!are!used!to!play!the!notes!means!either!have!
large!scores!containing!four!or!five!pages!on!a!total!of!five!or!six!stands,!or!
playing!the!work!from!memory.!The!latter!involves!a!great!deal!of!practice;!and!
the!former!requires!reading!the!music!at!awkward!angles!and!it!obscures!the!
audience’s!view!of!the!player.!These!two!excerpts!show!these!difficulties!(see!ex.!
2.42!and!2.43).!

!
Ex.!2.42!Conventional!notations!with!variations,!Witold!Rudziński,!Variations(and(Fugue,!
Variation(IV,!Kraków,!PWM,!1965,!p.!5,(‘bars’!90T98!

!
Ex.!2.43!Conventional!notations!with!variations,!Witold!Rudziński,!Variations(and(Fugue,!
Variation(VI,!p.!9,!‘bars’!138T141!

The!omission!of!time!signatures!by!Rudziński,!although!innovative!for!his!
purposes!of!creating!a!seamless!flow!of!sound!or!moving!possibly!in!certain!
timbral!phrases!(see!ex.!2.44),!creates!difficulties!for!the!percussionist’s!
responsibility!to!interpret!the!musical!intent!of!the!piece,!as!the!meter!changes!

108!!
 frequently.!This!omission!of!time!signatures!is!a!direct!consequence!of!the!cutT
away!notation!typically!seen!in!scores!of!the!music!of!the!Polish!‘Sonoristic’!
School!in!the!1960s!and!1970s.241!

Score

Score !

3 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœœœ œ œ
e Ex.!2.44!Conventional!notations!with!variations,!Witold!Rudziński,!Theme,!p.1,(bars!8T21!

4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
This!lack!of!clarity!allows!for!variable!interpretations!as!seen!in!this!example!of! œ œ

œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœœœ œ œ
playing!variations!of!the!Bongo!section!on!the!first!page!(see!ex.!2.45).!Each!note!
34
L R R L R L R R L R L R L R R L R L R L L R L R

œ œ œœœœ œ œ
œ
4œ œœ œ œ œ œœœ œ œ œœ œ œœœ œ œ œœ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœœ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ œœ œ œ œ œœ œœ
œ œœ
grouping!determines!a!specific!type!of!phrasing!resulting!in!very!different!
œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œinterpretations.! œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
L R R L R L R R L R L R L R R L R L R L L R L R

œ œ œ œœ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ7 œœœœœœ œ œ œœœœœœ œœ œœœ œœ œ œœœœ œœœ œœœ œ œœœ œ œœ œ œ œœ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ

L R R L R L R R L R L R L R R L L RR R L L R RL L L RR RL LR R L R L R R L R L R L L R L R L R R L R L R R L R L R
4

œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœœ œ œ œœ œ œœ œœ œœ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
R L R L R R L R La)!
R L R R L L R R L R R L L R L LR RL RR L !!!!
R L b)!
R L R R L R L R L L R L R !! L R R L R L R R L R L R
R R L R L R R L R L R L R R L R L R L L R L R L R R L L R RL RR LR R L RL LR RR L R L R

œœ œ œœ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œœ œ10œœ œœ œ œœ œœ œœœœ œœ œœ œ œœ œ œœœ œœœœ œœœ œœœœœ œ œœ œ œ œœ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ

7

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œœœ œ œœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
R L R R L R L R L R R L R L R L L R L R L R R L R LL RR R LL RR LL R R R L R L R
c)!! L R R L R L R R L R L R !!! d)! L R R L R L R R L R L R !
œœ œ œœ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œœ œ13œœ œœ œ œœœ œœœœ œœ œœ œœ œ œœ œœ œ œ œ œœœœ œœ œœ œœœœ œœœœœ! œœœ œœ œœ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ Ex.!2.45!Amended!beams!and!added!sticking!showing!different!interpretive!possibilities
œ
10

œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œœ œœ œ œ œ œœ œ œœ œœ œœ œœ œ
œ œ œfrom!Witold!Rudziński,!Variations(and(Fugue,!p.!1,!bars!14T18! œœ œœ
L R R L R L R R L R L R
L R R L RL LR R
R LR RL LR RL RR L R L R L R R L R L R R L R L R
Some!composers!also!have!used!a!graphic!or!spatioTtemporal!symbol!system!of!
L R R L R L R R L R L R L R R L R L R R L R L R

œ œ œ œ œœ œ œœ œœ œ œœ œœœ œœ œ œ œ œœ œ œœœ œœ œœœ œ œ œœ œœœœ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œœœœ œœ œ œ notation,!with!abstract!signs!to!represent!the!sounds.!Karlheinz!Stockhausen!in!
œ œ œ œ œ œ ! œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ ! œ
œ ! œ œ
13 16

œ œ œœ œ œœ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ œ œ œ œ
œ his!Zyklus!(’cycle’!or!‘circle’)!uses!this!system,!with!a!setTup!diagram,!legend!and!
R R L R L R R L R LL RR RL LR RR LLL R
RR R
LR RLL RRR LLL RRRLR RL RL LR R
R L LR RL RR LR RL LR RL R
R L R L R L R R L R L R R L R L R

œ œ œ œ œ œ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
œ œ16 19œ œ œ œ œ œ
!œ œ 241œ œ œ œ œ! œ œ!œ! œ œ œ œ œ! œ œ !œ! !!
!Information!courtesy!of!Professor!Charles!Bodman!Rae,!who!studied!at!the!Chopin!Academy!
of!Music,!Warsaw,!Poland!from!1981T1983.!
R L R R L R L R L R R L R L R R L R L R L R R L R L R R L R L R

! ! ! ! ! !
!! !! !!
! 19 22
109!
detailed!explanation!in!three!languages!on!how!to!interpret!his!notation!(see!
plate!2.11).!Composed!as!a!test!piece!for!the!Kranichstein!Music!Prize!for!
percussion!players!in!1959,!the!work!derives!its!inspiration!from!Webern’s!Five(
Movements!for!String!Quartet!(1909)!and!develops!the!“concept!of!serially!
mediating!between!the!extremes!of!any!musical!parameter![a]s!a!principle!of!
organization”.242!
!

! !
Plate!2.11!Diagram!and!pictogram!legend!(fragment),!Stockhausen,!Zyklus(London,!
Universal!Edition,!1960!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
242 !Niel!DePonte,!‘No.!9!Zyklus:!How!and!Why?’,!The(Percussionist,!February!1973,!p.!136!

110!!
The!piece!can!start!at!any!point!and!go!in!either!direction!before!returning!to!its!
starting!note!(see!ex.!2.46).!So!this!page!can!also!be!played!in!reverse!(see!ex.!
2.47).!

!
Ex.!2.46!Graphic!notation,!Stockhausen!Zyklus,!starting!the!page!on!tomTtoms!and!bells!
243 !

!
Ex.!2.47!Graphic!notation,!Stockhausen!Zyklus,!starting!the!same!page!on!TomTtoms,!
Snare!Drum!and!Vibraphone!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
243 !Karlheinz!Stockhausen,!op.cit.!It!is!not!possible!to!give!a!page!number!as!none!is!provided,!
nor!possible!given!that!the!performance!can!start!on!any!page.!

! 111!
Again!the!symbols!are!not!standard!and!the!percussionist!has!to!learn!them!as!
they!apply!to!the!specific!piece.!In!Zyklus!the!player!is!surrounded!by!the!
instruments,!so!to!read!the!music!again!involves!some!contortion,!moving!back!
and!forth!round!the!circle!of!sounds!(see!ex.!2.48!and!plate!2.12)!

Ex.!2.48!Graphic!notation!and!movement,!Stockhausen!Zyklus,!excerpt,!nominal(p.!1244!

!
Plate!2.12!Layout!diagram,!Stockhausen,!Zyklus!

In!this!excerpt!(see!ex.!2.58)!playing!on!HiThat,!TomTtoms!and!Marimba!involves!
playing!entries!quickly!across!threeTquarters!of!the!circle,!as!seen!in!the!layout!
diagram.!At!best,!the!music!can!only!be!a!guide,!and!the!essence!of!the!piece!
needs!to!be!played!from!memory.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
244 !Karlheinz!Stockhausen,!op.cit.!The!nominal!page!number!is!my!own!and!indicates!my!starting!
point!when!I!performed!the!work!in!1978.!

112!!
The!fifth!notational!system!uses!a!combination!of!all!the!above,!giving!a!legend!
explaining!symbols!used!to!effect!particular!sounds,!a!layout!diagram!showing!
placement!of!instruments,!and!possibly!instructions!on!specific!matters.!William!
Kraft!wrote!this!Sarabande!as!part!of!an!English(Suite,!for!untuned!instruments!in!
an!old!dance!form.!He!provides!a!legend,!and!no!diagram,!though!it!can!be!
assumed!from!the!legend!to!be!an!arched!line!of!drums!with!a!second!line!above!
them!and!further!from!the!player,!of!cymbals!and!triangle!(see!plate!2.13).!

!
Plate!2.13!Legend,!William!Kraft,!Sarabande!from!English(Suite!New!York,!Award!Music,!
1975,!p.!1!

The!piece!is!very!specific!as!to!the!types!of!sounds!he!wants,!and!this!section!
shows!the!part!of!the!Cymbal!to!be!played,!and!with!what!part!of!the!beater!(see!
ex.!2.49).!

!
Ex.!2.49!Notation!with!legend,!symbols,!instructions,!William!Kraft,!Sarabande!from!
English(Suite,(bars!53T59,!p.!2.!Section!shows!a!roll!on!the!lowest!Cymbal!with!soft!
mallets,!and!precise!rhythmic!figures!on!different!parts!of!the!Cymbal!with!the!cane!
handle!of!the!mallet!

Kraft!also!provides!a!very!detailed!set!of!instructions!on!how!to!execute!the!
various!figures!(see!plate!2.14).!

! 113!
 !
Plate!2.14!Playing!instructions!Kraft!Sarabande,!p.!3!

These!five!systems!of!notation!are!further!complicated!by!certain!elements!that!
are!peculiar!to!percussion.!As!shown!above,!the!notation!of!long!sounds!is!not!
uniform!and!moreover!not!always!clear!as!to!intent.!For!example,!whether!a!roll!
'5-stroke' roll '7-stroke' roll
on!snare!drum!is!written!with!an!eighthTnote!or!quarterTnote!ending!would! played
œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
written played
ã @œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
written
œ
æ @
make!little!difference!to!its!execution,!as!it!would!finish!on!that!last!note!rather!
or
than!be!played!for!its!length!(see!ex.!2.50).!

Ÿ~~~~ Ÿ~~~
R R L L R R R L L R R L

ã ! ˙ œ
J
˙ œ ˙ œ ˙ œ
æ J æ
or or
!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Ex.!2.50!Tremolo!roll!notation!

ã
Moreover,!without!further!instruction!or!understanding!of!the!piece!it!is!not!
obvious!which!of!the!multipleTbounce!rolls!would!be!used.!On!timpani!however,!

ã ! ! ! ! !
the!same!notation!would!be!played!with!the!end!of!the!roll!dampened!in!the!first! ! !
example,!and!allowed!to!vibrate!in!the!second.!These!rolls!on!timpani!could!also!
be!notated!as!follows,!and!the!sound!would!be!the!same!as!above!(see!ex.!2.51).!

114!!
 œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
written played

ã @œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
written
œ
played

æ or @
Ÿ~~~~ Ÿ~~~
R R L L R R R L L R R L

! ˙ œ
J
˙ œ ˙ œ ˙ œ !
æ J æ
or or
!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Ex.!2.51!Traditional,!rudimental!roll!notation!

These!various!notation!systems!all!need!to!be!learned!in!order!to!be!able!to!play!
the!works,!a!task!made!even!more!difficult!by!the!fact!that!even!within!the!

! ! ! ! ! !
systems,!except!for!the!first,!the!combinations!of!instruments!are!different!for!
! !
every!piece,!and!so!therefore!are!the!legend,!the!instructions,!and!the!beaters.!
The!legend!and!instructions!are!often!only!in!one!language,!and!the!beater!
indications!can!be!very!vague!or!sometimes!too!manufacturer–specific,!both!of!
which!also!impose!another!level!of!technical!difficulty!to!be!mastered.!!

There!is!also!the!matter!of!note!shapes.!Some!are!easy!to!identify!and!use!such!as!
triangleTshaped!note!heads!for!triangle!as!they!can!be!adapted!to!clearly!show!
half!notes!and!whole!notes.!The!‘x’!note!head!on!the!other!hand!is!awkward,!
because!it!does!not!clearly!show!the!longer!sounds,!and!has!also!been!used!in!so!
many!different!situations!that!it!does!not!have!a!clear!identity.!It!has!been!used!
for!rim!shots,!playing!on!the!rim,!woodblocks,!cymbals!and!different!effects,!and!
these!uses!are!not!uniform.245!

These!systems!of!notation!place!extra!levels!of!responsibility!onto!the!player.!
Five!different!systems,!most!with!ad(hoc!application,!still!developing!and!doing!
so!in!a!piecemeal!manner!with!no!logic!or!overTriding!principles,!have!important!
implications!for!the!percussionist.!Each!idiom!must!be!learned!in!order!to!
interpret!the!intent!of!the!piece!before!the!piece!itself!can!be!learned.!This!is!so!
not!just!for!multiTpercussion!pieces,!but!also!for!monoTpercussion!works!as!the!
newer!composition!are!using!these!idioms!across!the!board!on!all!percussion!
pieces!as!composers!seek!new!sounds!and!modes!of!expression!on!an!increasing!
variety!of!instruments.!

!
©

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
245 !There!have!been!attempts!to!simplify!notational!approaches!with!the!use!of!pictograms,!
though!each!composer!has!used!his/her!own!system.!But!there!is!now!an!online!version!which!
seeks!to!amalgamate!these!various!systems,!https://w3c.github.io/smufl/gitbook/index.html!
accessed!20!February!2016!

! 115!
2.5*Logistics*

Another!aspect!of!technique!and!related!to!notation!is!the!matter!of!logistics.!The!
setTup!of!the!instruments,!especially!in!multiTpercussion,!needs!to!allow!easy!
access!to!all!the!instruments,!in!a!manner!that!as!much!as!possible,!does!not!
obscure!the!sight!of!the!audience.!It!should!also!reflect!the!notation,!and!there!
are!different!methods!of!determining!what!is!appropriate.!As!seen!above,!Kraft!in!
his!English(Suite!(see!ex.!2.59)!notates!the!drums!in!the!spaces!of!the!staff!and!
the!cymbals!and!triangle!on!the!lines.!!

This!setTup!indicates!one!important!issue,!of!using!staff!notation!as!a!guiding!
principle!for!setting!up.!Furthermore,!this!principle!can!be!extended.!In!staff!
notation!the!high!sounds!are!on!the!player’s!right!and!low!sounds!on!his/her!left.!
However,!high!sound!can!also!be!set!up!on!a!higher!plane,!and!low!on!a!lower!
plane,!high!can!also!be!in!front!and!low!behind.!Instruments!can!also!be!set!up!on!
the!principle!of!separation,!with,!for!example,!metal!sounds!on!the!right!wood!in!
front!and!skin!on!the!left;!and!they!can!be!grouped!according!to!types!of!beaters.!
There!is!however,!one!caveat.!The!German!style!of!timpani!places!the!higher!
timpani!on!the!left!of!the!player!and!the!lowest!on!the!right.246!If!this!is!extended!
to!multiTpercussion!a!staff!notation!setTup!would!be!reversed.!

As!much!as!possible!the!notation!and!setTup!should!reflect!each!other,!so!that,!for!
example,!if!a!piece!is!written!for!marimba,!woodblocks!and!gongs,!it!makes!sense!
to!place!the!woodblocks!above!the!marimba,!away!from!the!player.!They!should!
then!appear!on!the!staff!above!the!marimba!staff.!The!gongs!present!another!
difficulty!by!the!manner!of!their!mounting.!If!they!are!placed!above!the!marimba!
and!woodblocks!they!could!obscure!the!audience’s!view!of!the!action!of!the!
piece,!while!placing!them!at!either!end!of!the!marimba!could!pose!problems!for!
the!player.!Possibly!placing!them!behind!the!player!would!be!the!best!option.!But!
whichever!way!they!are!notated,!the!specifics!of!the!notation!and!setTup!are!a!
matter!of!technical!practice!for!the!player,!and!need!to!be!incorporated!into!the!
practice!schedule.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
246 !Blades,!op.cit.,!pp.!233T234!

116!!
!

2.6*Visual*Aesthetics*

The!importance!of!logistics!and!movement!touches!on!another!issue!–!the!visual!
aesthetics!of!performance.!For!percussionists!this!involves!the!movement!of!the!
player,!which!needs!to!be!congruent!with!the!mood!of!the!piece!and!the!spatial!
management!of!the!stage,!which!includes!the!setTup!details!of!the!instruments,!
staging!of!the!entire!performance,!and!lighting!and!other!effects!that!enhance!the!
performance.!

As!demonstrated!above,!percussionists!move!more!than!other!instrumentalists.!
One!of!the!earliest!composers!to!voice!an!opinion!on!the!matter!was!Stravinsky,!
who!from!the!point!of!view!of!performance!was!attracted!by!the!idea!of!

…the!interest!afforded!to!the!spectator!by!being!able!to!see!these!
instrumentalists!each!playing!his!own!part!in!the!ensemble…The!sight!of!the!
gestures!and!movements!of!the!various!parts!of!the!body!producing!the!music!is!
fundamentally!necessary!if!it!is!to!be!grasped!in!all!its!fullness…why!not!follow!
with!the!eye!such!movements!as!those!of!the!drummer,!the!violinist,!or!the!
trombonist,!which!facilitate!one’s!auditory!perceptions?247!

With!this!decision!the!instrumentalists,!comprising!six!percussionists!and!four!
pianists,!were!elevated!from!the!‘pit’!to!a!level!of!artistic!presentation!of!equal!
status!with!actors,!dancers,!and!visual!artists.!He!extended!this!concept!in!Les(
Noces248!

!Inspired!by!the!same!reasons!as!in!the!Histoire(du(Soldat,249!I!wanted!all!my!
instrumental!apparatus!to!be!visible!side!by!side!with!the!actors!or!dancers,!
making!it,!so!to!speak,!a!participant!in!the!whole!theatrical!action.!For!this!
reason,!I!wished!to!place!the!orchestra!on!the!stage!itself,!letting!the!actors!move!
on!the!space!remaining!free.!The!fact!that!the!artistes!in!the!scene!would!
uniformly!wear!costumes!of!Russian!character!while!the!musicians!would!be!in!
evening!dress!not!only!did!not!embarrass!me,!but,!on!the!contrary,!was!perfectly!
in!keeping!with!my!idea!of!a!divertissement!of!the!masquerade!type.250!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
247 !Stravinsky,!op.(cit.!p.!122!

248 !Stravinsky,!Les(Noces,!London,!Chester!Music,!1923!

249 !Stravinsky!is!inconsistent!in!his!use!or!not!of!the!definite!article!‘le’!when!referring!to!this!
work,!which!could!reflect!that!fact!that!the!Russian!does!not!use!it!
250 !Igor!Stravinsky,!Chronicle(of(My(Life,!Translated!from!the!French,!London,!Gollancz,!1936,!p.!
175!

! 117!
In!light!of!Stravinsky’s!comments!about!the!relationship!between!sight!and!
sound,!this!decision!has!had,!and!continues!to!have!ramifications!for!the!
presentation!of!percussion!performance.!!

The!discussion!earlier!on!movement!in!a!piece!involving!marimba,!woodblocks!
and!gongs!did!present!a!problem!in!Black,(White(and(Rose!by!Tristram!Cary.!The!
gongs!when!they!were!placed!in!front!of!(from!the!audience’s!view)!the!
marimba,!both!obscured!the!view!for!a!part!of!the!audience,!and!involved!an!
awkward!movement!to!play!them.!Moreover,!as!they!needed!to!be!struck!
simultaneously,!they!could!not!be!placed!at!each!end!of!the!marimba,!and!placing!
them!both!at!one!end!was!also!impractical!as!one!needed!to!be!near!each!end.!!

The!only!other!possibility!was!to!place!them!behind!the!player.!However,!if!they!
were!low!they!were!difficult!to!play,!and!if!high,!the!action!of!moving!the!beaters!
backwards!looked!clumsy.!The!solution!that!presented!itself!was!to!place!them!
on!high!stands,!behind!and!at!an!angle!to!the!marimba!so!that!most!gong!entries!
could!be!executed!with!a!flowing!movement!with!occasional!quick!and!dramatic!
turns!to!play!them!with!a!definitive!stroke,!and!hold!the!pose.!Those!moments!
were!dramatic,!and!the!movement!needed!to!enhance!that,!so!to!stand!absolutely!
still!at!the!end!of!the!stroke!was!also!necessary!for!both!the!visual!drama!of!the!
moment!and!the!music.!This!aspect!of!performance!also!needs!practice.!

This!staging!of!percussion!pieces!is!another!technical!aspect!of!performance!
presentation!that!needs!careful!consideration.!The!staging!of!works!that!have!
large!and!diverse!setTups!runs!the!risk!of!being!a!display!of!moving!furniture!
more!than!a!concert.!In!this!respect,!utilising!different!levels!of!staging!can!also!
enhance!a!performance,!as!can!the!use!of!stage!lighting.!However,!these!two!
aspects!need!careful!consideration!in!the!context!of!the!music!being!presented.!!

It!is!important!to!note!also!that!a!certain!amount!of!shared!technique!has!
developed!across!instruments.!For!example!the!‘rolling!action’!used!in!playing!

118!!
tremolos!on!marimba!is!also!used!in!playing!rolls!on!bass!drum;251!doubleTstroke!
roll!action!on!Snare!Drum!is!adaptable!for!playing!fast!double!strokes!on!
marimba!and!can!also!be!used!for!different!effects!on!timpani.!Finger!techniques!
are!similarly!used!to!educe!sounds!from!various!instruments!normally!played!
with!beaters!such!as!tomTtoms,!snare!drums!and!timpani!and!the!different!
beaters!can!be!used!across!a!range!of!instruments.!The!techniques!of!playing!
multiTpercussion!essentially!are!an!amalgamation!of!the!techniques!of!playing!
the!various!instruments!within!the!setTup.!But!their!application!to!a!broader!and!
more!exacting!soundscape!has!intensified!their!execution!through!the!greater!
musical!demands!of!the!pieces!and!by!extension!refined!them!when!reapplied!to!
the!original!instruments.!This!flexibility!of!technique!application!across!the!
range!of!instruments!has!been!made!possible!by!the!basic!wrist!action!and!
furthermore!it!has!contributed!directly!to!significant!developments!in!
percussion!playing!and!performance.!252!

In!conclusion,!percussion!technique!is!much!more!than!just!mastering!the!
playing!of!notes.!The!issues!of!playing!action,!movement,!sound,!notation,!
logistics!and!visual!aesthetics!of!performance!all!play!a!role,!and!are!still!all!
developing!alongside!developments!in!composition!and!instruments!and!beaters.!
This!area!of!music!making!is!still!developing!as!techniques!move!away!from!the!
limitations!of!traditional!contexts,!and!percussionists!focus!more!on!treating!the!
instruments!as!sound!sources!from!which!a!variety!of!sounds!can!be!educed.!As!a!
result,!techniques!continue!to!develop!in!order!to!play!as!wide!a!range!of!sounds!
as!possible,!as!every!sound,!short!of!any!that!will!damage!the!participants!or!
instruments,!is!a!legitimate!sound;!and!to!understand!the!place!of!those!sounds!
in!the!musical!firmament.!

In!the!following!chapters,!these!issues!and!the!interrelationships!between!
technique,!the!instruments,!and!the!repertoire!will!be!analysed!in!the!detail!of!
four!specific!works!in!the!repertoire.!Three!contexts!have!been!chosen!as!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
251 !This!action!is!used!for!oneThanded!Bass!Drum!rolls!with!a!twoTheaded!mallet.!

252 !This!aspect!of!technique!has!not!been!enunciated!as!it!is!still!developing.!

! 119!
representative:!Percussion!Solo,!Percussion!in!Chamber!Music,!and!Percussion!
Ensemble.!The!specific!works!are!Darius!Milhaud’s!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(
orchestre,!as!the!first!percussion!concerto,!and!Peter!Sculthorpe’s!Sonata(for(
Viola(and(Percussion,!as!the!first!Australian!work!for!percussion!in!chamber!
music.!For!the!chapter!on!percussion!ensemble!two!Australian!works!will!be!
analysed!and!compared!according!to!musical!intent.!Eric!Bryce!in!his!Suite(for(
Percussion(Quintet!presents!a!Jazz!piece!for!percussion!ensemble.!David!
Morgan's!Loss!delves!into!the!nuances!of!the!title!in!personal,!political!and!
religious!contexts.!These!four!pieces!will!be!analysed!and!compared!in!the!
context!of!their!musical!intent!and!the!relationship!with!technique!and!
instruments.!

120!!
Chapter*3*Solo:*Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre*by*
Darius*Milhaud*
*
3.1*Introduction*
In!1929,!Darius!Milhaud!wrote!his!Concerto(pour(Batterie(et(Petit(Orchestre!in!
response!to!a!request!from!respected!Belgian!Timpanist!Theo!Coutelier!who!
asked!Milhaud!for!a!concerto!for!a!single!percussionist!as!an!examination!piece!
for!his!students.253!According!to!the!composer:!!

Coutelier!wished!to!use!this!piece!for!his!examinations!(for!his!percussion!class!
in!Schaerbeeck!near!Brussels).!The!idea!seduced!me,!and!this!is!how!I!came!to!
the!concerto.…!It!is!a!work!of!dramatic!character.254!
For!reasons!of!grammatical!expediency!the!work!will!be!referred!to!as!the!
Concerto!for!the!remainder!of!the!chapter.!!

The!notion!of!a!concerto!for!a!single!percussionist!was!a!new!concept!and!indeed!
posed!a!radical!departure!from!the!norm.!Moreover,!the!work!was!scored!for!the!
purposes!of!examination,!and!as!such!needed!to!test!techniques!of!rolls!and!
grace!notes,!control!of!dynamics!and!articulation,!timpani!tuning,!and!techniques!
of!playing!accessory!orchestral!instruments.!Milhaud!however,!placed!these!
elements!within!a!piece!of!music,!the!presentation!of!which!is!the!ultimate!aim!of!
any!technique.!And!he!decided!to!base!it!on!the!musical!strengths!of!the!
instruments!to!produce!drama!and!atmosphere,!the!elements!for!which!he!used!
percussion!in!his!theatrical!works.!As!the!first!such!piece!for!percussion,!the!
Concerto!has!an!intrinsic!significance.!It!will!be!analysed!in!terms!of!the!
influences!on!Milhaud,!his!approach!to!music,!the!elements!of!the!work,!
discrepancies!within!it,!matters!of!interpretation,!ongoing!significance!and!the!
challenges!it!presents!for!performance.!

!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
253Stephen!W.!Dodge,!‘The!Concerto(Pour(Batterie(et(Petit(Orchestre!By!Darius!Milhaud!with a
Look at Percussion In His Musical Life’, Percussive notes, 1979, p. 58!
254 !Michael!Steinberg,!‘Program!Notes!on!Concerto!for!Percussion!and!Small!Orchestra’!The(San(
Francisco(Symphony(Program(Book,!October!30TNovember!1!1986,!pp.!17AT18.!

! 121!
3.2*Background:*early*writing*for*percussion*

Previously!percussion!was!used!sparingly!in!orchestras!consistent!with!the!
AustroTGermanic!tradition!where!it!was!deployed!primarily!for!reinforcement!of!
volume!and!harmony!(in!a!generic!sense)!and!to!accentuate!rhythmic!
emphasis.255!On!the!other!hand!pursuit!of!FrancoTRussian!traditions!of!
compositions!yielded!more!adventurous!use!of!percussion,!but!still!only!in!a!
representational!sense.!!

One!of!the!earliest!works!to!call!for!the!snare!drum!is!the!opera!Alçione,!written!
by!Marin!Marais!and!premiered!in!Paris!on!February!18,!1706.!In!this!work,!
Marais!utilized!the!snare!drum!in!the!tempest!scene!to!imitate!the!sound!of!a!
storm.!He!calls!for!the!“Tambourin”!to!roll!continuously,!in!an!effort!to!produce!
the!sound!of!thunder!and!rain.!256!

These!limited!uses!of!percussion!progressed!into!and!through!the!nineteenth!
century.!Distinctive!examples!are!Bizet!using!castanets!to!convey!the!Spanish!
setting!of!his!opera!Carmen,!Tchaikovsky!writing!for!tambourine!in!the!Arabic(
Dance!of!his!Nutcracker(Suite,!and!SaintTSaëns!representing!dancing!skeletons!on!
the!xylophone!in!Danse(Macabre!and!Carnival(of(the(Animals.!

Nevertheless,!the!prevailing!attitude!to!percussion!clearly!favoured!this!
secondary!role.!RimskyTKorsakov!in!his!Principles(of(Orchestration!stated!in!the!
section!titled!‘Percussion!instruments!producing!indefinite!sounds’!

!Instruments!in!this!group,!such!as!Triangle,!Castanets,!little!bells,!Tambourine,!
switch!or!rod!(Rute,!Ger.),!side!or!military!drum,!Cymbals,!Bass!Drum,!and!
Chinese!gong!do!not!take!any!harmonic!or!melodic!part!in!the!orchestra,!and!can!
only!be!considered!as!ornamental!instruments!pure!and!simple.!They!have!no!
intrinsic!musical!meaning,!and!are!just!mentioned!by!the!way.257 !

Cecil!Forsyth!categorised!them!into!musical!(tuned),!and!unmusical!(untuned),!
and!advised!against!using!Bass!Drum!and!Cymbals!describing!them!as!mere!
noise.258 !Gordon!Jacob!believed!that!percussion!instruments!were!useful!in!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
255 !This!can!be!ascertained!by!a!quick!examination!of!any!of!the!scores!of!Symphonies!of,!for!
example,!Mozart,!Beethoven,!Brahms,!or!Mendelssohn.!
256 !Guy!Gregoire!Gauthreaux!II,!“Orchestral!Snare!Drum!Performance:!An!Historical!Study”,!
Doctor!of!Musical!Arts,!Louisiana!State!University,!1989!p.!60!
257 !Nikolai!RimskyTKorsakov,!Principles(of(Orchestration,!Ed!Maximilian!Steinberg,!trans.!Edward!
Agate,!NY,!Kalmus,!1912,!pp.!32T33!
258 !Cecil!Forsyth,!Orchestration,(London,!Macmillan,!1914,!p.!23!

122!!
portraying!a!sense!of!local!colour,!such!as!Bizet’s!use!of!castanets!in!Carmen!to!
reinforce!its!Spanish!setting.259!As!late!as!1959!Joseph!Wagner!advised!

!Percussion!instruments!are!of!value!only!when!they!can!add!dimensions!of!
timbre!and!nuance!unobtainable!from!the!other!sections....!They!are!strictly!
supplementary!instruments!with!limited!tonal!definition!which,!in!turn,!affects!
their!scoring!values.260!

In!the!twentieth!century!however,!with!the!increase!in!contact!with!foreign!
cultures,!there!arrived!back!into!the!Art!Music!world!an!influx!of!a!wider!array!of!
percussion!instruments!than!had!hitherto!been!available.!Consequentially!new!
and!inspired!compositions!embraced!more!fully!a!dramatically!altered!
perspective!on!the!use!and!application!of!percussion!in!performance!thus!
heralding!the!advent!of!percussion!into!a!fresh!and!innovative!realm!of!musicT
writing!and!musicTmaking,!which!continues!to!this!day.!

French!composer,!Darius!Milhaud,!was!one!of!the!earliest!to!respond!to!the!
possibilities!and!potentials!offered!by!the!enlarged!pool!of!new!sounds!and!
instruments.!Indeed!he!made!the!very!first!forays!into!a!distinctive!use!of!
percussion!that!forged!new!pathways!in!its!role!and!perception.!Prior!to!this!
there!had!been!some!solo!pieces!written!for!percussion.!In!1683!the!brothers!
Philidor!wrote!a!March(for(Two(Pairs(of(Kettledrums.261!But,!as!was!usual!for!
percussion!then!it!was!a!ceremonial!fanfare,!first!performed!in!1685!in!the!court!
of!King!Louis!XIV.262!Sometime!during!the!midTeighteenth!century,!Johann!Carl!
Christian!Fischer!wrote!a!Concerto(in(C(major(for(8(Timpani(and(orchestra263(
(previously!attributed!to(Johann!Wilhelm!Hertel).264!The!drums!were!used,!not!
just!to!emphasise!the!basic!harmonies,!but!also!to!play!an!active!part!in!the!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
259!Gordon!Jacob,!Orchestral(Technique(Oxford,!Oxford!University!Press,!1931,!p.!72!!
260!Joseph!Frederick!Wagner,!Orchestration:(A(Practical(Handbook,(New!York,!McGrawTHill,!1959,!

p.!251!
261 !James!Blades,!Percussion(Instruments(and(Their(History,!London,!Faber!and!Faber,!1970,!p.!
241!
262 !http://warsoflouisxiv.blogspot.com.au/2009/04/marchTforTtwoTpairsTofTkettledrums.html!
accessed!14!April!2015!
263 !Available!on!the!CD:!18th(Century(Concertos(for(Timpani(and(Orchestra,!Jonathan!Haas!
Timpanist,!Harold!Farberman!conductor,!Bournemouth!Sinfonietta,!2002,!CRD!3449!
264 !Brett!Landry,!“The!New!Solo!Timpanist:!An!Analysis!of!Selected!Compositions!From!the!20th!
Century!Featuring!The!Timpanist”,!Master!of!Arts,!Indiana!University!of!Pennsylvania,!2012,!pp.!
6T7!still!attributes!it!to!Hertel,!but!the!article!by!Edmund!Bowles,!‘The!Kettledrum’,!Encyclopedia(
of(Percussion,!(John!Beck!ed),!New!York,!Garland,!1995,!p.!222!correctly!ascribes!it!to!Fischer!in!
accordance!with!accepted!practice.!

! 123!
development!of!the!thematic!structure!of!the!piece.!The!part!begins!traditionally,!
with!the!timpani!playing!in!fourths!at!the!beginning!of!each!bar.!This!pattern!
continues,!though!the!timpani!part!increases!in!rhythmic!complexity!till!it!plays!
throughout!the!bar!in!sixteenth!note!patterns.!Towards!the!end!of!the!first!
movement,!the!timpani!play!a!cadenza!of!the!main!theme;!and!are!then!rejoined!
by!the!rest!of!the!orchestra!for!the!final!restatement.!The!slow!movement!is!
virtually!tacet!for!the!timpani,!which!return!for!the!Allegro!of!the!third,!playing!
both!with!the!brass,!as!in!the!first!movement,!and!also!solo,!answering!or!calling!
to!the!strings.!The!extra!number!of!drums!available!to!the!composer!(comprising!
G,A,B,C,d,e,f,g)!allowed!him!to!extend!the!role!of!the!timpani!by!using!extra!notes.!
But!even!with!this!facility,!the!drums!were!only!used!in!the!loud!passages,!
underlying!the!limited!possibilities!for!the!instrument.!

Georg!Druschetsky!(Jiří!Družecký),265!an!oboist!and!timpanist,!also!wrote!a!
number!of!works!featuring!Timpani!during!the!late!eighteenth!century:!(266 !!Blair!
Sanderson!reviewed!the!Hungaroton!Classic!recording!unfavourably.Georg!
Druschetsky’s!concertos!and!concert!pieces!for!multiple!tympani!and!orchestra!
may!hold!interest!for!scholars!as!documents!of!the!truly!unusual!in!Classical!
music,!and!some!practical!value!for!tympanists![sic]!in!search!of!obscure!
repertoire;!but!the!general!listener!will!be!mildly!amused!for!about!five!
minutes,!and!then!grow!impatient!with!these!mediocre!showpieces.!The!
Concerto!for!six!tympani!and!orchestra!…!seems!pleasant!enough,!if!a!little!silly,!
like!a!joke!by!Mozart!or!Haydn.!But!as!the!piece!progresses,!the!limited!pitches,!
the!restricted!availability!of!keys,!and!the!excessive!use!of!tonic!and!dominant!
figures!in!the!thundering!solo!part!become!extremely!tiresome.!The!Concerto!
for!oboe,!eight!tympani!and!orchestra!offers!more!timbral!variety!and!a!fully!
diatonic!tuning!of!the!tympani,!but!the!work's!banality!is!pervasive,!and!the!
novelty!has!by!this!point!worn!off.!Only!the!most!stalwart!listener!will!delve!
further!into!the!Partita,!the!Gran!Sinfonia,!or!Ungaria,!which!perhaps!show!
Druschetzky!to!have!been!an!ingenious!promoter,!but!thirdTrate!as!a!composer.!
One!trusts!that!tympanist!Zoltán!Rácz!and!the!Erdödy!Chamber!Orchestra,!
under!György!Vashegyi,!enjoyed!themselves!in!performing!these!peculiar!pieces,!
but!their!evident!pleasure!is!insufficient!enough!to!alleviate!the!boredom!these!
works!induce.267!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
265 !The!name!is!spelled!variously!as!Jiří!Družecký,!Georg(Druschetzky,!Giorgio!Druschetzky,!also!
Druzechi,!Druzecky,!Druschetzki,!Držecky,!Truschetzki.!
266 !Available!on!the!CDs:!18th(Century(Concertos(for(Timpani(and(Orchestra,!CRD!3449!(footnote!
7),!and!Works(for(Timpani(and(Orchestra!(Erdődy!Chamber!Orchestra/György!Vashegyi),!HCD!
32236!
267 !Review!by!Blair!Sanderson,!http://www.allmusic.com/album/georgTdruschetzkyTworksTforT
TimpaniTandTorchestraTmw0001848965!accessed!14!April!2015!

124!!
Sanderson!makes!a!salient!point!concerning!the!lack!of!musical!interest!in!the!
piece!for!a!twentyTfirst!century!audience.!Even!for!timpanists!there!is!little!
technical!challenge!except!in!possibly!playing!the!work!on!fewer!than!six!
timpani!and!pedalling!the!note!changes,!or!replicating!the!original!playing!
conditions!of!playing!on!calfskin!heads!in!nonTairTconditioned!surroundings.!
The!unreliability!of!the!calfskin!heads!in!changing!weather!merely!served!to!
compound!the!difficulties!of!maintaining!the!accurate!tuning!so!vital!for!
instruments!playing!exposed!parts!in!ensembles.268!Despite!this!brave!attempt!
to!show!the!solo!potential!of!the!percussion!section!with!orchestra,!for!almost!
200!years!there!was!little!written!for!this!family!to!build!on!this!beginning.!And!
then!Milhaud!wrote!his!Concerto!pour(Batterie(et(Petit(Orchestre!for!a!single!
percussionist!to!undergo!examination!on!an!eclectic!collection!of!16!percussion!
instruments!and!effects,!accompanied!by!a!very!small!orchestra!

3.3*Milhaud’s*approach*to*music*

Milhaud!had!already!used!percussion!differently,!but!nevertheless!the!decision!
to!write!for!percussion,!as!opposed!to!using!them!as!effects!was!a!bold!step!and!
needs!to!be!recognised!as!such.!Had!he!merely!scored!ratchet!or!slapstick!to!
create!an!industrial!noise!for!example,!possibly!the!decision!may!have!been!too!
incongruous.!Milhaud,!however,!was!more!interested!in!the!dramatic!
possibilities!offered!by!the!untuned!field!of!sounds!as!he!had!shown!in!such!
operas!as!Les(Choéphores.!Even!this!use!of!them!though!was!in!more!of!a!
supportive!role,!albeit!an!important!one.!!

Putting!the!percussion!itself!in!the!focal!point!of!a!piece!of!music!however,!
involved!a!change!of!thinking!giving!precedence!to!the!percussion!instruments,!
and!changing!the!relationship!between!them!and!the!other!instruments!of!the!
orchestra.!Moreover,!writing!a!rhythm!for!its!own!sake!needed!a!greater!
consideration!of!the!relationship!between!the!timbre!used!and!the!sound!
produced,!and!its!further!relationship!with!the!accompanying!sound!from!the!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
268 !Edmund!Bowles,!‘The!Kettledrum’,!Encyclopedia(of(Percussion,!John!Beck!(ed),!New!York,!
Garland,!1997,!pp.!220T1!

! 125!
orchestra.!In!this!sense!the!Concerto!was!very!much!an!exploration!of!sound!
combinations!with!for!example!similar!phrases!played!on!the!metal!and!skin!
sounds!and!just!the!skins!(see!ex.!3.01).!!

! !!!!!!!!!! !

Ex.!3.01!Combining!sounds,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!22!and!34!

In!order!to!understand!Milhaud’s!motivation!in!accepting!Coutelier’s!commission!
it!is!important!to!understand!his!approach!to!music,!his!philosophy,!his!
understanding!of!sound,!and!the!relevance!of!it!to!life,!something!that!had!its!
beginnings!in!his!childhood.269 !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
269 French!anthropologist,!LéviTStrauss!relates:!"I!remember!quite!well!how,!when!I!was!living!in!
New!York!during!the!war!as!a!refugee,!I!had!dinner!once!with!the!great!French!composer!Darius!
Milhaud.!!I!asked!him,!'When!did!you!realise!that!you!were!going!to!be!a!composer?'!!He!
explained!to!me!that,!when!he!was!a!child!in!bed!slowly!falling!to!sleep,!he!was!listening!and!

126!!
Reading!his!autobiography270!one!is!struck!by!his!love!of!life!in!its!manifold!
complexities,!and!his!desire!to!express!this!in!his!music.!!

Time!after!time!we!find!Milhaud!reacting!with!joy!to!everything!human!and!with!
indifference!and!even!hostility!to!what!he!considers!narrow!individualism.!In!art!
he!is!opposed!to!any!intellectual!system!that!fetters!the!impulses!of!the!heart!and!
impedes!the!direct!flow!of!creative!energy!between!nature!and!man…Milhaud’s!
ideas,!based!on!ageTold!foundations!of!race!and!religion,!are!simple,!sensible,!and!
unsensational,!and!despite!his!attachment!to!tradition!he!always!looks!to!the!
future.!He!has!been!interested!since!childhood!in!the!concept!of!an!unfolding!
universe;!and!it!is!this!spirit!of!unending!discovery!that!he!seeks!to!express!in!
music.271!

This!alertness!to!life!and!love!of!humanity!reflected!in!his!musical!tastes!and!
endeavours.!

His!musical!preferences!are,!first!of!all,!for!works!of!art!that!have!a!human!quality;!
and!second,!for!those!that!show!inventive!and!imaginative!qualities!and!a!certain!
nobility!of!construction!far!removed!from!textbook!rules!and!regulations.!He!loves!
Debussy!for!his!originality,!subtlety,!and!perfect!formal!equilibrium.!Of!Roussel!he!
writes:!“In!Padnavâti!the!sentiment!is!always!noble,!the!concept!profoundly!
human,!the!orchestration!serious;!the!vocal!writing!is!full!and!rich!and!the!dances!
are!varied!and!never!conventional.272 !

This!reveals!a!person!who!feels!very!connected!to!his!world!of!Nature!and!Man,!
who!elevates!personal!artistic!impulses!and!appreciates!nuance,!and!who!
believes!in!an!open!spirit!of!enquiry!as!the!basis!of!future!musical!development.!
Moreover,!this!ennobled!philosophical!view!transposed!to!his!music!making,!
with!an!experimental!keenness!to!use!remodelled!techniques!and!approaches!to!
produce!completely!new!and!original!works.!With!this!in!mind!the!value!of!
Milhaud’s!pioneering!contribution!to!an!alternative!and!more!profound!direction!
for!percussion!was!inestimable.!

For!much!of!his!life!Milhaud!worked!closely!with!Paul!Claudel,!poet,!dramatist!
and!diplomat,!who!took!Milhaud!under!his!wing,!commissioning!him!to!write!
music!for!Claudel’s!plays,!and!taking!him!to!Brazil!to!work!in!the!French!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
hearing!a!kind!of!music!with!no!relationship!whatsoever!to!the!kind!of!music!he!knew;!he!
discovered!later!that!this!was!already!his!own!music."!Claude!LéviTStrauss,!Myth(and(Meaning,!
New!York,!Schocken!Books,!1979,!pp.!53T4!
270 !Darius!Milhaud,!Notes(without(music,!trans.!Donald!Evans,!London,!Carlyle!Press,!1952!
271 !Paul!Collaer,!Darius(Milhaud.!Trans.!James!Galante,!1962,!San!Francisco,!San!Francisco!Press,!
1988,!pp.!17T18!
272 !ibid.!p.!18!

! 127!
Embassy!there.273!The!close!collaboration!between!the!two!on!a!daily!level!and!
across!a!variety!of!contexts!no!doubt!influenced!Milhaud’s!writing.274!Claudel!
wrote!in!free!verse,!in!long,!unrhymed!lines!on!themes!that!showed!God’s!infinite!
love!of!humanity,!evoking!the!mystical!and!spiritual!elements!that!transcended!
the!material!aspects!of!ordinary!existence.275!!

Mary,*Vehicle*of*the*Promise*
The!promise!was!not!given!to!man!but!to!woman.!It!is!to!her!that!petition!must!
be!made;!it!is!in!her!womb!that!the!seed!of!redemption!germinates.!As!she!was!
the!instrument!of!the!fall–felix!culpa!–she!is!the!proprietress!of!salvation.!(from!
Accompagnements,!140)276!

This!use!of!settings!that!were!seemingly!distant!from!contemporary!life!
indicated!a!personal!rebellion!against!the!mechanisation!of!society;!and!he!
retreated!into!a!devout!Catholicism,!a!belief!he!shared!with!Milhaud.277!So!
working!with!Claudel!in!this!atmosphere!of!elevated,!poetical!spirituality,!and!
marrying!his!music!to!the!needs!of!the!theatre,!would!have!shaped!the!direction!
of!Milhaud’s!own!compositional!development.!Already,!however,!Milhaud!was!
drawing!on!sound!sources!outside!of!the!mainstream!of!compositional!thinking!
as!seen,!for!example,!in!his!approach!to!opera.!

In!1913,!work!commenced!on!his!opera!Les(Choéphores,278!and!in!two!of!the!
scenes,!Présages!and!Exhortations,!Milhaud!felt!the!violence!of!their!character!
could!only!be!expressed!by!removing!all!pitch,!and!so!making!the!sound!serve!
the!drama!rather!than!the!reverse.!The!narration!by!one!woman!was!to!be!
spoken!in!time!against!words!and!disjointed!phrases!uttered!by!the!chorus,!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
273
Paul Claudel, in full Paul-Louis-Charles-Marie Claudel (1868 — 1955), poet, playwright, essayist, a
towering force in French literature of the first half of the 20th century, whose works derive their lyrical
inspiration, their unity and scope, and their prophetic tone from his faith in God. While pursuing his
literary career, he was the French ambassador to Tokyo (1921), Washington (1927), and Brussels
(1933). http://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Claudel - accessed 22 November 2015
274 !Roger!Nichols,!Conversations(with(Madeleine(Milhaud,!London,!Faber!and!Faber,!1996,!pp.!15!
&!96!
275 !http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Paul_Claudel.aspx!T!accessed!22!November!2015!

276 !http://www.ignatiusinsight.com/features2005/pclaudel_virgin_dec05.asp!accessed!22!
November!2015!
277 !An!insight!into!Claudel’s!views!on!life!and!examples!of!his!poetry!are!found!in!Angelo!Caranfa,!
Claudel:(Beauty(and(Grace,!Lewisburg!PA,!Bucknell!University!Press,!1989!
278 !Les(Choéphores((The(Libation(Bearers)!is!the!second!of!three!plays!by!Aeschylus!and!concerns!
the!plan!by!Elektra!and!Orestes!to!avenge!their!father!Agamemnon’s!murder!by!their!mother!
Clytemnestra.!

128!!
the!speech!elements!supported!by!unpitched!percussion!instruments.!The!
spoken(Conclusion!also!was!supported!by!unpitched!percussion,!emphasising!the!
drama!of!the!tragedy!(se!ex.!3.02).279!

!
Ex.!3.02,!Voice!and!untuned!percussion!in!opera,!Milhaud,!mvt!IV,!Présages,!bars!6T9!

These!instruments!were!selected!for!the!sounds!they!produce,!and!with!a!range!
covering!high!to!low!‘noises’!they!conveyed!the!maximum!dramatic!effect!of!this!
Greek!tragedy.!Milhaud’s!principle!of!composing!music!that!was!inventive!and!
imaginative!was!realised!in!the!use!of!toys,!military!drums,!folk!instruments,!and!!
‘noiseTmakers’.!He!used!percussion!in!a!similar!manner!in!L’Homme(et(son(
Désir,280 !!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
279 !The!instruments!comprised!suspended!Cymbal,!sleigh!bells,!Triangle,!metal!and!wooden!
Castanets,!Whip!(Slapstick),!Tambourine,!Tambourin!provençal!(deep!drum),!Caisse!roulante!
(tenor!drum),!Caisse!claire!(snare!drum),!tambour!voilé!(muffled![veiled]!drum),!TamTtam,!one!
Bass!Drum!played!with!Timpani!beaters,!a!second!played!with!a!large!Bass!Drum!beater,!a!plank!
beaten!with!a!hammer,!as!examined!in!Chapter!Two.!
280 !At!the!time,!the!percussion!part!needed!seventeen!players;!since!then!it!has!been!possible,!
because!of!improvements!in!playing!standards!and!instruments,!to!rewrite!the!parts!for!six.!
Nichols,(op.cit.,!p.!100!

! 129!
 creating!a!cushion!of!drumming!…![in!a!piece!imbued!with]!…!a!haunting!spirit!of!
primitive!mysteries281 !

The!question!arises!then!as!to!what!prompted!him!into!using!these!nonT
instruments.!By!his!own!admission,!Milhaud!was!intrigued!by!noise,!the!sounds!
that!emerge!randomly!and!collectively!from!animated!and!unanimated!sound!
sources!in!the!human!and!natural!worlds.!

I!have!always!loved!movement,!and!noise!has!never!disturbed!me,!indeed!quite!
the!contrary;!so!it!was!a!real!joy!for!me!to!gaze!down!from!my!window!at!the!
crowded!boulevard,!and!the!tangled!mass!of!cabs!whose!drivers!wore!shiny!topT
hats!of!waxed!cloth,!and!the!horseTdrawn!doubleTdecker!buses.282!!

This!is!exemplified!in!his!music!when!the!consistent!pounding!on!wood!and!the!
clinking!of!metal!are!reflected!using!percussion!instruments!in!pieces!like!Les(
Choëphores283 (and(L’Homme(et(son(Désir,(to!convey!drama!or!evoke!a!primitive!
mystery.!This!appropriation!of!sounds!from!the!landscape!was!corroborated!by!
his!wife,!Madeleine!Milhaud.!

Darius!was!always!very!receptive!to!noise.!He!has!described!in!his!book!the!
noises!that!he!heard!from!his!bedroom!when!the!workers!were!operating!the!
machines,!and!also!the!different!types!of!rhythm.!As!for!the!insects,!you!never!
know!what!they!are,!they!just!appear!at!night!and!disappear!–!very!
mysterious!284!

Equally,!as!implied!here!by!his!wife,!Milhaud!also!embraced!the!natural!sounds!
around!him,!not!regarding!them!as!distractions!or!intrusions!into!his!creative!
endeavours!but!indeed!enthusiastically!integrating!them!into!his!compositional!
armoury.!Clearly!it!was!Milhaud’s!inclination!to!be!inspired!by,!and!embrace,!the!
everyday!sounds!of!the!city!and!nature.!These!noises!he!abstracted!into!his!
writing!as!rhythmic!sounds,!creating!yet!another!element!of!harmony.!In!what!is!
customarily!described!as!‘noise’!he!heard!a!beauty!that!others!overlooked,!but!
for!him,!added!to!his!personal!“threads!of!music”.285!With!intention!he!then!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
281 !Description!by!Joseph!Stevenson,!http://www.allmusic.com/composition/lhommeTetTsonT
d%C3%A9sirTpo%C3%A8meTplastiqueTballetTforT4TvoicesT12TinstrumentsT15TpercussionTorT2T
pianosTopT48Tmc0002404219!accessed!22!November!2015!
282 !Milhaud,!op.(cit.,!p.!19!

283 !The!umlaut!(Choëphores)!and!acute!accent!(Choéphores)!diacritic!marks!seem!to!be!used!
interchangeably!to!indicate!that!the!‘e’!is!to!be!pronounced!as!a!separate!syllable.!
284 !Roger!Nichols,!Conversations(with(Madeleine(Milhaud,!London,!Faber!and!Faber.!1996,!p.!3!
285 !Collaer,!op.(cit.,!p.!37!

130!!
aimed!to!capture!musically!this!uncommon!sense!of!beauty,!using!an!equally!
uncommon!set!of!sound!sources!T!percussion!instruments.!!

Evident!also!was!his!interest!in!a!wider,!more!unconventional!use!of!rhythm.!In!a!
comparison!between!Les(Choéphores!and!L’homme(et(son(Désir,!written!three!
years!later,(noted!researcher!Barbara!Kelly!comments!

Whereas!in!the!former!work!the!rhythm!supports!and!complements!the!
accompanying!text,!in!the!latter!the!rhythm!provides!the!foreground.!It!becomes!
the!principal!musical!focus!of!the!ballet.!…!Moreover,!rhythm!is!capable!of!a!wide!
range!of!expression!and!is!active!throughout!the!drama,!…![No]!composer!in!
France!at!this!time![was]!so!inventive!within!this!field.286!

Clearly!this!deeper!sensitivity!of!Milhaud’s!to!what!constitutes!‘music’,!and!his!
flexibility!and!drive!of!exploration!to!find!the!instruments!and!soundTmakers!
that!could!reproduce!or!reflect!that!sound,!issued!a!completely!new!direction!
into!percussion!composition,!using!an!eclectic!array!of!percussion!instruments!
and!sound!sources!for!specific!and!purposeful!musical!outcomes.!

In!addition!to!his!verve!for!random!sound,!Milhaud!translated!into!music!his!
exuberance!in!simply!being!alive.!His!autobiography!is!peppered!with!comments!
that!attest!to!his!joy!of!life!in!all!its!parameters,!viscerally,!emotionally,!
intellectually!and!spiritually.!He!fully!embraced,!

…!the!sounds!in!the!street!–!the!hooves!of!mules!and!donkeys!laden!with!milk,!
vegetables!or!earthenware!pots,!the!queer!guttural!cries!with!which!the!
peasants!addressed!their!animals.!This!visit!was!sheer!delight!for!us;!
everywhere!we!found!the!living!presence!of!El!Greco287!

Reflecting!this!attunement!to!living!a!multiTdimensional!life!Milhaud!displayed!
an!enthusiastic!willingness!to!compose!in!many!original!styles!and!settings,!such!
as!in!May!1921,!when!Pierre!Bertin!presented!an!avantTgarde!show.!Milhaud!
comments,!

The!negro!Graton!danced!a!‘shimmy’!composed!by!me!and!entitled!Caramel!Man!
.!.!.it!was!scored!for!Clarinet,!saxophone,!Trumpet,!Trombone!and!percussion.!
Shows!of!this!kind,!so!variegated!in!character,!were!excellent!training!for!us,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
286 !Barbara!Kelly,!Tradition(and(Style(in(the(Works(of(Darius(Milhaud!1913T1939,!Aldershot,!
Ashgate,!2003,!p.!55!
287 !Milhaud,!op.(cit.,!pp.!28T9!

! 131!
 enabling!us!to!experiment!in!all!sorts!of!techniques!and!to!strive!constantly!after!
new!forms!of!expression.288!

With!the!mindTset!of!a!musical!explorer!Milhaud!consciously!pursued!new!
techniques!and!expressions,!and!translated!this!knowledge!musically!into!
thematic,!even!spiritual,!appreciations!of!the!everyday!world.!For!example!in!
Machines(agricoles!(1919)289!he!extolled!the!beauty!and!celebrated!an!
anthropomorphised!contribution!to!harvest!of!agricultural!machinery,!which!
unfortunately!was!not!received!by!critics!in!like!spirit.!

I!had!written!musical!settings!for!descriptions!of!machinery!taken!from!a!
catalogue!.!.!.!of!agricultural!machinery!.!.!.!I!had!been!so!impressed!by!the!beauty!
of!these!great!Multicoloured!metal!insects,!magnificent!modern!brothers!to!the!
plough!and!scythe,!that!I!thought!of!celebrating!them!in!music!.!.!.!Not!one!single!
critic!understood!what!had!impelled!me!to!compose!these!works,!nor!that!they!
had!been!written!in!the!same!spirit!as!had!in!the!past!led!composers!to!sing!the!
praises!of!harvestTtime,!the!grape!harvest,!or!the!‘happy!ploughman’290!

Despite!its!initial!rejection,!this!multiTlayering!of!interpretation!through!the!use!
of!percussion!was!to!set!brand!new!benchmarks!for!the!greater!evolution!of!the!
percussive!genre.!

Furthermore,!since!the!time!of!Stravinsky’s!Le(Sacre(du(Printemps,!Milhaud!had!
expressed!his!fascination!with!polytonality,!and!analysed!its!elements!for!further!
use!in!composition.!According!to!Collaer,!Milhaud’s!friend!and!biographer,!the!
breadth!of!Milhaud’s!research!uncovered!instances!of!polytonality!in!pieces!such!
as!Roussel’s!Pour(une(fête(du(printemps,(Petrouchka(by!Stravinsky!and!in!other!
works!by!Satie,!Ravel!and!Bartók.!291!

However!his!urge!was!to!investigate!deeply!and!thoroughly!the!nuanced!
potentials!polytonality!offered!for!his!percussion!compositions,!highlighted!by!
this!personal!record.!

I!had!undertaken!a!thoroughgoing!study!of!the!problem!of!polytonality.!I!had!
noted!–!and!interpreted!as!a!sign!for!myself!–!that!a!little!duet!by!Bach!written!in!
canon!at!the!fifth!really!gave!one!the!impression!of!two!separate!keys!succeeding!
one!another,!and!then!becoming!superimposed!and!contrasted,!although!of!course!
the!harmonic!texture!remained!tonal.!The!contemporary!composers,!Strawinsky!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
288 !Milhaud,!op.(cit.,!pp.!103T4!
289 !Milhaud,!Machines(agricoles,!Vienna,!UE,!1926!

290 !Milhaud,!op.(cit.,!pp.!106T7!

291 !Collaer,!op.cit.,!p.!41!

132!!
 [sic]!or!Koechlin,!made!use!of!chords!containing!several!tonalities,!often!handled!
contrapuntally!or!used!as!a!pedal.!I!set!to!work!to!examine!every!possible!
combination!of!two!keys!superimposed!and!to!study!the!chords!thus!produced.!I!
also!studied!the!effect!of!inventing!them.!I!tried!every!imaginable!permutation!by!
varying!the!mode!of!the!tonalities!making!up!these!chords.!Then!I!did!the!same!
thing!for!three!keys.!What!I!could!not!understand!was!why,!although!the!harmony!
books!dealt!with!chords!and!their!inversions,!and!the!laws!governing!their!
sequences,!the!same!could!not!be!done!for!polytonality.!I!grew!familiar!with!some!
of!these!chords.!They!satisfied!my!ear!more!than!the!normal!ones,!for!a!polytonal!
chord!is!more!subtly!sweet!and!more!violently!potent.292!

Resulting!from!this!close!examination!Milhaud!realized!the!“!subtly!sweet!and!
more!violently!potent”293!possibilities!that!polytonality!afforded!to!musically!
dramatic!expressions.!In!future!compositions!this!learning!was!exploited,!and!
issued!a!decidedly!nuanced!use!of!percussion!in!music.!Elaborating!on!this!
analysis,!Collaer!quotes!from!an!article!Milhaud!wrote!in!Revue(Musicale!(1!
February!1923).!

If!one!accepts!the!system!of!12!definite!tonalities,!each!based!on!a!different!degree!
of!the!scale,!and!the!possibility!of!passing!from!one!tonality!to!another!by!means!
of!modulation,!then!it!is!quite!logical!to!go!further!and!explore!ways!in!which!
these!tonalities!can!be!superimposed!and!heard!simultaneously.!Contrapuntal!
writing!should!also!lead!to!this!conclusion.!The!day!that!canons,!other!than!at!the!
octave,!were!conceived!of,!the!principle!of!polytonality!was!proclaimed.294!!

And!so!Milhaud’s!sensitive!and!perceptive!ear!responded!to!new!and!individual!
levels!of!polytonality!for!new!applications.!However,!Milhaud’s!vision!of!the!use!
of!polytonality!embraced!more!than!just!musical!elements.!

Collaer!asked!Milhaud,!"What!made!you!turn!to!polytonality;!how!are!you!able!to!
hear!music!in!that!special!way!before!you!write!it!down?"!Milhaud!answered:!!
It's!difficult!to!explain.!I!don't!know!if!you!can!understand.!But!when!I!am!in!the!
country!at!night,!plunged!into!silence,!and!I!look!at!the!sky,!it!seems!to!me!that!
from!every!point!in!the!firmament!and!even!from!the!center![sic]!of!the!earth,!rays!
and!impulses!come!toward!me;!each!of!these!impulses!carries!a!different!thread!of!
music,!and!all!the!infinity!of!musical!lines!cross!and!intersect!each!other!without!
ever!losing!their!individual!clarity!and!distinctness.!It!is!an!incredible!feeling.!I!
have!always!tried!to!express!this!emotion,!this!sensation!of!a!thousand!
simultaneous!lines!of!music!launched!towards!me.295!

This!then,!is!a!manifestation!of!the!music!of!the!spheres,!a!deep!spiritual!
connection!between!music!and!all!the!elements!of!the!universe.!It!would!be!no!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
292 !Milhaud,!op.(cit.,!pp.!55T6!

293 !ibid.,!p.!56!

294 !Collaer,!op.(cit.,!p.!41!
295 !Collaer,!op.(cit.,!p.!37!

! 133!
exaggeration!to!say!that!Milhaud’s!world!was!one!of!sound!in!all!its!multiT
dimensional!totality.!And!a!world!of!sound!that!was!natural!or!manTmade!or!
even!GodTgiven!in!which!he!recognised!a!complexity!of!harmony!and!intertwined!
melodic!lines!reflective!of!human!existence.!These!elements!characterise!
Milhaud!as!a!unique!composer!who!related!very!much!to!a!greater!spiritual!
universe.!He!was!compelled!in!his!music!to!express!the!seemingly!inexpressible!
and!used!the!multiTfaceted!timbres!of!sound!offered!by!diverse!percussion!
instruments.!!

Despite!these!noble!ambitions!Milhaud’s!output!of!almost!450!works!lay!him!
open!to!the!charge!of!accepting!lower!standards!in!his!compositions,!of!
producing!works!that!were!lacking!the!kind!of!quality!control!that!is!an!
inevitable!outcome!of!revision.!Superficially,!his!manner!of!composing!rapidly!
seemed!to!support!that!charge.!However!the!final!commitment!to!mechanically!
writing!the!actual!notes!only!came!after!a!lengthy!period!of!contemplation!and!
thinking!deeply!about!the!work.!This!period!could!be!extensive,!as!the!thoughtful!
preparation!would!involve!not!just!musical!considerations!of!melody,!rhythm!
and!harmony.!It!also!included!subtle!uses!of!music!for!particular!effects!and!
which!soundTsources!would!reproduce!them,!as!well!as!the!loftier!ambition!of!
how!the!whole!would!sit!within!his!perception!of!the!‘music!of!the!spheres’.296!!
And!so!Milhaud’s!prolific!output!was!the!end!product!of!a!dedicated!and!careful!
exploration!of!the!nuances!of!musicality!towards!noble!outcomes.!Even!in!his!
process!of!creativity,!Milhaud!had!a!distinctive!personal!style.!!

Overall!Milhaud’s!approach!to!composition!was!more!of!a!compulsion!to!
continually!develop!new!musical!expressions!that!reflected!and!embraced!the!
subtle!temporal!and!sacred!aspects!of!humanity.!This!personal!philosophy!
powered!his!approach!to!create!compositions!in!varied!settings,!capturing!
beauty!in!noise,!using!polytonality!and!launching!new!levels!of!experimentation!
with!traditional!and!unconventional!percussive!soundTsources!and!instruments.!!
All!served!to!permeate!Milhaud’s!compositions!with!an!elevated!originality!and!
imagination!that!had!hitherto!not!been!witnessed!and!gave!his!music!another!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
296 !Roger!Nichols,!op.(cit.,!p.100!

134!!
dimension.!This!is!the!context!in!which!the!spirit!that!imbued!his!Concerto(pour(
batterie!must!be!examined.!

3.4*Instruments*

Initially!the!work!was!for!the!purposes!of!examination,!and!as!such!obviously!
aimed!to!test!the!students’!capability.297 !As!the!first!such!piece,!there!was!no!
existing!tradition!in!which!to!set!the!parameters!and!these!would!be!decided!by!
Milhaud,!in!consultation!with!Coutelier.!The!first!decision!no!doubt!related!to!
choice!of!instruments.!As!the!students!were!preparing!for!a!life!in!music,!and!
probably!in!an!orchestral!setting,!it!would!be!deemed!necessary!to!examine!them!
in!that!context.!So!a!selection!of!orchestral!percussion!instruments!was!chosen,!
on!which!orchestral!playing!techniques!would!be!tested.!Secondly,!in!order!for!
percussion!to!be!judged!on!a!par!with!other!instrumental!families!the!
examination!would!have!to!be!a!solo!recital;!and!so!the!instruments!would!need!
to!be!grouped!together!in!some!manner.!Thirdly,!there!would!be!the!possibility!
of!adding!some!other!sound!sources.!

As!challenging!as!it!might!be!to!play!each!instrument!in!a!solo!recital,!Milhaud!
added!an!even!greater!challenge!–!playing!across!a!range!of!these!instruments!
and!coordinating!the!movements.!In!addition!there!was!one!more!challenge!T!
that!of!performing!a!piece!of!music!as!opposed!to!just!rhythmic!figures!on!a!
disparate,!and!at!the!time!odd!and!‘unmusical’,!set!of!sound!sources.298!In!writing!
a!solo!piece!using!such!a!quantity!of!instruments,!previously!not!seen!as!soloistic,!
Milhaud!also!recognized!a!personal!challenge,!as!well!as!composing!for!a!small!
accompanying!orchestra!consistent!with!the!extent!of!the!school’s!instrumental!
offering.!For!him!it!was!an!opportunity!to!pursue!his!own!inclinations,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
297This!point!seems!largely!to!be!ignored!in!articles!on!the!work.!Igor Lesnik!‘Darius!Milhaud’s!
Concerto!for!Percussion’,!Percussive(Notes!April!1997,!pp.!64T67!states!that!the!first!performance!
was!part!of!the!Pro!Arte!Orchestre!concert!series.!This!tends!to!imply!that!it!was!not!an!
examination!and!is!in!apparent!contradiction!of!Steinberg’s!quote!(see!footnote!254!above).!
298 !Gary!Cook,!op.cit.,!pp.!83T96!

! 135!
 .!.!.!I!use!such!occasions!as!an!opportunity!to!concern!myself!with!forms!I!
personally!find!interesting!.!.!.!299!

Having!accepted!the!commission!and!its!terms!of!writing!for!an!examination,!
Milhaud!considered!the!nature!of!the!percussion!instruments!and!their!role!in!
the!resulting!composition.300 !Firstly!he!chose!a!variety!of!instruments!across!all!
three!areas!of!untuned!instruments,!of!skin,!metal!and!wood,!covering!as!great!a!
range!of!sounds!as!possible!(see!table!3.01).!

The*instruments*! Characteristic*sounds!
Timpani! Tuned,!lowThigh!sounds!of!medium!length!
Caisse!claire!(snare!drum)! Short!sound,!high!skin!timbre!
Caisse!roulante!(tenor!drum)! Short!sound,!medium!skin!timbre!
Tambourin!provençal!(deep!drum)! Short!sound,!low!skin!timbre!
Bass!Drum!(pedal)!/!detachable!cymbal!! Med.!length!sound,!lowTvery!low!skin!timbre!
Tambourine! High!short!skin/metal!sound!
Triangle! Medium!length!sound,!high!metal!timbre!
Cowbell! Short!sound,!highTmedium!metal!timbre!
pair!Cymbals! Long!sound,!mediumThigh!metal!timbre!
suspended!Cymbal! Long!sound,!medium!metal!timbre!
TamTtam! Long!sound,!low!metal!timbre!
Woodblock! Short,!sharp!sound,!medThigh!wood!timbre!
Castanets! Short!sound,!mediumThigh!wood!timbre!
Whip!(also!called!a!Slapstick)! Short!sound,!mediumThigh!wood!timbre!
Ratchet! Series!of!short!sounds!

Table!3.01!Sounds!and!ranges!of!the!percussion!instruments301!

To!this!he!added!a!small!orchestra!–!the!extent!of!the!school’s!offering,!which!
comprised,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
299 !Milhaud,!op.(cit.,!p.!225!

300 !This!has!not!postulated!anywhere!in!the!research,!but!is!the!only!plausible!explanation!for!
the!manner!in!which!he!wrote!for!the!various!instruments!within!the!context!of!the!work!and!is!
explained!further!in!this!analysis.!!
301 !Table!compiled!by!author!

136!!
 2!Flutes!(both!doubling!Piccolo),!2!Clarinets!in!Bb,!Trumpet!in!C,!Trombone,!
Violin!1!(1!desk),!Violin!2!(1!desk),!Viola!(1!desk)],!Cello!(1!desk),!1!Double!
Bass302!!

Milhaud!did!not!confine!himself!to!limit!the!solo!part!to!orchestral!instruments!
and!the!percussion!instruments!chosen!reflected!different!musical!genres!of!
classical,!jazz,!concert!band,!marching!band,!folk,!and!popular!theatre.!There!is!of!
course!a!crossover!of!instruments!between!the!different!genres,!which!has!
continued!to!typify!their!use!in!various!musics!as!indicated!in!this!table!(see!
table!3.02).!

Genre* Instruments*used*
Classical! Timpani,!Caisse!claire,!Caisse!roulante,!Triangle,!TamTtam,!suspended!
Cymbal,!Cowbell,!Woodblock,!Castanets,!pair!Cymbals,!Tambourine!
Jazz! Caisse!claire,!suspended,!Cymbal,!Cowbell,!Woodblock,!Bass!Drum!
played!with!pedal!+!detachable!Cymbal!
Concert! Timpani,!Caisse!claire,!Caisse!roulante!Triangle,!TamTtam,!suspended!
Band! Cymbal,!Cowbell,!Woodblock,!Castanets,!pair!Cymbals,!Tambourine!
Marching! Caisse!Claire!Caisse!roulante,!pair!Cymbals!
Band!
Folk! Tambourin!provençal,!Castanets,!Tambourine!
Popular! Timpani,!Caisse!claire,!TamTtam,!suspended!Cymbal,!Cowbell,!
Theatre! Woodblock,!Castanets,!Whip,!Ratchet,!Tambourine,!Bass!Drum!played!
with!pedal!+!detachable!Cymbal!

Table!3.02!Milhaud!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre,!instrumental!genres303!

Because!of!the!challenges!presented!as!an!examination!composition!Milhaud!
may!have!been!overly!ambitious!in!accepting!the!commission!from!Coutelier.!But!
such!is!the!originality!in!the!quantity!of!instruments!used,!the!expressive!
elements!realised,!the!freshness!of!new!sounds!and!the!magnitude!of!intent,!that!
Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre!transferred!swiftly!into!the!general!
music!domain!and!has!subsequently!been!used!as!a!dynamic!performance!piece.!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
302 !Sherrie!Maricle,!‘An!Analysis!Of!Concerto!Pour!Batterie!Et!Petit!Orchestre!By!Darius!Milhaud!
And!An!Original!Composition!Entitled!Concertino!For!Solo!Percussion!And!Orchestra!With!An!
Analysis!And!Performance!Guide’!PhD!thesis!New!York!University,!1999,!p.!35!
303 !Table!compiled!by!author!

! 137!
!
He!then!divided!the!instruments!into!different!subTgroups!of!metal,!instruments!
without!beaters,!drums!(untuned),!timpani,!and!a!combined!group!of!wood,!skin!
and!metal!sounds,!notated!them!in!those!groups!and!provided!a!legend!for!the!
notation!(see!table!3.03!and!plate!3.01).!

!!!!! !
Table!3.03!Legend!of!instrument!groupings!and!Plate!3.01!notation!legend304!

He!also!provided!a!necessary!and!elaborate!setTup!diagram!with!a!detailed!set!of!
instructions!in!both!French!and!German!(see!ex.!3.02).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
304 !Table!compiled!by!author,!notation!legend!by!Milhaud,!Concerto,(piano!reduction!score,!p.!3!

138!!
 !
Plate!3.02a!Milhaud!Concerto,!setup!diagram!

!
Plate!3.02b!Milhaud!Concerto,!playing!instructions!

With!the!instructions!in!two!languages,!it!should!be!possible!to!determine!the!
details!of!instruments!and!beaters!referred!to,!and!in!most!cases!there!are!no!
problems.!There!is,!however,!a!mistake,!as!a!result!of!a!mistranslation.!The!
German!‘Holzschlägel’,!even!though!it!is!marked!‘einen!großen!Holzschlägel’,!is!a!
wood!beater,!not!a!tamTtam!beater;!but!as!is!obvious!both!from!the!French!
‘mailloche’,!and!a!reading!of!the!score,!the!piece!does!in!fact!require!a!tamTtam!
beater.305!!

!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
305 !Igor!Lesnik,!op.cit.,!p.!66.!Grosse!Trommelschlägel!or!TamTtamschlägel!would!be!the!correct!
translation.!

! 139!
3.5*Analysis**

The!two!obvious!attributes!across!the!spectrum!of!percussion!are!rhythm!and!
atmosphere.!From!his!work!in!the!theatre!Milhaud!had!used!rhythmic!elements!
in!representational!contexts!to!create!atmosphere,!most!obviously!in!the!
dramatic!movements!in!Les(Choëphores.!Now,!freed!from!the!restrictions!of!the!
theatre,!he!could!concentrate!on!percussion’s!raisonTd’être!itself,!and!in!this!
frame!of!mind!he!wrote!the!work!in!2!parts!–!the!first!part!dramatic!and!crude!
(see!ex.!3.03)!and!the!second,!atmospheric!(see!ex.3.04).!Consequently!the!
primary!foci!of!the!piece!were!rhythm!both!pitched!and!unpitched,!timbre.!To!
achieve!this!he!wrote!a!variety!of!rhythmic!patterns!within!and!across!the!
groups!of!percussion!instruments!(see!plate!3.01)!and!between!the!solo!and!
orchestra!exploring!the!variety!of!sound!colours!available!to!him.!The!first!
section!of!the!work!emphasised!the!drama!that!can!be!evoked!from!the!
roughness!and!crudity!of!a!variety!of!percussive!sound!sources!in!a!polytonal!
setting.!

140!!
First!section!(Vif!q!=!116,!rude(et(dramatique):!

!
Ex.!3.03!‘Rude!et!dramatique’,!Milhaud!Concerto,(bars!8T11!

The!second!half!of!the!piece!evoked!an!atmosphere!of!mystery!with!insistent!
rhythms!and!lingering!sounds!at!times!in!hemiolic!patterns!(see!ex.!3.04)!
!
!

! 141!
Second!section!(Modéré!q!=!76):!

!
Ex.!3.04!Modéré,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!92T96!

The!action!of!the!work!is!summarised!in!this!table!(see!table.!3.04),!and!
elaborated!in!the!following!analysis.306!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
306 !This!analysis!is!based!on!my!own!performances!and!discussions!and!lessons!with!George!
Gaber,!Professor!of!Percussion!at!Indiana!University!(1977),!and!William!Kraft,!Timpanist!Los!
Angeles!Philharmonic!Orchestra!(1984)!who!both!performed!the!piece!with!Milhaud.!

142!!
Summary!of!the!Concerto!
Bars* Action*
1T4!
Vif!q!!=116.!Orchestra!states!theme!

5T9! Percussion!answers!(4!Timpani,!3!Drums,!BD/Cym)!
10T11! Orchestra!in!brief!restatement!of!theme!
12! Percussion!(4!Timpani,!3!Drums,!BD/Cym)!
13T14! Interplay!between!Orchestra!&!Solo!(4!Timpani)!
15T19! Clarinet!variation!of!theme!in!long!tones!over!String!pizzicato!in!imitation!of!
Percussion!
20T23! Solo!(3!metal![tri,!cym,!cb],!1!wood![wb]!&!skin![3!Drums,!4!Timpani])+!wind!
mirror!of!String!rhythm!over!Bass!pizzicato!
24T27! Similar!repetition!of!20T23,!but!only!Orchestra!
28! Orchestral!crescendo!+!Ratchet!(’long’!wooden!sound)!
29! Orchestral!ff!builds!to…!
30T33! …Restatement!of!original!theme!plus!Tambourine,!with!added!emphasis!of!
BD/Cym!(2!kinds!of!skin+!metal)!
34T43! Each!orchestral!instrument!has!own!rhythmic!line!+!Drums!(tuned![4!
Timpani],!untuned![3!Drums]!&!with!pedal![BD/Cym])!
44! Introduction!of!Whip!(wood)!as!precursor!to…!
45T50! …Original!theme!+!BD/Cym!&!Clash!Cymbals!
51T57! 2nd!motif!again,!plus!Castanets!(wood)!
58T74!
All!instruments!play!their!own!variant!of!a!rhythmic!pattern!of! !
Solo!uses!skins!and!metal!!(4!Timpani,!3!Drums,!BD/Cym,!Cym,!TamTtam)!
75T77! Orchestra!plays!mainly!long!notes,!with!sixteenth!note!emphases!of!solo!
sixteenth!notes!on!Drums!+!quarter!notes!on!Triangle.!!
78T80! Reminiscence!of!original!theme!as!Orchestra,!2!Timpani,!Ratchet,!Cym!and!
BD/Cym!all!crescendo!to!climax!to!end!part!I!
Table!3.04a!Summary!of!the!action:!Rude(et(dramatique!

! 143!
Summary!of!the!Concerto!
Bars* Action*
81T91!
Modéré!(q!=!76)!with!simple!orchestral!lines!in!Wind!and!Brass!with!variants!

of! !and!quarter!note!phrases.!
Percussionist!retunes!3!Timpani!&!detaches!Cymbal!from!BD!
92T113!
!in!Percussion!across!Drums,!Timpani,!Cb,!Wb!and!Tambourine!with!
‘long’!sounds!from!BD,!TamTtam,!Tambourin!provençal!and!Timpani!over!
long!muted!Strings,!Clarinet!and!Trumpet;!with!the!occasional!hemiola!of!

!between!Wind!and!String!
114T120!
!pattern!in!Solo!(2!Timpani)!and!also!moves!in!the!Clarinet!and!through!
the!Strings,!interspersed!with!long!sounds!
121T124! Linking!passage!of!long!sounds!to…!
125T143!
…More!insistent!return!of!the! !pattern!in!the!Tambourin!provençal,!
Timpani!and!strings!against!long!Flute!and!Trombone,!dying!away!and!
interrupted!by…!
144! …1!bar!of!the!Vif!opening!statement!in!Orchestra!and!Whip!variant!of!

!
145T152! The!modéré!returns!with!an!echoing!of!bars!125T143,!but!with!Drums!not!
Timpani!playing!the!sixteenthTnote!pattern.!!
153T156! Long!note!crescendos!in!Orchestra!and!suspended!Cymbal!
157T160! Another!Vif!section!with!the!Orchestra!restating!the!opening!and!reply!from!
the!Timpani!
161T168! The!final!modéré!with!the!Orchestral!sounds!dying!away,!while!the!Soloist!
revisits!the!4!Timpani,!3!Drums,!TamTtam,!Triangle!Cymbal!and!BD!with!one!
note!on!each!‘putting!them!to!sleep’!

Table!3.04b!Summary!of!the!action:!Modéré307!
!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
307 !Table!compiled!by!author!

144!!
The!piece!begins!with!a!strong,!fortissimo!statement!of!the!theme!by!the!
orchestra!over!four!bars,!moving!from!4/4,!through!two!bars!of!5/4!and!one!bar!
of!3/4.!The!dominant!phrase!in!each!of!these!bars!is!the!rhythmic!one!
comprising!the!four!sixteenth!notes!and!following!note;!and!the!rest!of!the!bar!is!
the!answering!phrase!(see!ex.!3.05).!

! !
Ex.!3.05!Opening!phrase,!orchestra,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!1T4!

The!soloist!then!responds!to!the!orchestra!(bars!5!T9)!with!a!similarly!flowing!
"melody",!starting!with!the!Timpani!and!then!including!the!caisse!claire,!caisse!
roulante!and!tambourin!provençale!(in!answer)!as!the!pitch!descends!again!to!
the!range!of!the!timpani,!and!finishes!with!an!exclamation!mark!on!the!bass!
drum!/cymbal!l!(see!ex.!3.06).!

! 145!
!

! !
Ex.!3.06!Opening!phrase,!solo,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!5T9!

It!is!important!to!state!here!that!although!these!drums!all!have!snares,!Milhaud!
never!intended!to!use!them!as!snared!drums,!but!rather!as!drums!which!provide!
a!variety!of!relative!timbres!and!sound!colours.308!He!specified!these!drums!
because!at!the!time!of!writing,!there!was!not!the!range!of!drums!and!stands!that!
are!available!today.309!Moreover,!if!the!drums!were!played!with!snares!on,!the!
sympathetic!vibrations!from!the!snares!would!totally!obliterate!any!phrase!
played!on!the!timpani!and!bass!drum,!and!could!also!interfere!with!some!of!the!
orchestral!phrases.!!

This!interplay!between!the!soloist!and!orchestra!continues!(bars!10!T!14)!with!a!
repeat!of!the!theme!by!each,!and!two!statements!of!a!variation!of!the!very!
opening!T!four!sixteenth!notes!and!following!quarter!note.!This!rhythmic!phrase!
is!the!basis!of!the!work;!and!is!frequently!heard!in!both!solo!and!orchestral!parts!
(see!ex.!3.07).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
308 Discussions!and!lessons!with!Professor!George!Gaber,!1977!and!William!Kraft,!1984!!

309 !Chinese!TomTtoms!that!were!in!use!in!the!bands!and!vaudeville!shows!at!the!time!could!only!
be!mounted!on!the!Bass!Drum!and!so!were!not!very!accessible!for!a!multiple!percussion!setTup.!

146!!
 !
Ex.!3.07!Interplay!between!the!soloist!and!orchestra,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!13T14!

The!concept!of!the!dialogue!is!continued!through!the!next!section!(15!T!19),!a!
quieter,!more!lyrical!legato!passage!played!by!the!clarinets!in!octaves,!and!
underpinned!by!pizzicato!strings!(see!ex.!3.08).!!

!
Ex.!3.08!Interplay!within!the!orchestra,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!15T18!

The!piano!entry!of!the!solo!part!(bars!20!T!23),!playing!the!rhythm!of!this!
passage!is!also!mirrored!in!the!flute!and!clarinet,!with!the!double!bass!adding!
the!bass.!The!percussion!part!provides!its!own!dialogue,!with!metal!and!wood!

! 147!
instruments!reflecting!the!clarinet!line;!and!the!drums!providing!the!short,!
"pizzicato"Tlike!interjections!(see!ex.!3.09).!!

!
Ex.!3.09!Dialogue!between!clarinet!and!solo,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!20T21!

The!contrast!in!the!dialogue!is!telling,!as!the!metal!percussion!instruments!
produce!somewhat!longer!sounds!(and!the!woodblock!is!sufficiently!different!in!
character!to!remain!longer!in!the!aural!memory)!reminiscent!of!the!legato!
nature!of!the!previously!heard!clarinet!part;!and!the!shorter!drum!sounds!are!
more!aligned!to!the!pizzicato!strings.!

This!short!passage!is!followed!(bars!24!T!27)!by!another!interplay!between!the!
clarinet!and!strings!similar!in!rhythmic!interchange,!before!a!crescendo!of!
flowing!sixteenth!notes!(joined!by!the!ratchet)!leads!to!a!repeat,!at!fortissimo,!of!
the!opening!phrase!by!the!orchestra!(30)!(see!ex.!3.10).!!

!
Ex.!3.10!Rhythmic!interplay!between!clarinet!and!strings,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!26T28!

148!!
The!solo!part!(also!a!repeat!of!the!opening!rhythms)!is!played!on!the!tambourine!
with!some!interjections!by!bass!drum!and!cymbal!on!the!climaxes!of!the!
phrases;!and!it!marks!the!end!of!the!first!section!of!the!piece!(see!ex.!3.11)!

!
Ex.!3.11!End!of!first!section!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!29T30!

At!this!point!(bars!34!T!52),!the!motifs!used!after!the!first!subject!are!heard!
juxtaposed!through!the!orchestra,!though!in!different!instrumental!
combinations!and!with!some!variations,!while!the!percussion!part!explores!
some!"melodies"!based!on!a!3:3:2!rhythmic!pattern.!The!theme!returns!with!the!

! 149!
percussionist!emphasising!this!3:3:2!rhythm!on!bass!drum!and!cymbals!before!
moving!to!castanets!during!variations!of!the!second!orchestral!motif!in!bars!53!T!
57!(see!ex.!3.12).!

!
Ex.!3.12!Juxtaposition!of!motifs!in!different!instrumental!combinations,!Milhaud!
Concerto,!bars!34T36!

The!next!motif!used!(58!T74)!is!based!on!the!reversed!melodic!flow!of!the!drums!
in!bar!34!(see!ex.!3.12)!and!is!spread!canonically!through!the!orchestra!and!solo!
parts!(with!the!latter!being!played!on!timpani!and!drums!for!10!bars![see!ex.!

150!!
3.13];!and!then!on!timpani!and!tamTtam!for!three!bars!before!dying!away!on!the!
tamTtam).!!

!
Ex.!3.13!Juxtaposition!of!rhythmic!patterns,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!64T68!

The!rhythmic!phrase!of!the!solo!part!is!again!a!3:3:2!pattern!(see!ex.!3.14),!with!
the!"2"!being!2!eighth!rests;!at!bar!70!it!becomes!a!3:3!pattern.!!

! 151!
 !

Ex.!3.14!A!3:3:2!rhythmic!pattern!Milhaud!Concerto,!solo!part,!bars!64T67!

A!variation!of!the!main!theme!begins!again!(bars!75!T!80)!at!a!mezzo[forte!level!
in!the!winds!and!lower!strings!(see!ex.!3.15)!and!gradually!builds!with!the!
addition!of!more!instruments!till!a!crescendo!brings!the!piece!to!its!climax!and!
ends!the!first!half.!!

!
Ex.!3.15!Variation!of!the!main!theme,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!73T75!

The!percussion!part!reiterates!the!opening!sixteenth!note!pattern!on!the!various!
drums;!and!then!moves!to!the!timpani!and!finally!the!ratchet,!bass!drum!and!
cymbals!(see!ex.!3.16).!

152!!
 !
Ex.!3.16!End!of!‘Rude!et!dramatique’!section,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!79T80!

The!Modéré!section!(usually!regarded!as!the!equivalent!of!the!second!movement!
of!a!concerto)!reveals!a!change!of!mood,!with!the!winds!and!brass!playing!a!

! 153!
variation!of!the!opening!sixteenth!note!pattern!in!short!rhythmic!figures,!but!
more!slowly!at!q!=!76!and!at!a!pianissimo!dynamic!(see!ex.3.17).!!

!
Ex.!3.17!Opening!of!‘Atmospheric’!Modéré!section!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!81T86!

These!figures!are!interspersed!with!an!mp!clarinet!melodic!motif!based!on!the!
chord!of!E.!The!eleven!bars!rest!allows!the!percussionist!to!alter!the!tuning!of!
the!timpani!and!detach!the!cymbal!from!the!bass!drum.!!

When!the!percussion!part!enters!(bar!92)!it!echoes!the!sixteenth!note!motif!on!a!
variety!of!instruments!under!the!clarinet!solo;!and!then!builds!a!ponderous!
crescendo!on!bass!drum!(bar!98)!to!a!tambourine!and!snare!drum!solo!(bar!
102)!reminiscent!of!the!tambourine!part!at!bar!30!(see!ex.!3.18).!

154!!
 !

!
!
Ex.!3.18!Solo!entry,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!92T105!

The!strings!take!up!the!sixteenth!note!motif!(bar!106),!below!the!trumpet!solo,!
with!the!timpani!and!drums!adding!ornamented!notes!through!it,!before!the!
timpani!play!their!variation!of!the!sixteenth!notes!(ending!each!phrase!
inconclusively!on!the!last!or!the!second!sixteenth!note!of!the!beat),!while!the!
motif!moves!canonically!down!through!the!strings.!Throughout!this!section!the!
winds!and!brass!take!up!the!clarinet's!earlier!melodic!idea;!and!both!these!
motifs!move!in!dialogue!between!the!various!instruments!(see!ex.!3.19).!

! 155!
 !
Ex.!3.19!Sixteenth!note!motifs,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!113T117!

The!timpani!extends!its!motif!into!a!continuous!sixteenth!note!movement!(bar!
136),!but!the!right!hand!moves!between!the!A!and!C!to!create!a!2:3:3!pattern!
between!the!hands!reminiscent!of!the!3:3:2!movement!on!the!drums!at!bar!34,!
now!rhythmically!reversed!(see!ex.!3.20).!

156!!
 !
Ex.!3.20!Insistent!timpani!pattern,!Milhaud!Concerto!bars!134T141!

This!mood!is!interrupted!by!an!explosion!of!sound!from!the!orchestra!(bar!144)!
playing!the!opening!bar!of!the!piece!very!quickly!and!loudly,!with!the!
percussionist!playing!a!slight!variation!on!the!whip!(see!ex.3.21).!!

! 157!
 !

!
Ex.!3.21!Explosion!of!sound!with!whip,!Concerto,!bars!143T145!

The!third!sixteenth!note!is!omitted,!probably!because!on!that!instrument!it!
would!prove!too!difficult!to!play!in!time,!at!that!tempo.!

The!two!lower!drums!then!take!up!the!motif!from!the!timpani!(bar!145),!at!a!
pianissimo!dynamic,!before!the!orchestra!(this!time!with!timpani)!again!
interrupts!with!a!further!restatement!of!the!opening!theme!(bar!157),!after!
which!the!timpani!reiterates!it!alone.!The!piece!finishes!with!the!strings!playing!
the!sixteenth!note!motif!(and!in!the!last!few!bars!reducing!it!to!eighth!note!
triplets,!eighth!notes!and!two!notes!on!the!first!and!second!beats),!against!the!
brass!melody,!while!the!percussionist!quietly!plays!the!skin!and!metal!
instruments!in!an!eighth!note!and!quarter!note!movement.!!The!harmonic!
dissonance!resolves!into!an!A!minor!chord,!and!hence!reduces!the!intensity!in!
the!music!to!a!calm!conclusion!(see!ex.!3.22).!

158!!
 !

Ex.!3.22!Ending,!bars,!Milhaud!Concerto!bars!163T168!

3.6*Techniques*and*interpretations**

As!an!examination!piece,!the!work!assessed!elements!of!technique!such!as!
dynamics!and!articulation,!timpani!tuning!and!the!execution!of!rolls!and!grace!
notes!on!membranophones,!techniques!of!playing!clash!and!suspended!cymbals,!
tambourine,!castanets,!triangle!and!tamTtam.!The!techniques!also!included!the!
various!idiosyncrasies!of!the!instruments!such!as!picking!and!putting!down!the!
tambourine!without!making!extraneous!sounds,310!and!changing!beaters!as!the!
instrument!and!music!demanded.311!However,!as!the!first!solo!piece!of!music!for!
percussion!and!the!piece!that!set!the!direction!for!future!compositions!for!the!
medium,!it!is!important!to!analyse!its!elements,!not!just!as!an!examination!piece!
but!as!a!piece!of!music.!

The!disparate!nature!of!the!instruments!used!presented!a!challenge!in!terms!of!
playing!action.!Firstly,!both!hands!and!feet!are!used!as!the!instruments!include!a!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
310 !Gary!Cook,!op.cit.,!pp.!233T236!

311 !ibid.,!p.!90!

! 159!
‘bass!drum!with!detachable!cymbal’,!which!means!that!consideration!must!be!
given!to!the!weight!of!stroke!as!played!with!the!foot!as!well!as!the!handTheld!
mallets.!Secondly,!playing!across!a!range!of!these!instruments,!with!different!
beaters!and!coordinating!the!movements!meant!that!the!different!surfaces!of!the!
whip,!ratchet,!cowbell,!woodblock,!and!footToperated!bass!drum!required!its!
own!weight!of!stroke. To!play!a!phrase!on!cymbal,!triangle,!cowbell,!woodblock!
and!the!drums!requires!a!different!weight!of!stroke!on!each!in!order!to!produce!
an!even!sound.312!

The!timpani!part!offers!another!challenge!to!both!playing!action!and!musical!
interpretation.!In!bars!9,!12,!13,!and!14!the!original!performance!score!has!the!
following!figure!(see!ex.!3.23).!

!
Ex.!3.23!Original!timpani!figure,!Milhaud,!Concerto,!bar!9!

The!piano!reduction!has!a!simplified!version!of!the!figure!(see!ex.!3.24)!

!
Ex.!3.24!Amended!timpani!figure,!Milhaud,!Concerto!(Piano!reduction),!bar!9!

This!is!a!significant!change!to!the!timpani!part.!The!original!was!difficult!in!1929!
and!accordingly!may!not!have!been!fully!appropriate!in!its!depth!of!difficulty!for!
its!examination!purposes.!It!is!still!not!easy!to!articulate!clearly!today,!as!it!
requires!fast,!even,!movement!of!both!hands;!and!playing!the!ostinato!rhythm!on!
drums!of!different!tensions!(tunings)!means!one!is!playing!on!different!vibration!
frequencies.!So!the!balance!in!sound!between!the!two!drums!could!alter!over!the!
phrase!with!each!beat!hitting!the!drum!at!a!different!point!in!its!vibration!cycle,!
so!that!even!playing!a!crescendo!would!not!change!this.!However,!the!total!sound!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
312 !This!aspect!of!technique!and!effect!on!performance!has!received!little!attention!in!the!
research.!

160!!
would!be!fullTtoned!and!more!in!keeping!with!the!ambience!of!the!piece.!On!the!
other!hand!the!simplified!phrase!(see!ex.!3.17)!is!simpler!to!play!and!gives!a!
clearer!sound,!though!it!does!have!less!tone!overall,!while!the!final!note!changes!
from!an!E7!chord!to!a!single!note!of!D!or!E.!(Milhaud!no!doubt!changed!the!figure!
to!accommodate!the!playing!difficulty!and!decided!on!a!compromise!whereby!
the!first!and!third!figures!finished!on!D!and!the!second!and!fourth!on!E.)!The!
conundrum!of!which!version!to!play,!is!not!easy!to!resolve.!While!the!original!
adds!a!rhythmic!intensity!that!increases!the!musical!tension,!it!needs!to!be!
clearly!articulated!to!successfully!convey!this.!The!amended!version!is!easier,!but!
is!only!a!freeTflowing!rhythmic!passage!that!adds!no!deeper!interest.!313!

3.6.1*Movement*

This!touches!on!another!aspect!of!technique!–!movement.!The!sizes!and!types!of!
the!instruments!require!large!movement!of!arms!and!of!the!whole!body.!To!play,!
for!example!the!timpani!and!untuned!drums!requires!a!stretch!across!either!the!
drums!to!reach!the!timpani!or,!as!is!more!likely!today,!across!the!timpani!the!
play!the!drums,!with!a!quick!return!in!bar!9!to!play!the!bass!drum/cymbal!with!
the!foot!(see!ex.!3.25).!

!
Ex.!3.25!Movement!across!three!types!of!instruments,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!8T9!

The!movement!is!even!more!pronounced!in!bars!22T23,!with!the!inclusion!of!the!
triangle!and!suspended!cymbal,!as!this!also!involves!twirling!the!beater.!This!
figure!moreover!is!played!at!piano,!so!the!fast!and!big!movements!are!combined!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
313
Igor Lesnik, op. cit. p. 65 also recognises this conundrum and states his preference for playing the
original, based on!the!belief!that!“the!timpani!doubleT!stops!correspond!better!with!the!theme’s!
key!16thTnote!motive”,!as do I.!

! 161!
with!the!extra!control!needed!to!play!softly,!increasing!the!level!of!difficulty!(see!
ex.!3.26).!

Ex.!3.26!Movement!across!instruments!at!piano!volume,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!22T23!

In!addition,!there!are!the!whole!body!movements!involved!with!moving!between!
instruments.!The!changes!from!whip!(verga)!to!clash!cymbals,!while!playing!the!
bass!drum/cymbal!and!then!playing!the!castanets!are!big!movements!and!
obvious!to!the!audience.!As!much!as!possible!they!need!to!be!executed!smoothly!
to!keep!the!attention!on!the!sound!as!it!moves!between!wood,!skin!and!metal!
and!back!to!wood,!with!nuances!of!timbral!and!textural!change!as!it!does!(see!ex.!
3.27).!

162!!
 !
Ex.!3.27!Movement!and!changing!instruments,!Milhaud!Concerto!bars!44T53!

A!faster!change!of!instrument,!mood!and!consequently!movement!occurs!at!bar!
144!(see!ex.!3.28).!From!timpani!and!bass!drum!evoking!a!slow!insistence!of!
sound!to!a!fast!and!furious!whip!interjection!before!returning!to!the!slow!
insistence,!this!time!on!untuned!drums!involves!two!elements!of!the!type!of!
movement!needed.!Firstly!the!suddenness!of!the!explosion!of!sound,!whether!as!
a!dramatic!reminder!of!the!opening!or!a!brutal!intrusion!into!the!mysterious!
atmosphere,!is!emphasised!with!an!almost!imperceptible!picking!up!of!the!whip!
during!the!previous!two!bars!and!equally!imperceptible!putting!it!back!down!at!
the!end!of!the!drama!of!the!moment.!Secondly,!a!decision!needs!to!be!made!as!
whether!the!beaters!are!put!down!and!picked!up,!or!kept!in!the!hands!while!
playing!the!whip.!The!former!might!give!more!attention!to!the!drama!of!the!

! 163!
moment!but!can!make!the!transitions!clumsier.!On!the!other!hand!if!the!beaters!
are!held!unobtrusively!while!playing!the!whip!the!transitions!can!be!smoother.!

*
Ex.!3.28!Movement!and!changing!instruments,!Milhaud!Concerto!bars!141T145*

3.6.2*Sound*

This!issue!of!movement!is!also!related!to!sound.!Such!a!disparate!group!of!
instruments!raises!a!few!issues,!firstly!of!timbral!relationships.!In!1929!without!
the!plethora!of!instruments!that!exist!today!the!sensitivity!to!possible!nuances!of!
sound!was!not!developed.!Milhaud!wrote!for!whichever!instruments!and!specific!
timbres!were!available.!For!example,!three!types!of!snare!drum!(caisse!claire,!
caisse!roulante!and!tambour!provençal)!were!used!to!provide!a!set!of!untuned!
and!unsnared!drum!timbres.!This!is!obvious,!as!the!sympathetic!vibrations!from!
the!snares!would!obliterate!the!rhythmic!figures!on!the!timpani.!However,!the!
more!probing!question!to!answer!is!whether!newer!styles!of!drums!would!be!
equally!acceptable.!A!truly!authentic!performance!would!insist!on!the!original,!
but!would!also!mean!playing!with!calfskin!heads!on!all!membranophones,!
including!the!timpani!and!doing!so!in!an!uncontrolled!environment.!!

164!!
 !

Plate!3.03!RotoTtoms,!Kolberg!catalogue314!

On!the!other!hand,!from!a!logistical!perspective!it!would!certainly!be!easier!to!
use!rotoTtoms!(see!plate!3.03),!but!their!sound!is!very!different!from!twoTheaded!
drums;!and!the!snare!drum!(unsnared)!also!has!a!different!tone!again!from!tomT
toms,!so!to!use!them,!or!even!three!tomTtoms!would!change!the!timbres!
significantly.!The!original!instruments,!moreover,!also!have!a!greater!projection!
of!tone.315!

Similarly,!the!choice!of!instruments!and!details!of!scoring!raise!another!question.!
Writing!for!woodblock,!castanets!and!whip,!three!different!wooden!idiophones,!
means!three!different!sound!sources!are!introduced!into!the!piece,!and!so!raise!
the!question!as!to!whether!it!is!for!reasons!for!sound!or!theatricality.!If!the!
former,!a!decision!needs!to!be!made!as!to!whether!there!should!be!a!noticeably!
large!timbral!different!between!them.!It!is!also!apposite!to!note!that!the!
woodblock!is!scored!in!a!set!of!instruments!where!it!is!written!on!a!line!below!
the!cowbell!and!so!could!be!seen!as!being!of!a!lower!timbre!than!the!cowbell.!If!
this!is!accepted,!the!cowbell!should!then!be!lower!than!the!suspended!cymbal!
and!all!three,!the!cymbal,!cowbell!and!woodblock,!should!be!higher!than!the!
cymbal!attached!to!the!bass!drum.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
314 !Kolberg!Percussion!GmbH,!Uhingen,!Percussion(Instrumente(Katalog,!2007,!p.!12!
315 !At!this!point!it!must!be!raised!that!there!is!always!debate!and!controversy!from!players!over!
the!attendant!musical!conundrum!of!which!is!more!important!in!serving!the!intent!of!the!work!T!
to!use!authentic!instruments!or!select!new!and!improved!instruments!which!can!create!a!
superior!quality!sound!while!supporting!a!more!fluid!performance!from!the!player.!Although!
there!are!many!compelling!arguments!in!favour!of!using!either!historic!or!contemporary!
instruments,!within!the!scope!of!this!thesis!it!would!be!a!distraction!to!pursue!this!intellectual!
segue!further.!And!so!it!is!left!for!the!reader!to!contemplate.!

! 165!
There!are!also!challenges!of!playing!detail.!For!example!to!play!the!figure!at!bars!
20T22!on!triangle,!three!drums,!cymbal,!woodblock!and!cowbell!using!the!same!
xylophone!beaters,!whether!wood,!bakelite!or!plastic!requires!a!different!weight!
of!stroke!for!each!in!order!to!produce!a!congruent!musical!phrase!(see!ex.!3.29).!
Alternately,!the!shaft!of!the!beater!could!also!be!used,!for!example,!to!play!the!
grace!notes!on!the!cowbell!in!bar!21,!to!reduce!the!possibility!of!producing!a!
jarring!sound!in!the!middle!of!a!piano!phrase.!

! !

Ex.!3.!29!Weights!of!stroke!across!different!instruments,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!20T22!

The!sound!possibilities!are!further!extended!by!the!use!of!two!different!beaters!–!
timpani!beaters!and!xylophone!beaters.!The!timpani!are!played!with!felt!beaters,!
the!other!membranophones!with!wooden!snare!drum!sticks!and!felt!beaters.!The!
triangle!is!played!with!a!thin!metal!beater,!the!tamTtam!with!a!large!felt!beater.!
Suspended!cymbals!can!be!played!with!wooden!or!felt!beaters,!Cowbell!and!
woodblock!generally!played!with!snare!drum!sticks!(though!for!softer!sounds!

166!!
felt!beaters!could!also!be!used).!The!castanets,!whip,!ratchet,!tambourine!and!
clash!cymbals!with!the!hands!(in!their!own!ways),!and!of!course!the!bass!
drum/cymbal!with!the!foot!(see!table!3.05).!!

The*instruments*! Usual*Beaters! Milhaud’s*Beaters*

Timpani! Felt!beaters! Felt!
Caisse!claire!(snare!drum)! Snare!drum!(SD)!sticks! Wood/Felt!
Caisse!roulante!(tenor!drum)! SD!sticks! Wood/Felt!
Tambourin!provençal!(deep!drum)! SD!sticks! Wood/Felt!
Triangle! Metal!beater! Wood!
TamTtam! Large!felt!beater! Large!Felt!
suspended!Cymbal! Felt!beater!or!SD!sticks! Wood/Felt!
Cowbell! Usually!SD!sticks! Wood/Felt!
Woodblock! Usually!SD!sticks! Wood/Felt!
Castanets!(mounted!on!a!stand)! Hands!! Hands!
Whip!(also!called!a!Slapstick)! Hands! Hands!
Ratchet! Handle! Handle!
pair!Cymbals! Hands!! Hands!!
Tambourine! Hands! Hands!
Bass!Drum!(pedal)!+!detachable! FootTpedal! FootTpedal!
Cymbal!
Table!3.05!Milhaud’s!use!of!beaters!on!the!various!instruments316!

There!are!times!in!the!piece!when!the!beaters!need!to!be!changed!quickly.!This!
problem!was!solved!with!the!compromise!of!using!doubleTended!mallets!(see!
plate!3.04),!which!at!the!time!could!have!been!made!by!the!performer,!by!either!
fixing!a!felt!beater!onto!a!xylophone!beater!or!vice(versa.!!

!
Plate!3.04!doubleTended!mallets!as!suggested!by!Milhaud317!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
316 !Table!compiled!by!author!

! 167!
At!one!end!(the!top!of!the!mallet!in!plate!3.04)!was!a!felt!timpani!beater,!and!at!
the!other!a!xylophone!beater.!Within!the!limits!of!this!designation!however,!
there!are!varieties!of!hardness!that!will!determine!the!levels!of!clarity!of!
articulation.!

With!medium,!or!preferably!mediumThard!felt,!the!rhythmic!figures!on!the!
timpani!would!be!more!clearly!articulated!than!if!softer!felt!were!used.!The!
suggestion!on!the!score!also!is!that!the!xylophone!beater!is!made!of!wood.!
However,!while!some!xylophone!beaters!did!have!wooden!heads,!other!material!
was!also!used!such!as!rhinoceros!horn!and!Bakelite,!both!of!which!produced!a!
more!fullTbodied!tone!than!wood,!and!with!less!‘contact’!sound.318!It!is!possible!
that!Milhaud!had!in!mind!the!wooden!xylophone!mallets!that!were!used!on!the!
old!fourTrow!‘strohTfiedel’!xylophones.!They!were!still!in!use!at!the!time,!though!
in!the!process!of!being!superseded!by!the!keyboard!style!xylophones.!

The!performer!then!needs!to!decide!what!beaters!to!use,!with!consequences!for!
the!sound!produced.!The!unpitched!drums!will!sound!very!similar!regardless!of!
whether!they!are!played!with!wood,!horn!or!bakelite.!The!suspended!cymbal!if!
played!with!the!tip!of!the!beater!will!give!a!sharper!tone!from!the!horn!or!
bakelite!than!from!wood.319!The!horn!and!Bakelite!will!also!produce!a!more!
pronounced!and!clearer!tone!on!the!cowbell,!woodblock!and!triangle,!though!a!
metal!triangle!beater!will!always!produce!a!clearer!triangle!sound.!!

However,!there!are!three!extra!elements!to!consider!when!selecting!beaters.!
Firstly,!because!ethically!rhinoceros!horn!is!now!an!illegal!import!its!use!in!any!
form!is!precluded.!Therefore!bakelite!or!maybe!plastic!beaters!would!be!the!best!
option.!Secondly,!there!is!a!mistranslation!in!the!German!instructions!and!this!
relates!to!the!tamTtam!beater.!Although!the!French!mailloche,!meaning!large,!felt!
tamTtam!beater!is!correct,!the!German!großen(Holzschlägel!has!been!translated!
as!wooden(beater,!which!if!selected!would!be!completely!inappropriate.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
317 !Milhaud,!Concerto,!Reduction!score,!p.!2!

318 !With!many!beaters!there!are!two!sounds!produced,!the!sound!of!the!beater!and!instrument!in!
contact!and!the!resultant!musical!note.!The!former!can!distract!from!the!music,!so!manufacturers!
continue!to!look!for!material!that!will!produce!a!range!of!musical!sounds!without!the!distraction!
of!the!‘contact’!sound.!
319 !Playing!with!the!shaft!of!the!beater!on!the!edge!of!the!cymbal!can!also!give!a!fullTbodied!tone.!

168!!
But!the!most!significant!challenge!for!contemporary!performers!is!the!grosse(
Caisse(à(pédale(avec(Cymbale(décrochable!(großes(Trommel(mit(Pedal,(as(dem(ein(
abnehmbares(Becken)320!–!the!bass!drum!with!footTpedal!and!detachable!cymbal!
(see!plate!3.05),!as!these!accessories!are!no!longer!made.!This!mode!of!playing!
was!an!early!attempt!to!combine!bass!drum!and!cymbals!for!one!player.!In!some!
works!for!Concert!Band!it!may!have!worked!in!the!loud!passages,!but!as!the!
cymbal!was!always!loud,!any!attempt!at!subtle!playing!proved!impossible.!The!
instrument!made!a!transition!to!jazz!and!its!patent!unsuitability!led!to!
developments!that!resulted!in!drummers!playing!Bass!Drum!with!one!pedal!and!
a!hiThat!with!another.!So!one!solution!in!the!Concerto!has!been!to!use!that!
combination!and!connect!the!two!instruments!with!a!board!that!is!held!in!place!
with!bulldog!clips.!However,!Milhaud!uses!the!bass!drum!/cymbal!for!
punctuation,!and!using!the!hiThat!is!not!successful!as!the!hiThat!sound!is!too!soft.!
Unfortunately,!there!is!no!other!easily!available!solution!short!of!making!one’s!
own.!One!possibility!is!to!remove!the!top!cymbal!of!the!hiThat,!attach!a!beater!or!
metal!rod!(see!plate!3.06)!to!the!rod!of!the!hiThat,!which!itself!is!attached!to!the!
bass!drum!and!used!as!described!above.!This!could!give!the!desired!sound.321!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
320 !Milhaud,!Concerto,(piano!reduction!score,!p.!2!
321 !This!also!opens!up!possibilities!for!more!creative!interpretations!of!the!detachable!cymbal!
sound,!with!wooden!or!wound!beaters!for!example,!to!give!a!less!metallic!sound.!Of!course,!this!is!
not!‘authentic’,!but!then!neither!is!the!hiThat.!Moreover,!one!could!argue!that!it!is!in!keeping!with!
Milhaud’s!preferences!‘for!works!of!art!that!…!show!inventive!and!imaginative!qualities!and!a!
certain!nobility!of!construction!far!removed!from!textbook!rules!and!regulations’!as!discussed!
above!(footnote!21).!

! 169!
 !!!! !
a.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! b.!

Plate!3.05a!Bass!Drum!/!detachable!Cymbal!in!a!typical!drum!set!used!in!the!theatre.322 !!
Plate!3.05b!Bass!Drum!/!detachable!Cymbal!detail!(author’s!collection)!

!! !! !
Plate!3.06!Alternative!method!of!playing!the!bass!drum/cymbal!and!alternative!sounds!
(author’s!collection)!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
322 !http://www.vintagedrumguide.com/slingerland_drumsets_1928.htm!accessed!5!November!
2014!

170!!
3.6.3*Notation*and*Discrepancies*between*Editions*

Some!unexpected!problems!emerged!in!respect!to!the!notation,!which!impact!on!
the!interpretation!and!so!are!important!to!examine.!The!legend!follows!a!staff!
notation,!which!is!reflected!in!the!setup;!so!for!example,!the!tamTtam,!as!a!low!
timbre!is!on!the!extreme!left,!and!the!triangle,!as!a!high!timbre!is!on!the!right;!
and!this!general!staff!notation!is!followed!throughout!the!piece.323!This!does,!
however,!present!logistical!playing!problems.!Given!the!paucity!of!instrument!
stands!at!the!time,!and!their!inflexibility!to!be!stationed,!the!setup!of!the!
‘accessory’324!instruments!would!not!necessarily!follow!a!staff!notation!setup,!so!
the!logic!of!the!intent!was!possibly!lost!in!the!practicality!of!its!application.!!

The!part!also,!as!written,!is!difficult!to!follow,!as!the!fluency!of!following!the!
notes!is!continually!interrupted!by!the!need!to!read!the!abbreviated!legend!at!
the!start!of!every!system!(see!ex.!3.30).!Even!when!there!are!fewer!systems!it!is!
still!necessary!to!read!which!grouping!of!instruments!is!referred!to.!!

!
!
Ex.!3.30!Reading!five!staves,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!22T29!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
323 !This,!of!course,!can!be!reversed!if!the!German!tradition!of!Timpani!setTup!is!extended!to!the!
complete!setTup.!
324 !The!small!and!handTheld!Percussion!instruments!have!traditionally!been!referred!to!as!
‘accessory’!in!the!orchestral!context.!

! 171!
Moreover,!in!the!piano!reduction!score,!the!instruments!are!grouped!differently!
(see!plate!3.07).!The!four!!‘accessory’!instruments!that!he!suggests!are!to!be!
attached!to!the!Bass!Drum!are!notated!on!the!top!fourTline!system,!the!five!
accessory!instruments!that!can!be!placed!anywhere!as!they!need!to!be!picked!up!
to!play!on!the!next!fiveTline!system.!The!following!stave!is!a!threeTline!system!for!
the!three!drums,!then!a!oneTline!system!for!the!tamTtam,!a!normal!stave!for!the!
timpani,!and!another!oneTline!system!for!the!bass!drum!/!cymbal.!This!
arrangement,!if!it!were!to!be!replicated!in!the!solo!part!would!be!easier!to!read,!
as!it!would!be!possible!to!differentiate!the!number!of!lines!and!just!memorise!the!
groups!attached!to!the!various!systems.325!

!
Plate!3.07!Concerto,!instrument!legend,!Piano!reduction326!
!
While!on!the!topic!of!the!piano!reduction!it!is!apposite!to!analyse!further!the!
differences!between!the!editions.!There!are!four!versions!of!the!work,!a!
performance!score!with!orchestra,!a!miniature!score,!and!two!Piano!reductions,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
325 !This!point!appears!to!have!been!ignored!by!the!research!into!the!work,!and!by!the!players.!

326 !Milhaud,!Concerto,!Piano!reduction!score,!p.3!

172!!
and!there!are!some!serious!discrepancies!between!them.327!The!performance!
and!miniature!scores!are!identical,!so!they!will!be!referred!to!as!the!performance!
score!or!original!for!ease!of!reference.!As!regards!the!accompaniment,!the!piano!
reduction!is!lacking!some!of!the!orchestral!lines,!no!doubt!for!ease!of!playing.!
While!they!do!not!detract!from!the!essence!of!the!work!from!an!audience!point!of!
view,!it!is!well!for!any!performer!to!be!aware!of!them!(see!table!3.06).!

Differences*in*editions*(orchestral*part)*

Bar* Performance*/* Piano*Reduction*

Miniature*score*
1T14! ! No!Viola!line!
34T44! ! No!Violin!2!or!Clarinet!lines!
37T38! !
No!Double!Bass!line!on!beat!1! !
43T50! ! No!Brass!
56! ! No!Flutes!
59T73! ! No!Clarinet!2!
60T65! ! No!Flutes!
75T77! ! No!Clarinets!
79T80! ! No!winds!
102! !

No!Violin! !No!Viola!F#!
157T8! ! No!Viola!line!
Table!3.06!Discrepancies!between!editions!(orchestral)!328 !

In!the!first!fourteen!bars,!and!again!in!bars!157T158!the!Viola!line!is!missing!in!
the!reduction,!but!as!its!role!is!to!provide!a!greater!depth!to!the!harmony,!this!
will!not!affect!the!transition!to!playing!with!orchestra.!Of!more!importance!is!the!
lack!of!the!second!violin!and!clarinet!lines!in!bars!34T44.!The!insistence!of!the!
descending!rhythm!line!in!the!violin!part!(see!ex.!3.31)!and!the!extended!melody!
in!the!clarinets!(see!ex.!3.32)!add!a!greater!complexity!to!the!sound.!

!
Ex.!3.31!Violin!part!missing!in!reduction,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bar!34!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
327 !The!1958!Piano!reduction!has!been!amended!and!corrected!in!the!later!(1967)!version,!but!
some!secondThand!copies!are!obviously!still!in!existence!and!players!need!to!be!aware!of!
problems!resulting!from!the!discrepancies!in!the!solo!part.!The!accompaniment!is!the!same!in!
both!editions.!
328 !Table!compiled!by!author!

! 173!
 !
Ex.!3.32!Missing!clarinet!part!in!reduction,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!34T36!

In!bars!37T38!the!double!bass!is!the!only!instrument!to!play!the!following!
rhythmic!figure!of!on!the!first!beat!of!each!bar!(see!ex.!3.33).!

!
Ex.!3.33!Double!bass!part!missing!in!reduction,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bar!37!

In!bars!43T50!the!brass!punctuate!the!orchestral!sound!with!the!following!figure,!
adding!more!weight!to!the!harmony!(see!ex.3.34).!

!
Ex.!3.34!Brass!parts!missing!in!reduction,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bars!43T45!

The!lack!of!the!flute!line!in!bar!56!robs!the!piece!of!the!sixteenth!note!phrase!that!
adds!brightness!to!the!castanet!rhythm!at!the!end!of!that!bar.!The!counter!
melody!provided!by!the!second!clarinet!is!missing!from!bars59T73.!The!high!
sound!of!the!flute!in!bars!60T65!(an!octave!above!the!second!violin),!the!intensity!
of!the!clarinet!lines!in!bars!73T77,!the!harmonic!density!of!the!wind!parts!in!bars!
79T80!are!all!missing!in!the!piano!reduction.!

The!solo!part!also!has!some!discrepancies!as!shown!in!the!following!table!(see!
table!3.07).329!The!solo!part!itself!and!the!orchestral!performance!score!do!not!
have!any!playing!directions.!These!appear!only!on!the!piano!reduction!score!
(and!not!in!the!solo!parts).!The!recording!referred!to!is!conducted!by!Milhaud.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
329 !Some!of!these!discrepancies!would!be!covered!by!the!publisher’s!note!“La!partie!solo!de!la!
percussion!dans!la!réduction!pour!piano!diffère!de!celle!de!la!version!pour!orchestre!et!peut!être!
exécutée!par!un!seul!instrumentiste.”!(The!solo!part!in!the!reduction!differs!from!that!in!the!
orchestral!version!and!is!perhaps!played!by!a!solo!instrumentalist).!However,!it!creates!further!
confusion!as!firstly!not!all!the!discrepancies!are!due!to!this!difference!and!secondly!it!implies!that!
the!orchestral!version!is!for!multiple!percussionists!(see!footnote!254]).!

174!!
Differences*in*editions*(solo*part)330*
Changes!in!directions!in!italics;!notational!changes!in!roman!script!
Bar* Performance*score/Solo*part*and* Piano*Reduction* Recording**
Miniature*score*
5* * Timpani(beaters( *
9! *
Timpani!marked ! Simplified!Timpani! *
12T *
14!
Timpani!marked! ! Simplified!Timpani! *
18! ! Mailloche((Tam[tam(beater)( *
19! ! Xylophone(beaters( *
23! ! Timpani(beaters( *
30! * No!Bass!Drum/Cymbal! *
Tambourine((roll)(with(thumb(
31! * Tambourine((roll)(with(thumb( *
33! No!fermata! Pause!on!beat!3!T!to!give!the! *
soloist!time!to!put!down!the!
Tambourine!noiselessly!&!pick!up!
the!beaters!
Shaken(Tambourine(roll(&(place(
Tambourine(on(tray(
34! ! Timpani(beaters( *
50T Bass!Drum/Cymbal!entry!is!on!beat!3,! Bass!Drum/Cymbal!entry!is!on! Conducted!by!
51! finishing!the!phrase!with!the! beat!4!and!there!is!no!Cymbals! Milhaud,!the!
orchestra,!with!a!mp!clash!Cymbals! entry!in!bar!51* entry!is!on!beat!
note!on!beat!2!in!bar!51!to!link!the! 4,!mirroring!bar!
phrase!to!the!orchestral!section! 47.!But!it!is!hard!
following* to!hear!whether!
the!mp!clash!
Cymbals!note!in!
bar!51!is!played.*
58! ! Xylophone(beaters(on(drums( !
Timpani(beaters(on(Timpani(
68! ! Pick(up(Tam[tam(beater( !
69T ! Timpani(beaters(on(cymbal,(and( !
74! Timpani.(Tam[tam(beater(on(Tam[
tam(
70T TamTtam!is!marked!p!with!a! TamTtam!is!marked!mf,!with!no! *
74! diminuendo!in!bars!73T74.* diminuendo.*
75* The!drums!and!Triangle!marked!mf* The!drums!and!Triangle!are!mp* *
78! ! Timpani(beaters( *
79T There!is!a!crescendo!on!the!Timpani,! The!Timpani!part!is!omitted* In!Milhaud’s!
80* but!a!Ratchet!is!also!notated!(with!a! recording!the!
crescendo,!though!that!is!not!really! Ratchet!entry!is!
possible)!in!bar!80.!The!two!together! used.!
are!impossible!to!play,!but!it!is!
possible!to!play!the!Timpani!in!bar!79!
and!Ratchet!in!80,!thus!complying!
with!the!composer’s!original!intent*
Table!3.07!Discrepancies!in!the!solo!part!between!editions:!Rude(et(dramatique(

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
330 !Table!compiled!by!author!

! 175!
!
Bar* Performance*score/Solo*part*and* Piano*Reduction* Recording**
Miniature*score*
81! ! Re[tune(Timpani,(Detach(Cymbal( !
from(Bass(Drum(
92! ! Timpani(beaters( !
96! ! Tam[tam(with(beater331( !
98T BD!is!marked(p!with!a!crescendo!to!f! No!dynamic!marking!for!the!BD.! Played!as!
102* in!bars!99T102.!The!Tambourine!is! It!should!crescendo!to!f.!BD(with( marked!in!the!
marked!mp* pedal,(hold(beaters(under(the(arm.! performance!and!
miniature!scores*
104T ! Xylophone(beaters(on(drums( !
111! Timpani(beaters(on(Timpani(
112! ! Tam[tam(beater( !
114T ! Timpani(with(one(hand,(hold(Tam[ !
121! tam(beater(in(other(hand(
120* The!BD!is!marked!pp* BD!has!no!dynamic!marking.!It!is! *
to!be!played(with(the(pedal!at!pp(
121* The!TamTtam!is!marked!pp* In!the!1958!edition!the!tamTtam! *
is!marked!ff.!It!should!be!played!
pp(This!mistake!is!corrected!in!
the!1967!edition.*
125T ! No!BD.!It!should!be!there!on!the! *
131! first!beat!of!each!bar!and!marked!
pp.(Timpani(beaters(
134! ! Xylophone(beaters( *
136! ! Timpani(beaters( *
143! ! *

Timpani!entry! !is!
omitted.!Tam[tam(played(with(
beater((see(note(44)!
144! ! There!is!a!pause!on!beat!4!to! Pause!as!in!the!
allow!for!a!change!of!beaters.! reductions*
145! ! Timpani(beaters( !
152! ! The!roll!on!the!Tambourin! Tambourin!
provençal!is!omitted.!Tam[tam( provençal!roll!is!
played(with(beater((see(note(44)! omitted,!as!it!is!
difficult!to!play!
convincingly!
with!the!tamTtam!
entry!as!well.*
155! ! The!crescendo!on!the!suspended! *
Cymbal!is!omitted!
161! ! Play(with(one(hand(and(pick(up( *
Tam[tam(beater(with(other(
165T ! Play(with(one(hand(with(Timpani( *
168! beater,(Tam[tam,(with(Tam[tam(
beater,(BD(with(pedal,(Triangle(
with(Xylophone(beater(
Table!3.07!Discrepancies!in!the!solo!part!between!editions:!Modéré!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
331 !Which!beater!is!not!made!clear,!but!probably!the!timpani!as!to!pick!up!and!put!down!the!tamT
tam!beater!would!be!too!awkward.!

176!!
The!discrepancy!in!the!timpani!part!in!bars!9,!12,!13,!and!14!has!been!discussed!
in!the!section!on!movement.!Briefly,!the!original!performance!score!has!the!
following!figure!(see!ex.!3.35).!

!
Ex.!3.35!Original!timpani!figure,!Milhaud,!Concerto,!bar!9!

The!piano!reduction!has!a!simplified!version!of!the!figure!(see!ex.!3.36)!

!
Ex.!3.36!Amended!timpani!figure,!Milhaud,!Concerto!(Piano!reductions),!bar!9!

The!conundrum!of!which!version!to!play,!is!not!easy!to!resolve.!!As!discussed!in!
the!section!on!playing!action,!the!rhythmic!intensity!of!the!original!increases!the!
musical!tension,!but!is!more!difficult!to!clearly!articulate.!The!amended!version!
is!free!flowing,!but!adds!no!deeper!interest.!!

In!bar!22!the!last!note,!on!the!tambourin!provençal,332!is!missing!in!the!
reduction,!possibly!because!it!was!deemed!to!be!too!difficult!to!play!it!(after!the!
bass!drum/cymbal!note!on!beat!four)!and!in!the!following!eighth!note!rest!twirl!
the!beaters!and!enter!in!time!on!timpani!on!the!next!eighth.!In!bar!30!in!the!
original!part!the!accented!second!half!of!the!second!beat!is!punctuated!by!the!
bass!drum/cymbal!part,!played!underneath!the!tambourine.!This!bass!drum!
/cymbal!entry!is!missing!in!the!reduction,!as!is!the!accent!in!the!accompaniment.!
In!bar!33!in!the!reduction!there!is!a!pause!on!beat!3!T!to!give!the!soloist!time!to!
put!down!the!tambourine!noiselessly!&!pick!up!the!beaters.!This!pause!is!not!
indicated!in!the!original,!but!in!the!recording,!conducted!by!Milhaud,!there!is!a!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
332 !The!spelling!‘provençale’!in!the!score!is!a!mistake.!The!correct!spelling!is!the!masculine!
‘provençal’!

! 177!
pause!before!the!next!bar,!obviously!to!give!the!soloist!time!to!change!from!
tambourine!to!drums.333!

In!bars!50T51!in!the!performance!score!the!bass!drum!/cymbal!entry!is!on!beat!3,!
finishing!the!phrase!with!the!orchestra,!with!a!mp!clash!cymbals!note!on!beat!2!
in!bar!51!to!link!the!phrase!to!the!orchestral!section!following.!In!the!reduction!
the!entry!is!on!beat!4!and!there!is!no!cymbals!entry!in!bar!51.!In!the!recording!
conducted!by!Milhaud,!the!entry!is!on!beat!4,!mirroring!bar!47,!but!it!is!hard!to!
hear!whether!the!mp!clash!cymbals!note!in!bar!51!is!played.!The!castanets!in!bar!
53!are!marked!mp!in!the!original!and!p!in!the!reduction,!but!this!is!a!minor!
difference,!and!the!reality!is!that!the!dynamic!at!which!the!figure!is!played!is!
determined!as!much!by!performance!circumstances!as!intent.!!

The!original!has!a!p!dynamic!marking!fort!the!tamTtam!in!bar!70!with!a!
diminuendo!in!bars!73T74,!but!it!is!marked!as!mf!in!the!reduction,!with!no!
diminuendo.!It!should!be!p!to!match!the!timpani!of!the!same!phrase,!and!then!
should!die!away!as!a!natural!ending!of!the!phrase!before!the!drums!announce!a!
new!mood.!This!new!mood!is!marked!mf!in!the!original!and!mp!in!the!reduction.!
The!mezzo[forte!is!an!indication!of!a!more!powerful!section!which!climaxes!to!
the!end!of!the!Rude(et(dramatique!half!of!the!piece.!This!climax!Milhaud!wanted!
to!be!very!powerful!in!order!to!provide!a!stark!contrast!with!the!Modéré!to!
follow,!but!he!seems!to!have!overscored!the!solo!at!this!point.!In!bars!79T80!
there!is!a!crescendo!on!the!timpani,!but!a!ratchet!is!also!notated!(with!a!
crescendo,!though!that!is!not!really!possible)!in!bar!80!against!a!timpani!roll.!The!
two!together!are!impossible!to!play,!but!it!is!possible!to!play!the!timpani!in!bar!
79!and!ratchet!in!80,!thus!complying!with!the!composer’s!original!intent.!The!
timpani!is!omitted!from!both!bars!in!the!reduction,!which!complies!with!
Milhaud’s!recording.334!

In!the!original!(bars!98T102),!the!bass!drum!is!marked!p!with!a!crescendo!
starting!in!bar!99!to!f!in!bar!102,!and!the!tambourine!is!marked!mp.!The!1958!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
333 !Darius!Milhaud,!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre(op.(109,!from!the!album!Milhaud:(The(
6(Little(Symphonies,!Luxembourg!Radio!Orchestra,!soloist!Daniel!Faure,!cond.!Darius!Milhaud.!
ASIN:!B001FA3MCW!VOX,!2007,!format!mp3.!
334 !Lesnik!op.(cit.,!p.!66!proposes!another,!slightly!different,!though!equally!valid!interpretation!

178!!
reduction!contains!no!dynamic!marking!for!the!bass!drum;!however,!the!
recording!is!played!as!marked!in!the!original.!This!small!section!then!presents!
the!soloist!with!a!dilemma.!If!played!with!a!bass!drum!or!tamTtam!beater,!the!
bass!drum!will!sound!more!resonant,!especially!if!played!on!a!second,!larger!bass!
drum.!This!would!also!make!the!transition!to!snare!drum!easier!as!the!
tambourine,!on!the!trap!table,!could!be!payed!with!one!hand!and!there!would!be!
no!need!to!quickly!but!silently!put!it!down.!However,!Milhaud’s!direction!at!this!
point!is!avec(pedale!(with!pedal),!while!holding!the!beaters!under!the!arm!in!
readiness!for!the!snare!drum!entry,!written!“Gardez!les!baguettes!sous!le!
bras”.335!

The!understanding!to!reach!is!whether!Milhaud!wanted!a!drier!sound,!as!it!is!
possible!to!play!the!pedal!bass!drum!with!the!felt!beater,!or!whether!it!was!
necessary!to!give!the!performer!enough!time!to!play!the!tambourine!in!bar!102.!
If!the!pedal!bass!drum!of!26”!or!28”!is!used!as!suggested!previously,!deciding!
which!beater!to!use!becomes!redundant,!as!the!sound!is!very!similar.!If,!however,!
the!pedal!bass!drum!selected!is!a!smaller!‘kick’!drum!of!18”!or!20”!diameter,!the!
temptation!to!use!a!larger!orchestral!bass!drum!and!play!it!with!a!bass!drum!
beater!to!produce!a!more!resonant!sound,!is!very!compelling.!There!is!of!course!
no!definitive!answer!to!this!question,!but!it!must!be!judged!against!the!fact!that!
there!are!other!places!where!Milhaud!specifically!asks!for!the!bass!drum!to!be!
played!with!a!beater!(in!particular!bars!96!and!143),!and!elsewhere!where!he!
also!asks!for!the!pedal!(bar!167).336!

The!timpani!figure!at!114!has!a!dynamic!marking!of!mf!with!a!crescendo!to!sfz,!
and!the!bars!following!have!no!other!marking!in!the!original,!yet!are!notated!p!in!
the!reduction.!In!the!original!the!winds!are!mf,!and!the!strings!at!p,!so!it!makes!
sense!for!the!solo!to!be!a!strong!mf.!The!piano!accompaniment!however,!is!p!like!
the!strings,!which!explains!the!reason!for!the!difference.!This!seemingly!
justifiable!discrepancy!then!permits!two!different!interpretations,!both!of!which!
can!bring!a!level!of!unresolved!tension!leading!to!the!Vif!in!bar!144.!However,!in!
the!recording!the!timpani!are!played!softly!through!that!section!after!the!initial!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
335 !Piano!reduction!score,!p.!16!!

336 !Lesnik,!op.(cit.,!p.!65!briefly!discusses!some!of!these.!

! 179!
crescendo,!and!the!winds!also!are!played!at!pp.!As!no!comment!has!been!made!
on!this!it!is!likely!to!remain!a!mystery,!and!point!of!controversy,!though!it!is!
likely!that!Milhaud’s!preference!would!be!for!that!section!to!be!soft.!

The!bass!drum!is!marked!pp!at!bar!120!in!the!original,!and!has!no!marking!in!the!
reduction.!This!is!interesting!as!the!pp!is!set!against!a!possible!mf!on!the!
Timpani,!but!with!a!diminuendo!in!the!winds!it!should!be!pp!along!with!a!
diminuendo!on!timpani!to!reflect!the!general!mood!at!that!point.!In!the!following!
bar!(121)!is!the!grossest!discrepancy!between!the!editions.!In!the!original!and!
the!1967!piano!reduction!the!tamTtam!is!marked!pp,!but!in!the!1958!edition!of!
the!reduction!it!is!marked!ff.!it!clearly!should!be!played!pp,!as!it!is!in!the!
recording.!For!some!inexplicable!reason!also,!the!bass!drum!is!missing!from!bars!
125T126!in!the!reduction;!it!is!in!the!original!(on!the!first!beat!of!each!bar)!and!
marked!pp,(clearly!as!a!subtle,!lowTsounding!introduction!to!the!next!rhythmic!
figure,!a!variation!of!the!opening!as!played!on!the!tambourin!provençal.!

The!timpani!entry!in!bar!143!(see!ex.!3.37)!is!omitted!in!the!reduction.!It!is!also!
omitted!in!the!recording,!along!with!the!bass!drum,!which!is!notated!on!beat!one!
of!that!bar.!There!is!also!a!pause!inserted!at!the!end!of!bar!144!in!the!reduction,!
and!this!is!the!way!it!is!played!in!the!recording.!Clearly!Milhaud!heard!a!dying!
away!of!the!atmosphere!as!a!prelude!to!the!Vif!interruption!in!bar!144,!before!
the!resumption!of!the!Modéré!in!145,!but!at!the!time!it!was!seen!as!too!difficult!
to!play,!put!down!the!beaters!and!pick!up!the!whip,!play!that!figure,!put!down!
the!whip!and!play!the!drums.!However,!it!can!be!played,!and!there!are!a!few!
possible!ways!of!doing!it.!To!play!it!as!originally!notated,!the!whip!can!be!picked!
while!holding!onto!the!beaters,!and!put!down!at!the!end!of!144!when!the!beaters!
are!ready!to!play!the!drums,!which!are!to!be!played!with!the!felt!beaters!at!that!
point.!This!last!action!can!be!performed!with!or!without!a!pause.337!

Alternately!the!last!three!eighth!notes!of!bar!142!can!be!played!with!one!beater!
while!the!other!is!put!down,!bar!143!can!be!played!with!one!beater,!or!even!with!
the!fingers!while!the!other!beater!is!put!down,!and!the!whip!picked!up!and!bar!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
337 !Lesnik,!op.(cit.,!p.!65!again!discusses!possible!interpretations.!

180!!
144!played.!To!put!the!whip!down!and!pick!up!the!beaters!again!would!probably!
best!be!done!during!a!pause.!

!
Ex.!3.37!Timpani!part!erased!in!reduction,!Milhaud!Concerto,!bar!143!

In!bar!152,!the!tambourin!provençal!is!omitted!in!the!reduction;!in!the!original!a!
roll!is!notated!for!the!first!two!beats!of!the!bar!as!well!as!a!tamTtam!stroke!on!
beat!one.!In!the!recording!the!tambourin!provençal!is!omitted,!as!it!was!judged!
too!difficult!to!play!convincingly!with!the!tamTtam!entry!as!well.!It!is!still!difficult!
as!the!tamTtam!is!played!with!a!different!beater,!but!if!that!beater!were!to!be!
suspended!on!the!tamTtam!both!instruments!could!be!played,!though!it!would!
take!some!practice!to!execute!smoothly!at!pp.!Finally,!the!crescendo!on!the!
suspended!cymbal!in!bars!155T6!is!omitted!in!the!reduction.!There!seems!to!be!
no!reason!for!this!as!it!is!written!in!bars!153T4,!it!is!played!in!the!recording,!and!
the!crescendos!add!an!intensity!of!tension!before!the!piece!gradually!dies!away!
to!silence.338!

3.6.4*Logistics*of*performance*

Milhaud’s!setup!diagram!as!well!as!being!essential!at!the!time,!is!still!a!very!good!
starting!point!for!percussionists!today,!although!it!is!limited!by!the!instrument!
and!stand!situation!which!existed!at!that!time.!Over!the!years!since!he!wrote!the!
Concerto,!there!have!been!many!changes,!adaptations,!and!inventions!relating!to!
the!various!stands!in!response!to!performance!demands.!So!the!triangle,!
suspended!cymbal,!cowbell,!and!woodblock!can!be!mounted!on!a!stand!such!as!
one!used!for!templeblocks,!and!placed!behind!the!highest!timpano.!Alternately,!
between!this!stand!and!the!timpano!a!trap!table!can!hold!the!castanets,!whip,!
tambourine,!ratchet,!and!if!necessary,!the!beaters!(see!plate!3.08).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
338 !Lesnik,!op.(cit.,!p.!65!

! 181!
 Kombiständer Prinzip
Netto-Preisliste in € ohne Mehrwertsteuer, gültig ab Oktober 2006. Abbildungen ähnlich, Änderungen vorbehalten.

!! ! !! !
Plate!3.08!Templeblock!stand,!and!general!percussion!stand,!Kolberg!catalogue!2007339 !

The!bass!drum!/cymbal!can!be!placed!behind!the!percussionist,!and!played!by!
stepping!back!on!the!pedal;!and!the!pair!of!cymbals!can!be!located!in!any!
convenient!spot.!The!three!drums!Milhaud!suggests!placing!in!front!of!the!
timpani;!this!is!possibly!to!accommodate!easy!reach.!Stands!available!now!allow!
these!drums!to!be!positioned!behind!the!timpani!for!their!easier!accessibility!and!
Alle Teile sind hochglanzverchromt, wenn nicht anders angegeben.
playability.!Improvements!in!drum!design!and!manufacture!have!also!
Alle Rollen sind Totallenkbremsrollen.
Alle Stellschrauben sind metrisch M6.

contributed!flexibility!in!instrument!choice,!for!instance!using!rotoTtoms!instead!
Widerrufsbelehrung: Als Verbraucher können Sie Ihre Vertragserklärung innerhalb von zwei Wochen ohne Angabe von Gründen in Textform

of!the!drums!Milhaud!scored!for!(see!plate!3.03),!especially!as!the!tambourin!
(z. B. Brief, Fax, E-Mail) oder durch Rücksendung der Ware widerrufen, sofern die Ware nicht nach Kundenspezifikation angefertigt wurde.
Die Frist beginnt frühestens mit Erhalt dieser Belehrung. Zur Wahrung der Widerrufsfrist genügt die rechtzeitige Absendung des Widerrufs
oder der Sache. Der Widerruf ist zu richten an Kolberg Percussion GmbH, Stuttgarter Str. 157, 73066 Uhingen, Fon 07161 3005-30,
Fax -40, E-Mail: [email protected]. Sofern der Bestellwert mehr als EURO 40,- beträgt, erstatten wir die Kosten.
provençal!is!not!always!easily!obtainable.!From!a!logistical!perspective!it!would!
Wir weisen darauf hin, dass wir ggf. eine durch Ingebrauchnahme der Sache entstandene Wertminderung einbehalten können.

Kolberg Percussion | Kombiständer 3

also!be!easier!to!use!rotoTtoms,!but!their!sound!is!very!different!from!twoT
headed!drums,!as!was!discussed!in!the!section!on!sound.!

As!well,!the!developments!in!design!and!manufacture!of!new!drums!and!stands,!
have!given!more!flexibility!to!where!the!various!instruments!can!be!positioned!
resulting!in!very!different!possibilities!from!the!suggested!setup!diagram!and!
legend!of!the!Concerto.!With!the!multiplicity!of!choice!and!adaptability!of!these!
stands,!it!is!difficult!to!find!a!setup!arrangement!that!can!be!made!uniform,!and!
so,!equally!difficult!to!decide!on!a!standardised!notation!to!reflect!it.!It!can!be!
said!however,!that!for!ease!of!reading,!two!staves!can!be!used!with!the!timpani!
on!the!lower!stave!and!the!other!instruments!on!the!higher.!For!example,!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
339 !Kolberg!Percussion!Instrument!maker,!Uhingen,!Germany,!catalogues,!2007,!p.!60!
(Percussion)!and!p.!3!(Stands!Pricelist)!

182!!
various!drums,!tambourine!and!whip!can!be!notated!in!the!spaces!of!the!upper!
stave,!the!triangle!on!a!ledger!line!above!the!stave,!the!cymbals!à!2!and!tamTtam!
on!a!leger!line!below,!and!the!other!instruments!on!the!staff!lines!(see!plate!
3.09).!

!
Plate!3.09!an!example!of!a!different!notational!arrangement340!

Logistically,!placing!all!those!instruments!together!in!one!setup!obviously!
presented!problems!that!would!probably!have!been!collaboratively!solved!by!
Milhaud!and!Coutelier!within!the!local!limitations!of!available!instruments!and!
stands.!Developments!since!have!allowed!for!a!greater!flexibility!of!setTup.!

3.7*Significance*and*Conclusion*

Milhaud’s!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre((1929T30)(was(a!pioneering!
landmark!in!the!role!of!percussion!and!its!future!application.!Inspired!by!the!
philosophy!of!his!own!sensibilities!to!reflect!the!world!and!universe!in!all!its!
natural!and!manTmade!soundscapes,!Milhaud!exploited!selected!potentials!from!
an!eclectic!array!of!percussion!instruments.!In!so!doing!he!attained!to!a!
significant!degree!the!realisation!of!his!music!ambitions!within!a!difficult!and!
multiTlayered!piece.!He!also!consolidated!new!directions!and!opened!creative!
possibilities!for!percussion!as!a!discrete!genre,!for!composers!and!their!creative!
horizons!and!for!percussionists!in!their!performance!choices.!His!contribution!to!
the!world!of!classical!percussion!beginning!with!the!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(
petit(orchestre(is!exceptional.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
340 !Author’s!conception!

! 183!
The!Concerto!heralded!the!first!exposure!to!enhanced!percussion!possibilities.!
With!its!array!of!instrumentation,!its!multiTlayered!functions,!diverse!technical!
and!theatrical!requirements!for!the!player!percussion!itself!has!undergone!
redefinition.!From!simply!a!rhythmic!role,!subordinate!to!melody!and!harmony,!
percussion!is!now!regarded!as!a!discrete!musical!instrument!in!its!own!right,!
containing!myriad!instrumental!and!nonTinstrumental!elements!ranging!from!
timpani!and!marimba!to!triangle!and!slapstick.!Accordingly!it!is!recognised!as!a!
separate!music!Genre!with!implications!for!the!percussionist!and!audience!and!
composers.!This!monumental!change!of!status!and!direction!for!percussion!can!
be!largely!attributed!to!the!innovations!at!so!many!levels!introduced!by!Milhaud!
in!his!Concerto.!

The!Concerto!is!the!very!first!example!of!a!concertante!or!concerto!work!for!
mixed!percussion,!which!bestows!on!it!a!certain!historical!significance.!!
Previously!such!works!as!those!of!Fischer!and!Družecký!did!little!more!than!
emphasise!the!limitations!of!timpani,!the!primary!percussion!instrument!used!at!
that!time.!With!their!basic!and!inflexible!tuning!and!construction,!timpani!could!
do!little!more!than!underpin!the!melodic!and!harmonic!lines!of!the!orchestral!
accompaniment.!Historically,!melody!and!harmony!predominated!over!rhythm.!
Milhaud,!by!accepting!the!commission!to!write!for!a!percussion!examination!and!
then!composing!a!multiTpercussion!piece,!exercised!his!ingenuity!in!placing!the!
emphasis!and!focus!on!rhythm.!This!had!not!been!attempted!nor!accomplished!
before.!The!level!and!style!of!performance!inherent!in!this!sophisticated!piece,!
moreover,!demanded!that!percussionists!and!audiences!review!and!reshape!
their!narrow!preTconceptions!of!percussion!into!an!appreciation!of!a!highly!
vibrant,!challenging!and!newly!directioned!music!genre.!Within!a!singular!work!
Milhaud!achieved!the!transition!from!an!examination!piece!into!that!of!
performance,!with!the!Concerto!proclaiming!the!uniqueness!of!Percussion!as!a!
discrete!and!primary!focus!of!music!presentation!and!one!that!was!importantly,!
no!longer!filling!that!singular!role!of!only!accommodating!melody!and!harmony.!

As!a!direct!result!of!this!composition!the!medium!of!percussion!was!literally!
placed!front!of!stage!in!its!own!performing!right.!This!effectively!changed!the!
role!and!perception!of!percussion!in!music,!going!from!only!providing!

184!!
accompaniment!of!volume!and!pageantry!to!one!of!equal!importance!with!the!
other!instrumental!families.!Although!Milhaud!personally!was!not!a!percussion!
specialist,!in!his!desire!to!replicate!sound–sources!from!the!temporal!and!sacred!
worlds!to!which!he!had!heightened!sensitivity,!he!appeared!to!have!found!in!the!
vast!array!of!percussion!and!nonTinstruments,!the!sources!he!desired.!Thus!in!
the!Concerto!can!be!heard!his!highly!innovative!and!experimental!use!of!
instruments!and!nonTinstruments!taking!them!from!the!predictable!into!highly!
dynamic!and!even!aurally!challenging!applications.!

The!manner!in!which!Milhaud!used!the!instruments!also!had!broader!musical!
implications.!No!longer!did!the!instruments!need!to!be!umbilically!tied!to!
traditional!contexts!such!as!folk!music,!playing!only!specific!rhythms!in!specific!
manners.!Castanets!for!example,!did!not!have!to!convey!Spanish!flavours!and!if!
that!was!the!case,!anything!that!could!be!hit,!scraped!or!shaken!could!be!used!as!
a!percussion!instrument!to!provide!timbral!variety.!The!slapstick,!castanets!and!
woodblock!could!each!bring!their!own!subtle!nuance!of!timbre!to!a!‘wooden’!
rhythmic!texture.!

Using!the!instruments!in!this!manner,!Milhaud!effectively!challenged!traditional!
techniques!and!playing!methods.!He!indirectly!challenged,!for!example,!the!
necessity!and!desirability!of!using!a!marchingTstyle!(‘traditional’)!grip,!and!
learning!marchingTstyle!patterns!(the!‘rudiments’);!turning!beaters!round!would!
be!easier!using!matched!grip,!and!figures!such!as!grace!notes!could!be!executed!
in!a!different!manner!from!traditional!marchingTstyle!executions!in!order!to!
produce!more!musical!effects.!This!work!therefore!required!dramatic!
adaptations!in!technique!acquisition!and!approaches!for!the!players.!And!in!the!
wider!music!community!it!is!understandable!that!with!such!radical!changes!of!
perspective!and!emphasis!in!these!new!dimensions!of!music,!it!took!considerable!
time!for!the!Concerto(to!gain!acceptance!as!a!valid!piece!of!music,!even!from!
percussionists!themselves.341!

Furthermore,!the!piece!also!raised!more!probing!possibilities.!If!a!snare!drum!
could!be!played!with!xylophone!mallets!and!timpani!mallets,!and!with!the!snares!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
341 !As!late!as!1975!there!were!still!a!number!of,!admittedly!older,!percussionists!who!regarded!
the!work!as!unplayable!and!the!music!as!incomprehensible.!

! 185!
off,!potentially!it!could!also!be!played!with!other!beaters!providing!an!even!
greater!range!of!sound!nuance.!As!indicated!in!chapter!2,!almost!any!beaters!can!
be!used,!including!hands!–!the!important!issue!is!to!decide!what!effect!is!
required,!and!what!extraneous!factors!might!place!limitations!on!this.342!Milhaud!
highlighted!these!percussive!possibilities!for!more!subtle!sound!production,!and!
this!has!influenced!the!practices!and!approaches!of!percussionists!today.!

The!piece!moreover!presented!several!logistical!challenges!for!percussionists.!At!
the!time!the!dearth!of!various!stands!for!drums!and!accessory!instruments!
limited!the!possibilities!for!performance,!and!so!the!immediate!challenges!of!
executing!this!piece!resulted!in!developments!in!design!and!construction!of!setT
ups!that!are!still!utilised!today!with!some!modifications!and!adaptations.!
However,!the!loss!of!the!bass!drum/cymbal!attachments!in!use!then,!has!created!
another!challenge!to!playing!the!piece!authentically.!Nonetheless,!Milhaud’s!
inadvertent!contribution!to!percussion!in!this!way!has!been!very!practical.!

This!process!of!continually!refining!playing!methods!and!approaches!was!
consequential!to!the!demands!of!Concerto!and!is!still!continuing!as!new!
compositions!and!unfamiliar!instruments!give!us!fresh!avenues!of!approaching!
musical!performance.!And!the!corollary!of!this!is!that!percussionists!now!are!
forced!to!take!responsibility!for!the!musical!effect!of!playing,!and!to!do!this!
across!a!variety!of!textures!and!sound!sources!all!of!which!arose!in!that!very!first!
piece.!And!so,!for!the!performer!and!audience,!the!Concerto’s!innovations!
demanded!a!whole!new!skillTset!and!way!of!approaching!the!music.!!

In!coming!to!terms!with!the!greater!complexities!of!performing!the!Concerto!a!
new!range!of!protocols!have!since!been!instigated!for!percussionists!since.!
Commensurate!with!the!technical!expertise!necessary!to!master!all!the!soundT
sources!available!in!percussion,!there!are!numerous!other!demanding!
requirements!for!the!percussionist.!As!well!as!the!practice!requirements!for!
memorising!the!music,!possibly!for!many!disparate!instruments,!attention!must!
be!given!to!perfecting!the!logistical,!physical!and!performance!movements,!being!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
342 !It!also!seems!likely!that!he!was!the!first!composer!to!notate!for!doubleTheaded!mallets;!and!
his!use!of!them!certainly!legitimised!the!practice.!

186!!
responsive!to!interpretations!of!phrasal!meanings!and!musicality!across!an!array!
of!instruments,!and!theatrically,!determining!and!practising!the!visual!aspects!of!
performance.!Such!multiTlevel!demands!on!a!music!performer!were!
unprecedented!and!to!this!day!have!been!unmatched!by!any!other!music!genre!
participants.!And!all!these!demands!were!signalled!and!signTposted!by!the!
groundTbreaking!and!complex!Concerto!all!those!years!ago.!!

By!giving!leading!roles!to!percussion,!and!making!the!piece!rhythmic,!the!
Concerto(redefined!not!just!percussion,!but!indeed!music!itself.!Through!the!use!
of!sophisticated!polytonality!Milhaud!reflected!in!the!orchestra!the!‘untuneTness’!
of!the!percussion,!and!so!issuing!in!a!reversal!of!the!traditional!approach!to!
composing;!and!effectively!presented!the!revolutionary!premise!that!music!does!
not!need!melody!or!harmony!in!the!traditional!sense,!but!can!have!a!more!
expanded!definition!of!itself!by!focusing!on!rhythm.!This!elevation!of!rhythm!to!
one!of!equal!status!with!melody!and!harmony!allowed!for!the!introduction!of!not!
only!a!greater!range!of!percussion!instruments,!but!also!of!sound!sources!that!
previously!had!been!relegated!to!‘effects’!such!as!the!slapstick,!or!nonT
instruments!like!the!brake!drums!of!cars.!Again,!the!Concerto!opened!the!
previously!narrow!view!of!percussion!and!its!body!of!instruments!and!nonT
instruments!to!expand!the!very!parameters!of!music!itself.!

Further!to!Milhaud’s!nurturing!of!percussion!rhythm!was!his!determination!to!
reflect!a!higherTlevel!harmony,!consistent!with!his!background!of!hearing!beauty!
in!sounds,!which!others!do!not.!So!more!than!just!writing!disparate!rhythmic!
phrases!for!different!instruments,!the!use!of!these!different!‘untuned’!
instruments!also!presented!a!new!kind!of!harmony,!albeit!one!not!aligned!to!well!
temperament.!And!this!harmony!could!be!homogenous!with!all!skin!(drums!of!
different!size),!all!metal!(triangles,!cymbals,!ramTtams),!or!all!wood!(castanets,!
woodTblocks,!whips);!or!it!could!be!heterogenic!across!those!various!textures,!
with!a!range!of!sounds!provided!by!a!variety!of!beaters.!

In!this!sense!he!effectively!took!the!concept!of!polytonality!one!further!step!to!
another!set!of!tonalities,!not!aligned!to!well!temperament,!but!coexisting!

! 187!
alongside!it!and!providing!a!different!set!of!‘rays!and!impulses’;343!another!set!of!
musical!lines,!both!melodic!and!harmonic.!As!well,!playing!rhythmic!patterns!
across!these!various!timbres!can!also!be!said!to!constitute!a!type!of!melodic!line.!
In!Concerto!the!heightened!use!of!polytonality!and!use!of!rhythmic!patterns!in!a!
fresh!and!original!way!continue!to!influence!percussion!composition!today.!!

Despite!all!these!innovative!and!progressive!contributions!the!Concerto!is!not!
without!shortcomings.!It!is!only!seven!and!a!half!minutes,!and!really!only!
explores!textures!of!sound!across!different!sound!sources!through!quite!basic!
rhythmic!patterns.!The!piece!is!ripe!for!insertion!of!cadenzas!–!possibly!2!to!
reflect!the!2!‘movements’!–!to!allow!the!performer!to!display!a!virtuosic!level!of!
skill!and!artistry!in!true!concerto!fashion.!

Milhaud!always!refused!to!write!the!cadenza!for!this!concerto.!in!1959,!however,!
conductor!Igor!Markevicz!asked!a!very!fine!French!percussionist,!Jacques!Rémy!
to!play!one![Editor’s!Note:!Jacques!Rémy!is!currently!timpanist!of!the!Orchestre!
de!Paris.—M.R.].!The!performance!was!warmly!welcomed!by!the!audience,!but!
Milhaud!was!exasperated.!Consequently,!he!suggested!to!Markevicz!that!next!
time!he!conduct!the!cadenza.!!344 !!

More!radically,!the!piece!could!be!reworked!to!also!extend!the!orchestral!part.!
These!changes!would!make!the!work!a!more!satisfying!entity,!both!musically!for!
audience!to!better!absorb!the!dramatic,!rhythmic!and!atmospheric!ideas!
presented,!and!practically!for!the!players!to!make!it!more!programmable!within!
a!traditional!orchestral!concert!structure.!Overall,!while!the!piece!was!a!radical!
departure!from!the!norm!of!the!time,!the!inceptive!circumstances!have!been!
overtaken!by!developments!since!and!the!Concerto!is!now!placed!in!a!new!set!of!
parameters!that!could!allow!for!further!departures!from!Milhaud’s!original!
conception.!

The!significance!of!the!contribution!to!percussion!performance!and!music!by!
Darius!Milhaud!in!his!Concerto!pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre!is!inestimable.!
Milhaud!left!a!much!greater!legacy!than!just!adding!a!piece!to!the!repertoire.!By!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
343 !Paul!Collaer,!Darius(Milhaud,!Trans.!James!Galante,!1962,!San!Francisco:!San!Francisco!Press,!
1988,!p.!37
344 !Lesnik,!op.(cit.,!with!comment!(in!parenthesis)!by!editor!Michael!Rosen,!p.!67!

188!!
initiating!the!percussionTdominant!repertoire,!creating!the!new!percussion!
genre!and!dramatically!changing!the!role!and!perception!of!percussion!and!
percussionists,!Milhaud!displayed!vision!and!leadership.!In!the!greater!sphere,!
by!giving!primacy!to!rhythm!in!such!an!emphatic!manner!and!by!highlighting!
registral!relationships!of!various!timbres,!he!challenged!and!redefined!the!notion!
of!what!constitutes!music.!This!was!unprecedented.!And!for!percussionists!new!
frontiers!of!instrument!adaptation!or!substitution,!technical!acquisition!and!
performance!considerations!have!completely!reconstructed!their!role.!Finally,!he!
spearheaded!the!movement!for!other!composers!to!take!up!the!challenge!of!
writing!for!percussion!with!its!myriad!instruments!and!nonTinstruments,!varied!
set!of!tonalities!and!rhythms!and!in!creatively!imaginative!applications.!!!

These!early!musical!explorations!of!this!composer!so!very!sensitive!to!sounds!
spiritual,!natural!and!manTmade,!together!with!his!compulsion!to!transform!
them!into!music!of!a!distinctive!percussive!style,!have!created!Percussion!as!a!
discrete!instrument!and!genre.!As!a!young!area!of!music!it!is!still!developing!and!
evolving!but!the!principles!and!actions!established!by!Milhaud!in!his!Concerto(
pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre!all!those!years!ago!in!1929,!have!shaped!
Percussion!as!we!know!it!today.!The!piece!moreover,!demonstrates!how!the!
interTrelationships!between!the!instruments,!technique!and!repertoire!set!the!
challenges!for!performance.!However,!and!perhaps!most!importantly,!Milhaud’s!
greatest!legacy!lies!in!the!biggest!challenge!he!presented!percussionists!T!that!of!
playing!music!as!opposed!to!just!rhythmic!figures!on!a!disparate,!and!at!the!time!
odd!and!‘unmusical’,!set!of!sound!sources.!

The!evolution!of!Milhaud’s!legacy!will!be!further!examined!in!the!following!two!
chapters.!

! 189!
190!!
Chapter*4*Chamber*Music:*Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion(by*
Peter*Sculthorpe*
*

4.1*Introduction*

Another!field!of!music!expression!into!which!percussion!made!an!entry!in!the!
twentieth!century!is!that!of!chamber!music.!Traditionally!this!has!not!been!an!
area!in!which!percussion!has!had!any!place,!for!the!very!obvious!reason!that!the!
instruments!have!been!too!bulky!to!fit!comfortably!into!a!‘chamber’.!Also!for!a!
considerable!time!previous,!too!few!instruments!were!available!with!which!to!
create!musical!interest,!and!their!volume!of!sound!was!generally!too!loud!for!
performances!in!small!rooms.!

However,!in!1960!the!first!Australian!percussion!piece!for!chamber!setting,!
Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion,345!(hereafter!referred!to!as!The!Sonata),!was!
written!by!Peter!Sculthorpe.!The!piece!is!an!important!landmark!in!the!writing!
for!percussion!as!in!several!significant!ways!it!prompted!a!reTthinking!of!the!
conventional!manner!of!use!of!percussion,!challenged!its!place!in!the!chamber!
setting;!and!in!the!process!created!some!original!and!imaginative!uses!of!
percussion!in!music.!The!Sonata!featured!multiple!untuned!percussion!for!a!
single!player!in!an!intimate!chamber!setting,!thus!elevating!the!percussion’s!
musical!role!to!a!shared!equal!partnership!with!another!instrument;!and!it!
injected!an!Australian!flavour!in!an!atmosphere!of!mystery!and!timelessness,!the!
detail!of!which!is!discussed!below.!!

Sculthorpe’s!use!of!the!different!timbres!of!metal,!wood!and!skin,!with!the!‘wash’!
of!instrumental!colours,!rhythmic!punctuations!and!alternative!harmonies!added!
another!original!dimension!to!the!music.!And!for!percussionists!responding!to!
the!challenges!of!the!intimacy!of!a!chamber!setting,!the!piece!highlighted!their!
technical!and!artistic!skills!on!a!new!scale.!The!work!was!very!adventurous!in!its!
concept!and!farTreaching!in!its!consequences.!To!understand!its!full!import!it!is!
necessary!to!provide!the!background!to!The!Sonata!by!investigating!some!of!the!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
345 !Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion,!London,!Faber!Music,!1960!

! 191!
earlier!chamber!music!pieces,!followed!by!an!examination!of!Sculthorpe’s!
musical!intent,!the!instruments!and!techniques!used,!their!musical!
characteristics!and!relationships!as!well!as!its!performance!challenges!and!
interpretative!possibilities.346!!

4.2*Background*

With!the!broadening!of!music!horizons!from!the!time!of!Milhaud’s!Concerto(in!
1929,!several!distinctive!compositions!emerged!that!introduced!percussion!into!
the!chamber!music!genre;!and!the!particular!instruments!used!were!not!those!
that!could!be!seen!as!complementing!the!strings!and!winds,!such!as!marimbas!
and!vibraphones,!but!unusually!some!of!the!untuned!instruments.!Moreover,!
there!was!an!increasing!tendency!to!score!for!multiTpercussion!within!the!genre!
and!to!select!unusual!sound!sources.!This!had!the!effect!of!further!redefining!the!
role!of!rhythm!in!music!and!of!expanding!the!range!of!admissible!sounds,!which!
in!turn!also!made!increasing!demands!on!percussionists!in!terms!of!expanding!
and!refining!technique!and!developing!a!greater!musical!sensitivity.!

Possibly!the!first!such!piece347!was!Lou!Harrison’s!First(Concerto(for(Flute(and(
Percussion,348 !written!in!1938!in!which!he!set!a!haunting!melody!on!flute!(see!ex.!
4.01)!against!a!polyTrhythmic!ostinato!accompaniment,!played!by!two!players!on!
a!then!unusual!set!of!percussion!instruments.349!!The!instruments!are!a!tortoise!
shell!or!templeblock,!tin!can!rattle!or!tambourine,!3!gongs,!a!rasp,!3!drums!a!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
346 !John!Peterson,!The(Music(of(Peter(Sculthorpe,!Singapore,!Wildbird,!2014,!p.!42!

347 !Two!works!by!renowned*!Armenian!priest,!ethnomusicologist!and!composer!Komitas!
Vardapet†!(1869T1935),!which!appear!to!be!for!voice,!viola,!piano!and!percussion,!and!viola!and!
percussion!are!recent!arrangements!of!folk!songs!for!which!the!percussionist,!Robyn!
Schulkowsky,!added!the!percussion!parts††.!The!works!are!It(Is(Spring,(but(Snow(Has(Fallen!in!
1905–6!and!The(Crane!in!1911.!
*Ryszard!Kapuściński,!Imperium,!London,!Granta!Books,!1998,!pp.!44T45!
†!http://www.komitas.am/eng/index_eng.htm!Taccessed!22!March!2015!
††(http://www.amazon.com/MusicTKomitasTTigranTMansurianT
Kashkashian/dp/B00008UAFW/!!accessed!20!January!2016),!(“Robyn!made!her!own!additions!
and!I!am!not!aware!of!any!such!early!scores,!sorry.!KK”!–!email!from!violist!Kim!Kashkashian,!
received!27!January!2016).!
348 !Lou!Harrison,!First(Concerto(for(Flute(and(Percussion,!New!York,!Peters,!1938!

349 !John!Solum!‘Review’,!Notes,!Second!Series,!Vol.!22,!No.!1!(Autumn,!1965),!p.!816!

192!!
large!bell!and!an!inverted!bowl.!The!rhythmic!patterns!are!unchanged!over!each!
movement!(see!ex.!4.02)!constituting!a!simple!percussion!function!of!rhythmic!
accompaniment.!Nonetheless,!the!unusual!sound!sources!and!innovative!
juxtaposition!of!time!signatures!across!the!two!parts!opened!the!door!for!further!
experimentation.!As!an!indication!of!how!repertoire!can!influence!technique,!
since!the!work!was!published,!the!standard!of!playing!has!increased!to!the!point!
that!the!duo!percussion!part!can!now!be!performed!by!one!percussionist.!
!

!
Ex.!4.01!Flute!part,!mvt!3.!The!fourTbar!phrase,!while!containing!the!same!number!of!
total!bars!changes!in!order.!For!example!a!pattern!of!4+6+3+5!becomes!4+3+5+6.350!

!
Ex.!4.02!Percussion!part!mvt!3.!The!fourTbar!phrase!is!unchanging!through!the!
movement.351!

John!Cage!wrote!a!voice!and!percussion!duo!in!1942352!entitled!Forever(and(
Sunsmell,353!which!involves!two!percussion!players,!one!on!two!tomTtoms!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
350 !Lou!Harrison,!First(Concerto(for(Flute(and(Percussion,(New!York,!Peters,!1938,!p.!7!
351 !Lou!Harrison,!op.(cit.(p.!6!

! 193!
the!other!on!suspended!large!china!cymbal,354!so!still!keeping!within!the!
orchestral!practice!of!allocating!one!instrument!to!one!player.!For!most!of!the!
piece!the!voice!and!percussion!alternate!(see!ex.!4.03)!indicating!an!enhanced!
role!for!percussion,!of!sharing!the!limelight.!However,!the!impact!was!
diminished!because!the!roles!were!unrelated,!with!no!interweaving!of!their!
musical!fabric.!!

Ex.!4.03!Forever(and(Sunsmell!excerpt,!bars!24T33,!p.!2355!

But!it!was!some!years!later!in!1957!when!the!next!significant!development!in!
percussion!for!chamber!music!arrived.356!Michael!Colgrass,!American!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
352 !The!title!and!text!of!Forever(and(Sunsmell!are!from!26,!one!of!50!poems!(1940)!by!e.e.!
cummings.!http://www.allmusic.com/composition/foreverTandTsunsmellTforTvoiceTampT2T
percussionTmc0002388589!accessed!2!March!2016!
353 !John!Cage,!Forever(and(Sunsmell,(New!York,!Peters,(1942!

354 !A!video!of!the!piece!is!available!on!http://www.allmusic.com/composition/foreverTandT
sunsmellTforTvoiceTampT2TpercussionTmc0002388589!accessed!2!March!2016!
355 !https://www.editionTpeters.de/cms/deutsch/general/produkt.html?product_id=EP6715!
accessed!2!March!2016!
356 !The!Peggy!GlanvilleTHicks,!Sonata(for(Piano(and(Percussion((1951)(and(Musica(Antiqua(No.(1(
(1957),!and!Axel!BorupTJorgensen!Musik(for(slagtøj(og(bratsch!(Music(for(Percussion(and(Viola)!
(1955T56),!Op.!18!require!forces!that!place!them!on!the!concert!stage,!and!consequently!out!of!
the!sphere!of!chamber!music!and!not!considered!in!this!study.!

194!!
percussionist!and!composer,!wrote!his!Variations(for(Four(Drums(and(Viola.357 !
But!this!piece!as!the!title!suggests,!uses!only!four!drums,!and!these!drums!are!to!
be!made!from!cardboard!tubes,!with!skins!stretched!across!the!top!of!the!shell!
and!tuned.!Specific!instructions!are!given!for!the!making!of!the!drums!and!
beaters,!the!latter!to!be!particular,!lightly!weighted!doubleTheaded!snare!drum!
sticks.358!!

The!form!of!the!work!consisted!of!an!introductory!theme!followed!by!five!
variations!and!a!finale,!with!the!viola!and!drums!playing!either!in!unison!or!with!
alternating!entries!Essentially,!the!piece!explored!possibilities!of!developing!
smaller!tuned!drums!and!so!extending!timpanic!nuances,359!thus!contributing!an!
important!flexible!element!of!instrumentation!to!the!development!of!percussion!
in!a!chamber!setting!and!gave!more!importance!to!rhythm!(see!ex.4.04).!360!

Ex.!4.04!Colgrass,!Variations(for(Four(Drums(and(Viola,(Variation!II,!bars!45T53.!The!
drums!are!on!the!lower!stave!and!scored!in!alto!clef!to!avoid!leger!lines!and!maintain!an!
easily!discernible!distance!from!the!viola!part.361!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
357 !Michael!Colgrass,!Variations(for(Four(Drums(and(Viola,(New!York,!Music!for!Percussion,!1957!
358
Craig!T.!Paré,!“An!Examination!Of!Innovative!Percussion!Writing!In!The!Band!Music!Of!Four!
Composers:!Vincent!Persichetti!T!Symphony!For!Band,!Karel!Husa!T!Music!For!Prague!1968,!
Joseph!Schwantner!T!And!The!Mountains!Rising!Nowhere,!Michael!Colgrass!T!Winds!Of!Nagual”!
DMA,!University!of!Cincinnati,!1993,!p.!67!
359 !Craig!T.!Paré,!op.cit.,!pp.!66T67!

360 !Since!the!piece!was!written,!a!greater!variety!of!drums!have!come!onto!the!market,!and!it!is!
now!possible!to!play!the!piece!on!RotoTtoms!using!standard!doubleTheaded!Snare!Drum!sticks.!
Colgrass!has!also!approved!the!sound!commenting!on!a!Youtube!performance!by!Ute!Miller,!viola!
and!Drew!Lang,!percussion,!February!27,!2012.!This!performance!is!one!of!the!best!I've!heard.!
The!percussionist!even!makes!the!RotoTtoms!sound!quite!acceptable.’!(Michael!Colgrass)!
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AaGaimqycIo!accessed!11!April!2015).!!
361 !Michael!Colgrass,!op.cit.,!p.!7!

! 195!
 Clearly,!chamber!music!compositions!incorporating!percussion!were!in!evidence,!
and!these!examples!clearly!illustrate!a!gradual!advance!away!from!traditional!
and!limited!applications!of!percussion!with!innovative!instrumentation!and!
compositional!approaches.!However,!there!was!little!attempt!to!weave!the!
characteristic!sounds!of!the!percussion!into!the!fabric!of!the!music.!It!is!possible!
that!these!composers!may!have!influenced!Sculthorpe!in!his!musical!thinking!
and!his!rejection!of!European!attitudes!and!approaches!to!composition.!“It!was!
clear!that!there!were!other!composers!who!did!not!need!the!traditions!of!
Western!Europe.”362!

4.3*Australian*Influences*and*Intent*

At!the!time!of!writing!the!Sonata,!Sculthorpe!was!fascinated!with!the!variety!of!
those!sounds!in!nature,!which!created!a!distinctive!Australian!soundscape!
reflective!of!mysteries!that!seem!hidden!from!everyday!existence.363!Depiction!of!
this!vast!and!empty!land!with!its!nuances!of!nature!and!timeless!history!that!
contained!such!character!and!spiritual!mysteries!mesmerised!Sculthorpe!and!he!
wanted!to!create!a!musical!equivalent!of!the!

…curious!feeling!of!timelessness…a!sense!of!endless!space,!of!mystery,!of!legend,!
of!life!stretching!beyond!historical!memory,!of!emptiness!and!yet!an!emptiness!
that!is!filled!with!the!spirit!of!a!people!whose!history!begins!with!the!beginnings!
of!time!but!whose!history!can!never!be!known364 !

that!is!represented!in!Australian!painting.!In!a!BBC!interview!he!observed!that!

! In!music!there!is!no!direct!heritage!on!which!the!composer!can!draw!for!
sustenance…the!Australian!composer!has!to!create!his!own!culture,!to!find!his!
own!creative!roots,!and,!particularly,!does!he!turn!to!the!native!legend,!to!the!rich!
cultural!history!of!the!native!Australian.’365!

These!statements!provide!the!clue!as!to!Sculthorpe’s!musical!intent!T!to!find!a!
way!of!representing!timelessness,!and!emptiness,!though!of!a!mystical!nature.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
362 !Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sun(Music,!Sydney,!ABC!Books,!1999,!p.!57!

363 !Graham!Skinner,!Peter(Sculthorpe:(The(Making(of(an(Australian(Composer,!Sydney,!UNSW!
Press,!2007,!p.!245!
364 !Graham!Skinner,!op.(cit.,!p.!245.!

365 !ibid.,!p.!245.!

196!!
The!Sonata(then(is!the!realisation!of!his!personal!quest!to!attempt!manifestation!
of!this!intangible,!mystical!‘Australianness’.(Of!course!this!intent!presented!both!
the!composer!and!performers!with!a!dilemma,!as!the!presentation!of!music!of!
necessity!involves!‘time’!and!the!filling!of!space!with!sound.!This!seemingly!
insoluble!paradox!is!discussed!below!and!shows!Sculthorpe’s!inventive!approach!
to!sound.!

The!historic!development!of!the!Sonata(in!1960!now!requires!addressing!to!
appreciate!further!how!Sculthorpe!arrived!at!the!use!of!percussion!to!project!the!
nuances!of!his!work.!In!1959!Sculthorpe!had!written!a!cello!solo!piece,!Sonata(for(
Cello(Alone,(requested!by!a!young!Australian,366!but!it!was!not!well!received!by!
the!cellist,!who!‘refused!to!perform!it,!insisting!it!was!unidiomatic!and!quite!
unplayable.’!367!In!fact!it!did!not!receive!a!performance!until!1980.368!Ironically,!
one!reason!for!its!nonTacceptance!was!the!inclusion!of!the!simple!percussive!
effect!of!slapping!the!neck!of!the!cello.!Sculthorpe!was!disappointed!at!this!
rejection,!as!he!was!already!enjoying!success!as!an!emerging!composer.!
Particularly!he!found!agreeable!the!freeTform!themes!he!developed!and!was!
predisposed!towards!the!percussive!effects!in!the!piece.369!

…The(Sonata(for(Cello(Alone(is!in!one!movement.!It!consists!of!a!somewhat!free!
set!of!variations!upon!three!ideas:!the!first!is!a!quasiTMahlerian!melody!
accompanied!by!plucked!open!strings,!the!second!is!a!rapidlyTrepeated!rhythmic!
figure,!and!the!third!a!martialTlike!motive!punctuated!by!percussive!sounds.370!

So!he!decided!to!use!the!material!in!another!work!to!be!played!at!the!Attingham!
Park!Summer!School.!371He!thought!it!would!be!interesting!to!write!a!duo!for!
cello!and!double!bass,!as!that!combination!had!not!been!written!for.!But!on!being!
told!that!an!excellent!violist!would!be!attending,!changed!that!to!a!viola!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
366 !Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone,!London,!Faber!Music,!1959!

367 !Peter!Sculthorpe,!op.cit.,!Programme!Note!

368 !http://www.fabermusic.com/repertoire/sonataTforTviolaTandTpercussionT1259!accessed!15!
March!2015!
369!His!Irkanda(II!for!string!quartet!won!first!prize!in!the!Royal!Concert!Trust!Fund!Composer’s!

Competition!in!1959.!
370 !Peter!Sculthorpe,!op.cit.,!Programme!Note!
371 !http://www.fabermusic.com/repertoire/sonataTforTviolaTandTpercussionT1259!accessed!15!
March!2015!

! 197!
double!bass!duo.372!!This!changed!yet!again!when!his!friend!Wilfrid!Mellers!
informed!him!that!an!excellent!percussionist!was!coming,!commenting!that!
combination!had!not!yet!been!written!for;!and!so!the!idea!for!the!Sonata(for(Viola(
and(Percussion(was!conceived.373!As!Sculthorpe!reviewed!“Disappointed,!I!reT
thought!the!music,!and!in!1960!I!used!it!as!the!basis!for!my!Sonata(for(Viola(and(
Percussion.”374!!

The!decision!to!adapt!his!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone,!with!its!rhythmic,!percussive!
importance,!led!Sculthorpe!in!the!direction!of!blending!the!rhythmic,!melodic!
and!harmonic!elements!of!the!music!in!a!more!equal!relationship.375!He!also!had!
to!decide!on!the!particulars!of!the!percussion!instrumentation,!and!the!question!
arises!as!to!what!influenced!his!choice!of!instruments,!and!whether!the!
instruments!or!compositional!path!were!linked!to!his!avowed!wish!to!express!his!
‘Australianness’!musically.376!

The!form!of!the!Sonata!followed!the!form!of!his!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone.377!He!liked!
what!he!had!written!for!the!cello!and!wanted!to!hear!it!performed.!The!three!
themes!alluded!to!by!Sculthorpe!T!the!quasiTMahlerian!melody,!the!rapidly!
repeated!rhythmic!figure,!and!the!martialTlike!motive!–!are!the!basis!of!both!the!
Sonata(for(Cello(Alone!and!subsequent!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion.(Here!they!
are!exemplified!to!show!their!correlations!of!form!as!they!appear!in!each!
composition!(see!exs.!4.05T4.07).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
372 !Conversations!with!Peter!Sculthorpe,!1970!T!2002!!

373 !http://www.fabermusic.com/repertoire/sonataTforTviolaTandTpercussionT1259!accessed!15!
March!2015!!
374 !Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone,!London,!Faber!Music,!2002,!Programme!Note!

375 !Conversations!with!Peter!Sculthorpe,!1970!T!2002!

376 !Graham!Skinner,!Peter(Sculthorpe:(The(Making(of(an(Australian(Composer,!Sydney,!UNSW!
Press,!2007,!p.!244!
377 !Graham!Skinner,!Peter(Sculthorpe:(The(Making(of(an(Australian(Composer,!Sydney,!UNSW!
Press,!2007,!p.!242!

198!!
 1. QuasiHMahlerian*melody*

!
Ex.!4.05a!QuasiTMahlerian!melody,!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone,!bars!43T46,!p.!3!

The!theme!remains!essentially!the!same!and!is!transferred!to!the!viola.!The!
percussion!part!is!a!variation!of!the!pizzicato!and!is!set!contrapuntally!against!it.!

!
Ex.!4.05b!QuasiTMahlerian!melody,!Sculthorpe(Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion(bars!49T
52,!p.!3!
!
2. Rapidly*repeated*rhythmic*figure*

!
Ex.!4.06a!Rapidly!repeated!rhythmic!figure,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone!bars!53T
57,!p.!4!

The!percussion!adds!to!the!viola’s!freneticism!with!a!series!of!expanding/!
contracting!rhythmic!phrases!on!clapsticks.!

!
Ex.!4.06b!Rapidly!repeated!rhythmic!figure,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion(
bars!61T65,!p.!4!
!
!

! 199!
3.*MartialHlike*motive*

!
Ex.!4.07a!MartialTlike!motive,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone!bars!79T83,!p.!4!

The!intensity!of!the!Risoluto!is!emphasised!with!a!series!of!rhythms!on!snare!
drum.!

!
Ex.!4.07b!MartialTlike!motive,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion(bars!88T94,!p.!5!

The!cello!work!featured!percussive!sounds,!and!now!he!expanded!on!those!
elements!by!writing!an!extended!percussion!part!in!this!new!Sonata.!In!the!
reworking!of!the!material!Sculthorpe!balanced!to!a!much!greater!extent!than!in!
the!original!cello!work,!the!pitched!sounds!of!the!viola!and!unpitched!sounds!of!
the!percussion,!thus!revealing!complementary!functions!and!an!equality!of!roles.!

4.4*Musicological*perspectives**

Sculthorpe’s!intent!included!developing!his!own!distinctive!style!by!dissociating!
from!previous!commonplace!uses!of!percussion!and!initiating!what!became!his!
characteristically!Australian!voice.!And!so!the!Sonata!represented!a!development!
in!a!very!new!personal!direction.378!Rather!than!the!percussion!sounds!
performing!as!simple!backdrop!to!the!viola,!he!coTpartnered!the!two!
instruments,!each!with!their!characteristic!sounds!and!so!reflected!his!aim!to!
compose!a!work!employing!that!very!principle.!Secondly,!he!felt!very!strongly!
that!he!wanted!to!write!a!work!that!expressed!spiritually!and!emotionally!his!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
378 !“…!its!structure!foreshadows!that!of!many!of!my!later!works.”,!Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sun(Music,!
Sydney,!ABC!Books,!1999,!pp.!47T8!

200!!
Australianness,379!incorporating!the!landscape!and!inhabitants!particular!to!
Australia.!!

These!two!ambitions!T!elevating!percussion!to!equal!status!with!viola!and!
imbuing!the!work!with!a!new!and!distinctive!Australian!voice!T!presented!a!
serious!challenge!to!Sculthorpe,!with!technical!and!interpretive!implications!for!
the!percussionists.!Placing!percussion!in!a!prominent!position!in!the!intimate!
setting!of!chamber!music!creates!technical!and!performance!demands!on!the!
player!that!are!very!different!from!those!on!the!concert!stage!in!orchestral!or!
percussion!ensemble!settings.!Furthermore,!a!piece!that!is!reflective!of!emotions!
by!its!very!nature!demands!more!nuanced!technical!and!performance!
capabilities!from!a!percussionist!than!simply!rhythmic!exactitude.!Because!of!the!
interdependence!of!Sculthorpe’s!compositional!ambitions!and!challenges,!and!
the!heightened!demands!on!the!percussionist!playing!in!the!intimate!chamber!
setting,!their!examination!and!analysis!will!be!conducted!simultaneously.!

However,!Michael!Hannan380!was!critical!of!the!Sonata!with!its(extended!
inclusion!of!percussion!(see!Exs.!4.08a!&!4.08b).!

The!fingerboard!knocking!of!the!cello!version!has!been!replaced!by!a!rhythmic!
figure!which!gives!the!passage!a!martial!feeling.!The!music!thereby!lapses!into!a!
gesture!which!is!quite!out!of!keeping!with!the!composer’s!need!to!purge!his!art!of!
clichés!of!association.!Sculthorpe!compounds!his!indiscretion!by!introducing!this!
drum!pattern!into!other!parts!of!the!work,!probably!to!increase!the!rhythm’s!
structural!viability,!but,!in!doing!so,!he!unfortunately!destroys!the!character!of!the!
original!melody.381!

The!specific!passages!referred!to!by!Hannan!are!shown!in!the!following!
examples!of!bars!79T93,!and!repeated!in!138T152,!in!the!Cello(Sonata,!which!
become!bars!106T109!in!the!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
379 !He!declined!the!scholarship!for!him!to!attend!the!1959!International!Vacation!Course!for!New!
Music!at!the!Kranichstein!Institute!in!Darmstadt,!Germany!that!his!teacher,!Egon!Wellesz,!had!
organised!for!him!to!immerse!himself!more!in!the!ambience!of!the!AustroTGermanic!school!of!
composition!of!Middle!Europe.!Peter!Sculthorpe,!op.cit.,!pp.!48T9!
380 !Professor!of!Contemporary!Music!at!Southern!Cross!University,!New!South!Wales,!Australia!

381 !Michael!Hannan,!Peter(Sculthorpe,(His(Music(and(Ideas(1929[1979,!St!Lucia,!University!of!
Queensland!Press,!1982,!pp.!45T46.!

! 201!
Ex.!4.08a!Percussive!sounds!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone,!bars!79T93,!p.!4!

!
Ex.!4.08b!Percussive!sounds!extended!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion,!bars!
87T107,!1960!edition!

Hannan’s!criticism!of!the!Sonata!presenting!an!inappropriate!martial!feeling!is!
not!sustainable.!The!percussion!is!played!on!the!tomTtom,!not!snare!drum,!the!
usual!instrument!representing!martial!connotations.!Similarly!there!is!no!

202!!
direction!in!the!score!to!convey!martial!emotions;!nor!is!the!tempo!that!of!a!

march,!being!slower!than!even!the!slow!British!march!of!q =!108.!

However,!herein!may!be!an!element!of!misunderstanding.!If!Hannan!
misconstrued!the!apparent!use!of!martial!overtones,!it!could!have!been!because!
Sculthorpe!required!similar!motifs!for!more!symbolic!purposes.!At!this!time!of!
composing!he!was!concerned!about!his!father’s!deteriorating!health!with!a!
diagnosis!of!terminal!cancer.!382!!This!sense!of!impending!death!could!well!have!
inspired!the!‘march’!in!the!Sonata!as!a!metaphoric!reflection!of!the!inexorable!
march!of!time!towards!death!that!attends!all!humanity.!There!is!also!a!subtle!
difference!between!the!marked!tempo!feel!of!risoluto!and!à(la(marcia,!with!the!
former!conveying!a!feeling!of!movement!with!determination!or!intensity,!a!more!
complex!nuance!of!concepts!than!a!simple!march!as!conveyed!by!the!latter!term.!
Consequently,!there!is!no!cliché!of!association,!and!no!indiscretion!committed!as!
implied!by!Hannan.!Moreover!the!rhythmic!pattern!used!is!not!one!that!is!
confined!to!drums;!any!instrument!could!play!that!rhythm.!So!to!call!it!a!‘drum!
pattern’!is!to!limit!it!to!one!mode!of!expression,!of!monoTdimensional!
interpretation.!The!further!implication!is!that!percussionists!play!‘patterns’!
rather!than!music,!instead!of!recognising!that!like!other!instruments,!percussion!
parts!are!also!open!to!interpretation,!an!issue!that!is!discussed!at!length!below.!

In!his!assessment!of!the!Sonata,!Hannan!has!taken!this!tomTtom!phrase!(see!ex.!
4.09b)!out!of!context!from!the!body!of!the!work.!!Without!investigating!more!
deeply!and!accurately!either!the!role!played!by!the!percussion,!or!the!interplay!
between!the!percussion!and!viola,!he!concludes!that!it!is!an!inferior!piece!to!the!
Cello!Sonata!without!actually!providing!analysis!of!Cello(Sonata,(and!thus!
undermining!his!critical!reasoning.!!

Hannan’s!conclusion!is!quite!different!from!one!taken!from!the!perspective!of!a!
performer,!especially,!in!this!case,!of!a!percussionist.!The!role!of!a!performer!is!
essentially!one!of!trying!to!bring!out!the!music!inherent!in!a!composition,!rather!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
382 !Graham!Skinner,!Peter(Sculthorpe:(The(Making(of(an(Australian(Composer,!Sydney,!UNSW!
Press,!2007,!pp.!237,!248,!255!

! 203!
than!judging!its!value.!A!preTjudgement!of!a!work!could!inhibit!the!performer’s!
ability!to!explore!different!nuances,!and!also!impact!negatively!on!the!
presentation!of!a!convincing!performance.!In!this!context,!matters!of!instrument!
selection,!tuning,!playing!technique,!and!musical!intent!are!all!factors!that!have!a!
bearing!on!how!successfully!the!musical!effects!are!realised,!and!how!then!the!
work!might!be!perceived.383 !These!issues!are!discussed!in!more!detail!later.!

Suffice!it!here!to!say!that!the!percussion!in!this!example!(see!ex.!4.09)!is!
emphatically!answering!the!statement!of!the!viola,!which!itself!is!the!climax!of!a!
phrase!of!increasing!intensity.!This!statement!is!a!melodic!restating!of!the!tomT
tom!part!in!the!first!measure!of!the!piece.!!

!
Ex.!4.09!Percussion!answering!viola,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion!bars!87T
93,!p.!5!

The!figure!as!a!whole!in!those!measures!is!a!variation!on!the!opening!theme!as!
stated!by!the!percussion.!So!any!‘feel’!conveyed!must!be!seen!and!analysed!in!
that!context,!and!possibly!contrasted!against!other!feelings,!effects!or!intents!
elsewhere!in!the!work.!

Contrary!to!Hannan’s!condemnation!of!the!piece,!it!is!difficult!to!see!any!
‘indiscretions’!committed!by!the!use!of!the!pattern!elsewhere!in!the!work;!the!
‘structural!viability’!of!the!work!stands!on!its!own!merits,!and!the!original!
melody!rather!than!being!‘destroyed’!is!simply!being!changed!and!revised!to!
adapt!to!the!new!context,!as!suggested!by!Dr.!John!Peterson,!composer!and!
lecturer!in!composition,!University!of!New!South!Wales!(see!ex.!4.10).!

The!work!has!a!similar!episodic!structure!to!that!of!Irkanda(I,!but!is!more!coherent!
in!that!the!particular!arrangement!of!motivic!ideas!provides!a!greater!sense!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
383 !George!Gaber,!Perspectives(of(Performance,!Seminar!at!Banff!Centre!for!the!Arts,!summer!
Performing!Arts!program,!1977!

204!!
 unity!within!the!work…!The!percussion…provides!primarily!a!supportive!role,!
accentuating!the!rhythmic!texture!and!supplying!timbral!colour!as!necessary.384 !
!

!
Ex.!4.10!Example!of!percussion!providing!rhythmic!texture!and!timbral!colour,!
Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion!bars!49T54.!

Peterson!goes!on!to!say!

…the!percussion!is!used!not!just!as!rhythmic!accompaniment!but!also!as!a!source!
of!timbral!colour!through!the!variety!of!instruments!used.385!

Furthermore,!he!adds!(see!Ex.!4.11)!

One!of!the!main!motifs!of!the!work!demonstrates!the!use!of!the!percussion!not!
just!for!colour!but!as!an!integral!part!of!the!establishment!of!the!character!of!the!
motif!itself!–!the!two!instruments!together!form!the!complete!musical!figure.386!

Ex.!4.11!Complete!musical!figure,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion,!bars!89T92.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
384 !John!Peterson,!The(Music(of(Peter(Sculthorpe,!Singapore,!Wildbird!Music,!2014,!p.!42!
385 !John!Peterson,!op.(cit.,!p.!42!

386 !ibid.!p.!42.!

! 205!
Peterson!obviously!sees!the!work!in!a!different!light!from!Hannan,!viewing!it!on!
its!own!merits,!and!without!comparison!to!the!Cello(Sonata.!In!fact!he!sees!the!
piece!as!an!integral!whole!that!contains!certain!instruments,!and!bases!his!
analysis!on!that.!His!vision!of!the!music!incorporates!the!particular!harmonies!
and!timbral!nuances!inherent!in!the!percussion!instruments!and!he!analyses!the!
resultant!music!in!that!context.!Again!contrary!to!Hannan’s!assessment,!
Australian!musicologist!and!music!historian,!Graeme!Skinner!makes!the!astute!
comment!that!

The!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion…remains!the!most!interesting!and!important!
‘early’!Sculthorpe!work.387!
This!is!also!an!attitude!which!is!shared!by!the!various!violists!with!whom!I!have!
performed!the!work,388!and!one!with!which!I!also!agree.!

It!is!also!important!to!note!what!Sculthorpe!says!about!the!work.!

Like!Prophecy!the!Sonata!is!also!concerned!with!duality.!A!double!set!of!variations,!
albeit!somewhat!free,!its!structure!foreshadows!that!of!many!of!my!later!works.!
One!of!its!musical!ideas!is!a!yearning!MahlerTlike!melody.!The!other!is!a!forceful!
rhythmic!figure,!somewhat!martial!in!character,!in!this!work,!as!in!Irkanda(I!
(1955)!for!violin!alone,!the!two!ideas!simply!alternate!with!each!other;!there’s!no!
attempt!to!bring!them!into!synthesis.389!

At!first!glance!it!would!appear!that!Sculthorpe’s!view!of!the!work!accords!with!
Hannan’s.!However,!the!presence!of!the!qualifier!‘somewhat’!before!‘martial’!
modifies!the!emphasis!from!a!militaristic!rhythm,!allowing!a!more!flexible!
musical!interpretation.!As!well,!the!assessment!of!the!role!of!the!percussion!as!
providing!a!‘forceful!rhythmic!figure,!and!the!statement!that!the!work!is!
‘concerned!with!duality’!as!a!‘double!set!of!variations’!all!give!clues!to!a!deeper!
and!more!complex!vision!and!compositional!intent!than!just!merely!‘martial!in!
character’.!Moreover,!seen!in!the!context!of!Sculthorpe’s!desire!to!create!music,!
imbued!with!atmosphere!that!reflects!the!sense!of!timelessness!and!mystery!that!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
387 !Graham!Skinner,!Peter(Sculthorpe:(The(Making(of(an(Australian(Composer,!Sydney,!UNSW!
Press,!2007,!pp.!242T3.!
388 !Discussions!with!Richard!Hornung,!Patricia!Pollett,!Kathleen!Blair!and!Glynn!Adams!during!
rehearsals!
389 !Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sun(Music,!p.!47.!

206!!
pervade!Australia,!his!comments!relate!more!to!the!technical!aspects!of!
performing!the!work!rather!than!the!ideas!underlying!its!conception.!

These!discussions!on!the!work!show!very!different!viewpoints!from!a!variety!of!
perspectives.!It!is!important!to!be!aware!of!these!issues!in!order!to!portray!the!
various!atmospheres!that!pervade!the!piece;!and!herein!lie!the!clues!for!the!
performer’s!approach!to!the!piece.!

4.5*Interpretation*and*Performance*Challenges**

4.5.1*Instrumentation*

A!performer’s!perspective!is!different!from!that!of!a!musicologist!or!composer,!
and!no!doubt!betrays!the!bias!of!a!specific!instrument.!For!the!percussionist!this!
centres!on!the!choice!of!instruments!from!the!perspectives!of!sound!and!use.!A!
percussionist!would!initially!look!at!the!instruments!involved,!with!the!questions!
“do!I!have!them/can!I!get!them?”!uppermost!in!consideration!of!performing!the!
piece;!and!often,!for!very!practical!reasons,!the!question!goes!no!further.!It!is!
however,!worth!thinking!more!deeply!about!the!specifics!of!the!instrumentation!
of!the!work,!even!if,!as!is!likely,!these!were!the!only!instruments!available!to!
Sculthorpe.390!

Sculthorpe!scored!the!percussion!part!for!one!player!playing!tamTtam,!
suspended!cymbal,!chinese!cymbal,!triangle,!bass!drum,!snare!drum,!tomTtom!
(originally!tenor!drum),!bongos!and!claves!or!stick!clicks.391!As!regards!the!
instruments!he!chose,!it!is!difficult!to!escape!the!thought!that!he!was!influenced!
by!Stravinsky’s!L’histoire(du(soldat!as!the!instrumentations!of!both!the!Sonata(
and(L’histoire(du(soldat!are!very!close!as!seen!in!this!table!(see.!table!4.01)!and!
there!are!no!clues!as!to!other!reasons!for!the!choice.!Moreover,!he!was!aware!of!
Stravinsky’s!compositions!and!could!have!seen!performances!of!his!work,!maybe!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
390 !In!1960!a!percussionist!would!have!a!collection!that!included!these!instruments,!but!maybe!
not!much!more.!
391 !Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion!legend,!1960!playing!score,!copy!held!Elder!
Music!Library,!(catalogue!785.58192,!S437,!1)!University!of!Adelaide,!1960!

! 207!
even!the!Soldier’s(Tale!itself;!and!he!had!a!great!respect!for!Stravinsky’s!
compositional!approach.!392!

Table*of*comparisons*
Sonata((( ( ( L’histoire(
TamTtam!! ! ! TamTtam!
Suspended!Cymbal! ! Suspended!Cymbal!
Chinese!Cymbal!! ! Tambourine!
Triangle!! ! ! Triangle!
Bass!Drum!! ! ! Bass!Drum!
TomTtom!! ! ! Field!drum!
Snare!Drum!! ! ! Snare!Drum!1!(large)!
Bongos!! ! ! Snare!Drum!2!(small)!

Table!4.01!Comparisons!between!the!Sculthorpe!Sonata!and!Stravinsky!L’histoire393!

The!percussion!instruments!are!divided!into!two!main!groups!of!metal!and!
‘skin’394,!with!some!significant!interjections!of!wood!sounds.!The!metal!
idiophones!are!tamTtam,!‘china’!cymbal,395 !cymbal,!and!triangle;!and!an!
investigation!of!the!sounds!shows!a!harmonic!pattern.!Given!that!each!of!them!
comes!in!a!variety!of!sizes!and!sounds,!some!decisions!need!to!be!made.!It!is!now!
necessary!to!investigate!the!sizes!and!sounds!of!the!percussion!instruments!and!
apply!some!principles!to!decisions!concerning!instrument!choice.!!

Of!metal!idiophones!the!tamTtam!generally!is!recognised!as!the!lowest!sounding!
or!‘bass’!and!the!triangle!as!the!highest!or!‘soprano’.!The!two!cymbals!then!
would!fall!into!the!‘tenor’!and!‘alto’!ranges.!The!most!appropriate!description!of!
the!sound!of!the!‘china’!type!would!probably!be!a!‘flat’!sound,!whereas!the!usual!
orchestral!cymbal,!‘Turkish’!in!origin,396!has!generally!a!greater!mix!of!overtones!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
392 ‘An!original!composer!if!ever!there!was!one…!‘,!Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sun(Music,!p.!53!
393 !Table!compiled!by!author,!2015!

394 !The!nomenclature!‘skin’!is!still!used!for!the!membranic!percussion!instruments,!even!though!
most!now!have!plastic!heads.!
395 !The!terms!‘china’!and!‘chinese’!to!describe!these!cymbals!are!used!interchangeably!by!
percussionists!and!describe!cymbals!that!have!upturned!lips!as!opposed!to!the!‘Turkish’!cymbals!
that!are!in!more!general!use!in!orchestras.!
396 !The!timpani,!bass!drum,!cymbals!and!triangle!were!used!by!the!Ottoman!forces!as!
instruments!of!warfare;!and!the!success!of!their!wars!against!European!forces!led!to!them!(along!

208!!
and!produces!a!brighter!sound.!So!if!the!‘china’!has!a!lower!timbre!one!could!
imagine!a!minor!scale!of!registral!ambitus.!This!would!match!the!ambience!of!the!
work!and!is!still!consistent!with!Sculthorpe’s!listing!of!the!cymbal!as!a!large!
cymbal!–!it!might!also!put!the!‘alto’!sound!of!the!‘Turkish’!cymbal!into!a!
'contralto'!range.!Alternately,!if!the!‘china’!is!higher!in!timbre,!because!of!the!
‘flatness’!of!the!sound,!the!registral!‘harmony’!created!could!be!heard!as!a!type!of!
diminished!chord.!!

The!membranophones!comprise!bass!drum,!tomTtom,!snare!drum!and!bongo.!
Following!the!same!line!of!alternative!harmonic!thinking,!the!Bass!Drum!
obviously!provides!the!lowest!sound.!Past!this,!some!decisions!need!to!be!made.!
The!snare!drums!most!used!in!the!classical!sphere!are!in!the!upper!to!upperT
middle!range!of!snare!drum!sounds.!Bongos!come!in!pairs!of!higher!and!lower!
sounds.!So!if!one!chose!a!high!sounding!snare!drum!the!musical!effect!of!that!
with!the!bongo!would!not!be!well!balanced,!with!a!predominance!of!sounds!in!
the!upper!partials.!Sculthorpe!does!not!specify!which!of!the!pair!of!bongos!is!to!
be!used,!but!the!bongo!entries!are!loud,!sharp!interjections!and!punctuations.!So!
it!makes!sense!to!play!these!on!the!high!bongo!to!add!a!greater!piquancy!to!the!
sound.!!

The!snare!drum!then!should!be!tuned!a!little!lower,!in!the!‘alto’!to!‘mezzoT
soprano’!range!to!produce!a!mellower!tone;!and!the!tomTtom!between!that!and!
the!bass!drum.!A!snare!drum!of!6!½”depth!and!a!tomTtom!of!16”!depth!would!
blend!well!(and!convey!Sculthorpe’s!original!intent!of!tenor!Drum).!The!bass!
drum!poses!another!problem.!At!times!it!is!to!be!played!with!a!pedal,!and!at!
other!times!with!soft!mallets.!The!latter!calls!for!a!resonant!sound,!the!former!
more!of!a!punctuation.!So!the!temptation!is!to!use!two!bass!drums,!one!set!up!in!
orchestral!style!suspended!on!a!tilted!stand,!for!ease!of!playing,!and!the!other,!a!
‘kick!‘!drum!from!a!drum!set.397!By!1960,!bass!drums!of!20”!and!22”!diameter!
were!being!produced!to!cater!for!the!demands!of!the!popular!music!market,!but!
the!larger!drums!were!also!still!in!use,!usually!in!orchestra!pits!for!musicals.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
with!the!snare!drum,!which!developed!out!of!a!misinterpretation!of!the!bass!drum!sound)!being!
adopted!by!the!European!armies,!and!later!used!by!composers.!
397 !‘Kick’!drum!is!the!name!by!which!pedalToperated!bass!drums!have!come!to!be!known!

! 209!
However,!the!smaller!drums!would!produce!a!‘dead’!sound,!whereas!a!drum!of!
greater!resonance!would!add!to!the!general!sound!of!the!piece;!and!a!bass!drum!
of!26”!or!28”!diameter!would!provide!this.!Moreover,!all!the!bass!drum!entries,!
including!the!pedal!bass!drum!figures,!are!marked!with!a!‘let!vibrate’!marking,!so!
the!extra!resonance!is!obviously!important!to!Sculthorpe.!If!more!punctuation!of!
the!beats!were!wanted,!a!cork!beater!(as!opposed!to!a!felt!beater)!would!give!
this!without!sacrificing!the!resonant!afterTsound.!This!size!drum!(26”!or!28”)!can!
also!be!played!with!the!mallets,!thus!obviating!the!need!for!a!second!bass!drum,!
though!the!second!bass!drum!could!also!be!used.!Using!a!larger!one!for!the!
second!Bass!Drum!would!add!a!greater!range!of!sounds!to!the!piece,!as!well!as!
being!easier!to!play;!it!would!also!add!to!the!theatre!of!the!performance,!as!the!
action!would!be!visible!to!the!audience.!

There!is!one!other!sound!source!to!be!considered:!the!stick!clicks,!a!hitting!of!the!
sticks!against!each!other!to!produce!a!‘click’!(see!ex.!4.12).!Originally!Sculthorpe!
scored!this!for!claves,!but!later!changed!it!to!stick!clicks.!To!a!percussionist!this!
direction!of!‘stick!clicks’!would!suggest!clicking!the!two!snare!drum!sticks!
together!and!the!lack!of!any!further!explanation!would!tend!to!support!that.!!

!
Ex.!4.12a!Original!instrumentation!(claves),!Sculthorpe!Sonata(bars!67T70!

210!!
 !
Ex.!4.12b!Amended!instrumentation!(sticks),!Sculthorpe!Sonata!bars!68T70!

Sculthorpe!said!he!wanted!to!have!a!sound!reminiscent!of!Aboriginal!clapsticks,!
and!clicking!snare!drum!sticks!together!would!give!that!sound,!though!not!as!
strongly!as!claves,!making!the!reminiscence!very!faint.!However,!it!is!possible!
also!that!the!reason!for!the!change!had!as!much!to!do!with!the!fact!that!claves!
need!to!be!held!in!a!certain!way!to!produce!a!nice!resonance,!and!this!way!of!
holding!is!impractical!in!the!context!of!the!piece!as!fast!changes!of!beaters!are!
needed.!

One!clave!(traditionally!the!lowerTsounding!one)!is!held!in!a!cupped!hand,!and!
struck!(approximately!in!the!middle)!with!the!other.!This!lower!clave!is!held!by!
the!fingers,!and!rests!in!the!groove!on!the!butt!of!the!palm,!which!means!it!is!held!
at!its!nodal!points!T!i.e.!at!the!points!where!it!does!not!sound!when!struck,!
approximately!2/9ths!of!its!length!from!each!end.!So!to!pick!up!the!two!claves,!set!
one!in!position,!play!them!and!then!put!them!down!again,!and!do!so!noiselessly,!
requires!more!time!than!the!piece!allows. This!problem!would!have!presented!
itself!in!the!first!rehearsal!when!the!percussionist!would!have!shown!Sculthorpe!
the!problem,!and!so!could!have!prompted!the!change.!There!are!other!possible!
solutions!to!this!dilemma!though,!and!these!are!discussed!in!greater!depth!in!the!
context!of!interpretation!and!challenges!to!performance.

Thinking!of!the!instruments!in!terms!of!their!‘harmonic’!structure,!it!makes!
practical!sense!to!set!them!up!according!to!a!type!of!staff!notation,!with!the!low!
sounds!on!the!left!and!high!on!the!right.!There!is!no!need!to!discuss!the!relative!
timbres!of!metal!versus!skin!in!this!set!up!as!the!construction!of!the!instruments!
and!manner!of!playing!them!suggests!two!rows!of!instruments,!with!the!

! 211!
membranophones!closer!to!the!player!and!metal!idiophones!behind!and!above!
them!(see!ex.!4.49,!4.50).!This!also!can!be!reflected!in!the!notation!with!the!
for Peter Komlos

SONATA
membranophones!notated!in!the!spaces!and!metal!idiophones!on!the!lines.!The!
FOR VIOLA AND PERCUSSION
stick!clicks!are!notated!by!an!‘x’!above!the!stave!(see!plate!4.01)!
percussion
Peter Sculthorpe

œ bongo œ cymbal œtriangle ‹sticks

ed. Ryszard Pusz

÷œ œtom tom œsnare drum œ

Legend

œ chinese cym
tamtam
bass drum
!
Plate!4.01!Sculthorpe,!Sonata,!Legend!devised!by!Pusz!
j jj jj 2
Animato e»¡§º
4 œœœœ j j jj jj
÷ 8 œ . œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰œ œ ‰ « J ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰œœ ‰ œ œ ‰Œ
>
œ œ
The!details!of!the!instruments!chosen!will!impact!on!fine!points!of!playing!
P (hard sticks) f F
techniques!as!these!elements!will!determine!the!character!of!the!piece.!These!
÷ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ Œ Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ∑ Œ œ œ Œ 28
j j j j j
1 poco rall a tempo (hard stick)
j j j j
points!of!technique!T!playing!action,!movement,!sound,!notation,!logistics!and!
visual!aesthetics!will!be!examined!in!the!context!of!Sculthorpe’s!musical!intent!
P (soft stick)
œ j j j 2
2 4 œ Œ 8 ∑ 8 œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ 8 œ œ ‰ 48
2 4 2 48
2
÷8 ∑ 8 Œ
molto rall
and!the!analysis!of!the!piece.! j
>F (soft sticks)
j
«
dim
!
4 j 3 j e»ª§ 3 6 4(soft stick) ˙
3 (tri beater)
.
Poco lento
÷ 8 Œ œ œ œ œ œœ ‰ œ œ œ œ 4 œœ ‰ Œ Œ
j j
8‰œ
4.5.2*Playing*Action* P p
2 Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3
÷ ‰ œ. ˙ œ Œ
4

˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ 4 œj>œ œ Œ
There!is!nothing!technically!difficult!in!the!percussion!part!of!the!Sonata,!but!
œ
π (soft sticks) P
there!are!certain!decisions!that!need!to!be!made!about!the!music,!which!have!

j j œ j j
implications!for!fine!points!of!technique.!As!mentioned,!Sculthorpe!wanted!to!
5
‹ ‹
÷ œ Œ œ . œ œ œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ œjœ Œ œ Œ œ œ Œ œ. œ œ œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ J ‰ J
(sticks)
j j
>
create!a!sense!of!timelessness!and!emptiness.!It!is!therefore!apposite!to!analyse! P
‹ ‹ ‹ 2 ‹‹ > 6 >
‹ ‰ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ . ‹J ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹
how!this!musical!paradox!may!be!achieved,!or!at!least!approached!in!terms!of!
œœ
÷ ‰ J ‰ J ‰ J 4 ‰ Œ ‘ 8 6 J Œ ‰
j
J ‰  Œ
playing!and!its!consequential!effects.!Percussion’s!raisonTd’être!is!based!on!a!
π
strict!adherence!to!rhythm!and!note!values!and!applied!with!mathematical!
‹ ‹‹#‹‹‹ . ‹ ‹‹‹‹#‹‹‹ ‹‹
÷ J Œ ‰ œ œJ ‰ ‰ ‰ J Œ ‰ œ ‰ œ œJ ‰
accel.
j j
 Œ œ.
exactitude.!So!to!create!an!atmosphere!of!timelessness!would!seem!to!be!the!
p p (rim)
very!antithesis!of!percussion!playing!and!at!the!least!is!a!challenge!to!technique.!!
e»¡§º
‹‹ œ ‰ 74 Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2
Animato
j
÷ œ. Œ ‰œ ‰ J 8 ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
rall.

8
œ
However,!the!movement!of!music!is!frequently!not!in!strict!adherence!to!a!single!
π
tempo,!as!this!would!create!a!stiff!robotic!ambience!and!rob!music!of!its!
cresc. poco a poco

~~~~~~~~~~ 4 > >‹ >‹ Ÿ~~~~~~~~ .

÷ 28 œ 3 œj Œ # j̊ ‰ ‰ 4 >œ ‰ Œ 2 ∑ 4 ∑ 2 ∑ 4
8

8Jœ ‰ ‰ J Œ ‰ J ˙ ˙ 8 œ 8J 8
emotional!element.!Rather!music!aims!to!create!a!synthesis!of!sound!in!which!
j
8 8 8
>
œ

f p
each!instrument!seamlessly!plays!its!part;!and!any!alternation!of!ideas,!even!if!
diametrically!opposed,!needs!to!be!based!on!some!agreement.!The!important!
areas!of!agreement!are!those!of!rhythmic!fluency!and!relativity!of!importance.!In!
a!piece!of!chamber!music!also!the!principle!that!is!uppermost!in!importance!is!

212!!
that!of!dialogue!in!which!both!players!need!to!agree!and!where!necessary,!
compromise.!As!in!any!language,!the!players!need!to!‘speak’!to!each!other!and!
the!rhythm!needs!to!flow.!!

This!situation!has!deep!implications!for!percussion.!Rhythmic!fluency!is!a!
concept!that!is!subtly!different!from!rhythmic!exactitude,!allowing!for!some!
elasticity!of!rhythm!within!a!constancy!of!movement.!Using!this!approach!to!
playing!would!synchronise!the!two!instruments!and!produce!a!more!musical!
performance.!So!the!percussion!phrases!need!to!flow,!but!the!movement!of!the!
flow!needs!to!be!reflective!of!the!general!flow!of!the!music!at!any!particular!
point.!This!is!a!vital!concept!to!understand!as!the!piece!begins!with!a!percussion!
solo,!so!the!interpretation!of!the!part!can!set!the!tone!for!the!whole!work.!!

As!the!piece!opens!with!a!repeated!twoTmeasure,!solo!figure!(see!ex.!4.13)!a!
for Peter Komlos
decision!needs!to!be!made!about!the!playing!action!to!be!used!as!this!can!set!the!
SONATA
tone!for!the!whole!piece.!If!the!figure!is!played!sharply!and!rudimentally!as!a!
FOR VIOLA AND PERCUSSION
march,!the!work!acquires!a!rigid,!almost!robotic!flavour,!making!a!sharp!and!
percussion
Peter Sculthorpe

œ œ ‹
œ cymbal triangle
ed. Ryszard Pusz

œtom tom œsnare drum

incongruous!contrast!with!the!viola!entry!that!follows.!While!it!could!be!
÷œ œ
Legend

œ bongo sticks
interpreted!as!a!march,!it!is!possibly!not!Sculthorpe’s!intention.!!
bass drum
chinese cym
tamtam

The!tempo!at!e!=!160!is!too!fast,!or!if!felt!at!q!!=!80,!too!slow.!!
Animato e»¡§º
j j j 2 j j j j
4
÷ 8 œ œ œ . œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰œ œ ‰ « œ ‰ œœœœ œ ‰ œœœœ œ ‰ œjœ ‰ œjœ ‰Œ
J
j j œœœ

>
œœœ œœ
P (hard sticks) f F !

÷ œ œ œj ‰ œjœj ‰ œjœj ‰ Œ Œ œ œ œ œ œjœj ‰ œ œ œ œ œjœj ‰ Œ ∑ Œ œ œ Œ 28

1 poco rall a tempo
Ex.!4.13!Opening!figure,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!1T7! (hard stick)

Moreover,!the!dynamic!at!mp!is!too!soft!to!convey!the!idea!of!troops!marching!on! P (soft stick)

œ 2
2 4 œ Œ 8 ∑ 8 œ œ œj ‰ œjœj ‰ 28 œjœj ‰ 48
2 4 48
2
÷8 ∑ 8 Œ
molto rall
the!parade!ground!and!so!the!effect!is!not!one!of!the!traditional!military!march!
>F (soft sticks) «
even!though!a!regimented!mobility!is!implied.!Thus!it!is!necessary!to!look!further! dim

4 3 j e»ª§ 3
for!Sculthorpe’s!intention!and!so!the!instruments!chosen!must!be!examined.!The!
j 6 4(soft stick) ˙
3 (tri beater)

8 ‰ œ.
Poco lento
÷ 8 Œ œ œ œ œ œœ ‰ œ œ œ œ 4 œœ ‰ Œ Œ
j j
figure!is!played!on!the!tomTtom,!not!the!traditional!snare!drum!on!which!
P p
marches!are!conventionally!played.!!
2 Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
÷ ‰ œ. ˙ 3 Œ œ Œ
4
Hannan’s!suggestion!that!it!is!a!military!march!as!stated!here,!
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ 4 œj>œ œ œ
π (soft sticks) P
5
j‰ Œ j‰ œ j j ‹ ‹
÷ œ Œ œ . œ œ œ œ œ œ œjœ Œ œ Œ œ œ Œ œ . œ œ œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ J ‰ J
(sticks)
j j
> P
‹ ‹ ‹ 2 >‹ ‹
6 >
‹ ‰ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ . ‹J ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹
÷ ‰ J ‰ J ‰ J 4 ‰ Œ ‘ 68 J Œ ‰ œ œJ ‰
j
!
 Œ 213!
π
 The!fingerboard!knocking!of!the!cello!version!has!been!replaced!by!a!rhythmic!
figure!which!gives!the!passage!a!martial!feeling..398!

!appears!to!be!based!on!the!presence!of!the!grace!notes,!which!are!typically!used!
in!rudimental,!martial!playing.!But!in!a!march!these!grace!notes!are!played!very!
close!to!the!main!note,!which!is!very!effective!on!the!tightly!tensioned!snare!
drums!used!in!marches.!In!this!section!of!the!Sonata!the!figure!is!scored!for!tomT
tom,!which!is!generally!more!loosely!tuned!than!a!snare!drum.!If!the!opening!two!
bars!are!played!with!the!sticking!of!l!r!L!R!R!!l!R!l!R399!and!repeated!for!the!next!
two!a!lively!tone!is!set!with!the!expectation!that!something!is!about!to!happen.!
This!expectation!is!realised!with!the!forte!explosion!in!the!next!bar!(see!ex.!4.14).!

!
Ex.!4.14!Opening!phrase,!Sculthorpe!Sonata!bars!1T6!

Using!this!sticking!of!r,!l,!R!the!grace!notes,!being!spaced!further!apart!than!if!a!
bounced,!martial!llR!sticking!was!used,!are!more!effective,!creating!an!‘open’!
sound.!Even!if!the!figure!was!played!with!a!bounce!sticking,!the!grace!notes!
would!be!slower!because!of!this!looser!tuning!of!tomTtom,!but!the!articulation!
could!lose!some!clarity.!The!r,!l,!R!sound!is!more!appropriate!when!the!phrase!is!
repeated!and!interspersed!with!viola!pizzicati!(see!ex.!4.15).!!

Ex.!4.15!bars!7T12,!where!sticking!needs!to!be!decided!

When!the!figure!returns!at!figure!2!but!to!be!played!with!soft!sticks,!the!alternate!
sticking!is!again!easier!to!articulate,!and!is!clearer!in!sound.!Moreover,!the!grace!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
398 !Michael!Hannan,!op.cit.,!pp.!45T46.!
399 !The!superscript!l!or!r!is!the!standard!way!of!notating!sticking!of!grace!notes!for!
percussionists.!

214!!
notes!do!not!need!to!be!the!same!distance!from!the!main!notes!in!every!case!of!
this!opening!phrase.!Even!if!the!rhythms!themselves!are!played!evenly,!this!
approach!to!playing!the!grace!notes!can!convey!a!sense!of!timelessness!to!the!
phrase;!and!this!sense!can!be!carried!through!to!the!two!sixteenth!note!phrases!
by!including!a!very!slight!ritenuto!to!them.!In!these!bars!it!is!set!against!a!
mournful!melody!on!the!viola,!and!contains!a!molto(rallentando(tempo!change!
(see!ex.!4.16).!!

Ex.!4.16!playing!same!figure!as!above!but!with!soft!sticks,!Sculthorpe!Sonata!bars!21T26!

In!all!of!these!different!settings!the!rhythm!has!to!flow,!but!the!flow!needs!to!be!
reflective!of!the!musical!direction!and!atmosphere.!Consequently,!the!opening!
phrase!needs!to!prepare!the!audience!aurally!for!the!following!phrases!and!the!
sticking!must!be!consistent!to!reproduce!this.!Thus!the!playing!action!and!arm!
movements!have!to!follow!the!movement!of!the!music,!itself!determined!by!the!
consistent,!resonant!sound!existing!in!space,!and!do!so!in!a!freeTflowing!manner!
for!the!aesthetics!to!visually!convey!the!same!effect.!!

The!obvious!visual!movement!of!the!mallets!would!also!reinforce!this!sense!of!
timelessness!if!the!movement!also!differed!for!each!grace!note!to!main!note.!So!
the!single!grace!notes!(‘flams’)!for!example!would!be!played!with!a!greater!
movement!of!arms!and!mallets!than!the!double!grace!notes!(‘drags’)!and!triple!
grace!notes!(‘fourTstroke!ruffs’).!The!ritenuto!mentioned!above,!if!followed!by!a!
greater!ritenuto!in!the!second!set!of!sixteenth!notes!would!also!reflect!the!poco(
rallentando!in!the!viola!entry!in!bars!13T14!(see!ex.!4.17).!

! 215!
 !
Ex.!4.17!Conveying!‘timelessness’,!through!arm!movements,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!7T
19!

The!molto(rallentando!in!the!viola!entry!in!bars!23T26!(see!ex.!4.18)!needs!to!be!
reflected!in!a!rhythmically!fluid!movement!by!the!percussionist;!and!the!grace!
notes!would!be!spaced!further!apart!playing!with!soft!sticks.!

!
Ex.!4.18!Grace!notes!with!soft!sticks!and!rhythmic!flow!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!21T26!

This!phrase!then!could!be!heard!as!the!idea!of!giant!footsteps!walking!across!the!
land,!a!concept!in!keeping!with!Sculthorpe’s!intention!of!writing!‘Australian’!
music.!With!this!intention,!he!continued!the!tradition!of!defining!‘Australianness’!
through!the!relationship!of!man!to!an!ancient!and!often!hostile!land!that!has!
been!an!everTpresent!theme!in!Australian!literature!and!art;!and!extended!it!into!
the!realm!of!music.!One!can!imagine!man!imprinting!his!presence!on!this!ancient!
‘still’!land!(the!land!represented!in!the!viola!entry),!a!presence!that!can!be!subtle!
at!mezzo[piano,!but!with!a!rude!awakening!of!the!spirit!through!the!forte!bongo!
intrusion!heralding!a!more!aggressive!presence.!The!four!sixteenth!notes!

216!!
 for Peter Komlos

SONATA
FOR VIOLA AND PERCUSSION
following!can!be!martial!if!played!with!a!rudimental!‘paradiddle’400!sticking!of!
percussion
Peter Sculthorpe
RLRR.!However,!playing!the!four!notes!with!just!one!beater!gives!a!feeling!of!
œsnare drum œ bongo œ œ cymbal œtriangle ‹sticks
ed. Ryszard Pusz

÷œ œ
œintensity,!and!in!this!case,!a!diminishing!intensity,!that!is!more!abstract!(see!ex.!
Legend

tom tom chinese cym

bass drum 4.19),!perhaps!aligning!man’s!determination!to!walk!from!a!life!of!repetition!such!
tamtam

as!in!the!cities!to!the!freeTform,!more!abstracted!space!of!the!outback.!

je»¡§ºj j 2 j j j j
÷ 48 œ ‰ œœœœ
Animato

œ œ œ . œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰œ œ ‰ « J œ ‰ œœœœ œ ‰ œjœ ‰ œj œ ‰ Œ
j j œœœ

>
œœœ œœ
P (hard sticks) f F !
j j j j j œ œ
Π28
1 poco rall
Ex.!4.19!Forte!bongo!and!diminuendo!tomTtom,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!5T7! a tempo

÷ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ Œ Œ œ œ œ œ œœ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ∑ Œ
(hard stick)
j j j j

P (soft stick)
It!is!clear!that!decisions!need!to!be!made!about!the!specifics!of!the!playing!action.!

œ j j j
As!discussed!in!chapter!two!it!obviously!needs!to!be!a!relaxed!action,!but!it!also! 2
2 4 œ 2 4 2 4 48
2
÷ 8 ∑ 8needs!to!convey!this!sense!of!space!and!timelessness!of!the!Australian!outback.!
Œ Œ 8 ∑ 8 œœœ ‰ œœ ‰ 8 œœ ‰ 8
molto rall
j j
«
>F (soft sticks) dim
So!the!specific!action!used!for!the!opening!section!would!relate!to!this!sense!and!

j j e»ª§ 3 6 (soft stick) ˙

÷ 48 Œ œ œ œfinal!decision!in!each!instance!then,!as!to!which!playing!action!to!use!needs!to!be!
œ œjœ ‰ œ œ œ œ 34 œj œ ‰ Œ Œ 48 ‰ œ .
3 (tri beater)
could!differ!from!actions!used!to!play!other!figures!elsewhere!in!the!piece.!The!
Poco lento

P p
based!not!just!on!technical!knowledge,!but!on!the!broader!musical!principles!
˙ 2 Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
3 œ
4
÷ ‰ œ. ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ 4 œj>œ Œ œ Œ œ
that!aim!to!convey!the!composer’s!intent.!The!actions!used!moreover,!are!closely!
˙
π (soft sticks)
related!to!the!issue!of!movement.!
P
5
! j j œ j j ‹ ‹
÷ œ Œ œ . œ œj œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ œj œ Œ œ Œ œ œ Œ œ . œ œj œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ J ‰ J
(sticks)

4.5.3*Movement*
> P
‹ 2 >‹ ‹
6 >
68 ‹J Œ ‰ œj œJ ‰ ‰ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ . ‹J ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ Œ
‹ ‹ This!is!always!an!important!consideration!for!percussionists,!as!the!manner!of!
÷‰ J ‰ J ‰ J 4 ‰ Œ ‘
π
the!movement!can!add!to!or!detract!from!the!audience’s!enjoyment!of!the!work.!

‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ . ‹J ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹‹
As!Stravinsky!said!
œ œ ‰ œ œ
accel.
j j
÷ J Œ ‰ J ‰ …why!not!follow!with!the!eye!such!movements!as!those!of!the!drummer…which!
 Œ œ. Œ ‰ œ ‰ J ‰
p facilitate!one’s!auditory!perceptions?401 ! p (rim)
e»¡§º
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
‹ ‹ The!violist’s!movements,!while!they!can!be!exaggerated!are!still!contained!within!
jœ
Animato

‰ œ ‰ œ J ‰ 48 ˙ 28
7
÷ œ. Œ the!arc!of!the!instrument.!The!percussionist!however,!is!not!restricted!to!one!
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
rall.

π
instrument,!and!in!fact!needs!to!consider!movements!over!a!wide!range!of!
cresc. poco a poco

~~~~~~~~~~ > >‹ >‹ 8 Ÿ~~~~~~~~ j j̊ >œ.

2 4 3 4 ‰ Œ 28 ∑ 48 ∑ 28 ∑ 48
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
÷8 œ 4008
œ ‰ ‰ J Œ ‰ J œ˙ ˙
j
8 œ Œ # œ ‰ ‰ 8 J
J > p
!Rudimental,!marching!drumming!has!traditionally!been!learnt!by!rote!learning!and!use!of!
f
onomatopoeic!effect!as!the!drumming!patterns!used!need!to!be!played!from!memory,!there!being!
no!convenient!way!to!read!music!while!marching.!
401 !I.!Stravinsky,!Chronicle(of(My(Life,!Translated!from!the!French,!London,!Gollancz,!1936,!p.!122.!

! 217!
instruments!and!techniques.!Without!being!too!prescriptive,!the!techniques!need!
to!be!efficient!in!order!not!to!distract!from!the!piece.!So!the!drums!can!generally!
played!with!a!wrist!action,!though!the!extent!of!movement!will!vary.!The!double!
and!triple!grace!notes!would!be!executed!with!a!staccato!action,!the!single!grace!
notes!actions!would!be!more!legato.!

In!this!work!there!is!not!a!great!deal!of!overt!movement!required,!though!there!
are!two!kinds!of!movement!that!can!be!identified!as!complementary!to!the!
music.!Following!the!quiet!opening,!the!fortissimo!explosion!on!the!Bongo!can!be!
emphasised!with!a!flourish,!with!sticks!seemingly!‘hanging’!in!the!air,!after!which!
they!can!visibly!‘shrink’!as!they!execute!the!diminuendo!on!the!TomTtom.!This!
gestural!movement!can!enhance!the!mood!being!portrayed!and!occurs!
intermittently!through!the!piece.!

Secondly,!there!are!two!kinds!of!more!gentle!and!subtle!movements!at!soft!
dynamic!levels!–!single!entries!on!cymbals!and!triangles,!which!need!a!
movement!reflective!of!the!mystery!their!entries!create!and!long!rolls!that!add!to!
the!sense!of!the!quiet!stillness!that!underlies!the!frenetic!activity!elsewhere!in!
the!piece.!Sculthorpe’s!intent!is!to!imbue!the!piece!with!an!atmospheric!sense!of!
mysterious!emptiness.!

The!single!entries!are!on!the!higher!metal!instruments!of!triangle!and!cymbals!
that!have!an!indefinite!lifespan!and!indefinable!quality,!somewhat!akin!to!stars!
appearing!over!a!desert!landscape.!In!bars!14!T16,!and!37T38!for!example,!they!
appear!and!quickly!fade!to!leave!a!sense!of!emptiness!(see!ex.!4.20),!yet!the!
nature!of!their!sound!gives!them!a!similar!presence!to!that!of!a!counterTmelody.!
Again!the!playing!action,!movement!and!aesthetics!need!to!support!the!effect!of!
sound!suddenly!appearing!and!existing!in!suspension,!as!stars!do.!So!this!needs!
to!be!reflected!in!the!action!of!playing!the!cymbals!and!triangle;!a!slow!legato!
stroke,!with!some!followTthrough!would!portray!this!most!effectively.!The!
further!issue!is!what!to!do!in!the!bars!rest!between!these!strokes.!To!continue!
the!action!and!complete!a!circle!over!the!length!of!the!rest!is!excessive!and!
detracts!from!the!viola;!it!is!preferable!to!stop!and!remain!motionless!at!the!‘top’!
of!the!stroke!before!‘returning’!to!play!the!next!entry!(see!ex.!4.21).!

218!!
(a)! !!(b)! !

Ex.!4.20!Cymbals!and!triangle!entries,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion,!bars!
14T16!and!37T8.!The!Cymbal!in!bar!37!is!the!China!Cymbal.!

!
Ex.!4.21!Movement!in!cymbals!and!triangle!entries,!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(
Percussion!bars!14T19!

Contrasted!with!this!are!rolls!on!the!tamTtam!(bars!242T259),!china!cymbal!(bars!
71T79)!and!bass!drum!(bars43T49,!and!179T199)!(see!ex.!4.22).!They!provide!a!
backdrop!for!the!viola!and!would!be!best!executed!with!as!little!extraneous!
movement!as!possible.!The!direction!for!the!tamTtam!is!to!play!near!the!rim,!in!
order!to!emphasise!the!higher!harmonics!and!produce!a!more!ethereal,!
mysterious!sound.!On!the!other!hand,!the!roll!on!the!china!cymbal!produces!a!
‘flat’!sound,!like!the!landscape!of!an!ancient!land!over!which!the!viola!plays!its!
frenetic,!rapidly!repeated!figure.!The!bass!drum!rolls!provide!a!resonant!low!
sound!that!underpins!firstly!a!section!of!the!mournful!melody!punctuated!by!
strong!chordal!pizzicati,!and!later!an!extended!pizzicato!section.!To!evoke!these!
musical!effects!requires!the!various!rolls!to!be!executed!with!different!rates!of!
stroke,!each!with!an!awareness!of!the!playing!surface!and!musical!sensitivity.!

!
Ex.!4.22a!Sonata,!bars!244T250,!TamTtam!roll!(excerpt)!

! 219!
 !
Ex.!4.22b!Sonata,!bars!71T74,!china!Cymbal!roll!(excerpt)!
!

!
Ex.!4.22c!Sonata,!bars!44T48,!Bass!Drum!roll!(excerpt)!
!

!
Ex.!4.22d!Sonata,!bars!188T194,!Bass!Drum!roll!(excerpt)!
!
Like!the!land,!these!sounds!are!‘unTmoving’!though!at!times!they!are!also!
combined!with!the!bass!drum!and!tomTtom!as!though!referring!back!to!the!
earlier!‘intrusion’!of!man!into!this!quiet,!still!land.!The!rolls!then!should!be!
executed!with!as!little!extraneous!movement!as!possible!as!in!each!of!these!cases!
the!aim!is!to!create!a!long,!‘timeless’!sound!and!illusion!of!mysterious!emptiness.!
Much!percussion!playing!relies!on!the!creation!of!illusion,!and!this!is!a!case!in!
point.!All!percussion!can!do!is!create!an!illusion!of!a!long!sound,!by!playing!a!
succession!of!short!sounds,!played!so!evenly!that!the!listener!accepts!the!result!
as!one!sound.!To!achieve!this!it!is!necessary!to!allow!the!mallets!to!bounce!off!the!
surface,!and!try!to!‘feel’!the!vibration!that!results!in!order!to!play!the!next!stroke!
at!the!nadir!of!the!vibration.!Hitting!the!instrument!at!the!zenith!dampens!the!
vibration,!which!starts!a!new!vibration,!and!creates!waves!of!sound,!giving!the!
impression!of!small!crescendi.!The!challenge!here!is!that!there!are!different!
amplitudes!of!vibration!between!instruments,!so!the!rolls!on!each!will!be!at!
different!rates!of!stroke!requiring!a!range!of!sensitivities!of!roll!technique.!To!

220!!
maintain!a!steadiness!of!sound!requires!constant!concentration!on!working!with!
the!vibration,!while!still!being!aware!of!the!viola!figure.!

4.5.4*Sound*

The!nonTrolled!entries!on!triangles!and!cymbals,!as!discussed!above,!are!also!in!
their!own!way!soloistic,!in!that!they!have!an!obvious!impact!on!the!listener!and!
create!a!different!kind!of!space,!so!the!issue!of!dynamics!needs!to!be!considered.!
It!is!obvious!that!the!dynamic!markings!need!to!be!interpreted!in!a!relative!
sense;!an!mf!against!a!single!viola!would!of!course!be!a!lot!softer!than!an!mf!in!an!
orchestral!tutti.!But!percussion!dynamics!are!more!complex!than!that.!If!played!
with!the!same!energy,!the!snare!drum!will!produce!a!louder,!more!penetrating!
sound!than!the!other!percussion!instruments,!the!bongos!would!be!louder!than!
the!tomTtom!and!bass!drum,!and!the!cymbals!could!momentarily!overpower!
most!of!the!instruments.!All!of!the!instruments!could!overpower!the!viola,!so!
great!care!needs!to!be!taken!in!the!approach!to!playing!them,!especially!when!
the!same!rhythmic!figure!is!played!across!tomTtom!and!snare!drum!for!example.!

As!well!as!dynamics,!other!aspects!of!technique!need!examination,!as!
Sculthorpe’s!musical!intent!posed!a!challenge!to!other!percussion!traditions.!
Sculthorpe!wrote!for!a!number!of!long!sounds!on!the!various!membranophones!
and!metal!idiophones.!At!the!time!the!piece!was!written,!1960,!many!
percussionists!believed!that!the!only!‘legitimate’!roll!on!the!Snare!Drum!was!the!
rudimental!or!double!stroke!roll!and!was!notated!as!follows!(see!ex.!4.23);!and!
this!attitude!was!especially!evident!in!the!more!regionally!distant!Australia.!This!
notation!is!in!fact!a!musical!shorthand!for!thirtyTsecond!notes,!and!the!sticks!are!
bounced!in!a!sixteenth!note!stick!movement,!at!march!tempo!(MM!=!120),!it!
produced!an!acceptable!illusion!of!a!long!sound.!It!was!later!adopted!in!
orchestral!contexts!and!adapted!accordingly.!The!same!notation!was!also!often!
used!for!rolls!on!cymbal,!bass!drum!and!timpani,!though!on!those!instruments!it!
was!executed!as!a!singleTstroke!roll.!

! 221!
 They are named according to the total number of strokes in the roll - not the number of strokes per
wrist movement.
For example, the "5 stroke" roll contains a total of 5 strokes but is played in the double stroke roll
fashion (2 bounces per wrist movement).
However, the rolls are easier to play and understand if one ignores their names and counts the musical
notation in 16th notes, as the wrists move in 16ths; and this enables one to count the wrist movement
and note value simultaneously.

Written Played

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
"5"

@
r r l l r

œ"7" œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
l l r r l
1 e &

æ
r r l l r r l

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
l l r r l l r
"9" 1 e & a

æ
r r l l r r l l r

œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
l l r r l l r r l
1 e & a 2

æ
"11"

r r l l r r l l r r l
l l r r l l r r l l r
!
>œ >œ œ œ œ402œ! œ œ œ œ >œ >œ
1 e & a 1 e

œ
"10"

æ
Ex.!4.23!example!of!rudimental!roll!notation

r r l l r r l l r l
Sculthorpe!notated!all!the!rolls!in!the!same!way,!none!of!which!matched!the!
l
1
l r
e
r l
&
l r
a
r l
2
r
e

œ. œ œ 403œ!This!raises!the!questions!as!to!the!kind!of!
traditional!notation!(see!ex.!4.24). œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
"13"

æ J
sound!he!wanted,!especially!on!the!tomTtom!and!snare!drum.!
r r l l r r l l r r l l r
l l r r l l r r l l r r l
1 e & a 1 e &

˙
"15"
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
æ
!(a)! r
l
r
l
l
r
l
r
r
l
r
l
l
r
l
r
r
l
r
l
l
r
l
r
r
l
r
l
l
r
!
1 e & a 2 e & a

˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
"17"

æ
(b)! r
l
r
l
l
r
l
r
r
l
r
l
l
r
l
r
r
l
r
l
l
r
l
r
r
l
r
l !
l
r
l
r
r
l
1 e & a 2 e & a 3

(c) !

(d)! !

(e)! !
Ex.!4.24!Sculthorpe’s!roll!notations!on!cymbals,!tamTtam!and!drums,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(
pp.!4,!6,!9,!18,!21!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
402 !R.!Pusz,!Percussion:(A(Comprehensive(Approach,!EauTClaire!WI,!Really!Good!Music,!1987,!p.!33!

403 !Six!years!later!Rudziński!used!the!same!roll!notation!in!his!Variations(and(Fugue!(see!ex.!2.45!
in!Chapter!2).!

222!!
The!implication!is!that!he!was!less!concerned!with!how!the!sound!was!to!be!
produced!and!more!interested!in!having!a!long!sound,!and!this!method!of!
notation!raised!questions!about!how!to!produce!the!desired!sound.!This!debate!
extends!beyond!purely!technical!considerations!into!more!musical!issues,!in!
particular!debating!the!effect!any!particular!kind!of!roll!would!produce.!A!singleT
stoke!roll!would!produce!a!consistent!sound!across!the!gong!(tamTtam),!cymbal,!
bass!drum!and!tomTtom,!but!would!be!empty!and!incongruous!on!the!snare!
drum.!A!doubleTstroke!roll!on!the!tomTtom,!because!of!its!lower!tuning!could!also!
sound!hollow!and!stilted!through!being!too!measured!a!sound.!A!third!
possibility,!and!the!most!appropriate,!would!be!to!use!a!multipleTbounce!roll!on!
the!tomTtom!and!snare!drum,!which!would!also!produce!a!sound!of!greater!
tension.!The!rolls!on!the!other!instruments!were!meant!to!produce!long!sounds!
usually!free!of!tension!for!which!the!singleTstroke!roll!is!appropriate.!As!an!
incidental!result,!multipleTbounce!rolls,!evenly!played!as!tripleT!or!quadrupleT
bounce!rolls!gradually!became!more!accepted!as!legitimate!expressions!of!long!
sounds.!!

The!deciding!factor!as!to!which!technique!to!use,!in!the!instance!a!roll,!again!
needs!to!be!musical.!Sculthorpe!organised!the!percussion!instruments!into!two!
families!of!registral!ambitus!of!‘skin’!and!‘metal’.!The!specifics!of!these!‘chordal’!
families!and!methods!of!playing!determine!particular!characteristics!of!the!
sound,!which!require!musical!consideration!as!to!which!playing!techniques!and!
beaters!on!specific!instruments!best!portray!the!various!moods!called!for.!!

This!is!made!quite!obvious!in!the!a(tempo!before!figure!22,!where!Sculthorpe!
specifically!calls!for!a!martial!effect!–!alla(marcia(funèbre,!and!this!section!is!
played!on!the!tomTtom,!pedal!bass!drum,!cymbals!and!tamTtam.!This!effect!is!set!
against!the!viola!playing!a!variation!of!the!risoluto!referred!to!above!(see!ex.!
4.09b).!The!percussion!part!is!marked!f!against!the!ff!in!the!viola!part.!However,!
it!is!very!dramatic!if!the!percussionist!also!plays!ff,!in!effect!almost!drowning!out!
the!viola.404!The!thunderous!effect!of!this!funeral!march!could!wake!the!ghosts!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
404 !This!idea!was!presented!to!me!as!a!suggestion!by!Richard!Hornung,!who!saw!the!dramatic!
possibilities!of!such!an!interpretation.!

! 223!
 Port!Arthur,405 !and!bespeaks!tellingly!of!the!violent!aspects!of!Australia’s!history!
(see!ex.!4.25).!
e»ª§
e»ª§
j j j j j j j j 2 2 Ÿ~~~~~~
Ÿ~~~~~~ j
j
÷ 34 œj œ Œ÷ œ34 œj œ48 Œœ œœ œ 48‰ œjœœœ œ ‰ ‰ œ34jœ œj‰œ 34Œ œjœ Œ 48œ œ œ48œ œ œ‰œœj œ‰œj‰œ ‰ œœ 28 2
21 Allamarcia
Alla marciafunebre
funebre

œ̇ œ œœ ‰‰
21
œ œœ œ œ̇ œ 8
F F (rim) (rim)
ff
Ÿ~~~~~~~
!
Ÿ~~~~~~~
22 22

÷ 28 # œ . ÷ 2848 # œ œ œ̇ 48 œœ œ œœj ‰ œœj ‰ 28œ # œ28. # 48 œ œ48j œœj ‰ œ‰ 28 28œœ œœ 4848 œ œœjjœ ‰‰ œ 2828 œœœœ 48 48
J œ. œ̇ œ œ J Jœ . Jƒ œJƒ J œJ J œJ JœJ œJJ
J
J œJ
!
Ÿ~~~~~~~Ÿ~~~~~~~
j Ÿ~~~~~~ Ÿ~~~~~~
j (triœbeater) poco rallœ
÷ 48 œj œ̇ ÷œ 4 j œœ ‰ # jœ .‰ #œj œ̇ œ j œœ ‰ j#‰ œ .# œ œ œ Œ Œ œ œ œœ ŒŒ œ
Ex.!4.25!Forte!Funeral!March,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!211T220 23 406 !
(tri beater) poco rall
23

8œ œ œ œ pœp
F œ̇ œ œ J œJ . œ̇ œ œ J œJ . P P
œ
The!variations!of!the!rhythmic!figure,!in!the!Risoluto!just!before!figure!9!(see!ex.!
Fa tempo e»ª§
4.26)!could!be!played!to!produce!a!martial!effect!by!using!the!‘paradiddle’!RLRR!
2 j
2 œ œ œ œ . œ œ ‰ ‰ œj œ œ œjœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ ‰j ‰ œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 24œ œ œ œjj ‰ œ 228
j e»ª§ j j 24
÷ sticking!for!the!four!sixteenth!notes,!and!thinking!of!the!next!entry!(two!
a tempo

÷ P con>espressione œ œ œ œ. œ œ ‰ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . œ œ ‰ cresc.
F ‰ œ œllœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œf‰ œ> 8
> P con espressione
sixteenth!and!one!eighth!notes)!as!a!variant!of!the!‘drag’!( > F
R).!However,!the!entry!
cresc. f
j j
j

÷ 28 ‰ œ œ 483:2œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 28 œ œ œ 348 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ j‰ œ œ j œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
3:2œ
is!underscored!with!the!direction!‘well!articulated’.!A!paradiddle!sticking!has!a!
3
j

÷ 28 ‰ œ œ 48 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 28 œ œ œ 48 œ œ>F J
œœ œœ ‰ œœ œœœœœœœœ
œ
slight!accent!(even!though!it!is!not!always!marked)!on!the!first!note,!and!the!last!
>F 25 J
two!notes!can!also!be!softer.!This!is!not!from!laziness,!but!from!the!fact!that!
j j j j
÷ œ œmarches!have!needed!to!emphasise!the!notes!that!occur!on!the!beat!more!than!
œœ
œ œ œ ‰ œJj œ œ œ jœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰3 Œ œ œ œ œ 3‰ Œ œ25œ œ j‰ Œ œ œ œj ‰ Œ
3 3
j j

÷ œœœœ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œP œ œj œ œ œ ‰ Œ œjœ œ œ ‰ Œ pœ œ œ26‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ

J
the!others.!As!a!result,!this!method!of!playing!the!‘paradiddles’!has!become!part!
Lento e»•¢
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ P p
÷˙
of!the!performance!tradition!of!percussion.!!
Lento e»•¢ 58
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~˙ ˙ ˙26 ˙
p However,!this!rudimental!approach!would!seem!to!be!contrary!to!the!Australian!
÷˙ 58
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ 27 ˙ ˙
sempre

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
p sempre Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~ >
÷ 58 œ . œ œ . œ 48 œj œ Œ ∑ œj œ Œ ∑ œj ˙ 68 27œ œ œjŒ Œ . œ œ œJ Œ Œ .
atmosphere!of!the!piece,!and!at!odds!with!the!viola.!Moreover,!even!an!alternate!

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ > >

sticking!can!be!uneven!because!of!a!difference!in!strength!between!the!two! Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~
ṗ(hard >fj œ œ>œ Œ Œ.
÷ 5
8 œ. œ œ. œ 8 œ œ 4 Œ ∑ Œ ∑ ˙ 6 œ Œ Œ .
8 J
cresc.

œœ
j j
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~
j
> >
sticks)

>
hands,!or!by!just!hitting!different!parts!of!the!drumhead.!This!would!be!even! œ œ œ
> j> j > > ‹ ‹ ṗ(hard >
÷ œ œ œJmore!pronounced!around!figures!11!and!16,!when!the!rhythm!is!played!on!the!
Œ œ œJ Œ ‘ œ œ œ Œ Œ . ‘ œ œ œJ Œ Œ sticks) ‘ f48 œ œ ˙ ˙
cresc.

> >‹ ‹ ƒ>Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~

œ œ> œ œ> œ j >
œœœ Œ 4 œœ˙ ˙
.
tomTtom.!!In!order!to!match!the!preceding!crescendo!of!the!viola!entry!and!the!
j
÷
dome J Ÿ~~~~~~
Œ J Œ œ
‘dome > >Ÿ~~~~~~~Œ Œ ‘ J q»¡º¢ Œ ‘> 8
cresc.

~j risoluto(marking,!the!entry!needs!to!be!intense.!The!desired!‘well!articulated’!
>
œ œ
œ 28 œ 48 œj œ ‰ œ 28 œ 48 œjœ ‰ Œ œj œ ‰ œ œjœ ‰ ƒ œ
28 Risoluto

÷ œ œJ ‰sound!of!intensity!is!best!achieved!by!playing!with!one!beater!only,!in!the!same!
J JRisoluto q»¡º¢J J Œ œœ ‰
j
cresc.
J
Ï ƒ~j dome Ï >Ÿ~~~~~~jƒ dome Ï >Ÿ~~~~~~~ Fj
2829œ 48 œ œ ‰ œ 28 œ 48 œ œ ‰ Œ œj œ ‰ œ œj>œ ‰ Œ œjœ ‰ œ
28

÷ œœ ‰ œ
beating!spot,!and!with!the!slightest!of!crescendos.!This!is!necessary!because!
>
Ï
Jœj>œ ‰œjœ ‰ 2 œ J 4 œj>œ ‰ Œ œjœ ‰Jœjœ ‰ 2 œJ
÷ œj œ ‰when!the!drum!is!hit,!the!head!begins!vibrating,!and!the!subsequent!‘hits’!can!
Œ ƒ Ï ƒ Ï F 48 J œ œ ˙Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
J˙
J J J 8 8 J J J 8
FŸ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
> > >
(and!often!do)!land!on!the!head!at!the!peak!of!its!vibration,!thus!acting!against!
œ œ
Œ > œ œJj>‰œ œJ ‰ 28 > j> 48j>œ œJ ‰ Œ œ œJ j>‰œ œJ ‰ 28 >j 48 >œ jœ ˙ >˙j U
29 cresc.

÷ œ œJ ‰a tempo
j
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
j j
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 30 j j j

˙ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œœ ‰ œ œ œœ ‰ œ œ œœ ‰ Œ
÷ ˙ 405!Port!Arthur!was!a!nineteenth!century!penal!settlement!in!Tasmania!noted!for!the!harsh!
molto rall

J J J J J J F cresc.
molto rall f a tempo
ƒ > > >
j j j U
!
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
˙ œ œ >œ ‰ œ >œ ‰ œ œ >œ ‰ œ>œ ‰ >œ œ >œ œ
treatment!of!convicts 30

÷˙ J-3- ‰ J‰
œœ ‰ œ œ œœ ‰ œœ ‰ Œ
406 !R.!Pusz,!ed.,!Peter!Sculthorpe,
j !Sonata,!p.!3
j j! j
J J J J
œ œ œœ œœ

224!!
f ƒ

-3-
 the!resonance!produced!by!the!first!hit,!and!deadening!the!sound.!This!can!really!
only!be!countered!by!playing!a!very!slight!crescendo!(see!ex.!4.26).!

for Peter Komlos

SONATA
FOR VIOLA AND PERCUSSION !
Ex.!4.26!Deliberate’!articulation!on!snare!drum,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!87T93,((1960!
Peter Sculthorpe
score)!
œ bongo œ cymbal œtriangle ‹sticks
ed. Ryszard Pusz

œsnare drum A!very!important!element!of!the!percussion!part!is!the!stick!clicks.!As!mentioned!

œ œ
tom chinese cym
tamtam
before,!Sculthorpe!scored!this!originally!for!claves,!but!later!changed!it!to!stick!
clicks.!As!discussed!above,!the!claves!need!to!be!held!in!a!certain!way!to!produce!
ºj j 2 j j jj jj
œ œ œ œ
œ ‰œj œ ‰ J ‰ œœœœ œ ‰ œœœœ
œ ‰œœ ‰ œ œ ‰Œ
a!nice!resonance,!and!this!way!of!holding!is!too!awkward!in!the!context!of!the!
« œ œ œ
>
œ œ
cks) f F
piece.!There!are,!however,!other!solutions.!It!is!possible!to!use!Aboriginal!

j‰Œ Œ j‰ j‰ Œ œ (hardŒ stick)2

clapsticks!as!their!shape!enables!them!to!be!played!by!holding!them!loosely!and!
œ
1 poco rall a tempo

œ œ
j j
œ œ œ œ œœ j ∑ Œ
œ in!a!similar!fashion!to!other!percussion!mallets!and!still!get!a!fullTbodied!
œ œ œ œœ 8
P (soft stick)
resonance.!This!is!demonstrated!on!the!accompanying!video!and!referred!to!in!
2
œ œ Œ 28 Appendix!B.!The!resulting!sound,!being!fullTbodied!is!louder!and!clearer,!and!has!
j j
∑ 8 œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ 8 œ œ ‰ 48
4 2 j 48
2 molto rall
j
>F (soft sticks)
j
«
more!presence!musically!than!the!clicking!together!of!snare!drum!sticks.!The!
dim

j j e»ª§ 3 6 (soft stick) ˙

challenge!then!is!whether!they!can!be!easily!picked!up!and!put!back!down.!
3 4
3 (tri beater)

8 ‰ œ.
Poco lento

œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ Before!figure!6!they!need!to!be!picked!up!very!quickly,!while!continuing!to!hold!
4 œj œ ‰ Œ Œ
j

P p
the!soft!beaters,!and!can!be!put!down!during!the!three!measures!before!figure!9.!
4
2 Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3 œ
4 œj œ Œ œ Œ œ
The!action!though!needs!to!be!legato!in!order!to!give!the!impression!of!slowness!
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
>P
π (soft sticks)
and!so!continue!the!effect!of!the!previous!phrase!(see!ex.!4.27).!

j‰ Œ j‰ j j ‹ ‹
Œ œ œ Œ œ œ Œ œ. œ œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ J ‰ J
(sticks)

œ œ œ œ œ
j j
>
œ
P !
>‹ ‹ >
24 ‰ 68 ‹J Œ ‰ œj œJ ‰ ‰ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ . ‹J ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ Œ
6
Œ
Ex.!4.27!Changing!beaters!to!clapsticks,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!55T57!
‘
π
The!bongo!and!triangle!entries!in!this!section!can!be!played!with!the!clapsticks;!

‹‹
‰ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹the!china!cymbal!roll!at!figure!7!(see!ex.!4.28)!and!the!tomTtom!roll!at!figure!8!
‰ . ‹J ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ Œ œ œ
accel.
j
 œ. Œ ‰ œ ‰ J ‰
(see!ex.!4.29)!are!of!course!both!played!with!the!soft!sticks,!but!can!be!executed!
p (rim)
e»¡§º
while!holding!the!clapsticks.!!
œ Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2
Animato

‰ J ‰ 48 ˙
7
j
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
.

8
œ

π ! cresc. poco a poco

225!
>‹ >‹ Ÿ~~~~~~~~ j .
> 3 Œ # j̊ ‰ ‰ 4 >œ ‰ Œ 2 ∑ 4 ∑ 2 ∑ 4
8
œ ‰ ‰ J Œ ‰J j
÷ ‰ J ‰ J ‰ J 24 ‰ Œ 6 J Œ ‰ œ œJ ‰ ‰ π ‰ J

‘ 8
‹ œ œ
j ‰ ‹ ‹π# ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ . ‹J ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹
accel.
‹‹
÷J Œ ‰ J ‰  Œ œ.
‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ . ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ p (rim)
÷ J Œ ‰œ J ‰ ‰ p
jœ ‰ J œ œ
accel.
j
 Œ œ. Œ ‰ œ ‰ J
7 Animato e»¡§º p (rim)
p ‹‹ rall. j
œ œ 4 Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
÷ œ . 7 ŒAnimato ‰ œ ‰e»¡§º J 8‰ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
‹‹ jœ Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
÷ œ. Œ ‰ œ ‰ œ J ‰ 48 ˙ ˙ ˙ π ˙ ! cresc. ˙ poco a poco˙ ˙
rall.

>cresc. 8 Ÿ~~~~~~~~
>‹a poco
2 ~~~~~~~~~~
π 4 > ‹ 3 j Œ # j̊ ‰ ‰ 4 >œ.
‰ Œ 28
Ex.!4.28!Beaters!and!clapsticks,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!69T72!
÷8 œ 8 œ ‰ ‰ J Œ ‰ J œ˙ ˙ 8 œ
8 Ÿ~~~~~~~~
poco
j
œ 8 J
~~~~~~~~~~ 4 > >
‹ >
‹ jJf j j̊>‰ ‰ 4 >œ. ‰ Œ 2 p∑ 4 ∑ 2 ∑
÷ 28 œ 8J œ ‰ ‰ J Œ ‰ J œ˙ ˙ 8œ 3 Œ # œ 8J 8 8 8
f > p
!
!Ex.!4.29!Beaters!and!clapsticks,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!80T82!

It!goes!without!saying!that!a!certain!amount!of!care!needs!to!be!taken!in!order!
for!those!rolls!not!to!be!intruded!upon!by!an!accidental!hitting!of!the!instruments!
with!the!clapsticks.!There!is!ample!time!to!pick!up!the!clapsticks!after!figure!12,!
and!the!snare!drum!entry!after!15!can!be!also!be!played!with!the!clapsticks,!even!
to!the!4/8!measure!after!figure!17.!The!bongo!and!triangle!entries!in!this!section!
can!be!played!either!with!the!clapsticks,!or!with!clapstick!on!the!bongo!and!
triangle!beater!on!the!triangle.!It!is!also!possible!to!hold!the!clapsticks!through!
the!whole!section!from!before!figure!6!to!figure!17.!

It!is!not!possible!to!be!definitive!on!this!point!of!whether!to!use!clapsticks!or!
snare!drum!sticks!either!one!way!or!the!other.!In!my!discussions!with!Sculthorpe!
on!this!point,!he!was!quite!supportive!of!the!idea!of!using!clapsticks,!yet!at!other!
times!he!simply!referred!to!clicking!sticks,!which!is!more!vague.!407!It!must!be!
said!that!clapsticks!will!give!a!more!fullTbodied!sound,!and!the!action!with!the!
clapsticks!is!more!theatrical,!and!it!also!reinforces!the!Australianness!of!the!work!
through!the!use!of!native!instruments.!Moreover!using!clapsticks!is!supported!by!
Professor!Anne!Boyd!who!worked!closely!with!Sculthorpe!in!the!1960s.!

Sounds!to!me!that!the!change!was!an!expedient!to!suit!a!particular!performance.!
I’m!imagining!claves!is!the!originally!desired!sound.!Good!luck!with!your!
enquiries.!And!thanks!for!caring!about!this!level!of!detail!in!honouring!Peter’s!
intentions.!.408 !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
407 !Conversations!with!Peter!Sculthorpe,!1970!T!2002!

408 !Email!from!Professor!Boyd,!8!August,!2015!

226!!
There!are!also!two,!more!radical,!options.!Claves,!as!originally!indicated!by!
Sculthorpe,!could!be!used,!with!one!being!mounted!as!shown,!so!only!one!would!
need!to!be!picked!up,!making!this!a!manageable!option!(see!plate!4.02).!

!
Plate!4.02!Clave!in!holder409!

Secondly,!instead!of!using!clapsticks!or!stick!clicks,!a!piccolo!woodblock!could!be!
used,!and!played!with!the!shaft!of!the!snare!drum!stick.!This!woodblock!could!sit!
on!the!stick!tray!and!be!played!very!easily,!and!the!sound!would!also!be!close!to!
the!original!claves!as!envisioned!by!Sculthorpe.!Here!are!two!examples!(see!
plates!4.03,!and!4.04).!

*
Plate!4.03!Piccolo!Woodblock410!

!
Plate!4.04!Piccolo!Woodblocks!411!

Failing!all!the!above,!using!heavy,!hardwood!snare!drum!sticks!would!be!
preferable!to!lighter!sticks,!as!this!would!come!closer!to!producing!a!fullTbodied!
click.!This!point!relates!to!a!recurring!problem!for!percussionists!–!choice!of!
beaters.!Sculthorpe!calls!for!hard!and!soft!beaters!and!triangle!beater,!but!does!
not!specify!more!than!that.!It!is!quite!obvious!for!this!piece!that!the!‘hard!sticks’!
direction!refers!to!snare!drum!sticks.!At!the!time!he!wrote!the!work!the!only!type!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
409 !http://www.kolberg.com/products/en_GB/537/cross/121.html!accessed!29.3.2015!
410 !http://www.kolberg.com/products/en_GB/523/group/864.html!T!accessed!29!March!2015!

411 !http://www.steveweissmusic.com/product/weissTpiccoloTwoodblockTset/woodblocks!T!
accessed!29!March!2015!

! 227!
of!snare!drum!sticks!available!had!wooden!tips.!These!days!it!is!possible!to!buy!
snare!drum!sticks!with!wooden,!plastic!and!metal!tips!(see!plate!4.05).!!

! ! ! !

Plate!4.05!Snare!Drum!stick!varieties412 !

The!difference!in!sound!between!these!tips!on!the!drums!is!negligible.!What!is!
important!is!the!weight!of!sound!produced!on!the!drums,!and!it!would!be!
preferable!to!use!heavier!sticks!for!this!with!oval!acorn!tips.!There!were!wellT
weighted,!heavy!snare!drum!sticks!produced!in!the!United!States!of!America!in!
the!1970s!and!made!from!a!hardwood,!very!similar!to!rosewood.!Unfortunately!
they!are!no!longer!commercially!available.!When!the!cymbals!are!played!with!
hard!sticks,!generally!they!are!to!be!struck!with!the!shaft!of!the!stick,!whether!
this!is!near!the!rim!(for!the!greatest!range!of!overtones)!or!on!the!dome.!So!again!
there!is!no!difference!in!sound.!The!triangle!when!struck!with!wooden!beaters!is!
markedly!softer,!and!not!much!louder!when!the!plastic!tip!is!used.!So!metalT
tipped!snare!drum!sticks!would!seem!to!be!the!answer,!though!the!metal!used!is!
not!very!hard!(usually!aluminium!or!an!alloy!of!it),!and!the!sound!emanating!
from!the!triangle!would!still!be!softer.!The!best!tone!would!be!produced!with!a!
specific!triangle!beater,!necessitating!some!decisions!on!stick!changes.!

The!soft!beaters!should!not!be!too!soft,!as!they!would!not!provide!enough!
projection!of!sound.!MediumTsoft!felt!or!wound!mallets!would!work!best!on!all!
the!membranophones!and!metal!idiophones,!with!enough!presence!to!make!the!
rhythmic!figures!clearly!articulated,!and!at!the!same!time!enabling!the!rolls!to!be!
easily!executed!without!too!much!distraction!of!‘beats’.!In!the!main,!there!is!
sufficient!time!to!both!pick!up!and!put!down!the!necessary!beaters,!but!it!is!more!
convenient!to!use!doubleTended!beaters!–!snare!drum!sticks!with!felt!or!wound!
ends!at!the!butt.!This!makes!for!easier!and!faster!transition!from!hard!to!soft.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
412 !http://www.kolberg.com/products/en_GB/866/category.html!accessed!29!March!2015!

228!!
SONATA
A AND PERCUSSION
for Peter Komlos Peter Sculthorpe

œ cymbal œtriangle sticks ‹

This!touches!on!another!aspect!of!stick!changing!that!is!an!important!
SONATA ed. Ryszard Pusz

œ œ
OR VIOLAconsideration!–!the!visual!aesthetics.!As!any!movement!by!the!percussionist!is!
AND PERCUSSION
obvious!to!the!audience,!distracting!movements,!that!do!not!contribute!to!the!
chinese cym
tamtam
Peter Sculthorpe
music,!need!to!be!kept!to!a!minimum.!So!a!quick,!unostentatious!twirl!of!the!stick!
œ bongo œ œtriangle ‹
ed. Ryszard Pusz

œ œ
is!less!distracting!than!an!obvious!picking!up!and!putting!down!of!beaters!on!a!
cymbal
sticks

j j j j
rum stick!tray.!As!much!as!possible!the!movements,!whether!they!are!a!twirling!of!the!
chinese cym

‰ œœœœ œ ‰ œœœœ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰Œ
tamtam
sticks!or!movement!to!and!from!the!stick!tray!should!be!either!unobtrusive!or!
j j
>
œœœ œœ œ œ

F
within!the!character!of!the!music.!So,!for!example,!the!change!of!the!left!hand!
2 j j jj jj
œ triangle!beater!between!figures!1!and!4!need!to!appear!to!be!slow!(see!ex.!4.30!
beater!between!hard!and!soft,!and!the!picking!up!and!putting!down!of!the!

« J
œ œ œ
‰ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ (hard‰stick)
œ œœ ‰ œ œ ‰Œ
j j œ œ œ

∑ Œ œ œ
œ œ
>Π2
poco rall a tempo

œ œ ‰ œfœ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ F 8
j j
and!4.31).!!

j j P (soft stick) œ
‰ œ œ œ œ œj œ ‰ Œ ∑ Œ œ Œ 28
poco rall a tempo

2 œ œ œ œ œœ
(hard stick)

2 P (soft stick)
j

j j
48 œ œ œ ‰ œj œ ‰ 28 œjœ ‰ 48 j molto rall
48
« !

28 F
> 4
2
j j 2 j 4
2
48
∑ 8 œœœ ‰ œœ ‰ 8 œœ ‰ 8
molto rall
Ex.!4.30!Movement!of!beaters,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!12T16!

«
dim
(soft sticks) j j
>
e»ª§ 3 F (soft sticks) 6 (soft stick) ˙
48 ‰ œ .
to 3 dim (tri beater)

Œ ŒPoco lento e»ª§

j 3 6 (soft stick) ˙
œ œ 34 œj œ ‰ Œ Œ p 48 ‰ œ . !
3 (tri beater)

P p
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 34 j œ Œ œ Œ
Ex.!4.31!Movement!of!beaters,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(bars!32T39!

˙ ˙ The!last!note!on!the!tomTtom!after!figure!1!then!should!end!in!a!simultaneous!
˙ ˙ œ
> 34œ j œ Œ œ œ Œ
sticks)˙ ˙ twirling!motion!in!both!hands!and!a!movement!of!the!right!hand!to!pick!up!the!
˙ ˙ ˙ P ˙ œ œ
π (soft sticks)
œ
>P
œ Œ j j ‹ (sticks)
‹ ‹ ‹
triangle!beater,!as!part!of!the!playing!action!of!that!note.!The!triangle!beater!then!
ŒŒ œ . œ œ œ œŒ ‰ Œ œœ œ œjœœj ‰‰ ŒŒœ œ œ‰j ‰J ‰Œ J ‰ J ‰ J
œœcan!be!held!through!the!playing!of!the!tomTtom!with!soft!sticks!before!again!
(sticks)

jœ Œ œ
j

> œ.
œ returning!to!playing!the!triangle!and!china!cymbal.!If!these!notes!(before!figure!
œ P P
œ

6 >
4)!are!played!with!a!more!flowing!movement!then!the!subsequent!putting!down!
6 >
‹
68 J ‘ œ 6 ‹ ‰
‹ œ‹j œ# ‹ ‹‰‹ ‹‰ .‹ #‹ ‹ ‹‹ ‹‹ ‰‹ . ‹ ‹J# ‹‹ ‹‹ ‹‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹
j œ of!the!triangle!is!also!not!noticed.!
Œ ‰ J8 ‰J Œ ‰ J ‰ J  Œ Œ
π π
The!alternative!is!to!start!the!piece!holding!the!triangle!beater.!There!should!be!
no!problem!with!this,!and!it!eliminates!the!need!to!inauspiciously!pick!it!up.!
‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ accel. ‹ ‹
‹ ‹‹ ‹‹ ‹‰ . ‹ #‹J ‹Sculthorpe’s!direction!to!play!the!first!triangle!entry!with!a!hard!stick!needs!to!
‹ ‹‹ ‹‹ ‹ # ‹ accel. jœ œ œ
j

Œ œ . Œ Œpœ . (rim) ‰ œ Œ ‰ œ ‰J œ‰ ‰ J ‰
 be!seen!in!the!context!of!percussion!performance!in!1960.!At!that!time!
e»¡§º p (rim)
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
§º
Animato ! 229!

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ 28
2
percussion!playing!was!not!very!advanced!technically!in!terms!of!multiple!
percussion!performance.!Very!few!pieces!had!been!written!that!demanded!much!
beyond!standard!techniques!and!solo!percussion!performance!was!still!in!its!
infancy.!Percussionists!playing!outside!the!orchestral!sphere!tended!to!use!the!
techniques!and!approaches!they!were!familiar!with,!i.e.!those!they!used!in!the!
orchestra,!where!they!would!still!usually!only!play!on!one!instrument!at!a!time!
and!generally!have!plenty!of!time!to!change!beaters!and!instruments.!So!it!is!
possible,!without!casting!aspersions!on!the!ability!of!the!player!involved,!that!the!
percussionist!may!have!indicated!to!Sculthorpe!that!it!was!too!difficult!to!change!
to!the!triangle!beater!at!that!point!(before!figure!1);!or!Sculthorpe!himself!found!
it!to!be!a!problem!when!he!performed!the!work.!So!the!direction!to!use!a!hard!
stick!was!made!for!ease!of!playing.!However,!as!already!mentioned!the!sound!
from!the!triangle!is!very!soft!when!using!a!wooden!stick,!and!very!few!of!the!
partials!project.!For!these!reasons!it!is!preferable!to!use!the!triangle!beater,!
necessitating!awareness!of!the!movements!necessary!to!access!the!various!
beaters!with!the!aim!of!again!minimising!extraneous,!distracting!movement.!

Clearly!the!piece!has!a!depth!to!it!beyond!the!mere!interpolation!of!rhythmic!
figures!of!martial!connotation!as!suggested!by!Hannan.!There!is!an!intricate!
weaving!of!the!characteristic!elements!of!the!viola!and!percussion!into!a!piece!
incorporating!images!of!deep!mystery.!In!the!process!he!created!challenges!for!
both!players!of!technique!and!interpretation,!the!most!obvious!of!which!being!
the!system!of!notation.!!

230!!
4.5.5*Notation*and*discrepancies*between*editions*

Before!discussing!this,!it!is!apposite!to!point!out!a!few!differences!between!
editions!(see!table!4.02).!!
Discrepancies*between*versions*
Bar* Early*1960* Later*1960* PreHpublication* Faber*edition*
3! mf! no!change!from!mp!
28T37!
very!slowly,!e!=!c.96!ad.(lib! poco(lento!!e!=!c.!96!
Bar!38! no!change!
a(tempo,(e!=!96(

Bar!48! ad.(lib! poco(rall(

50! no!dynamic!change!from!pp!bass! mp(
drum!roll*
50T56! ! extra!‘gong’! ( (
notes!written!
in,!probably!
by!Smith(
82! ! ! ( roll!ends!on!grace!
note(
90! well!articulated’! Marking!crossed! (
out(
103! sticks! Changed(to(rim( rim(
148! f( ff(
152! well!articulated’! Marking!crossed! (
out(
201T203! mf! Changed(to(mp( mp(
227! triangle!beater! direction!to(‘pick( ‘with!beater’(
(‘pick!up!tri.!beater’)!in!bar!225)! up(tri(beater’(
crossed!out!‘with!
beater’!put!in(
240! mp( Changed!to(mf( mf(
266! No!dynamic! Made(f( f(
274! f( Changed!to(ff( ff(
276! ff(/(f( Changed!to(fff(/(ff( fff(/(ff(
277! ff( Changed!to(fff( fff(
278! f( Changed!to(ff( ff(
279! ff( Changed!to(fff( fff(
290T299! snare!drum!or!tomTtom! snare!drum! snare!drum(
Table!4.02!Discrepancies!between!editions!

In!the!1960!manuscript!Sculthorpe!specifies!gong,!and!in!the!1979!edition!this!is!
changed!to!tamTtam.413!The!sound!of!the!tamTtam,!with!its!overtones!is!correct,!
though!if!only!a!gong!was!available,!playing!it!on!or!near!the!rim,!as!Sculthorpe!at!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
413 !A!gong,!strictly!is!an!instrument!of!identifiable,!usually!specific!tone,!whereas!a!tamTtam!is!
comprised!of!a!number!of!overtones,!akin!to!a!cymbal,!and!so!has!no!definite!pitch!or!tone.!The!
confusion!over!these!names!stems!from!the!fact!that!the!names!are!used!interchangeably!and!
irregularly,!even!by!percussionists.!

! 231!
times!specifies,!would!give!a!similar!result!of!the!atmosphere!of!mystery!and!
legend!that!he!seeks!in!the!work.!

The!third!bar!of!figure!8!has!a!grace!note!at!the!end!of!the!roll!in!the!1979!edition!
that!is!not!present!in!the!manuscript.!However,!the!Faber!edition!would!be!
correct!as!almost!every!other!roll!finishes!with!grace!notes!in!order!to!convey!a!
sense!of!timelessness!that!a!definite!single!stroke!ending!would!not!give!(see!ex.!
4.32).!

(a)! !!

(b)! !
Ex.!4.32!Notation!of!rolls!in!manuscript!and!printed!edition,!Sculthorpe!Sonata!figure!8!
(a)!1979!edition;!(b)!1960!manuscript!

Similarly,!in!the!second!bar!of!figure!10,!the!manuscript!indicates!the!flam!to!be!
played!with!sticks,!while!the!1979!edition!specifies!them!to!be!played!on!the!rim!
of!the!snare!drum.!Again!the!1979!edition!is!correct!as!to!execute!the!figure!on!
the!sticks!would!be!clumsy!at!best!(see!ex.!4.33).!

(a)! !! (b)!! !
Ex.!4.33!Notational!differences!playing!on!rim!and!sticks,!Sonata!figure!10!(a)!1979!
edition;!(b)!1960!manuscript!

The!a(tempo!section!around!figure!24!is!notated!differently!in!both!editions,!
though!the!1960!manuscript!is!quite!probably!just!a!shorthand!version!of!the!
figure,!written!to!save!time.!This!view!is!supported!by!the!pencilledTin!playing!
indication!above!the!figure!written!by!Richard!Smith!(percussion)!who!

232!!
performed!it!with!David!Powell!(viola)!in!July!1967!during!Sculthorpe’s!visit!to!
Adelaide!(see!ex.!4.34).414!

!
Ex.!4.34a!Notation!of!32nd!notes,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,!figure!24,!1979!edition!!

!
Ex.!4.34b!Notation!of!32nd!notes,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,!figure!24,1960!manuscript!

The!last!section,!beginning!in!the!fifth!bar!after!figure!29!offers!the!percussionist!
a!choice!of!instrument.!The!part!is!written!on!the!tomTtom!line,!but!the!direction!
is!for!‘TomTtom!or!Snare!Drum’.!!The!1979!edition!places!the!part!on!snare!drum!
(see!ex.!4.35).!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
414 !Richard!Smith!was!my!percussion!teacher!at!the!Elder!Conservatorium!for!twelve!years,!
1960T1970,!and!1975T1976,!and!I!am!very!familiar!with!his!writing!and!music!writing!styles.!

! 233!
(a) ! ! (b)!! !
Ex.!4.35!Notational!difference!in!instrument!between!manuscript!and!printed!edition,!
Sculthorpe!Sonata,!figure!20!(a)!1979!edition;!(b)!1960!manuscript415 !

In!the!preceding!section!Sculthorpe!allows!the!percussionist!a!great!deal!of!
freedom!in!interpreting!the!part!(see!ex.!4.36).!This!freedom!was!not!in!the!1960!
version!and!only!seems!to!have!been!added!when!Sculthorpe!edited!the!piece!for!
publication!(see!ex.4.37).!

!
Ex.!4.36!Notated!freedom!of!interpretation,!Sculthorpe!Sonata!score,!figure!24,!printed!
edition!

!
Ex.!4.37!Notated!freedom!of!interpretation,!Sculthorpe!Sonata!score!handTwritten!score!
with!amendments,!p.11416 !

Finally,!in!the!original!manuscript!(1960),!Sculthorpe!specified!a!large!‘chinese’!
cymbal,!and!small,!suspended!cymbal.!In!the!1979,!Faber!edition!the!sizes!are!
reversed!and!the!instruments!are!listed!as!china!cymbal!and!large!suspended!
cymbal!(see!plate!4.06).!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
415 !Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sonata,!p.!12!&!manuscript.!p.!22!
416 !All!the!changes!and!‘fineTtuning’!of!explanations!on!the!manuscript!as!preparation!for!
publishing!Sculthorpe!wrote!in!red!ink.!

234!!
 !
Plate!4.06a!Percussion!Instrumentation,!1960!manuscript!

!
Plate!4.06b!Percussion!Instrumentation,!1979!edition!

On!the!matter!of!notation,!Sculthorpe!wrote!only!a!score,!with!the!percussion!
part!on!two!lines!and!the!name!of!the!particular!instrument!just!above!each!
change!of!instrument.!This,!combined!with!the!fact!that!the!music!is!on!ten!pages!
makes!it!difficult!for!the!percussionist,!as!s/he!has!to!concentrate!on!the!logistics!
of!playing!the!piece.!As!well!as!playing!the!musical!figure!the!percussionist!needs!
to!read!the!name!of!the!instrument!to!be!played!and!remember!it!till!the!next!
change!rather!than!being!able!to!devote!her/his!energy!to!its!music.!!

There!is!now,!however,!an!edited!computer!copy!of!the!percussion!part,!which!
was!sent!to!the!publisher!with!Sculthorpe’s!agreement.!The!legend,!as!shown!
above,!makes!it!very!clear!to!the!performer!where!the!various!instruments!are!
notated.!There!is!no!diagram!as!providing!one!would!not!cover!all!the!playing!
alternatives!(as!discussed!in!this!dissertation).!In!fact,!two!or!three!would!be!
required!to!present!all!the!possibilities;!and!this!in!itself!could!be!confusing.!
Moreover,!the!setup!is!not!difficult!for!a!percussionist!to!work!out.!

The!legend!however,!is!necessary!and!has!become!an!increasingly!standard!
inclusion!for!multiple!percussion!pieces!as!the!setups!differ!with!each!set!of!
instruments.!For!the!performer!it!also!mentally!consolidates!the!placement!of!
instruments!and!notation,!which!makes!the!part!easier!to!read.!And!the!part,!
being!on!only!three!pages!instead!of!ten!(see!ex.!4.38),!obviates!the!need!for!page!

! 235!
turns417!and!also!eliminates!this!set!of!distracting!movements!from!the!
performance.!

for Peter Komlos

SONATA
FOR VIOLA AND PERCUSSION
percussion

‹sticks
Peter Sculthorpe

œ cymbal œtriangle
ed. Ryszard Pusz

÷œ œtom tom œsnare drum œ bongo œ 48

Legend
1

œ chinese cym
bass drum tamtam

Animato e»¡§º 2
÷ 8 œ œ œ . œ œj ‰ œjœj ‰œj œj ‰ «
4 œ ‰ œœœœ j
œ ‰ œœœœ
j j j
œ ‰ œjœ ‰ œj œ ‰ Œ
2

J
œœœ

>
œœœ œœ
P (hard sticks) f F
÷ œ œ œj ‰ œjœj ‰ j j j ∑ Œ œ œ Œ 28
1 poco rall a tempo

œ ‰Œ Œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ j ‰ Œ
œ œ œ œ œœ
10 (hard stick)
j j
œ œ
P (soft stick)
œ Œ j 2
÷ 28 48 Œ œ 28 48 ‰ œj œj ‰ 28 œjœj ‰ 48 48
2
∑ ∑
molto rall

œ
18

> (soft sticks)

œœ «
F dim

Poco lento e»ª§

3 6
÷ 48 Œ œ œ œ œ œjœj ‰ œ œ œ œ 34 œj œj ‰ Œ Œ œ. ˙
48(soft‰ stick)
26
3 (tri beater)

P p
a tempo e»ca. ª§
˙ Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
2 34 j œ Œ œ Œ
4 poco rall

÷ ‰ œ.
40

˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ œ
> œ œ
π (soft sticks) P
j j j j (sticks) ‹ ‹
÷ œ Œ œ . œ œj œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ œj œ Œ œ œ Œ œ œ Œ œ . œ œj œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ J ‰ J
5
52

> P
‹ ‹ ‹ >‹ ‹ >
÷ ‰ J ‰ J ‰ J 24 ‰ Œ 68 ‹J Œ ‰ œj œJ ‰ ‰ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ . ‹J ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ Œ
59
6

‘
π
‹ œ œ ‰ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ . ‹J ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹‹
Œ ‰ œ ‰ œ œJ ‰
accel.
j j
÷J Œ ‰ J ‰  Œ œ.
65

p p (rim)
e»¡§º
‹‹ œ œ
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2
Animato

4
rall. j 7
÷ œ. Œ ‰œ‰ J ‰ 8 ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
70

8
πsoft sticks, begin roll when ready
cresc. poco a poco

~~~~~~~~~ 4 > >‹ >‹ 8 Ÿ~~~~~~~ j j̊ >œ.

2
÷8 œ œ ‰ ‰ J Œ ‰ J œ˙ ˙
3 œ ‰ ‰ # ‰ ‰ 4 ‰ Œ 28 ∑ 48 ∑ 28 ∑ 48
79

8J j
> 8 œ 8 J
f p
Ex.!4.38a!Sculthorpe,!Sonata,(percussion!part,!p.!1!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
417 !Percussion!part!notated!and!edited!by!Ryszard!Pusz!and!published!by!Faber!

236!!
 2
÷ 48 Œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ œ œ 2 œ ‰ 4 Œ ‰ œ œ œœœœœ‰ Œ ‰ œ œ 2 œ ‰ 4
90
9

8 J 8 8 J 8
well articulated

J J
F
> >‹ œ œ 28 œ ‰ 48 Œ ‰ œj œj œ œ œ œ œj ‰ Œ œj œj ‰
÷ œ œ œ œJ ‰ Œ Œ ‰ œ œ 28 œJ ‰ 48
10 (rim)

J‰Œ Œ ‰
100
j
J
‹

F
j j j j> j j j>
÷ œj œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œjœ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ 28 œ œJ ‰ 48 œj œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ 28 œ œJ ‰ 48
11
109

> >
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ molto
j j 28 ∑ U68
12

÷ 48 œ œ ˙ ˙ ˙ œœœ ‰ Œ œœœ ‰ Œ ∑ 28 ∑ 48 ∑
rall

˙
116

> molto cresc. >ƒ >

q»qk
‹ a tempo ‹ jœ ‹‹ ‹ 2
÷ 68 .. Œ . J ‰ ‰ ∑ J ‰ ‰ Œ . ∑ Œ . œ J Œ ∑ .. 48
(13)
Œ Œ. Œ. J Œ
126

«
p-P poco cresc

‹ qk»q ‹ ‹ ‹
∑ Œ J ‰ 28 œ œJ ‰ 48 J ‰ Œ
jœ
14

÷ 48 J ‰ Œ J ‰ 28 œ J 68
j
∑ Œ ‰
136

F f
‹‹ ‹ ‹‹ ‹ >2 >œ œ œ >œ 2 œ >œ
15

÷ 68 Œ Œ . Œ . J Œ Œ Œ . Œ . J Œ Œ .œ œ œ œ JŒ Œ Œ. ∑ 48
144

J
cresc.
ƒ
Risoluto q»¡º¢ well articulated

÷ 48 Œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj ‰ Œ ‰ œ œ 28 œj ‰ 48 Œ ‰ œ œ j j
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ œ œ 28 œ ‰ 48
16
152

F (hard sticks)
a tempo q»¡º¢
2 j‰ Œ Œ ‰ 2 j ‰ 4 j(rim) j‰ Œ Œ ‰ 2 j ‰ 4 6
÷ 48 28
molto rall 17
œœœœ œœ 8 œ 8 ‹ ‹ œœ 8 œ 8
160

> >
q»••
2 Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
18 poco rall piu risoluto
2
÷8 ∑ 8 ∑ 4 2
∑ 8 ∑ 8 4 2 4
174

˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ 8 œ 8˙
p sempre (soft sticks)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
19

÷˙ 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 4
186

œ 8˙ œ 8˙ œ 8˙ œ 8˙ œ 8

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Poco lento e»ª§ j j j j 2

20 molto rall

÷ 8 ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ œj œj‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ œj œ ‰
4
œ Œ œ ‰ œj œ ‰ 34
196

j œœ
P
œ

-2-

Ex.!4.38b!Sculthorpe,!Sonata,(percussion!part,!p.!2!

! 237!
 e»ª§
j jj 3 j jj 2 Ÿ~~~~~~j œ
÷ 34 œj œ Œ œ 48 4 28
21 Alla marcia funebre

œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ 4 œj œ Œ œ 8 œ œ œ ‰œ œ ‰
œ̇ œ œœ ‰
206

œœ
F (rim) (rim)
f
Ÿ~~~~~~~ j
22

÷ 8 # œ . 8 œ œ œ̇ œ œœ ‰ œ 28 # œ . 48 œ œj œ ‰ œ 28 œœ
2 4 48 œj ‰
48 2œ
œ œ 8 œ
214

J J ƒJ J J J
œ
J J

Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~ j Ÿ~~~~~ j œ œ
÷ 48 œj œ̇ œ œ
23
‰ # ‰ # Œ Œ
(tri beater) poco rall

œ œ
222

œ œ œ . œ̇ œ œ
œ
j
œ. œ œ
F J J P (rim) p (rim)
a tempo e»ª§
2 j j j j 24
j 2
÷ œ œ œ œ. œ œ ‰ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ ‰ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœœœ ‰œ 8
230

P con>espressione* >F cresc. f >(rim)

j j
j

÷ 28 ‰ œ œ 48 2 4
3:2œ

œœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœ 8 œœœ 8 œ œ œ œ ‰ œJ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
237 3

>F
œœœ

j j 25
j j
÷ œœœœ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœœ‰ Œ œœœœ‰ Œ œœœ ‰ Œ œœœ ‰ Œ
242 3 3
j j
J P p
Lento e»•¢
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
26

÷˙ 58
248

˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
p (rim) sempre
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~ j >
27

÷ 58 œ . œ œ . œ 48 œj œ Œ ∑ œj œ Œ ∑ œj ˙ 68 œ œ œ Œ Œ . œ œ œJ Œ Œ .
258

> > ṗ(hardcresc. >f

>‹ ‹ >Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~
sticks)

> j> j . >œ

÷ œ œ œJ Œ œ œJ Œ ‘ œœœ Œ Œ Œ Œ ‘ 8 ˙
4 ˙
268

‘ œ œ
J
œ œ
> ƒ cresc.
~ q»¡º¢
>Ÿ~~~~~ dome >Ÿ~~~~~~ œ > œ
28

÷ œj œJ ‰ œJ ‰ 28 œ 48 œj œJ ‰ œJ ‰ 28 œ 48 œjœJ ‰ Œ œj œJ ‰ J ‰ œjœJ ‰ Œ œj œJ ‰ J ‰
Risoluto
276 dome

Ï ƒ Ï ƒ Ï F
j> j> œ > œ Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
÷ J ‰ Œ J ‰ J ‰ 28 J ‰ 48 œj œJ ‰ Œ œj œJ ‰ œj œJ ‰ 28 J ‰ 48 œ œ ˙
29
œ œ œ ˙
284
j
œ œ œ

F cresc.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ > j j > >j U
> j> > j> j> j>
30

÷˙ œ œ
˙ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ J ‰ œ œ ‰ J ‰ œ œ œœ ‰ œ œ œœ ‰ œ œ œœ ‰ Œ
molto rall
292
a tempo

J J J J J J
f ƒ
* If desired, the percussionist may imitate the shape of the preceding melody, playing the given rhythms on differently pitched drums.

-3-

Ex.!4.38c!Sculthorpe,!Sonata,(percussion!part,!p.!3!

238!!
So!instead!of!having!to!read!this!(see!ex.!4.39)!

for Peter Komlos

SONATA
FOR VIOLA AND PERCUSSION
percussion
Peter Sculthorpe

œ bongo œ cymbal œtriangle ‹sticks

ed. Ryszard Pusz

÷œ œtom tom œsnare drum œ

Legend

œ chinese cym
bass drum tamtam
!
Ex.!4.39!Reading!printed!score,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(1960!edition,(bars!66T70!

j j j 2
Animato e»¡§º
4 œ ‰ œœœœ j j j j
÷ 8 œ œ œ . œ œ ‰ œjœ ‰œjœ ‰ «
or!originally!this!(see!ex.!4.40)!
œœœ
J œ ‰ œœœœ œ ‰ œjœ ‰ œjœ ‰ Œ
>
œœœ œœ
P (hard sticks) f F
j j j j j œ œ (hardŒ stick)2
1 poco rall a tempo

÷ œ œ œ ‰ œjœ ‰ œ
j
œ ‰Œ Œ œ œ œ œ œœ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ∑ Œ
j j
8
P (soft stick)
œ Œ 2
÷ 28 48 Œ œ 28 ∑ 8 œ œ œj ‰ œjœj ‰ 28 œjœj ‰ 48
4 48
2
∑
molto rall

>F (soft sticks) «

dim

e»ª§ 3 6
÷ 48 Œ œ œ œ œ œjœj ‰ œ œ œ œ j
34 œjœ ‰ Œ Œ .œ ˙
48(soft‰ stick)
Poco lento 3 (tri beater)

P p !

˙ Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
2
Ex.!4.40!Reading!original!score,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(original!manuscript,(bars!67T70!
3 œ Œ
4
÷ ‰ œ. ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ 4 œj>œ Œ œ œ
π (soft sticks) P
the!percussionist!can!read!the!following!(see!ex.!4.41),!knowing!from!the!legend!
j j œ j j
at!the!top!of!the!music!that!the!‘x’s!above!the!stave!represent!stick!clicks,!the!
5
‹ ‹
÷ œ Œ œ . œ œ œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ œjœ Œ œ Œ œ œ Œ œ. œ œ œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ J ‰ J
(sticks)
j j
>
metal!sounds!are!on!the!lines!and!membranic!sounds!on!the!spaces.!There!is!no! P
‹ ‹ ‹ >‹ ‹ 6 >
‹ jœ ‰ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰. ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹
need!then!for!the!player!to!have!to!read!and!remember!instructions!such!as!
÷‰ J ‰ J ‰ J 2 ‰
4 ‘ 8 Œ 6 J Œ ‰œ J ‰ J Œ
π
‘sticks!(‘claves’)’!or!‘bongos/tri’!in!addition!to!reading!the!notes.!

‹ œ œ
j ‰ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ . ‹J ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹
accel.
‹‹ jœ
÷J Œ ‰ J ‰  Œ œ. Œ ‰ œ ‰œ J ‰
p p (rim)
Animato e»¡§º
‹‹ œ 7 Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2
Œ ‰ œ ‰ œ J ‰ 48 ˙
rall. j
÷ œ. ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ 8
π cresc. poco a poco
!
~~~~~~~~~~ >‹ >‹ Ÿ~~~~~~~~ .
÷ 28 œ 48 >œ ‰ ‰ J Œ ‰ J œj˙ ˙ 38 œj Œ # œj̊ ‰ ‰ 48 >œ ‰ Œ 28 ∑ 48 ∑ 28 ∑ 48
8
Ex.!4.41!Reading!edited!part,!Sculthorpe!Sonata,!percussion!part!bars!64T77!
J > J
f p
!

! 239!
4.5.6*Logistics*and*Staging*
Related!to!the!issue!of!movement!is!the!matter!of!the!staging.!This!essentially!is!
determined!by!the!acoustical!property!of!the!viola!as!well!as!the!need!to!have!eye!
contact!with!each!other.!To!project!the!sound!out!to!the!audience!the!viola!player!
needs!to!stand!stage!right.!So!the!percussionist!will!stand!stage!left!and!face!
diagonally!across!the!stage!towards!both!the!violist!and!(part!of)!the!audience!
(see!plate.4.07).!

!
Violist!! ! ! Percussionist!
Plate!4.07!Setup!without!the!second!Bass!Drum!(audience!below!the!photo!or!in!the!
southTwest!corner).!A!selection!of!possible!beaters,!including!a!pair!of!Clapsticks,!is!
shown!on!the!TomTtom!for!visual!clarity!(author’s!collection)!

Immediately!a!problem!presents!itself,!albeit!a!minor!one.!The!tamTtam,!seen!
here!behind!the!player,!is!a!long!distance!from!the!other!metal!idiophones,!which!
could!cause!difficulties!of!movement!between!them.!This!would!especially!be!the!
case!if!the!second!bass!drum!were!to!be!included!in!the!setup,!as!its!most!
obvious!placement!would!be!to!the!left!of!the!tomTtom!as!seen!by!the!performer.!
One!solution!would!be!to!place!the!TamTtam!between!the!second!bass!drum!and!
the!tomTtom.!The!tamTtam!would!then!need!to!be!raised!in!order!to!be!easily!
reachable;!but!this!would!block!the!view!of!the!player!for!a!section!of!the!
audience.!Alternately,!the!second!bass!drum!could!be!moved!further!to!the!back,!
and!that!could!easily!accommodate!the!tamTtam!in!a!lower!position.!

There!is!also!a!more!radical!solution,!which,!while!it!might!cause!another!minor!
difficulty,!is!a!more!artistic!presentation.!The!tamTtam!could!be!placed!on!a!high!
stand!to!the!right!of!the!triangle,!and!so!at!the!back!of!the!stage!(see!plate!4.08).!!

240!!
 !
Plate!4.08!alternative!setTup!(author’s!collection)!

This!is!contrary!to!the!staff!notation!indicated!earlier,!so!the!notation!could!be!
changed!to!accommodate!this!new!setup!to!look!like!this!(see!plate!4.42)!

! !
Plate!4.09!Sculthorpe!Sonata,(Legend!(amended)418!

This!change!in!notation!is!not!really!necessary,!as!percussionists!have!to!learn!
new!legends!and!setups!for!each!piece,!and!it!is!not!difficult!to!memorise!the!
position!of!the!tamTtam!in!a!departure!from!staff!notation.!The!tamTtam!in!this!
setup!would!face!the!audience,!so!the!player!when!rolling!on!it!would!have!
her/his!back!to!the!audience;!and!the!audience!would!be!watching!an!almost!
motionless!performer!with!the!beaters!moving!almost!imperceptibly!while!a!
ghostly!sound!emanated!from!this!circle!of!metal.!Done!with!conviction,!it!could!
be!an!entrancing!moment!in!the!piece!and!enhance!Sculthorpe’s!concept!of!
portraying!the!!
…curious!feeling!of!timelessness…a!sense!of!endless!space,!of!mystery,!of!legend,!
of!life!stretching!beyond!historical!memory...419!
This!could!be!further!enhanced!with!the!use!of!lighting!or!imaginative!staging.!
Provided!they!can!see!each!other!clearly,!there!is!no!need!for!the!performers!to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
418 !R.!Pusz,!ed.,!Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sonata,(percussion!part!

419 !Graham!Skinner,!op.(cit.,!p.!245.!

! 241!
be!too!close!to!each!other;!so!two!overhead!spotlights!could!highlight!their!
positions!on!the!stage.!The!spots!could!also!be!of!different!hues!–!perhaps!a!blue!
and!a!red!to!highlight!the!duality!in!the!piece!and!reflect!the!colours!of!the!
Australian!outback.!Moreover,!the!players!could!be!set!on!two!different!levels!
and!thus!further!emphasise!this!duality.!While!either!could!be!higher,!reflecting!
landscape!features!of!Australia,!without!detrimental!effect!on!the!presentation!if!
the!percussion!is!elevated!this!can!make!it!difficult!for!the!audience!to!see!what!
the!percussionist!is!doing.!In!fact!if!the!staging!can!have!the!audience!looking!
down!on!the!players,!this!is!most!satisfying.!For!both!these!reasons,!if!one!player!
is!to!be!elevated,!it!should!be!the!violist.!

Of!course,!it!is!not!always!possible!to!present!a!work!in!ideal!conditions.!Every!
performer!knows!this,!but!for!percussionists!the!problems!and!pitfalls!cover!a!
wider!range!of!possibilities.!An!example!is!a!personal!performance!of!this!Sonata!
in!a!country!town!in!1998!and!is!detailed!in!the!Appendices!(see!Appendix!A).!
The!piece!was!played!on!borrowed!instruments!and!beaters!and!brought!to!the!
fore!a!few!issues,!some!of!which!are!beyond!the!scope!of!this!dissertation,!but!
need!to!be!mentioned!briefly.!Firstly,!it!clearly!shows!the!lack!of!standardisation!
in!percussion.!Issues!of!specific!tuning!of!the!drums,!lack!of!certain!instruments!
such!as!the!clapsticks!and!china!cymbal,!limited!beater!selection,!logistical!
constraints!and!restrictions!of!staging!had!implications!for!the!sound!and!
manner!of!playing!and!of!course,!loyalty!to!the!composer’s!intentions.!!

Secondly!the!issue!arises!of!how!vital!the!nuances!of!the!untuned!percussion!
instruments!are.!In!this!performance!in!the!country!town!for!example,!the!bongo!
part!was!played!on!a!conga,!which!was!pitched!lower!than!the!snare!drum;!and!
the!lack!of!a!china!cymbal!meant!that!had!to!be!played!on!another!part!of!the!
Turkish!cymbal.!The!percussion!instruments!then!did!not!meet!all!the!criteria,!
yet!the!general!impression!of!the!piece!was!conveyed.!By!the!very!nature!of!
being!untuned,!percussion!instruments!have!an!inherent!roughness!of!sound;!so!
it!could!be!argued!that!any!attempt!to!refine!that!sound!runs!counter!to!the!
intent!of!using!untuned!instruments.!On!the!other!hand!this!does!tend!to!suggest!
that!the!concept!of!loyalty!to!the!score!and!the!composer’s!musical!intentions!
can!only!be!approximately!adhered!to.!This!issue,!of!the!acoustical!properties!of!

242!!
percussion!instruments!and!resultant!musical!effects,!while!beyond!the!scope!of!
this!study,!is!worthy!of!further!investigation.!

Music!is!the!most!abstract!of!the!art!forms.!Its!representations,!effects!and!
emotions!can!only!be!suggested!leaving!further!interpretation!by!the!listener!to!
the!background!of!her/his!own!experiences!of!life.!Within!this!context!there!is!
clearly!a!necessary!and!greater!leeway!conferred!to!players!in!the!performance!
of!percussion!works.!In!terms!of!instrumentation,!the!lack!of!standardisation,!
their!precarious!availability,!and!the!variable!appropriateness!of!beaters!all!
contribute!further!elements!which!influence!different!interpretations!of!the!
score.!

4.6*Conclusion*

Undeniably!a!landmark!composition!in!Australia,!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion!
by!Peter!Sculthorpe!is!the!first!significant!piece!of!chamber!music!to!use!
percussion!and!in!a!manner!that!challenged!previous!conventions.!It!featured!
multiple,!untuned!percussion!for!a!single!player!in!an!intimate!chamber!setting!
and!as!a!cornerstone!feature!introduced!elevation!of!percussion’s!musical!role!to!
shared!equal!partnership!with!another!instrument,!the!viola.!Furthermore!it!
injected!an!Australian!flavour!with!its!use!of!clapsticks!to!suggest!the!rhythms!of!
the!Australia’s!Indigenous!peoples!and!directions!such!as!playing!on!the!rim!of!
the!tamTtam!to!create!the!air!of!mystery!and!timelessness!that!characterise!the!
interior!of!the!country.!

By!adventurously!exploring!the!medium!to!reveal!its!‘harmonic’!potential!with!
different!timbres!of!metal,!wood!and!skin,!the!Sonata(momentously!charted!a!
new!course!for!the!future!of!percussion.!The!‘wash’!of!a!variety!of!instrumental!
colours,!the!rhythmic!punctuations!and!alternative!harmonies!all!combined!to!
add!another!original!dimension!to!the!aesthetic!pictorial!of!the!music.!And!for!
percussionists!responding!to!the!challenges!of!the!intimacy!of!a!chamber!setting,!
the!piece!highlighted!their!technical!and!artistic!skills!on!a!new!scale.!In!these!
ways!the!Sonata!has!gifted!percussion!a!new!and!legitimate!role!as!an!active!and!
equal!participant!in!the!chamber!music!genre!and!has!justified!its!presence!on!
equal!terms!with!any!other!instrument.!!

! 243!
244!!
Chapter*5*Percussion*Ensemble*in*Australia*
5.1*Introduction*

The!inclusion!of!more!players!in!percussion!ensemble!performances!magnifies!
the!complexity!of!the!interTrelationships!and!consequent!challenges!that!exist!
between!the!instruments,!technique!and!repertoire.!Therefore!composing!for!
percussion!ensemble!involves!more!than!just!writing!complex!percussion!parts.!
These!issues!will!be!examined!with!detailed!reference!to!two!Australian!
compositions!for!percussion!ensembles!that!explore!different!musical!pathways!
and!to!other!works!as!appropriate.420!These!two!works!are!Suite(for(Percussion(
Quintet!by!Eric!Bryce!(hereafter!known!as!The!Suite)!composed!in!1980,!and!
Loss!by!David!Morgan!in!1982.!This!analysis!is!conducted!within!the!context!of!
the!musical!intent!of!the!pieces,!its!possible!effects!on!both!the!percussion!
medium!and!technique,!and!the!resultant!challenges!presented!for!performance.!
Personal!close!collaboration!with!both!composers!on!these!works!during!their!
process!and!in!their!year!of!inception!highlighted!the!challenges!of!the!Australian!
local!context!in!terms!of!instrument!use!and!specific!technique!application.!It!
also!contributes!primary!source!material!to!this!analysis.!

Before!examining!the!two!compositions,!it!is!necessary!to!outline!the!difficulties!
in!stating!what!constitutes!‘Percussion!Ensemble’!and!how!this!relates!to!the!
choice!for!this!dissertation!of!these!two!ensemble!compositions.!Unlike!other!
instrument!families!there!is!no!concrete!concept!of!a!‘Percussion!Ensemble’.!It!is!
a!generic!title!for!a!group!consisting!of!any!number!of!players!and!containing!an!
indeterminate!quantity!and!type!of!either!homogenous!or!heterogeneous!tuned!
and/or!untuned!instruments.!Furthermore!there!is!no!standardisation!of!the!
instruments,!as!illustrated!in!chapter!one.!This!complexity!is!compounded!by!the!
fact!that!Percussion!Ensembles!are!not!restricted!to!particular!styles!or!genres!of!
music,!are!notated!using!different!notation!systems!and!at!times!have!to!adapt!
the!works!to!the!exigencies!of!the!instruments.421!Therefore!it!is!almost!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
420 !These!are!works!commissioned!for!the!ensemble!Adelaide(Percussions,!1980!and!1982,!and!
on!which!I!have!worked!in!close!collaboration!with!the!composers.!
421 !This!is!especially!so!when!playing!transcriptions,!but!also!when!for!example,!arranging!
marimba!ensembles!for!Steelband.!

! 245!
impossible!to!choose!works!for!a!dissertation!that!will!adequately!typify!the!
genre!of!the!percussion!ensemble.!Until!such!time!as!there!is!a!sufficiently!large!
body!of!work!covering!most!ensemble!combinations!or!until!the!instruments!and!
styles!attain!a!certain!standardisation,!the!analysis!of!percussion!ensembles!
remains!limited!in!scope.!!

Consequently,!this!dissertation!will!analyse!two!ensembles!in!separate!
soundscapes!–!one!that!explores!distinct!jazz!styles!of!music!and!the!other!that!is!
a!work!of!representational!expression.!This!investigation!will!reveal!what!the!
pieces!can!contribute!to!the!genre,!the!presentation!of!percussion!music,!and!the!
challenges!for!performance.!In!consideration!of!this!contextual!backdrop,!the!
two!percussion!ensemble!pieces!by!Bryce!and!Morgan!will!be!examined.!

The!Suite!by!Bryce!is!ostensibly!a!simple!piece!without!high!demands!of!
technique.!However,!as!a!jazz!piece!solely!for!percussion!instruments!it!opened!a!
door!for!the!genre!while!also!exploring!new!ranges!of!sound!sources.!These!
directions!had!implications!for!both!technique!development!and!performance!
presentation!that!required!consultation!with!the!composer.!Morgan’s!Loss,!on!
the!other!hand,!is!a!manifestly!larger!work,!and!together!with!its!
representational!conceptualization!created!significantly!more!complex!
implications!for!percussion!ensemble.!Presenting!challenges!of!technique!
especially!in!logistics!and!theatrical!aesthetics!as!well!as!challenges!in!musical!
interpretation!of!the!emotion!and!symbolism!implicit!in!the!title!all!gave!cause!
for!explicit!discussions!with!the!composer.!These!two!works!are!chosen!because!
they!are!examples!of!early!Australian!writing!for!percussion!ensemble!in!two!
different!genres!and!approaches,!thus!following!the!cultural!and!
representational!traditions!of!Roldán!and!Varèse!respectively!and!with!close!
collaboration!between!composers!and!performers!during!the!writing!process.!
Moreover,!the!problems!they!present!show!the!difficulties!of!writing!for!
percussion!and!interpreting!what!is!written.!

246!!
5.2*Background*–*Early*writing*for*percussion*ensembles*
The!percussion!ensemble!as!a!separate!musical!entity!first!appeared!in!1899!
with!Percy!Grainger’s!Eastern(Intermezzo!for!Tuneful!Percussion,422!and!was!
expanded!over!the!next!thirtyTtwo!years!by!Darius!Milhaud,!Les(Choëphores(
(1917),!Dmitri!Shostakhovich,!Entr’acte!in!The(Nose((1928),!Amadeo!Roldán!
Ritmicas(5(and(6((1930)!and!Edgard!Varèse,!Ionisation!(1931).!!

In!1899!Grainger!scored!his!Eastern(Intermezzo!for!a!large!ensemble!of!tuned!
percussion!instruments,!including!some!which!were!barely!known!such!as!the!
metal!marimba,!which!derived!from!the!metal!bar!instruments!of!the!Indonesian!
Gamelan!and!became!the!prototype!for!the!development!of!the!vibraphone!(see!
plate!5.01!and!ex.!5.01).!

!
Plate!5.01!Deagan!metal!marimba423!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
422 !He!did!however!include!the!Piano!and!other!similar!Keyboards,!which!he!regarded!as!
Percussion!instruments.!
423 !http://www.deaganresource.com/!accessed!11!November!2015!

! 247!
 !
Ex.!5.01!Grainger,!Eastern(Intermezzo,!manuscript,!1899,!extract!of!part424!

While!Grainger’s!original!instruments!such!as!the!metal!marimba,!are!no!longer!
available!there!are!some!current!equivalents!(see!plate!5.02).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
424 !This!facsimile!was!obtained!in!1987,!courtesy!of!the!Grainger!Museum,!University!of!
Melbourne!in!accordance!with!the!composer’s!wishes.!

248!!
 and use of the instruments in orchestral writing.

Table 1.

Grainger's Instrumentation and the Current Equivalents

Grainger's Instrumentation Current
Indications Terminology

Glockenspiel BeUs

Xylophone Xylophone

Steel Marimba Vibraphone

Wooden Marimba Marimba

Tubular Bells Chimes

Staff Bells Suspended Handbells

with no clappers

Bar Piano Obsolete

(Sounds similar to a
vibraphone -- allows for a
choice of mallet hardness.
Finger operated keyboard
with damper pedal)

Bell Piano Obsolete

(Sounds similar to staff
bells -- allows for a choice
of mallet hardness.
Finger operated keyboard
with damper pedal)

Celesta Celesta

Piano Piano
!
Plate!5.02!Example!of!Percy!Grainger's!Instrumentation!and!current!equivalents425!

Grainger!was!very!interested!in!exploring!nonTEuropean!sources!of!sound,!such!
as!the!Gamelan;!and!he!wrote!music!to!reflect!those!sounds!using!various!bells,!
xylophones,!and!marimbas.!Furthermore,!he!was!keen!to!develop!the!harmonic!
possibilities!of!tuned!percussion!to!include!lower!sounds!in!order!to!balance!the!
high,!piercing!sounds!of!the!glockenspiel!and!xylophone.!!

“To!use!orchestrally!a!glockenspiel!without!a!metal!marimba!and!a!xylophone!
without!a!wooden!marimba,!is!just!as!absurd!and!incomplete!as!it!would!be!to!
use!a!piccolo!without!a!flute,!violins!without!the!lower!strings,!the!top!two!
octaves!of!a!piano!without!the!lower!octaves.”!426!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
425 !John!Anthony!Roscigno,!“Percy!Grainger's!The!Warriors!T!Music!To!An!Imaginary!Ballet:!
Innovations!In!OrchestrationTThe!Addition!Of!The!Melodic!Percussion!Section!As!An!Equal!Force!
In!20th!Century!Orchestral!Writing”.*DMA!Dissertation,!University!of!Arizona,!1998,!p.!33.!
426 !John!Anthony!Roscigno,!op.cit.,!p.!57!

! 249!
These!compositions!had!direct!and!deep!implications!for!percussionists.!They!
had!to!play!more!and!for!longer!periods!than!in!the!few!existing!orchestral!
excerpts;!and!the!parts!also!were,!at!that!time,!more!complex.!Consequently,!
percussionists!had!to!develop!techniques!of!playing!that!would!incorporate!a!
level!of!technical!fitness!to!enable!long!stretches!of!playing!without!causing!
undue!stress,!while!still!including!the!usual!musical!elements!of!dynamic!control,!
phrasing,!accuracy!of!note!placement!and!clarity!of!articulation;!and!to!do!so!
without!seeming!to!have!a!concrete!basis!of!technique!on!which!to!build.!
Fortunately,!the!transferability!of!technique!discussed!in!Chapter!Two,!meant!
that!the!general!playing!action!used!in!percussion!provided!this!basis.!

In!a!completely!different!direction!from!Grainger’s,!a!very!artistic!exploration!of!
percussion!ensemble!was!undertaken!by!Darius!Milhaud!in!1917.!His!opera!Les(
Choéphores!scored!three!movements,!Présages,!Exhortation!and!Conclusion,!for!
only!untuned!percussion!with!spoken!voices.!An!original!decision!at!the!time,!
Milhaud!used!the!untuned!percussion!orchestra!in!both!musical!and!artistically!
dramatic!roles!(see!ex.!5.04).!The!musical!role!was!elaborated!upon!by!Paul!
Collaer,!Belgian!musicologist!and!biographer!of!Darius!Milhaud.!

Sometimes!the!texts!Milhaud!uses!are!completely!incompatible!with!a!musical!
setting.!In!his!own!words,!the!two!scenes!of!exhortation!in!Les(Choéphores,!“on!
account!of!their!cannibalistic!character,!presented!one!of!the!most!difficult!
problems.!The!sentiment!is!not!musical.!How!could!this!outburst!be!represented!
in!artistic!terms?!I!therefore!decided!to!have!the!text!rhythmically!declaimed!
and!arranged!in!measures!as!though!sung.!I!wrote!spoken!choruses!
accompanied!by!an!orchestra!made!up!solely!of!percussion!instruments.”!427!

By!juxtaposing!the!acrimonious!tones!of!the!human!voice!against!wooden,!metal!
and!skin!timbres!in!measured,!controlled!anger!he!registered!the!depth!of!the!
rage!that!was!felt!by!the!operatic!characters,!Electra!and!Orestes.!The!intensity!
and!savagery!of!their!emotions!in!vocal!counterpoint!was!dramatically!enhanced!
by!the!shrill!and!emphatically!rhythmic!untuned!instruments.!Thus!Milhaud!so!
effectively!highlighted!the!“hurricane”!428!of!human!emotions!as!explained!by!
Collaer.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
427 !Paul!Collaer,!Darius(Milhaud,!Trans.!James!Galante,!1962,!San!Francisco,!San!Francisco!Press,!
1988,!p.!50!
428 !Darius!Milhaud,!Les(Choéphores(op.(24,!Paris,!Heugel,!1947,!program!notes,!p.!99!

250!!
 !To!introduce!natural!speech!against!the!background!of!piano!or!orchestra,!as!is!
sometimes!done!in!romantic!melodrama,!is!to!mix!fire!with!water;!the!rhythmic!
patterns!of!words!and!music!are!in!conflict…!In!contrast,!adapting!musical!
rhythms!to!spoken!words!and!placing!them!against!a!background!of!percussion!
instruments!leads!to!a!homogeneous!musical!ensemble!of!indeterminate!
tones.429!

This!dramatic!musical!technique!of!enhancing!the!spoken!and!sung!word!with!
percussion!sound!and!rhythm!also!reinforced!the!structure!of!the!opera!by!
providing!a!meaningful!and!fluent!nexus!between!musical!moments!and!scenes.!!

This!technique!is!not!only!admirably!adaptable!to!particular!scenes,!but!with!
rhythm!and!percussion!used!as!connective!tissue,!the!composer!can!easily!pass!
to!subsequent!scenes!in!which!speech!resumes!its!normal!role.430!

Furthermore,!by!shepherding!the!structure!from!emotional!chaos!to!normality!
through!its!rhythmic!continuity,!the!untuned!percussion!brought!cohesion!to!the!
whole!text.!As!Collaer!stated,!“By!retaining!the!musical!rhythm!he!preserved!the!
unity!of!the!work.”431!

In!these!movements,!the!earliest!instances!of!such!instrumentation,!Milhaud!
wanted!to!heighten!the!drama!of!this!Greek!tragedy!(see!ex.!5.02).!

In!“The!Choephori”…two!scenes!are!to!be!found!which!create!a!difficult!problem!
for!the!composer:!they!are!savage,!cannibal,!as!it!were.!The!lyrical!element!in!
these!scenes!is!not!musical.!How!was!I!to!set!to!music!this!hurrican![sic]?!I!finally!
decided!to!make!use!of!a!mesured![sic]!speech,!divided!into!bars!and!conducted!
as!if!it!were!sung.432!

Noted!researcher,!Barbara!Kelly,!Head!of!Research,!Royal!Northern!College!of!
Music,!Manchester,!comments!further!on!this!dramatic!effect.!!

By!dispensing!with!melody!and!text,!Milhaud!could!focus!on!the!short!repeated!
rhythmic!patterns!of!percussion!writing,!while!retaining!a!human!element!
within!the!overall!sound!panorama.!NonTverbal!sounds!such!as!breathing!and!
hissing!add!a!primitive!dimension!to!the!menacing!chanting!on!the!libationT
bearer…!He!builds!in!the!maximum!complexity!into!the!climax!on!p.116!bar!1,!
creating!ten!simultaneous!rhythmic!patterns!with!the!choir,!percussion!
instruments!and!solo!voice.!It!is!a!powerful!moment!in!which!percussion!and!
voices!fuse!to!form!one!rhythmic!and!contrapuntal!force.433!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
429 !Paul!Collaer,!op.cit.,!p.!50!
430 !Paul!Collaer,!op.cit.,!p.!50!

431 !Paul!Collaer,!op.cit.,!p.!50!

432 !D!Milhaud,!Les(Choéphores(op.(24,!Paris,!Heugel,!1947,!program!notes,!p.!99!

433 !Barbara,!L.!Kelly,!Tradition(and(Style(in(the(Works(of(Darius(Milhaud(1912[1939,!Aldershot,!
Ashgate,!2003,!p.!51!

! 251!
And!so!through!the!rhythm!and!sounds!of!the!untuned!percussion!orchestra,!the!
Opera!gained!a!textual!continuity!and!cohesion!in!an!artistically!dramatic!
manner.!And!this!pivotal!structural!role!in!the!Drama!Les(Choéphores!signified!a!
groundbreaking!use!of!percussive!impact,!signalling!the!birth!of!an!enhanced!
theatrical!role!for!untuned!percussion.!At!the!same!time,!percussionists!had!to!
undertake!a!new!approach!by!thinking!about!musical!and!dramatic!aspects!of!
their!performance!as!well!as!technical!elements!and!how!to!elucidate!the!former!
through!development!of!the!latter.(

Ex. 5.02 Milhaud!Presages,!climax,!p.!116!

252!!
!

In!a!similar!dramatic!role!to!Milhaud,!to!reflect!activity!on!stage,!Shostakovich!in!
1928!composed!a!piece!for!an!untuned!percussion!ensemble!as!an!entr’acte!
within!his!opera!of!Gogol’s!absurdist!play,!The(Nose.!Conveying!the!sense!of!
confusion,!panic!and!flurry!of!activity!as!chief!of!police!Major!Kovalyov!scurries!
out!of!the!barbershop!to!search!for!his!nose,!which!had!mysteriously!
disappeared!overnight,!the!discordant!percussion!also!reflected!the!pace!of!his!
uncontrolled!anxiety.!The!tempo!was!132T144,!and!the!instrumentation!
comprised!triangle,!tambourine,!castanets,!snare!drum,!tomTtom,!suspended!
cymbal,!clash!cymbals,!bass!drum!and!tamTtam!(see!ex.!5.03).!Once!again,!the!
music!demanded!more!than!just!clear!enunciation!of!short!rhythmic!phrases.!To!
portray!a!sense!of!scurried!confusion!requires!an!awareness!of!one’s!role!within!
the!greater!whole!and!sensitive!rendition!of!the!part.!

!
Ex.!5.03!Shostakovich!The(Nose,(Entracte(434!

This!score,!as!well!as!illustrating!the!tension!of!this!drama,!also!demonstrates!
some!of!the!extra!difficulties!of!presenting!percussion!performances.!The!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
434 !Shostakovich!Collected(works,!volume!19,!Moscow,!State!Publishers!“Music”,!1979,!p.!58!

! 253!
instrumentation!is!shown!in!abbreviated!Italian,!as!is!the!sticking!indication!for!
the!suspended!cymbal!(see!ex.!5.04).!

Ex.!5.04!suspended!Cymbal!part!in!Italian,!Shostakovich!The(Nose,(Entracte,(figure!69!

However,!one!playing!direction!for!the!pair!of!cymbals!is!in!Russian!T!ТЕРЕТь!
ОДНУ!О!ДРУГУЮ!–!rub!the!two!cymbals!together.!The!part,!however!is!labelled!
in!Italian!(piatti,!abbreviated!PTti435)!as!is!another!playing!direction!of!secco!(see!
ex.!5.05).!This!is!a!further!challenge!for!percussionists!to!be!flexibly!wellTversed!
in!multiple!music!languages!to!meet!the!lack!of!linguistic!homogeneity,!
something!which!still!afflicts!some!scores.!

Ex.!5.05!Clash!cymbals!part!in!Italian!and!Russian,!Shostakovich!The(Nose,(Entracte,(
figure!70!

This!work,!while!it!was!for!percussion!instruments!only,!and!untuned!as!well,!
and!played!a!very!useful!function!to!enhance!the!dramatisation!of!the!piece,!was!
still!only!a!small!part!within!the!consuming!context!of!a!larger!work,!the!opera!
The(Nose(and!so!only!has!a!raisonTd’être!within!the!drama!of!the!whole!opera.436!!

Soon!after,!however,!there!appeared!the!first!compositions!for!untuned!
percussion!ensembles!as!completely!standTalone!compositions.!They!were!
Ritmicas(5(and(6!by!Amadeo!Roldán!composed!in!1930!(see!ex.!5.06)!and!
Ionisation!by!Edgard!Varèse!written!in!1931(see!ex.!5.07).!Performance!details!
for!the!Roldán!were!in!Spanish,!and!though!more!recent!publications!have!
English!explanations!of!playing!directions,!instrument!nomenclature!is!still!in!
Spanish!emphasising!yet!again!the!need!for!percussionists!to!have!multiTlingual!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
435 !The!suspended!cymbal!is!labelled!Piatto!and!abbreviated!PTto.!

436 !It!does!nonetheless!receive!occasional!performances!outside!of!its!operatic!context,!in!
percussion!ensemble!concerts.!

254!!
instrumental!knowledge.!The!Varèse!was!in!French,!though!the!1966!edition!had!
English!translations!and!explanations.437!!

The!appearance!of!these!two!works!in!such!close!proximity!was!no!coincidence!
as!the!two!composers!corresponded!and!Roldán!introduced!Varèse!to!the!sounds!
of!the!AfroTCuban!percussion!instruments!some!of!which!(cencerros,!bongos,!
maracas!and!güiro)!Varèse!used!in!Ionisation.!Roldán!was!keen!to!add!these!
instruments!to!the!general!orchestral!palette.438!!

!
Ex.!5.06!Amadeo!Roldán,!Ritmica(No.(5,!bars!1T5,!p.!1439 !

The!Ritimcás,!are!based!on!the!Cuban!dance!forms!of!son,!and!rumba!and!
expressed!in!at!times!polyTrhythmic!intensity!on!traditional!AfroTCuban!folk!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
437 !Copyright!assigned!1966!to!Colfranc!Music!Publishing!Corporation,!New!York!
438 !John!Richard!Hall,!“Development!of!The!Percussion!Ensemble!through!the!Contributions!of!
the!Latin!American!Composers!Amadeo!Roldán,!José!Ardévol,!Carlos!Chávez,!and!Alberto!
Ginastera”!DMA!Ohio!State!University!2008,!pp.!23T37!
439 !Amadeo!Roldán,!Ritmica(No.(5,!(1930).!New!York:!Southern!Music!Publishing!Co.,!1967,!p.!1*

! 255!
instruments!combined!with!timpani!to!produce!a!lively!multiTtimbral!
primitivism.!Ionisation,!was!in!Varèse’s!words!!

[a!musical!representation!of]!inside!a!star!the!battering!of!the!particles!by!one!
another,!and!more!especially!the!collision!of!the!ether!waves!(XTrays)!with!
atoms,!caus[ing]!electrons!to!be!broken!off!and!set!free!…!This!breakingTaway!of!
electrons!from!atoms!is!called!ionization.440!

The conductor of the première performance and recording, Nicolas Slonimsky,

wrote of the recording session,
We!engaged!the!percussion!players!from!the!New!York!Philharmonic,!but!it!soon!
became!clear!that!they!could!never!master!the!rhythms.!In!desperation,!we!
appealed!to!fellow!composers!to!take!over!the!task;!to!them!the!Varèsian!
asymmetry!was!child’s!play.441!
!
These!two!works!displayed!different!aspects!of!percussion.!The!Roldán,!based!on!
folkloric!rhythms!is!the!first!work!to!notate!these!rhythms!so!that!the!folkloric!
elements!are!conveyed!accurately.!442!The!Varèse!explored!the!musical!concepts!
of!timbre,!sonority!and!texture!in!a!representational!conception!of!sound.!

Ionisation!is!the!climax!of!his!long!exploration!of!the!expressive!power!of!
percussion443!

Both!pieces!present!challenges!to!the!performer.!The!Roldán!requires!an!
appreciation!of!the!subtleties!of!AfroTCuban!dance!styles!and!the!technical!
capability!to!play!the!instruments!in!the!traditional!manner,!while!the!Varèse!
needs!accurate!playing!of!the!phrases!within!a!polyTrhythmic!structure!as!well!as!
a!sensitivity!to!Varèse’s!conception!of!the!collision!of!cosmic!or!ether!waves.444!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
440 !Steve!Smith!‘Banging!Out!a!Revolution!In!Just!91!Measures‘!
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/18/arts/music/18varese.html?_r=0&pagewanted=all!
accessed!2!July!2015!
441 !Nicolas!Slonimsky,!Perfect(Pitch:(A(Life(Story,(Oxford,!OUP,!1988,!pp.!138T9.!Varèse’s!wife!
Louise!remembered!the!playing!differently.!‘…!the!première!…!as!well!as!the!first!recording!…!in!
spite!of!its!technical!imperfections!had!a!powerful!impact!on!some!of!the!younger!composers!in!
Paris’!!Louise!Varèse,!Varèse:(A(Looking[Glass(Diary(Volume(I,!New!York,!Norton,!1972,!p.!277.!
442 !John!Richard!Hall,!op.(cit.,!p.!24!

443 !David!Harold!Cox,!‘On!the!Threshold!of!Beauty:!Form!and!Structure!in!Varèse’s!Ionisation’,!
Percussive(Notes,!Winter!1989,!pp.!57T59!
444 !Professor!George!Gaber,!who!played!the!work!under!Varèse’s!direction,!stated!it!was!a!
depiction!of!New!York!in!1931,!though!this!was!possibly!a!suggestion!to!give!the!players!a!
concrete!concept!to!assist!the!musical!expression!of!abstract!ideas.!Weekend(of(Percussion,!
Victorian!College!of!the!Arts,!Melbourne,!June!1975.!

256!!
 !

Ex.!5.07!Edgard!Varèse!instance!of!score445 !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
445 !Edgard!Varèse,!Ionisation,!Milano,!Ricordi,!1931,!p.!1!

! 257!
All!of!these!compositions!mentioned!so!far!in!this!chapter!recognise!the!use!of!
percussion!for!very!specific!and!varied!effects.!Eastern(Intermezzo!represented!
the!sounds!of!the!Indonesian!Gamelan!on!European/American!instruments,!Les(
Choéphores(emphasised!dramatic!elements!of!Greek!tragedy.!The(Nose!conveyed!
the!sense!of!panic!and!flurried,!directionless!activity.!Ionisation!was!a!musical!
representation!of!cosmic!activity,!and!the!Ritmicas!portrayed!the!folkloristic!
aspects!of!Cuban!music.!But!almost!all!employed!large!numbers!of!players.!The!
Milhaud!used!fifteen!players,!the!Shostakovich!needed!nine!and!the!Roldán!and!
Varèse!pieces!called!for!eleven!and!thirteen!players.!Grainger!also!called!for!
large!numbers!but!when!not!enough!were!available,!substituted!pianos.446!This!
was!a!natural!development!from!the!orchestral!tradition!where!percussionists!
were!only!called!upon!to!play!one!instrument,!and!this!only!changed!after!
Milhaud’s!Concerto(pour(batterie!gave!composers!and!percussionists!the!impetus!
to!experiment!with!combining!different!instrumental!groupings!for!each!player.!!

Moreover,!the!increasing!availability!of!a!wide!variety!of!percussion!instruments!
from!different!cultures!and!their!attendant!techniques,!coupled!with!growing!
demands!made!on!percussionists!by!more!innovative!composers!inevitably!led!
to!improvements!in!playing!standards.!This,!in!turn,!encouraged!composers!to!
write!more!demanding!parts.!Contributing!to!this!gradual!evolution!was!the!
emergence!of!a!percussion!ensemble,!Les(Percussions(de(Strasbourg!in!the!1960s!
dedicated!to!playing!and!giving!wider!exposure!to!percussion!works.!!

This!impacted!considerably!on!the!percussion!and!music!landscape.!In!1967,!
fortyTfour!years!after!the!initial!recording!that!percussionists!from!the!New!York!
Philharmonic!Orchestra!had!difficulty!with,!the!then!director!of!Les(Percussions,!
Georges!Van!Gucht,!with!Varèse’s!approval!rescored(Ionisation!from!thirteen!to!
six!players!by!adapting!instruments!and!having!players!play!multiple!parts!while!
remaining!true!to!Varèse’s!intent!(see!plate!5.03).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
446 !In!the!period!FebruaryTApril!1933!Grainger!made![a!new]!version!for!Tuneful!Percussion.!It!
is!written!for!trumpet,!double!bass,!harmonium,!2!pianos,!glockenspiel,!'Shaker',!chimes!and!
other!bells,!dulcitone!and!staff!bells,!metal!marimba!(vibraphone)!and!tubular!bells,!xylophone,!
wooden!marimba.!http://www.percygrainger.org/progno10.htm!accessed!2!October!2015!

258!!
 Varèse*Edgard*H*Ionisation*
Creation!:!11/11/1967,!Südwestfunk,!BadenTBaden!Composed:!1929!–!1931!
Number*of*musicians!:!6!percussionists!(original!version!for!13!percusionnists)!
Duration!:!7!mn!!
Originally!written!for!13!percussionists!and!a!conductor,!IONISATION!will!be!performed!
by!the!six!Strasbourg!percussionists,!thanks!to!particular!ways!of!making!instruments!
(claves!on!a!stand,!pedal!sirens,!etc!…)!which!in!no!way!mutilate!the!original!version.!
This!version!for!6!percussionists!was!arranged!by!Georges!Van!Gucht,!Strasbourg’s!
former!Director!of!Percussion,!with!the!composer’s!agreement!and!was!performed!for!
the!first!time!on!11!November!1967,!on!the!Südwestfunk!radio!in!BadenTBaden.!

Plate!5.03!Information!on!Ionisation(from(Les(Percussions(de(Strasbourg447!
!
The!emergence!of!Les(Percussions(de(Strasbourg(changed!the!musical!landscape!
as!pieces!began!to!appear!that!called!for!percussionists!to!play!on!a!multiplicity!
of!instruments!in!percussion!ensembles.448!Moreover,!percussionists!began!to!
form!into!ensembles!throughout!Europe!and!the!Americas!to!play!these!
pieces.449!In!Australia!this!development!emerged!in!the!1980s!when!local!
composers!wrote!for!Synergy450 !and!Adelaide(Percussions.451!The!players!
encountered!similar!challenges!to!those!posed!by!Roldán!in!his!scoring!of!AfroT
Cuban!dance!styles,!and!Varèse’s!intricate!polyTrhythmic!phrases.!These!
challenges!are!exemplified!in!the(Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet!by!Eric!Bryce!and!
Loss!by!David!Morgan.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
447 !http://www.percussionsdestrasbourg.com/repertoire/ionisationT5/!accessed!Nov!1,!2015!

448 !Louise!Devenish,!“...!And!Now!for!the!Noise:!Contemporary!Percussion!in!Australia,!1970T

2000”,!Doctor!of!Musical!Arts,!University!of!Western!Australia!School!of!Music,!2015,!pp.!25T32!
449
Louise!Devenish,!op.cit.,!pp.!12T16
450 !The!SydneyTbased!percussion!ensemble!founded!by!Michael!Askill!

451 !Louise!Devenish,!op.cit.,!pp.!69!&!88!

! 259!
!

5.3*Bryce*Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet*

In!1980!Eric!Bryce!wrote!a!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet,!(hereafter!known!as!the!
Suite)!being!the!first!Australian!jazz!composition!for!percussion!ensemble.!The!
work!is!in!three!movements,!Prelude,!Games,!and!Pranks,!and!is!firmly!
entrenched!in!the!jazz!idiom,!with!an!ATBTA!format.!In!this!respect!it!follows!a!
similar!path!to!the!Ritmicas!of!Roldán,!presenting!a!percussion!piece!within!a!
cultural!context,!using!the!traditional!ways!of!playing!the!instruments,!but!with!
the!addition!of!a!few!unusual!sounds.!

The!work!is!straightforward!with!no!intention!of!extending!technique.!Rather!it!
aims!to!present!a!piece!of!jazz!music!using!only!percussion!instruments.!So!the!
vibraphone!and!marimba!are!the!main!melody!instruments,!with!glockenspiel,!
xylophone!and!tubophone!adding!some!(usually!higher!range)!melodic!motifs,!
while!timpani!and!kick!drum!provide!the!bass!line!and!a!variety!of!drums!add!
rhythms.!!

It!was!written!for!Adelaide(Percussions,!a!local!Australian!percussion!ensemble!
and!in!that!context!explored!some!different!avenues.!The!tubophone!and!
flexatone!are!used!to!give!a!different!instrumental!colour,!derabucca!brings!an!
exotic!drum!sound,!and!bowing!techniques!add!a!unique!dimension!to!the!
piece.452!

The!first!movement,!Prelude,!opens!with!a!glissando!on!wind!chimes,453!which!is!
added!to!by!bowed!cymbal!and!glissando!on!vibraphone!2.!The!bowed!cymbal!
also!produces!a!mix!of!sounds.!The!instrument!used!in!the!initial!performance!
was!an!18”!quite!heavy!cymbal,!which!produced!low!fundamentals!with!some!
midTrange!overtones,!providing!a!balance!to!the!higher!sounds!of!the!other!two!
instruments.!This!mix!of!untuned!overtones!is!reflected!in!the!vibraphone!1!part,!
which!calls!for!bending!of!notes!longer!than!half!notes!(see!ex.5.08).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
452 !These!instruments!and!playing!techniques!were!newly!acquired!by!the!ensemble.!

453 !The!wind!chimes!were!also!known!as!a!Mark!Tree,!possibly!after!the!person!who!originated!
or!popularised!the!concept.!

260!!
 !
Ex.!5.08!Wind!chimes,!bowed!cymbal!and!vibraphone,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!1T9!

It!is!further!reflected!in!the!xylophone!part!at!letter!B!(see!ex.!5.09),!which!called!
for!the!notes!to!be!bowed!and!bent,!which!at!that!time!was!an!unusual!technical!
demand.454!

!
Ex.!5.09!Bowing!and!bending!notes!on!xylophone,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!20T24!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
454 !This!sound!is!one!I!discovered!during!a!workshop!session!with!composers!and!performers!in!
the!Australian!Contemporary!Music!Ensemble!at!Latrobe!University!in!1978,!directed!by!Keith!
Humble.!It!is!produced!by!bowing!the!note!while!moving!a!hard!mallet!from!the!node!towards!
the!centre.!

! 261!
A!further!innovation!comes!just!before!letter!D!with!the!introduction!of!a!
derabucca!(see!ex.!5.10).!The!instrument!was!newly!acquired!by!the!ensemble!
and!Bryce!decided!to!include!it!to!add!a!further!sound!element!instead!of!using!
bongos!in!every!movement.!

!
Ex.!5.10!Derabucca,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!42T43!

When!the!concept!of!writing!the!work!was!discussed,!Bryce!expressed!his!
reservation!at!composing!a!jazz!piece!for!an!ensemble!that!in!his!experience!was!
so!divergent!from!the!norm!of!the!jazz!idiom.!This!reservation!shows!in!the!
choice!of!the!name!Prelude!as!a!title!for!the!movement!–!to!start!with!an!idea!that!
hopefully!can!be!developed.!So!Bryce!decided!to!add!a!few,!to!him!new,!sound!
sources!to!expand!the!harmonic!and!registral!spectrum.!The!background!was!
created!with!the!untuned!and!unfamiliar!sounds!of!wind!chimes!and!bowed!
cymbal,!overlaid!with!a!mix!of!notes!on!vibraphone!2,!and!later!also!on!
tubophone.!Over!the!top!then!came!four!notes!on!vibraphone!1!(see!ex.!5.11).!

!
Ex.!5.11!Vibraphone,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!4T5!

This!immediately!gave!the!impetus!to!reverse!the!direction!of!the!notes,!repeat!
the!initial!movement,!and!introduce!variations!(see!ex.!5.12).!!

262!!
 !
Ex.!5.12!Opening!melody!on!vibraphone,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!5T9!

A!direction!of!Rubato!allowed!for!some!compositional!flexibility;!but!by!letter!A!
the!direction!of!the!piece!was!set!by!the!previous!figures.!Bryce!then!decided!to!
continue!on!his!experimental!path!and!introduce!the!bowed!and!bent!notes!on!
xylophone,!with!rhythmic!interjections!on!derabucca!before!introducing!the!
vibraphone!improvisations!that!typify!the!jazz!idiom!(see!exs.!5.13!and!5.14).!!

!!
Ex.!5.13!Mix!of!sounds!with!tubophone!(stave!1,!soft!mallets),!vibraphone!1!(stave!2),!
vibraphone!2!(stave!3),!xylophone!(stave!4),!triangle!(stave!5),!bars!21T24!

!
Ex.!5.14,!Improvised!section,!Bryce!Prelude,!bars!50T54!

The!second!movement!saw!a!change!of!emphasis.!In!this!movement,!Bryce!set!
firstly!the!two!wooden!keyboard!instruments!against!each!other,!with!the!
mellow!lyrical!tone!of!the!marimba!(top!stave)!interrupted!by!a!hard,!‘glassy’!
interjection!from!the!xylophone!(third!stave),!and!an!exclamation!from!the!Guiro!
(bottom!stave).!The!bass!line!was!provided!by!the!vibraphone!(second!stave)!

! 263!
and!timpani!(fourth!stave),!while!the!wind!chimes!(bottom!stave)!added!more!
instrumental!colour!(see!ex.!5.15).!

!
Ex.!5.15!Variety!of!sounds!from!wooden!idiophones,!Bryce!Games,!bars!7T10!

The!xylophone!(now!with!softer!mallets)!then!dominated!with!a!variation!of!the!
melody!and!echoed!by!the!glockenspiel,!while!the!marimba!provided!a!chordal!
accompaniment!(see!ex.!5.16).!

!
Ex.!5.16!Variety!of!sounds!from!wooden!idiophones,!Bryce!Games,!bars!14T20!

In!the!second!section!the!Games!took!on!aspects!of!a!hurdyTgurdy!style!
repetition,!with!a!repeated!dotted!eighth!note,!sixteenth!note,!quarter!note!
rhythm!in!ascending!movement!on!the!xylophone,!then!glockenspiel!and!then!
tubophone!before!they!joined!to!finish!the!phrase.!The!marimba!took!on!a!bass!

264!!
role!and!congas!echoed!the!rhythm!of!the!melody!(see!ex.!5.17),!which!
heightened!the!playfulness!of!mood,!before!reverting!to!the!calmer!opening!
section!for!the!remainder!of!the!movement.!

!
Ex.!5.17!Second!subject,!Bryce!Games,!bars!61T75!

For!the!last!movement,!Pranks,!Bryce!reverted!to!a!more!standard!jazz!format!
with!both!vibraphones!playing!the!melody,!and!in!the!main!sections!supported!in!
quasiTdescant!style!by!the!glockenspiel.!The!timpani,!sometimes!in!walking!bass!
style,!played!a!bass!line,!and!bongos!were!used!to!give!a!driving!rhythm!section,!
while!bowed!(large,!24”)!cymbal,!the!marimba!and!the!flexatone!added!extra!
timbre.!

! 265!
5.3.1*Performance*challenges*

Ostensibly,!such!a!simple!piece!would!not!offer!many!challenges.!However,!a!
deeper!examination!reveals!a!different!story!of!a!piece!that!affected!instrument!
use!and!through!the!choice!of!instruments!also!challenged!the!traditional!ideas!
of!jazz!instrumentation.!Moreover,!it!raised!and!still!raises!challenges!of!
technique,!which!in!turn!affected!interpretation.!

Firstly,!the!piece!introduced!a!range!of!new!instruments!into!the!jazz!spectrum,!
and!by!doing!so!also!strengthened!connections!between!jazz!and!classical!modes!
of!music!presentation.!The!timpani!provided!a!bass!line,!vibraphones,!marimba!
and!xylophone,!along!with!an!extra!range!of!harmonic!instrumental!colours!from!
the!tubophone!and!glockenspiel!the!melody!and!tuned!harmony.!The!drum!kit!
contributed!the!standard!jazz!rhythmic!element!to!which!were!added!the!
instrumental!and!timbral!colours!of!the!derabucca,!bongos,!cymbals,!wind!
chimes,!triangle,!congas,!güiro!and!flexatone.!This!mix!and!use!of!instruments!
expanded!the!horizons!of!presenting!a!jazz!performance!and!simultaneously!
brought!a!strong!jazz!influence!into!the!classical!concert!sphere,!giving!an!extra!
dimension!of!percussion!only!to!both.!This!also!affected!playing!techniques.!

As!has!been!discussed!in!previous!chapters,!when!instruments!are!extracted!
from!their!cultural!contexts!the!method!of!and!approach!to!playing!them!also!
changes.!Thus!the!playing!action!on!the!derabucca!was!an!adaptation!of!the!
action!used!on!congas!and!bongos,!with!the!low!sounds!educed!with!the!hand!
playing!at!the!centre!of!the!drum!and!high!sounds!produced!by!fingers!at!the!
edge.!Wind!chimes,!being!at!the!time!a!newly!invented!instrument,!had!no!
cultural!context.!They!had!become!the!instrument!of!choice!over!the!bell!tree!as!
more!convenient,!lighter,!easier!to!transport!and!more!flexible!to!play,!as!specific!
mallets!were!not!required.!Quickly!the!standard!method!of!playing!them!became!
a!straight!glissando!across!the!entire!length!of!the!tubes!to!give!a!fullTtoned!
sound.!However,!Bryce!did!not!specify!any!details!of!this!glissando,!reflecting!his!
personal!greater!interest!in!the!music!than!the!detailed!particulars!of!

266!!
technique.455!So!any!kind!of!glissando,!provided!it!produced!a!musical!sound!
would!be!acceptable,!and!this!opens!up!a!few!possibilities.!It!could!be!interesting!
to,!for!example,!play!in!contrary!motion!to!the!glissando!on!the!vibraphone.!
Alternately,!a!very!slow!glissando!could,!by!juxtaposing!two!different!speeds,!on!
wind!chimes!and!vibraphone,!create!a!changing!set!of!harmonies.!A!third!
approach!would!be!to!generally!imitate!the!method!used!to!play!a!vibraphone!
glissando,!and!play!a!‘stepped’!glissando!by!playing!on!a!few!of!the!tubes!in!one!
spot!for!a!few!seconds!before!moving!to!the!next!spot!and!repeating!the!process!
across!the!range!of!the!instrument.!Thus!the!playing!action!could!be!expanded!
from!a!straight!movement!across!the!length!of!the!instrument!to!a!greater!and!
more!delicate!use!of!finger!technique.456!Bryce!also!did!not!specify!the!type!of!
wind!chimes,!but!the!instrument!that!was!available!was!made!of!brass!tubes!and!
that!was!the!sound!he!had!in!mind.457!

This!movement!involved!in!playing!the!derabucca,!meant!the!movement!also!was!
closer!to!that!used!on!congas!and!bongos,!while!the!movement!on!the!wind!
chimes!introduced!a!subtle!difference.!A!more!obvious!impact!of!the!piece!was!
seen!on!the!tubophone.!The!bars!of!the!tubophone!are!round!(see!plate!5.04).!

!
Plate!5.04!tubophone!(from!the!author’s!collection)458 !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
455 !Conversations!with!the!composer!between!1974!and!2006!

456 !As!the!piece!developed!in!performances!these!various!playing!actions!have!been!more!in!
evidence.!
457 !Conversation!with!the!composer!during!rehearsals!1980!
458 !This!was!modelled!on!the!tubophone!in!the!Percussion!Department,!Indiana!University.!

! 267!
!Consequently,!when!the!mallets!strike!the!bar,!they!will!bounce!off!at!an!angle!of!
reflection!according!to!the!laws!of!physics,!and!in!a!similar!manner!to!light!rays!
(see!plate!5.05).!

Plate!5.05!Reading!on!Refraction,!part!2459!

The!black!line!in!the!diagram!represents!the!stroke!hitting!the!middle!of!the!bar.!
If!the!mallet!hits!the!bar!at!this!point!it!will!bounce!back!in!a!straight!line!directly!
above!the!bar.!The!other!coloured!lines!indicate!how!far!away!from!the!middle!of!
the!bar!the!mallet!will!bounce!if!played!away!from!the!centre.!It!is!important!
then,!when!playing!the!tubophone,!to!focus!not!just!on!the!notes!to!be!played,!but!
the!spot!on!the!bar!that!needs!to!be!hit,!and!subsequent!movement.!Even!though!
Score
the!tubophone!part!in!the!first!movement!of!Bryce’s!Suite!is!quite!gentle,!it!
nevertheless!calls!for!concentration!as!the!part!is!quite!exposed!(see!ex.!5.18).!

œ œ œ bœ œ œ bœ œ œ
& 44 ‰ J œ b œ ‰ J œ b œ œ œ œ b œ œ œ œ œ ‰ J œ œ œ b œ b œ œ ‰ œJ œ b œ b œ œ œ œ
bœ œ
œ œ bœ œ bœ
& ‰ J œ œ bœ œ ‰ J œ bœ œ œ œ œ bœ œ œ bœ œ œ œ œ œ œ bœ œ œ bœ œ œ œ œ bœ œ œ bœ œ w
!

& ! ! ! ! ! !!
Ex.!5.18!Tubophone,!Bryce,!Prelude,!bars!25T35 ! ! ! ! !

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
In!addition!to!this!type!of!movement,!the!movement!between!instruments!is!also!
12

&
an!issue,!and!is!discussed!in!the!context!of!logistics,!below.!

One!issue!that!cause!difficulties!is!that!of!sound,!as!the!conception!and!
realisation!of!it!can!be!very!different!in!the!minds!of!composers!and!players.!The!
former!will!envisage!sounds!as!related!to!the!type!of!sound!wanted!for!the!piece,!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
459 !https://www.asu.edu/courses/phs208/patternsbb/PiN/rdg/lenses/lenses2.shtml!accessed!
18!November!2015!

268!!
performers!often!will!relate!to!the!specifics!of!the!instrument!and!beater.!As!a!
result!when!the!piece!is!written,!not!all!decisions!arrived!at!by!the!author!are!
seemingly!achievable.!These!then!must!be!addressed!by!the!percussionist!who!
makes!more!practical!decisions!while!keeping!in!mind!the!intent!of!the!
composer.!One!such!instance!here!is!Bryce’s!specification!of!mallets!that!were!
not!seen!to!be!appropriate.!Soft!mallets!on!vibraphone!for!example,!while!
producing!a!beautiful!and!gentle!tone,!do!not!project.!Similarly,!soft!mallets!are!
inappropriate!on!the!xylophone.!And!so!the!percussionist,!in!interpreting!the!
effect!that!is!required!by!those!directions!will!adapt!the!mallet!choice!by!
following!the!spirit!of!the!directions!rather!than!the!letter.!In!these!instances!a!
discussion!with!Bryce!solved!the!difficulty.!The!vibraphone!was!played!with!
slightly!less!attack!and!softer!i.e.!hard!rubber!mallets!were!used!on!the!
xylophone.!As!so!often!happens,!these!alterations!were!not!written!into!the!score!
and!the!issue!of!achieving!the!required!sound!and!good!instrumental!balance!
remained!and!still!remains!in!the!hands!of!the!percussionist.!

This!is!also!demonstrated!in!the!part!written!for!derabucca!as!it!allows!for!some!
interpretation.!The!part,!as!written,!is!very!simple!and!even!the!extensions!at!D!
(see!ex.!5.19),!some!eight!bars!later!(see!ex.!5.20),!again!at!letter!F!(see!ex.!5.21)!
and!later!(see!ex.!5.22)!are!only!minimal.!The!derabucca!part!is!on!the!second!
stave!from!the!bottom!in!each!example.!

! ! !
Ex.!5.19!Derabucca,!Preludes,!bar!51! ! Ex.!5.20!Derabucca,!Prelude,!bar!59!

! 269!
 ! ! !
Ex.!5.21!Derabucca,!Prelude,!bar!73! !! !Ex.!5.22!Derabucca,!Prelude,!bar!92!

However,!the!part!is!more!of!an!indication!of!the!important!rhythmic!elements,!
allowing!room!for!some!improvisation!within!it.!The!two!notated!sounds!are!
obtained!by!playing!at!the!edge!for!the!higher!sound!and!the!centre!for!the!lower.!
Nonetheless,!there!are!varieties!of!nuance!within!those!notations!obtained!by!
playing,!for!example,!at!the!extreme!edge,!and!even!producing!a!pseudoTrim!shot.!
Equally,!the!lower!sound!can!be!produced!with!a!flat!palm,!with!a!cupped!palm,!
or!with!fingertips!to!produce!a!variety!of!low!sounds.!These!different!high!and!
low!sounds!can!increase!the!tonal!spectrum!of!the!piece.!Secondly,!the!part!can!
also!be!expanded!with!the!addition!of!grace!notes,!though!it!is!important!to!note!
that!the!derabucca!is!nonetheless!minor,!and!supportive!of!the!lead!instruments.!
Its!essential!role!is!to!provide!a!strong!rhythm!along!with!the!Drum!Set!under!
the!two!improvisation!sections!–!a!gently!swung,!laid!back!improvisation!on!
vibraphone!1,!followed!by!a!driving!MamboTRock!on!vibraphone!2.!

This!is!not!notated!and!indeed!the!notation,!though!simple!and!generally!
traditional!is!not!always!clear.!The!güiro!in!the!second!movement,!Games,!is!
notated!as!a!glissando!with!a!diagonal!line!leading!up!to!the!‘note’!(see!ex.!5.23).!
The!questions!this!raises!are!whether!the!stroke!should!finish!on!the!fourth!beat,!
start!on!it,!or!be!nebulously!placed!within!the!general!compass!of!it!and!how!long!
the!stroke!should!be.!The!presence!of!the!accent!on!that!beat!further!complicates!
the!issue.!Bryce,!in!fact,!intended!the!stroke!to!start!on!the!fourth!beat,!be!very!
short!and!finish!with!an!accent!–!in!short!to!provide!an!end!the!previous!phrase!
as!an!exclamation!mark!on!the!xylophone’s!emphatic!statement.!

270!!
 !
Ex.!5.23!Güiro!stroke,!Games,!p.!1,!bar!10!

In!addition,!the!piece!presents!other!challenges.!The!combination!of!large!and!
small!instruments!carries!implications!for!the!logistics.!On!the!one!hand,!
sightlines!between!players!need!to!be!preserved,!without!ignoring!the!aesthetics!
of!the!presentation!as!various!instruments!play!leading!roles!at!different!times!in!
the!piece.!So,!depending!on!the!configuration!of!the!stage!and!demands!of!other!
pieces!in!the!concert,!an!elementary!starting!point!would!be!the!placing!of!the!
two!vibraphones!facing!each!other!in!a!slight!‘V’!formation!and!ringed!by!the!
other!instruments!in!a!semiTcircle,!with!the!details!determined!by!the!allocation!
of!parts,!as!there!is!no!need!to!keep!to!the!order!in!the!score.460!If!it!were!
possible!to!have!this!second!ring!of!instruments!raised,!or!have!the!stage!below!
the!level!of!an!audience!in!raked!seating,!this!would!also!add!a!visual!element!of!
enjoyment!to!the!piece.!Moreover,!visual!aesthetics!would!be!aided!by!
eliminating!as!much!extraneous!movement!as!possible!by,!for!example,!placing!
the!smaller!instruments!like!the!derabucca!on!easily!accessible!stands,!thus!
obviating!the!need!for!extra!chairs.461 !

The!musical!intent!of!the!work!is!clearly!to!present!a!jazz!piece!as!performed!on!
purely!percussion!instruments,!but!the!details!reveal!a!second!layer!with!
implications!for!performance.!The!Prelude!begins!with!a!mix!of!metallic!sounds!
that!shroud!a!simple!a!melody!and!this!develops!out!of!the!mysterious!sonic!fog!
into!a!simple!tune,!still!depicting!this!metallic!atmosphere.!Into!this!metallic!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
460 !It!is!of!course!more!valid!to!divide!the!parts!according!to!the!relative!strengths!of!the!players.!

461 !This!option!was!not!available!when!the!piece!was!conceived.!

! 271!
sketch!intrudes!the!wooden!sound!of!bowed!and!bent!xylophone!notes!to!extend!
the!mystery!as!it!gradually!changes!character!with!the!introduction!of!skins!and!
leads!to!a!characteristic!jazz!improvisation.!The!derabucca,!as!discussed!above!
can!provide!some!mystery!as!the!part!can!be!variously!interpreted,!and!
improvisation!in!music!always!operates!on!a!level!of!mystery.!The!movement!
climaxes!at!the!end!of!the!second!improvisation!and!from!that!point!gently!
recalls!the!early!elements!of!simplicity!and!air!of!mystery,!though!this!time!with!
the!former!in!ascendancy!as!the!movement!fades!away.!

The!second!movement,!Games,!can!be!heard!as!a!parody!on!life,!where!people!are!
set!against!each!other,!whether!this!be!physically!in!sport,!or!children’s!games,!or!
psychologically!in!politics,!where!the!Games!can!take!on!a!different!dimension.!
The!movement!has!no!improvisation!section,!so!the!notation!is!to!be!followed!as!
written.!In!addition,!there!is!no!indication!to!‘swing’,!all!of!which!was!deliberate!
on!Bryce’s!part.!He!often!in!conversation!reflected!on!aspects!of!life,!but!usually!
as!gentle!commentary,!and!never!directly!indicated!that!the!piece!should!be!any!
more!than!it!appeared.!However,!he!did!like!the!slightly!‘crazy’!elements!in!the!
performance,!such!as!the!extra!‘bite’!given!in!performance!to!the!single,!fast!and!
accented!güiro!strokes!such!as!in!the!sixth!bar!after!A.!The!faster!section,!from!D!
to!eight!bars!before!F,!could!be!heard!simply!as!more!lightThearted,!or!as!
something!more!sinister.!As!the!score!gives!no!clues!as!to!whether!a!more!
sinister!interpretation!was!appropriate,!either!interpretation!is!valid.!!

The!‘prank’!of!the!third!movement!is!the!suggestion!in!the!opening!phrase!that!
the!two!vibraphones!will!be!in!opposition!to!each!other,!over!the!grating!sound!
of!the!bowed!cymbal,!engaging!in!argument.!The!listener!then!steels!her/himself!
for!a!conversation!of!conflict.!By!the!fifth!bar!however,!they!are!playing!
‘harmoniously’!together,!and!continue!in!that!vein!through!most!of!the!piece!(see!
ex.!5.24).!Even!the!two!improvisational!sections!are!in!the!same!“easy!swing!
feel”,462!conveying!similar!moods.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
462 !Composer’s!direction!at!letter!D,!bar!15!

272!!
 !
Ex.!5.24!Opening!third!mvt,!Bryce!Pranks,!bars!1T8!

The!work!overall!is!ostensibly!a!simple!piece!as!it!does!not!have!high!technical!
demands!and!as!such!might!be!seen!as!contributing!very!little!to!the!repertoire.!
However,!as!the!first!jazz!piece!for!a!mixed!percussion!only!ensemble!it!does!
open!a!door!for!the!genre!by!introducing!some!new!instruments!such!as!
flexatone,!derabucca!and!tubophone,!highlights!the!importance!of!developing!
improvisational!skills;!and!explores!new!ranges!of!sound!sources!such!as!bowing!
and!bending!xylophone!notes.!In!the!area!of!technique!there!is!an!obvious!
transference!of!skills!from!jazz!into!classical!along!with!the!extension!of!nonT
percussive!techniques.!It!also!requires!careful!consideration!of!issues!of!logistics!
and!aesthetics!of!the!presentation.!Its!simplicity!moreover!should!not!blind!the!
performer!to!the!idea!that!it!can!offer!possibly!biting!insights!into!life!as!
exemplified!by!the!Games!movement.!Finally,!the!simplicity!of!the!work!also!
carries!with!it!the!implicit!thought!that!simplicity!of!concept!can!best!be!
enunciated!through!a!perceived!and!real!ease!in!its!realisation,!through!a!relaxed!
approach!of!technique.!

! 273!
!

5.4*David*Morgan*Loss(for(Percussion(Quartet*

In!1982!David!Morgan!wrote!Loss!for!Percussion!Quartet,!a!work!that!was!
inspired!by!two!kinds!of!loss.!Solidarity,!the!Polish!trade!union,!had!been!crushed!
after!only!just!a!year!from!inception;463!and!the!brother!of!a!close!friend!of!the!
composer’s!had!died!in!mysterious!circumstances!at!age!28.!These!two!events!
were!linked!as!they!both!concerned!death!at!an!early!age.!The!first!was!the!
demise!and!death!of!a!significant!trade!union,!which!wanted!to!protect!the!rights!
of!the!vulnerable!workers!and!improve!their!living!conditions.!However,!the!
movement!grew!beyond!its!original!charter!to!demand!more!honest!and!
transparent!government!to!counteract!abuses!in!the!system.!The!‘Strike!Poet’!
declaimed!on!the!‘Strike!Radio’!in!the!town!of!Rzeszów!previous!government!
attempts!to!keep!workers!silent!on!abuses.!

The!times!are!past!
when!they!closed!our!mouths!
with!sausage.464!

Morgan’s!empathy!with!the!workers’!demise!and!the!despair!he!felt!at!the!
pessimistic!outcome!that!ensued!was!made!palpable!to!me!in!a!conversation!in!
1981.465!As!well,!with!the!everTgrowing!popularity!of!Solidarność!(Solidarity)!
threatening!the!Soviet!control!of!its!satellite!states,!it was!crushed!in!its!infancy!
just!over!a!year!after!it!began.466!Moreover!Morgan’s!commissioner’s!familial!
roots!were!in!Poland!and!so!both!personal!and!political!connections!to!Poland!
and!its!workers!were!forged,!thus!inspiring!his!response!in!Loss.!!

The!second!‘loss’!was!also!personal!in!that!it!related!to!the!enigmatic!death!of!a!
brother!of!a!dear!friend.!As!a!known!young!adult!his!loss!emphasised!the!despair!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
463 !At!the!time!the!crushing!of!Solidarity!seemed!permanent.!The!events!are!well!covered!by!
Timothy!Garton!Ash,!The(Polish(Revolution(1980[82,!London,!Jonathan!Cape,!1983.!The!
Introduction!gives!the!historical!context,!pp.!1T34.!
464 !Timothy!Garton!Ash,!op.cit.,!p.!128!

465 !At!the!time!we!worked!together!in!the!Music!Branch!of!the!Education!Dept!of!SA!and!often!
discussed!musical!and!other!matters.!The!drop!of!the!shoulders!that!accompanied!his!‘oh’!of!
disappointment!in!reaction!to!a!comment!of!mine!betrayed!his!depth!of!feeling!on!the!matter.!
466 !Timothy!Garton!Ash,!op.cit.,!pp.!343T349!(chronological!table!of!events).!!

274!!
of!unrealised!potential.!Personally!moved!by!both!these!events!Morgan!wrote!a!
representational!work!expressing!the!depth!of!emotions!surrounding!them,!and!
to!portray!them!in!a!number!of!contexts.!This!concept!of!‘loss’!as!reflected!in!the!
score!will!be!examined!in!terms!of!the!implications!for!technique!and!
performance.!

The!work!is!in!five!movements!entitled,!Battery,(Funeral(Music,(Requiem,(Cloud(
Cuckoo(Land(and(Fons(Amoris,!with!the!fifth!movement!as!long!as!the!first!four.!
The!first!four!movements!deal!with!life!and!death!on!earth,!while!the!fifth!alludes!
to!adjusting!to!life!after!death,!with!the!power!of!love!being!central!to!
restoration.!The!first!movement,!Battery!is,!according!to!the!composer,!‘Short,!
rhythmic!and!emotionally!detached’.467!

On!a!superficial!level!this!description!of!the!movement!is!correct,!but!a!closer!
examination!reveals!a!deeper!narrative,!and!one!more!closely!related!to!the!title!
of!the!work.!The!movement!begins!with!snippets!of!tunes!on!marimba,!
xylophone,!vibraphone!and!glockenspiel,!all!reminiscent!of!birdsong,468!and!
followed!by!slow!tamTtam!strokes!at!a!piano!dynamic.!Thus!the!opening!scene!is!
ostensibly!set!for!a!pastoral!idyll!where!life!is!harmonious!and!unsurprising!(see!
ex.!5.25).!!

However,!the!tamTtam’s!soft,!long!and!lone!sound!of!some!thirteen!bars!
underscores!the!imminent!violence!of!an!unexpected!event!portrayed!in!the!next!
phrase!by!the!snare!drum,!used!to!presage!the!coming!disaster!of!death!(see!exs.!
5.26!T!5.29).!!
!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
467 !David!Morgan,!Loss,!1982,!manuscript,!program!notes!
468 !Morgan!was!acutely!aware!of!the!number!and!variety!of!birds!in!his!garden!at!Glenelg!North!
(a!seaside!suburb!of!Adelaide),!and!in!conversation!often!referred!to!their!songs!as!a!source!of!
inspiration.!!

! 275!
 !
Ex.!5.25!Opening,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!1T21!

This!serenity!however,!is!rudely!fractured!by!the!entry!of!a!martial!motif!on!the!
snare!drum!at!a!fortissimo!dynamic,!and!repeated!nine!times.!The!snare!drum!

rhythm!at!Tempo(Giusto!of!w!=!76,!though!martial,!is!not!a!march.!!

Rather,!it!is!the!menacing!presence!of!imminent!death.!It!can!allude!to!the!
massing!of!troops!to!violently!crush!a!protest,!or!the!shock!and!horror!of!the!
unexpected!death!of!a!loved!one.!Against!this!bellicose!rhythm!(snare!drum,!
stave!two)!are!heard!the!softer!metal!sounds!of!the!tamTtam!(stave!one),!cup!
gongs!(stave!three)!and!glockenspiel!(stave!four),!though!not!in!the!gentle!
harmonies!of!the!initial!birdsong.!Instead,!they!produce!more!jarring!sounds,!
suggesting!a!confusion!of!normality!disrupted,!an!abnormality!in!the!timing!of!
events,!even!possibly!nature!itself!being!affronted!by!the!events!(see!ex.!5.28).!

276!!
And!symbolically!the!birdsong!has!disappeared!to!be!replaced!by!the!
disorientation!of!harmony!lost.!

!
Ex.!5.26!Snare!drum!martial!motif,!Morgan!Battery!bars!22T25!(motif!repeated!across!
bars!22T63,!player!2)!
!

!
Ex.!5.27!six!cup!gongs,!Morgan!Battery!(motif!repeated!across!bars!30T62,!player!3)!
!

!
Ex.!5.28!glockenspiel,!p.!2!Morgan!Battery!(motif!repeated!across!bars!35T62,!player!4)!
!

!
Ex.!5.29!TamTtam,!snare!drum,!cup!gongs,!glockenspiel,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!30T36!

The!sudden!drop!in!dynamic!for!the!snare!drum,!itself!muffled!(see!ex.!5.30)!at!
bar!64!to!ppp(quasi(niente!is!a!dramatic!introduction!to!the!piano,(Lento!section,!
in!which!the!marimba!plays!a!fragment!of!the!previous!glockenspiel!motif!
creating!the!expectation!or!pressing!desire!to!return!to!the!idyll!of!the!birdsong!
(see!ex.!5.31).!!

! 277!
 !
Ex.!5.30!ppp!snare!drum,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!64T65!
!

!
Ex.!5.31!Marimba!entry,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!70T71!
!
But!after!eight!bars!this!gentle!sound!is!drowned!out!by!the!return!of!the!snare!
drum!and!cup!gongs!shattering!all!illusions!and!insisting!on!the!return!to!reality!
(see!ex.!5.32).!There!will!be!no!escaping!the!horror!of!loss.!

!
Ex.!5.32!‘Shattering!of!illusions’,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!74T78!

A!variation!of!the!martial!rhythm!returns!at!bar!103!in!3/4,!this!time!with!snares!
off.!Set!against!it,!the!glockenspiel!and!xylophone!play!the!same!motif!in!9/8,!but!
in!rhythmic!juxtaposition!to!each!other,!and!joined!by!the!timpani!playing!in!6/8!
to!reinforce!the!insistent!presence!of!the!military!menace!(see!ex.!5.33).!

278!!
 !
Ex.!5.33!Martial!motif!at!faster!tempo,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!102T112!

The!implied!violence!of!the!dynamic!and!motifs!increases!in!intensity!as!all!four!
players!gradually!move!to!untuned!instruments!and!continue!this!martial!
atmosphere,!building!the!threat!and!insisting!the!victims’!attention!be!given!to!
the!intimidating!action!(see!ex.!5.34).!

! 279!
 !
!Ex.!!5.34!Build!up!of!tension,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!126T131!

The!release!of!tension!with!the!return!of!the!xylophone!and!vibraphone!playing!
the!glockenspiel!motif!only!serves!to!provide!a!hiatus!before!the!climax!of!the!
movement,!or!moment!of!death,!in!bars!149T150!(see!ex.!5.35).!

Ex.!5.35!Moment!of!death!(bar!149),!Morgan!Battery,!bars!145T150!

The!death,!of!both!the!young!man!and!the!trade!union,!is!sudden,!and!in!itself!
complete,!palpably!shown!in!the!silence!of!the!two!beats!rest.!However,!in!the!
greater!scheme!any!one!death!is!but!an!incidental!event!followed!by!the!
aftermath,!usually!emotionally!muted.!So!the!glockenspiel,!supported!by!
vibraphone!and!marimba,!reiterates!its!motif!over!a!pianissimo!martial!theme!on!

280!!
snare!drum!(see!ex.!5.36).!The!vibraphone!continues!its!chordal!variation!of!this!
motif!over!Woodblock,!timpani,!and!tamTtam,!and!all!at!a!piano!dynamic!to!the!
end!of!the!movement.!This!section!however,!does!not!signify!a!return!to!the!
pastoral!idyll!suggested!at!the!beginning!of!the!movement.!Instead!it!represents!
the!immediate!time!after!death,!when!the!forces!of!circumstance!and!the!
emotions!of!people!become!aligned!to!the!expectations!of!the!postTdeath!event!of!
the!Funeral.!

!
Ex.!5.36!Reiteration!of!tuned!motifs!over!snare!drum,!time!after!death,!Morgan!Battery,!
bars!145T158!

The!second!movement,!Funeral(Music,!is!based!on!the!style!of!the!Marche(
Funèbre!from!Chopin’s!Piano!Sonata!No.2!in!Bb!minor,469!and!is!an!obvious!
allusion!to!the!Polish!situation!of!the!crushing!of!Solidarity!under!Communist!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
469 !Chopin!wrote!the!Funeral(March!in!November!1838,!which!was!the!anniversary!of!one!of!the!
most!tragic!events!in!Polish!19th!century!history–!the!November!Uprising.!Wojciech!Oleksiak,!
Breaking(it(Down:(Chopin's(Sonata(No.(2,!http://culture.pl/en/article/breakingTitTdownTchopinsT
sonataTnoT2!accessed!4!April!2016!

! 281!
direction.!This!was!made!poignant!by!the!very!clear!connections,!firstly!with!
Chopin’s!Polish!roots!and!secondly,!that!he!wrote!this!movement!of!the!Sonata!
on!the!anniversary!of!the!quashing!by!Russian!troops!of!the!Polish!rebellion!
against!the!Tsar!in!1831.!These!historic!parallels!heighten!the!intensity!of!the!
narrative!drama!of!Loss.!

However!Morgan’s!aim!in!using!this!motif!is!to!mirror!death!and!not!
particularize!it!only!to!Solidarity.!And!so!both!types!of!death!are!encompassed–
political!and!personal.!He!further!portrays!three!narrative!funereal!elements!
relevant!to!the!deaths!of!both!Solidarity!and!the!young!man.!These!are!the!
funeral!itself,!the!despondent!movement!away!from!the!grave!or!the!location!
where!Solidarity!met!its!demise,!and!the!emotions!connected!to!the!grief.!These!
are!the!inspirations!for!the!reflective!musical!elements!of!orchestration,!as!well!
as!the!musical!flow!and!contrast.!!

Morgan!simultaneously!treats!these!funereal!elements!of!national!and!personal!
mourning!and!grief.!He!also!contextualises!them!in!a!nebulous!set!of!
circumstances!that!lacks!finality,!because!in!both!instances!the!people!are!left!in!
a!state!of!uncertainty!and!the!situations!lack!resolution.(The(Solidarity!trade!
union!was!crushed!without!formal!surrender!and!the!brother!died!in!mysterious!
circumstances.!Consequently,!Morgan!intertwines!these!two!events!in!a!collage!
of!musical!motifs,!overlaying!the!sorrow!of!the!Chopinesque!Funeral(March!with!
the!tenor!drum!slow!march!and!measured!footsteps!of!the!marimba’s!quarter!
notes!and!underpinned!by!the!lingering!darkness!of!atmosphere!on!bass!drum!
and!tamTtam.!This!is!established!in!the!opening!four!bars!!(see!ex.!5.37).!

282!!
 !
Ex.!5.37!Opening!Morgan!Funeral(Music!bars!1T4!

Morgan!accentuates!the!sadness!that!accompanies!the!loss!of!loved!ones!setting!
a!poignant!melody!over!the!military!slow!march!on!drums!and!the!marimba’s!
footsteps.!He!achieves!this!by!stretching!the!melody!across!the!common!time!
signature,!giving!the!vibraphone!its!own!set!of!time!signatures!of!7/8!and!6/8;!
and!is!guided!in!this!by!his!belief!that!particular!time!signatures!determine!the!
playing!style!(see!ex.!5.38).470!For!the!players!this!presents!challenges!of!timing!
and!ensemble!that!need!to!be!met!before!the!phrase!can!be!thought!of!in!terms!of!
interpretation.!The!rhythm!of!each!part!needs!to!be!mastered!within!the!longer!
phrase!and!with!an!awareness!of!the!other!parts;!and!the!whole!performed!at!a!
soft!dynamic!to!convey!the!grief!at!the!loss.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
470 !He!iterated!this!belief!in!discussions!during!the!compositional!process!and!during!rehearsals,!
1981T3!and!the!issue!was!debated!among!the!players.!

! 283!
 !

Ex.!5.38!Juxtaposition!of!time!signatures,!Morgan!Funeral(music!figures!D!and!E!

The!outward!manifestations!of!grief!in!the!melodic!lines!of!marimba!and!
vibraphone!are!under!laid!with!the!emotional!turmoil!of!the!drums!and!higher!
melodic!instruments.!This!juxtaposition!of!internal!confusion!and!external!order!
is!emphatically!stated!with!a!scoring!over!three!time!signatures.!The!
recapitulation!in!3/2!of!the!original!melody!on!the!vibraphone!is!set!against!a!
series!of!descending!diminished!chords!on!marimba!in!3/4,!arpeggiated!on!
glockenspiel!in!6/8,!and!juxtaposed!against!a!6/8!pattern!on!Drums!(see!ex.!
5.39).!So!again,!matters!of!timing!and!ensemble!arise,!though!are!simpler!to!
resolve.!Nonetheless,!the!movement!of!the!music!is!different!in!these!various!
time!signatures,!so!each!player!needs!to!master!her/his!own!part!and!then!be!
aware!of!the!other!parts!in!order!to!fit!seamlessly!with!them.!

284!!
 !
Ex.!5.39!Emotional!turmoil,!Morgan!Funeral(music!figures!F!and!G!

The!roles!of!vibraphone!and!marimba!interchange,!and!the!glockenspiel!provides!
an!ethereal!counterpoint!before!all!parts!coalesce!in!4/4!and!forcefully!declaim!
the!Marche!Funèbre!(see!ex.!5.40).!

!
Ex.!5.40!‘Metal!beaters!on!vibraphone’,!Morgan!Funeral(music!figure!H!

! 285!
Moreover,!Morgan!is!aware!that!grief!comes!in!a!variety!of!forms,!and!uses!the!
timpani!and!xylophone!to!express!this!(see!ex.!5.41).!The!xylophone!phrases!
ascend!in!minor!seconds!to!climax!on!diminished!or!seventh!chords!before!
finishing!in!similar!style!at!a!softer!dynamic.!The!timpani!begin!with!the!military!
funeral!march!on!C,!ascend!to!Gb!and!roll!in!a!downward!glissando!to!F.!The!
effect!is!representative!of!a!welling!up!of!emotion!before!a!slight!release!
precedes!the!next!welling!up.!!

!
Ex.!5.41!Welling!up!of!emotion,!Morgan!Funeral(music!timpani!(bottom!stave),!figure!I!

A!series!of!these!waves!of!emotion!bring!back!the!Marche!Funèbre!at!ff!before!
softer!tears!are!heard!on!marimba,!xylophone!and!glockenspiel!against!snatches!
of!the!Marche!Funèbre!as!the!movement!gradually!fades!to!a!calm!resolution!
(see!ex.!5.42).!

286!!
 !
Ex.!5.42!Expressions!of!grief,!Morgan!Funeral(music!figures!MTO!

A!fortissimo!low!tamTtam!note!heralds!the!Day!of!Wrath!in!the!third!movement,!
the!Requiem.!The!hubbub!of!anguished!souls!is!depicted!on!the!timpani!and!tomT
toms!and!is!followed!by!the!‘gnashing!of!the!teeth’!as!the!small!tamTtam!is!
scraped!with!a!triangle!beater!(see!ex.!5.43).!

! 287!
 !
Ex.!5.43!Opening!Morgan!Requiem!bars!1T17!

The!judgement!and!condemnation!of!these!souls!is!emphasised!on!the!small!bass!
drum!before!being!taken!up!by!the!other!drums,!with!the!occasional!glimmer!of!
happiness!heard!from!the!triangle!(see!ex.!5.44).!

288!!
 !
Ex.5.44!Judgement!and!condemnation!on!bass!drum,!Morgan!Requiem!bars!19T22!

The!judgement!climaxes!with!an!ffff!tamTtam!note!and!the!Dies(Irae!is!pounded!
on!the!timpani!as!the!tomTtoms!and!snare!drum!emphasise!further!the!
condemnation!(see!ex.!5.45).!

!
!Ex.!5.45!Climax!of!judgement!and!Dies(Irae,!Morgan!Requiem!bars!32T35!

No!relief!is!offered!by!the!ascending,!incomplete!scale!passages!on!the!tuned!
instruments,!which!revert!to!descending!passages!announcing!the!descent!of!the!
souls!into!hell!as!the!tubular!bells!more!deliberately!toll!out!the!Dies(Irae!(see!
exs.!5.46!and!5.47).!

! 289!
 !
Ex.!5.46!Ascending!scale!passages,!Morgan!Requiem,!bars!36T41!

!
Ex.!5.47!Descending!scale!passages,!Morgan(Requiem,!bars!51T61!

290!!
This!is!followed!by!the!day!of!battle,!Dies(Belli,!between!the!forces!of!good!and!
evil,!whether!these!forces!be!external!as!the!human!combatants!in!the!demise!of!
Solidarity,!or!internal!in!the!soul!of!a!recently!departed!loved!one.!In!either!case!
the!battle!intensifies!with!the!addition!of!more!snare!drums!over!the!constant!
pounding!of!the!bass!drum!in!a!quick!march!(see!ex.!5.48).!

!
Ex.!5.48!Dies(Belli!‘Day!of!Battle’,!Morgan!Requiem!bars!77T!86!

The!march!is!interspersed!with!the!movement!of!people,!depicted!on!tomTtoms,!
woodblocks!and!templeblocks,!and!a!brief!respite!from!conflict!on!the!keyboard!
instruments!at!piano!volume!before!the!battle’s!conclusion!and!segue!into!the!
Rex(Tremendae,!acclaiming!the!glory!of!the!Great!King.!!

The!battle!is!over,!the!Funeral!March!concludes,!judgement!is!pronounced!and!
the!spirits!pass!into!eternal!light,!Lux(Aeterna!and!rest,!Requiem(Aeternum(In(
Paradisum.!The!Lux(Aeterna,!Requiem(Aeternum!and(In(Paradisum!are!notated!for!
the!ethereal!sounds!of!vibraphone!and!glockenspiel!and!call!for!the!other!two!
players!to!chant!the!words!in!time.!In!total!contrast!to!the!rest!of!the!movement!
this!last!section!is!very!calm!and!quiet,!resonating!the!peace!of!spiritual!
resolution!(see!ex.!5.49).!

! 291!
 !

Ex.!5.49!Acclaiming!the!glory!of!the!Great!King!and!coming!of!eternal!Light,!Morgan!
Requiem!bars!151T161!

With!the!funeral!behind,!Morgan!moves!the!attention!of!the!listener!to!those!
affected.!The!loss!of!the!young!man!unfurls!deep,!unresolved!grief!with!questions!
unanswered!and!an!inexorable!void!left!by!his!departure.!Similarly,!the!loss!of!a!
powerful!force!in!society!like!Solidarity!leaves!a!vacuum.!Musically,!Morgan!
expresses!this!as!an!existence!in!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!a!place!or!time!of!
suspension!of!reality,!where!the!consciousness,!either!personal!or!communal,!is!
totally!disoriented!and!almost!fringing!on!madness,!with!the!Australian!
colloquialism!for!it!being!‘cuckoo’.!The!movement!begins!with!the!sound!of!the!
cuckoo!on!xylophone!and!marimba!with!an!extra!tension!of!‘shuffling’!sixteenth!
notes!on!the!tubo!(metal!shaker).!An!attempt!to!create!a!melody!on!vibraphone!
also!slides!into!a!cuckoo!interval!where!it!is!joined!by!a!cuckoo!whistle!and!the!

292!!
grating!effect!of!the!guiro.!This!disorder!increases!in!volume!and!degenerates!
into!a!cacophony!of!sounds!of!whistles,!sirens,!catcalls,!jeers!and!shouts!followed!
by!a!sudden!and!so!dramatic!silence!of!one!beat!(see!ex.!5.50).!This!derisiveness!
is!directly!called!for!by!Morgan!who!states,!‘The!general!dynamic!to!be!forte,!the!
effect!irritating!and!derisive’.471!

!
Ex.!5.50!Emotional!turmoil,!Morgan!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!bars!16T26!

The!sense!of!order!that!returns!in!bar!27!is!only!illusory.!The!figures!are!
rhythmic,!but!the!content!is!still!one!of!the!madness!of!cacophony.!Its!rhythmic!
constancy!merely!allows!an!even!crescendo!to!intensify!the!insanity!and!lead!to!a!
pounding,!cracking!hurricane!of!sound!to!beat!on!the!mind!(see!ex.!5.51).!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
471 !Playing!direction!from!the!composer!and!written!into!the!score.!David!Morgan,!Loss(for(
Percussion(Quartet,!manuscript!in!author’s!collection,!1982!

! 293!
 !

Ex.!5.51!Cacophony!of!madness,!Morgan!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!bars!27T40!

A!small!breathing!space!of!calm!very!quickly!turns!into!the!craziness!of!a!merryT
goTround!hurdyTgurdy!aptly!played!on!a!small!casio,!battery!powered!keyboard!
that!has!a!thin,!tinny!sound!lacking!in!substance.!This!evinces!a!state!of!
psychological!chaos,!an!effect!increased!by!the!accompaniment!on!imitation!toy!
drums.!The!drums!are!tuneable!drum!practice!pads!with!the!internal!foam!
removed!to!give!a!‘tinny’!approximation!of!the!sound!of!toy!drums,!as!
demonstrated!in!the!video!(appendix!B).!This!also!overcomes!the!difficulty!of!
mounting!actual!toy!drums!and!so!the!analogy!of!almost!chaotic!childTlike!
retreat!into!temporary!madness!gives!no!respite!from!the!grieving!(see!ex.!5.52).!

! !

294!!
 !

!
Ex.!5.52!More!craziness,!on!casio!and!toy!drum,!Morgan!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!bars!41T59!

The!movement!ends,!after!a!quick!farewell!from!the!cuckoo,!with!two!very!loud!
‘cuckoo’!chords!followed!by!a!stroke!on!two!tamTtams!that!is!to!die!away!of!its!
own!accord.!This!is!a!very!strict!instruction!from!the!composer!to!enhance!the!
moment!of!emotional!transformation!from!chaos!to!cessation!that!occurs!
naturally!within!the!grieving!process!(see!ex.!5.53).!

So,!after!an!extended!rollerTcoaster!emotional!period,!where!grief!and!the!sense!
of!disorientation!interspersed!with!even!madness,!may!seem!interminable!and!
without!relief,!and!where!the!vacuum!created!by!the!departed!entity!appears!
almost!endless,!it!all!suddenly!stops.!After!a!long!period!the!emotional!intensity!
just!evaporates;!and!this!was!scrupulously!reflected!in!the!musical!dynamic,!
structure!and!flow!by!Morgan.!

! 295!
 !

Ex.5.53!Closing!bars,!Morgan!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!bars!60T70!

The!final!movement,!Fons(Amoris,!has!as!a!heading,!a!quote!from!John!Donne!
“…’twas!but!a!dream!of!thee.”472!!

The!movement!is!in!Morgan’s!words!“evocative!of!the!consolation!and!power!of!
love”.473!

As!such!it!is!a!counterTbalance!to!the!previous!four!movements,!which!are!
concerned!with!the!loss!of!love,!of!life,!of!freedom,!and!therefore!it!is!fifteen!
minutes!long!T!as!long!as!the!previous!four!combined!(see!ex.!5.54).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
472 !John!Donne!The(Good[Morrow,!a!song!to!Anne!More,!who!he!secretly!married!in!1601.!

473 !David!Morgan,!Loss,!1982,!manuscript,!program!notes!

296!!
 !

Ex.5.54!Opening!of!Morgan!Fons(Amoris,!bars!1T16!

Philosophically!this!idea!seems!logical!and!satisfying.!However,!it!is!difficult!to!
maintain!interest!over!such!a!long!period!of!time,!and!Morgan!was!probably!too!
close!emotionally!to!the!events!that!inspired!the!work!to!be!able!to!inject!any!
lightness!into!this!movement.!Consequently!it!seems!repetitious!of!the!same!
theme!at!a!slow!tempo!and!generally!soft!dynamic!exacerbating!the!long!
tremulous!intervals!between!changes!of!mood.!In!the!first!hundred!bars!there!
are!only!a!few!interjections!at!mf!or!f!levels.!Perhaps!the!tension!created!by!this!
nearly!six!minutes!of!soft,!gentle!atmosphere!of!stillness!is!the!reason!behind!the!
crescendo!from!p!in!bar!101!to!fff!in!bar!107!and!scream!in!bar!111!before!
returning!to!the!placidity!of!the!previous!dynamic!(see!ex.!5.55).474!Grief!too,!
often!returns!at!unexpected!moments!to!interrupt!the!muted!calm!of!the!new!
situation.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
474 !Morgan’s!comment!to!me!was!that!“I!just!felt!at!that!point!that!I!had!to!scream.”!

! 297!
 !
Ex.5.55!ff!interjection!and!scream,!Morgan!Fons(Amoris,!bars!107T117!

The!movement!continues!in!similar!gentle!vein,!as!life!does,!broken!by!occasional!
interjections!of!forte!phrases!seen!in!bars!such!as!144T5!(see!ex.!5.56)!and!again!
in!bars!159T164!(see!ex.!5.57).!

298!!
 !
Ex.!5.56!forte!interjection,!Morgan!Fons(Amoris,!bars!144T146!

!!

!
Ex.5.57!fff!interjection(Morgan(Fons(Amoris,!bars!159T164!

! 299!
The!only!other!noticeable!change!of!mood!occurs!at!bar!247!with!the!
introduction!of!greater!movement!into!the!piece!on!glockenspiel!(stave!1)!and!
tubophone!(stave!2)!introducing!a!slightly!lighter!vein!(see!ex.!5.58),!though!in!
reality!there!is!little!change!to!the!overall!mood!or!sound.!

Ex.!5.58!Brief!change!of!mood,!Morgan!Fons(Amoris,!bars!247T254!

At!bar!259!the!gentleness!resumes!till!290!(see!ex.!5.59),!at!which!point!the!
glockenspiel!and!vibraphone!have!moving!parts!till!almost!the!end!at!a!slower!

tempo!of!e!=!72.!

300!!
 !
Ex.!5.59!End!of!piece,!Morgan!Fons(Amoris,!bars!296T299!

However,!even!with!those!few!interjections!the!mood!is!generally!unchanging,!
and!at!fifteen!minutes!is!too!long!to!maintain!interest.!A!movement!of!five!to!
seven!minutes!would!amply!depict!the!‘power!of!love’.!

5.4.1*Performance*challenges*

This!piece!was!Morgan’s!first!for!percussion!ensemble!and!was!commissioned!as!
part!of!a!plan!to!encourage!Australian!composers!to!write!for!this!medium,!in!
order!to!produce!a!significant!body!of!such!Australian!compositions.!So!as!to!

! 301!
have!as!broad!a!range!of!pieces!as!possible,!few!restrictions!were!imposed!on!the!
composers!save!an!indication!of!the!instruments!that!were!available,!sometimes!
an!idea!of!duration,!and!an!encouragement!to!write!in!their!own!style.!It!was!also!
agreed!that!there!would!be!as!much!collaboration!and!feedback!in!the!process!as!
the!composers!and!performers!felt!was!necessary.!

Such!an!approach!presented!a!number!of!challenges!for!performance.!Firstly,!the!
most!obvious!was!the!number!of!instruments!used.!In!this!piece,!Morgan!scored!
for!some!seventyTfive!instruments.!.!Furthermore,!the!piece!introduced!the!idea!
of!multiples!of!the!same!instruments,!with!multiple!bass!drums,!snare!drums,!
tamTtams!and!woodblocks!adding!a!greater!depth!to!the!soundscape!of!the!work.!
As!a!result,!the!relative!timbres!of!each!of!these!instruments!emphasise!the!
intricacies!of!nuance!of!sound!and!highlight!the!relationship!between!the!tuning!
of!each!instrument!and!its!place!within!the!sound!spectrum.!These!details!of!
instrumentation!place!the!work!out!of!reach!of!most!players!outside!of!
institutions,!as!even!orchestras!would!not!necessarily!have!those!numbers!or!
types!of!instruments.!

Secondly,!the!nature!of!the!instruments!could!present!challenges.!The!work!was!
written!specifically!for!Adelaide(Percussions!and!the!instruments!in!their!
collective!possession.!So!instruments!such!as!tubophone,!cup!gongs!(trompong)!
and!wind!machine!would!not!be!readily!available!to!all!ensembles.!The!
tubophone!was!home!made.475!The!wind!machine!was!also!a!homemade!
instrument,!and!the!cup!gongs!were!a!set!of!Balinese!trompong!for!which!a!stand!
was!made.!Although!tubophones!are!no!longer!produced,!crotales!or!a!second!
glockenspiel!could!be!used,!as!the!range!is!the!same.!There!would!be!a!loss!of!
resonance,!but!this!is!not!crucial!to!the!ambience!of!the!piece;!and!using!a!
slightly!softer!set!of!beaters!would!give!added!contrast.!If!a!wind!machine!were!
not!available,!a!gently!played!thunder!tube!would!be!an!acceptable!substitute,!as!
would!any!set!of!six!gongs,!preferably!small!to!medium,!to!generally!replicate!the!
trompong.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
475 !The!instrument!was!based!on!the!measurements!of!the!instrument!in!the!Percussion!
Department!at!Indiana!University.!

302!!
Like!the!Bryce!Suite,!Loss!also!had!an!effect!on!playing!technique.!Morgan!also!
scored!the!tubophone,!so!the!same!issues!of!playing!action!apply!here!as!well!as!
to!the!Bryce.!Moreover,!Morgan!extended!the!technique,!with!triadic!chords!and!
moving!passages!(se!ex.!5.60).(

Ex.!5.60!Tubophone,!Morgan!Fons(Amoris,!bars!225T234!

In!the!third!and!fourth!movements,!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!Morgan!calls!for!whistles,!
catcalls,!and!other!derisive!sounds,!a!direction!that!demands!the!players!suspend!
any!personal!or!musical!inhibitions!and!embarrassments!T!anything!less!than!a!
full!commitment!to!the!direction!nullifies!the!effect!(see!ex.!5.61).!

Ex.!5.61!Whistles!and!derisive!noises,!Morgan!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!bar!25T26!

In!addition!the!vocal!sounds!also!need!to!be!made!while!playing!certain!
instruments,!involving!an!extra!level!of!coordination,!and!one!not!usually!called!
for!(see!ex.!5.62).!

! 303!
 !

Ex.!5.62!p!Coordinating!voice!and!instrument,!Morgan!Cloud(Cuckoo(Land,!bar!27T33!

As!both!need!to!be!clearly!and!convincingly!articulated,!this!demand!is!a!definite!
extension!of!technique,!which!also!impacts!on!visual!aesthetics!of!presenting!this!
derisive,!irritating!annoyance.!Similarly!the!chanting!in!the!Requiem!also!needs!
to!convincingly!impart!an!ethereal!atmosphere!(see!5.63).!In!both!examples!a!
direct!and!personal!connection!needs!to!be!made!between!the!players!and!the!
audience!that!is!not!reliant!on!the!intercession!of!instrumental!presence.!

!
Ex.!5.63!Chanting,!Morgan!Requiem,!bars!165T170!

Moreover,!in!the!Requiem!in!bars!54T67!the!xylophone!and!marimba!players!
have!to!play!a!motif!of!five!eighth!notes!in!a!repeated!pattern!(eighteen!times)!

playing!double!stops!of!sevenths!at!a!tempo!of! =!84!at!a!forte!dynamic!(see!
ex.!5.64).!

304!!
 !
!Ex.!5.64!Parallel!motion!in!sevenths,!Morgan!Requiem,!bars!52T56!

While!not!impossible,!at!the!time!of!writing!this!technique!of!such!speed!of!
execution!was!not!evident!in!the!repertoire.!To!achieve!the!desired!effect!of!the!
violent!passage!of!the!soul!into!hell!required!dedicated!practice!of!upstroke!
playing!action!using!full!wrist!movement!to!play!the!notes!and!arm!movement!to!
move!across!the!notes.!Only!with!this!full!action!is!it!possible!to!produce!the!
necessary!sound.!This!level!of!playing!is!now!an!accepted!part!of!a!
percussionist’s!technical!armoury.!

A!further!challenge!presented!by!the!piece!concerned!the!physical!movements!of!
the!players!caused!by!the!need!to!incorporate!fast!changes!between!instruments!
without!interrupting!the!flow!or!atmosphere!of!the!music.!For!example,!Player!3!
in!the!second!movement!needs!to!change!from!xylophone!to!glockenspiel!and!
then!to!snare!drum/bass!drum,!with!the!moves!befitting!the!dignity!of!a!funereal!
atmosphere!(see!ex.!5.65).!

! 305!
 ˙. œ
π
(q»q)
÷ 45 Ó c œj ‰ Œ
C D
Ó j‰ Œ Ó
8
3
˙.
large tam tam

w œ
π
88 œ œ bœ
43 œ b œ œ œ b œ œ b œ œ b œ œæ.
F

÷ ∑ c
15 E xylo
2 4
&
nœ.
p
œœ ˙
&œ b œ œ b œ œ b œ œ b œ œ b œ œæ. 45 n ˙ 88 j ‰ Œ ‰ ≈. #œ. #œ. nœ.
G

˙˙æ.
23 glock

œ p # œ. œ.
nœ. æ . pœ
ƒ
j Œ œ œ œ . œ ˙æ
sd

&Œ Œ ‰ ≈. #œ. #œ. œ. c N˙ œœ ‰ Œ ∑

26 H
÷
# œ. œ. ˙ Ó œ œ. œ
(bd) f

ƒ ƒ ƒ f
Œ œ . œ æ
˙ Œ œ . œ æ
˙ Œ œœœ œ ˙æ œ . œ œæ &
÷Ó œ œ. œ Ó . œ œ. œ Ó
30

œ œ. œ Ó Œ œ. œ
œ œ œ œ œœ

f f f ƒ
j
&Œ ‰ nœ bœ bœ œ
I

j ‰ Œ Ó ∑
34 glock

p bœ œ

n œ b œ n œ b œ n œ n b œœ b œ b œ bœ nœ bœ bœ
& ≈ bœ nœ nœ bœ æ n œJ ≈ n œ n œ b œ n œ n œ nœ
37 xylo

æ nœ
p f npœ f J
n œ b œ n œ n b œœ b œ bœ nœ œ
!
n œ b œ nœ b œ n œ nœ bœ
n œ b œ æ b œ n œ
Ex.!5.65!Changing!instruments!as!edited,!between!xylophone,!glockenspiel,!and!
& ≈ nœ bœ J ≈ nœ bœ nœ bœ
39

snare/bass!drum,!Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figures!E!to!I! æ J
p f p f
The!first!change!at!letter!G!is!not!difficult!if!the!glockenspiel!can!be!set!up!near!
the!xylophone,!because!the!same!mallets!can!be!used!for!both.!It!would!also!help!
if!there!were!two!glockenspiels,!as!Player!1!also!needs!access!to!one.!The!second!
change!is!a!little!more!awkward.!Snare!drum!sticks!are!needed!to!play!the!rolls!
on!the!snare!drum,!so!either!a!stick!change!needs!to!be!executed!or!snare!drum!
sticks!with!plastic!ends!used!for!the!whole!section!from!the!entry!of!the!
xylophone.!Moreover,!if!only!one!snare!/tenor!drum/!tomTtoms/pedal!bass!
drum!set!up!is!used!there!needs!to!be!a!quick!change!between!Players!1!and!3!at!
rehearsal!letter!H!(see!ex.!5.66).!

306!!
 p œ. . œ. . œ. . œ. .
Pl. 3 ÷ ∑ ∑ 88 ∑ c ∑ ∑

œ œ . -
œ œ œ #œ œ. œ œ œ œ 8 œ œ œ3 œ œj œ œ c œ œ œ. œ œ #œ œ. œ œ œ œ
& J J 8 J J J
p p
Pl. 4

> > > >

3 œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œœ œœ 5
F 3 toms

÷ œœ œœ . œ œœ œœ . œ œœ œ œœ . œ ˙œæ 4 œœ . œœ . œœ . œœ . œœ . œœ . 4
20
j
Œ
Pl. 1 œœ œ

p
3 nœ b n œœ bœ 5
& ˙æ 4nœ æ
b n œœ b œæ œ b œœæ 4
b œœ b b œœ œœ œœ b œœ b b œœ æ æ œ æ
Pl. 2

. . . . . . ˙ p
œ œ bœ œ œ œ b œ œ b œ œ b œ œ b œ œ b œ œæ.
÷ ∑ ∑ 43 œ b œ œ œ b œ œ b œ œ b œ œæ. 45
xylo

&
nœ. nœ.
Pl. 3

p
œ- # œœœ 3 motor off
& œ œ œ œ œœœ œœ œ œœœ 4 nœ œ. ≈ œ nœ ≈ œ nœ ≈ œ 45
molto ten.

Jp #œ nœ nœ
p° * ° *
Pl. 4

° *
molto

> > > >

œ œ œœ œ œ œœ Œ œ œ
÷ 45 Ó 8 Œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ c œ Œ Œ
24 G toms/bd

8 œ
tam tam
Pl. 1
˙. œ œ œ œ œ

5 8 œ œœ n œæ œæ c
& 4 n ˙æ
n˙ ˙˙æ.
.
8 œœ œœ .. œœ œœ .. œ œœ .. œ œ ˙ ˙æ. œæ
˙. œ
Pl. 2

P æ
˙ j
& 45 n ˙ ˙æ.
88 j ‰ Œ ‰ ≈. #œ. #œ. nœ. Œ Œ ‰ ≈. #œ. #œ. œ. c N˙ œœ ‰ Œ
glock
÷
Pl. 3
æ ˙. œœ p # œ. œ. # œ. œ. ˙
p
œ œœ œ œ œœœ
˙ œ #œ œ œ bœ #œ œ œ bœ œ œ . œœ
5 8
espress. dolce

& 4 n˙ ˙ 8 œ b œ æ
n œ # œœ .. œ b œ æ
n œ # œœ .. c œœ n œ œ œ œ œ.
n˙ p
Pl. 4

÷ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ Œ œ Œ Ó Œ Ó
H timpani (hard sticks)
?
œ
28

>ƒ >
Pl. 1 œœ œœ

œœ ≈ œœ ˙˙ œœ ≈ œœ ˙˙
Pl. 2 & œœj ‰ œœ .. œœ œœ Œ Œ
æ
Œ
æ
ƒ
ƒ ƒ
Œ œ . œ ˙œæ Œ œ . œ ˙œæ
sd

Pl. 3 ÷ ∑ Ó
œœ
œ. œ Ó
œœ
œ. œ
(bd) f f
- n >œ b œ n œ b œ n >œ b œ n œ b œ n >œ b œ n œ >
nœ bœ nœ bœ nœ Ó n >œ b œ n œ b œ n >œ b œ n œ b œ n >œ b œ n œ >
nœ bœ nœ bœ nœ
& œJ ‰ œœ ≈ œœ œœ Œ Ó
- -
Pl. 4

ƒ !
-2-

Ex.!5.66!Sharing!instruments,!edited!part,!Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figures!FTH.!Player!1!
starts!the!page!on!tenor!drum/bass!drum.!476 !

All!these!changes,!even!if!quick,!need!to!either!be!imperceptible!or!appear!slow!
to!match!the!funereal!atmosphere.!As!Player!3!needs!to!return!to!glockenspiel!
and!xylophone,!the!second!option!of!doubleTended!beaters!is!preferable,!as!the!
change!would!not!appear!jarringly!out!of!context.!Alternately,!the!beaters!could!
be!changed!as!part!of!the!motion!in!playing!the!last!note!of!each!phrase.!Player!1!
would!need!to!use!snare!drum!sticks!with!a!hard!felt!end,!or!play!the!tenor!drum!
with!the!wooden!end!of!timpani!beaters.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
476 !David!Morgan,!Loss(for(Percussion(Quartet,!part!edited!by!author,!2000!

! 307!
 Loss
Player 1 II - Funeral Music
I - 4 timpani, 3 toms, tenor dr/bass drum, susp cym, tam tam

(q»q)
Then!the!sharing!of!the!instruments!needs!to!be!practised!to!effect!a!smooth!
David Morgan

q » §º
A

÷ 32 ∑ 45 ∑ c œ œ . œ ˙æ œ œ . œ ˙æ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ
Lento
changeover.!If!the!tomTtoms!can!be!set!up!on!a!high!and!separate!stand!above!
tenor drum (muffled)

p
and!behind!the!pedal!bass!drum,!they!and!the!pedal!bass!drum!can!be!played!in!a!
B (q»q) (q»q)
j
standing!position.!The!tenor!drum!can!be!positioned!to!their!left,!or!the!low!tomT
œ œ . œ œ . œ ˙æ
3 5
C
÷ œ ‰ Œ Ó Ó ∑ c œ Œ Ó
6 (td)

2 4
4
j

π
œ œ
tom!could!be!used!as!a!tenor!drum,!with!the!snare!drum!on!the!right.!One!
possibility!is!for!Player!1!to!play!the!bass!drum!with!her/his!right!foot!with!the!

÷ œ œ œ œ . œ ˙æ œ . œ ˙æ œ. œ œ œ. œ 8
1D

œœœ œœœ
4

pœ œ œ œ œ œ
tenor!drum!on!the!left!of!the!bass!drum.!After!playing!the!bass!drum!part!in!the!
œ œ œ œ 8
Œ Œ
Bar!before!H,!Player!1!would!quickly!turn!the!beaters!round!and!move!to!the!
sm BD (ped)

8
timpani.!Then!Player!3!could!play!the!bass!drum!with!her/his!left!foot!with!the!
÷ 8 œ œœ œ œœ . œ ˙œ æ
c œ œ œœ œœ . œ ˙œ æ œœ . œ ˙œæ
E

œœœ
17

œ
j
Œ Œ
snare!drum!to!the!right!of!the!bass!drum!(see!ex.!5.67).! Œ
> > > >
3 œ œ œ œœœœœœ œ œ œ œœœœœœ 5
F 3 toms

÷ œ œ œœ œœ . œ œœ œœ . œ œj œœ œ œœ . œ ˙œæ
20

Œ 4 œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. 4
p
> > > >
÷ 45 Ó 88 Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ c
24 tam tam
G toms/bd

˙. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

÷c œ Œ Œ œ œ‰œ‰œ Œ œ Œ Ó œ Œ Ó œ Œ Ó œ Œ Ó
H timpani (hard sticks)
?
27

œœ œœ œœ
>ƒ > œœ
!

? ∑ œ œ œj ‰ Œ Ó œ œ . œ b œ œ œ œ . œ b œ œ œ œ . œ b œ œ
33 I medium sticks
Ex.!5.67!Changing!beaters,!edited!tenor!drum/3!tomTtoms/bass!drum,!timpani!part,!
æ æ æ
>
Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figures!FTH!
p p p
Ï
Clearly!then,!the!appearance!of!this!work!has!forced!percussionists!to!consider!
? œ œ . œ b œ œ œ œ . œ b œ œ œ œ . œ b œ œ œ œ . œ œ b œœ
38

æ æ æ
more!than!just!the!notes!of!a!piece.!Having!to!resolve!such!pressing!matters!of!
p p p p
movement!in!the!setTup!of!the!instruments!has!also!involved!editing!the!parts!to!
make!the!playing!efficient!and!to!be!able!to!execute!appropriate!movement!
between!instruments!to!complement!the!mood!and!atmosphere!of!the!music.!!

The!choice!of!beaters!also!becomes!an!important!issue!in!consideration!of!the!
quantity!of!instruments!to!play,!and!the!different!nuances!of!sound!required.!As!
discussed!in!chapter!one,!certain!instruments!or!technical!figures!need!specific!
beaters,!and!these!beaters!are!not!necessarily!compatible!with!other!
instruments.!One!solution!can!be,!as!indicated,!to!use!doubleTended!beaters.477!In!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
477 !At!the!time!the!work!was!written!doubleTended!beaters!were!not!readily!available.!In!fact!the!
range!of!beaters!generally!was!quite!limited,!and!Percussionists!often!made!their!own!using!a!
variety!of!materials.!Stands!also!were!limited.!As!a!result,!hardware!stores,!bead!shops,!craft!

308!!
addition,!in!the!second!movement,!Funeral(Music,!Morgan!called!for!the!
vibraphone!to!be!played!ff!with!metal!beaters.!The!effect,!at!that!point,!of!harsh!
metallic!sounds!would!have!been!very!dramatic!(see!ex.!5.68).!

!
Ex.!5.68!Vibraphone!with!metal!beaters,!Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figure!H!

But!using!metal!or!even!plastic!beaters!at!a!fortissimo!dynamic!would!damage!
the!instrument,!possibly!irreparably.!In!the!performances,!hard!vibraphone!
beaters!were!used,!but!the!effect!was!less!dramatic!as!a!result.!It!would!however!
be!possible!on!song!bells,!if!they!are!available,!or!in!the!lower!octave!of!a!better!
quality!glockenspiel.478!This!solution!does,!however!impact!on!movement.!
Beaters!need!to!be!changed!quickly!at!letter!H,!or!during!the!previous!passage,!
but!the!change!back!is!more!awkward!(see!ex.!5.69).!So!doubleTended!beaters!
would!need!to!be!used!in!this!section.!

!
Ex.!5.69!Changing!beaters,!glockenspiel!to!vibraphone,!Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figure!I!

The!notation,!although!based!on!traditional,!standard,!musical!notation!also!
presents!a!challenge!to!technique.!One!of!Morgan’s!compositional!techniques!to!
accentuate!a!mood!is!to!stretch!a!melody!across!a!time!signature.!In!the!second!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
stores,!specialist!technical!outlets!were!favoured!hunting!grounds!for!Percussionists!looking!for!
materials!for!beaters!and!also!for!stands!that!could!be!adapted.!
478 !The!glockenspiels!available!in!Adelaide!at!the!time!had!only!a!thin!sound,!with!a!basic!
mounting!system.!Loud!playing!would!have!produced!an!unmusical!sound,!and!with!only!basic!
fixing!of!the!bars,!they!could!have!come!loose!and!fallen!on!the!floor.!!

! 309!
movement,!Funeral(Music,!the!vibraphone!has!its!own!set!of!time!signatures.!This!
is!necessary!because!it!would!be!very!awkward!to!write!the!second!triplet!and!
even!more!difficult!to!execute!had!the!vibraphone!part!been!written!in!4/4!time!
(see!ex.!5.70).!!

!
Ex.!5.70!Juxtaposed!time!signatures,!Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figures!DTE!

The!vibraphonist!in!this!case!has!to!think!in!eighth!notes!in!order!to!execute!the!
individual!notes,!and!at!the!same!time!be!aware!of!how!these!notes!fit!into!the!
greater!musical!figures.!So!the!entry!points!of!the!triplet!at!D!(In!black!against!
the!‘pulse’!in!red)!for!example!would!look!like!this!(see!ex.!5.71).!

!
Ex.!5.71!vibraphone!entry!points,!Morgan!Funeral(Music,!figure!D!

Counting!in!eighth!notes!defines!the!triplet!into!an!easily!playable!figure,!but!to!
ensure!a!musical!interpretation,!the!notes!must!maintain!an!intensity,!which!is!

310!!
achieved!by!playing!a!slight!crescendo!across!the!triplet.!The!following!phrase!
can!start!a!little!softer!leading!up!to!climax!on!the!F!in!the!beginning!of!the!next!
bar,!and!slightly!ease!off!over!the!next!two!notes!to!complete!the!phrase.!Even!
more!importantly,!the!other!members!of!the!ensemble!also!have!to!think!in!
eighths!and!quarterT!or!halfTnotes!simultaneously!in!order!for!the!players!to!be!
able!to!synchronise!the!ensemble!playing!and!also!be!aware!of!the!greater!
musical!phrase.!By!combining!different!types!of!notation!and!so!demanding!a!
different!approach!to!executing!the!figures,!the!piece!extended!the!parameters!of!
technique!acquisition.!

5.4.2*Logistics*and*visual*aesthetics*

Logistical!management!of!the!size!of!instrumental!setTup!posed!yet!another!
challenge.!Morgan’s!approach!was!based!on!the!sounds!that!suited!the!narrative!
element!or!the!musical!phrase,!or!were!needed!to!balance!the!effect.!As!a!result!
the!score,!as!written,!had!the!players!doubling!many!of!the!instruments.!Had!it!
been!performed!as!written,!the!work!would!have!been!burdened!with!a!very!
large!and!unwieldy!setTup!for!each!player,!and!a!significant!increase!in!
movement!between!instruments.!This!also!would!have!restricted!any!
performances!to!a!large!stage!only.!A!collaborative!editing!of!the!score!however,!
significantly!reduced!this!as!a!problem!(see!table!5.01).!

Editing*the*instrument*allocation*of*Loss479*
! Original*Score* Edited*Parts*
Movement*1*
Player!1! glockenspiel,!2!tamTtams,!snare!drum,! glockenspiel,!snare!drum,!2!bass!
large!bass!drum,!xylophone,!vibraphone! drums,!2!Woodblocks,!!
!
Player!2! xylophone,!snare!drum,!marimba,! marimba,!snare!drum,!2!timpani!
vibraphone,!glockenspiel,!medium!bass! !
drum,!medium!tamTtam!
Player!3! vibraphone,!6!Cup!gongs,!snare!drum,! xylophone,!tamTtam,!cymbal,!bass!
xylophone,!2!Woodblocks! drum!
Player!4! marimba,!glockenspiel,!6!Cup!gongs,!2! vibraphone,!6!Cup!gongs,!snare!drum,!
timpani!
Table!5.01!Table!of!instrument!allocation,!mvt!1!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
479 !Tables!compiled!by!author,!2015!

! 311!
 Movement*2*
Player!1! vibraphone! 4!timpani,!3!tomTtoms,!tenor!drum!
! /pedal!bass!drum,!cymbal,!tamTtam!
Player!2! marimba,!large!bass!drum,!snare! marimba,!large!bass!drum,!tubular!
drum/pedal!bass!drum! bells!
Player!3! tenor!drum/pedal!bass!drum,!3!tomTtoms,! xylophone,!glockenspiel,!2!tamTtams,!
snare!drum,!glockenspiel,!med.!tamTtam,! snare!drum/pedal!bass!drum,!gong!
medThigh!gong,!xylophone!
Player!4! 2!tamTtams,!xylophone,!glockenspiel,!4! vibraphone!
timpani,!large!cymbal,!tenor!drum,! !
tubular!bells!
Table!5.02!Table!of!instrument!allocation,!mvt!2!

Movement*3*
Player!1! 2!tamTtams,!triangle,!glockenspiel,! 5!timpani,!vibraphone,!snare!drum,!
xylophone,!snare!drum! glockenspiel!
Player!2! vibraphone,!5!timpani,!snare!drum,! 5!tomTtoms,!marimba,!snare!drum!
marimba,!medium!tamTtam,!! !
Player!3! 5!tomTtoms,!marimba,!snare!drum,!2! 2!tamTtams,!xylophone,!glockenspiel,!
Woodblocks,!4!templeblocks,!large!tamT snare!drum,!triangle,!2!Woodblocks!
tam,!4!timpani!
Player!4! small!bass!drum,!snare!drum,!medium! Tubular!Bells,!small!bass!drum,!snare!
cymbal,!Tubular!Bells,!large!tamTtam,!4! drum,!5!Templeblocks,!large!cymbal,!
tomTtoms,!5!templeblocks,!glockenspiel! tamTtam!
!
Table!5.03!Table!of!instrument!allocation,!mvt!3!

Movement*4*
Player!1! xylophone,!Whip,!vibraphone! xylophone,!4!rotoTtoms,!3!practice!
pads,!wind!machine,!2!tamTtams!
Player!2! marimba,!Guiro,!various!whistle/siren!etc! marimba,!xylophone,!guiro,!various!
effects,!Ratchet,!xylophone,!! whistle/siren!etc!effects,!ratchet,!!
Player!3! vibraphone,!various!whistle/siren!etc! vibraphone,(various!whistle/siren!etc!
effects,!2!RotoTtoms,!4!timpani,!CasioT effects,!Whip!
MT31!Keyboard,!! !
Player!4! shaker,!cuckoo!call,!various!whistle!/siren! Tubo,!cuckoo,!various!whistle/siren!etc!
etc!effects,!wind!machine,!3!Remo!pads,!4! effects,!4!timpani,!CasioTMT31!
RotoTtoms,!2!tamTtams! Keyboard!
Table!5.04!Table!of!instrument!allocation,!mvt!4!

Movement*5*
Player!1! vibraphone,!suspended!finger!cymbal,! glockenspiel,!large!tamTtam!
glass!chimes,!2!bass!drums,!tenor!drum,! !
large!tamTtam,!glockenspiel,!
Player!2! vibraphone,!suspended!Finger!cymbal,! vibraphone,!suspended!finger!cymbal,!
Glass!Chimes,!Tubular!Bells,!tubophone,!2! glass!chimes,!2!bass!drums,!tenor!
tamTtams! drum,!tubular!bells,!triangle!
Player!3! glockenspiel,!CasioTMT31!Keyboard,!2! vibraphone,!tubular!bells,(glass!chimes,(
tamTtams,!2!bass!drums,!Tubular!Bells,! suspended!Finger!cymbal,!2!tamTtams,(
vibraphone,!triangle,!Glass!Chimes,! 2!bass!drums,!tomTtom,!CasioTMT31!
suspended!Finger!cymbal!
Player!4! tubophone,!CasioTMT31!Keyboard,! tubophone,!CasioTMT31!Keyboard,!2!
vibraphone,!suspended!finger!cymbal,! tamTtams,!Tubular!Bells!
Glass!Chimes,!tomTtom,!Tubular!Bells!
Table!5.05!Table!of!instrument!allocation,!mvt!5!

312!!
The!total!number!of!instruments!allocated!to!each!player!was!reduced!by!the!
reallocation!of!parts!and!careful!instrument!placement!to!enable!sharing!(see!
table!5.01f).!

! Original*Score* Edited*Parts*
Player!1! Glockenspiel,!2!tamTtams,!snare!drum,! Glockenspiel,!snare!drum,!2!bass!
large!bass!drum,!xylophone,!vibraphone! drums,!2!Woodblocks,!wind!machine,!5!
triangle,!whip,!suspended!finger!cymbal,! timpani,!3!tomTtoms,!tenor!drum!
glass!chimes,!2!bass!drums,!tenor!drum,! /pedal!bass!drum,!vibraphone,!cymbal,!
tamTtam!xylophone,!4!rotoTtoms,!3!
practice!pads,!2!tamTtams!
Player!2! Xylophone,!snare!drum,!marimba,! Marimba,!snare!drum,!2!timpani,!
vibraphone,!glockenspiel,!medium!bass! tubular!bells,!5!tomTtoms,!xylophone,!
drum,!2!tamTtams!large!bass!drum,!snare! guiro,!various!whistle/siren!etc!effects,!
drum/pedal!bass!drum!vibraphone,!5! ratchet,!vibraphone,!suspended!finger!
timpani!Guiro,!various!whistle/siren!etc! cymbal,!glass!chimes,!2!bass!drums,!
effects,!Ratchet,!suspended!Finger!cymbal,! tenor!drum,!triangle!
Glass!Chimes,!Tubular!Bells,!tubophone,!
Player!3! Vibraphone,!6!Cup!gongs,!snare!drum,! Xylophone,!cymbal,!2!bass!drums,!
xylophone,!2!Woodblocks!tenor! glockenspiel,!2!tamTtams,!snare!
drum/pedal!bass!drum,!5!tomTtoms,! drum/pedal!bass!drum,!gong!triangle,!
glockenspiel,!2!tamTtams!medThigh!gong,! 2!Woodblocks!vibraphone,(various!
xylophone,!marimba,!2!Woodblocks,!4! whistle/siren!etc!effects,!Whip!tubular!
templeblocks,!4!timpani!various! bells,(glass!chimes,(suspended!Finger!
whistle/siren!etc!effects,!2!RotoTtoms,! cymbal,!tomTtom,!CasioTMT31!
CasioTMT31!Keyboard,!2!bass!drums,! !
Tubular!Bells,!triangle,!Glass!Chimes,!
suspended!Finger!cymbal!
Player!4! Marimba,!glockenspiel,!6!Cup!gongs,!4! Vibraphone,!6!Cup!gongs,!snare!drum,!
timpani,!2!tamTtams,!xylophone,!large! Tubular!Bells,!small!bass!drum,!5!
cymbal,!tenor!drum,!tubular!bells!small! Templeblocks,!large!cymbal,!2!tamT
bass!drum,!snare!drum,!medium!cymbal,! tams,!tubo,!cuckoo,!various!
4!tomTtoms,!5!templeblocks,!shaker,! whistle/siren!etc!effects,!4!timpani,!
cuckoo!call,!various!whistle!/siren!etc! CasioTMT31!Keyboard!
effects,!wind!machine,!3!Remo!pads,!4!
RotoTtoms,!
Table!5.06!Table!of!total!instrument!allocation!for!each!player!

Nevertheless,!despite!the!editing,!the!piece!still!required!some!doubling!of!parts!
so!a!total!setTup!had!to!still!be!carefully!organised!to!allow!for!this.!Placement!of!
instruments!and!trap!tables!for!accessory!instruments!and!beaters!needed!to!
both!be!convenient!for!the!players’!easy!reach,!and!allow!for!easy!movement!
between!instruments.!So!each!player’s!instruments!must!be!set!up!in!such!a!way!
that!is!logical!to!reach!each!instrument!as!needed,!and!to!fit!into!the!flow!of!the!
music.!To!do!this!one!needs!to!follow!a!preTdetermined!set!of!principles,!so!that,!
for!example,!instruments!can!be!set!up!following!staff!notation,!or!commonality!
of!beaters.!These!principles!are!usually!determined!by!the!player!within!the!
context!of!her/his!perception!of!ease!of!performance.!

! 313!
It!is!accepted!that!each!ensemble!makes!its!own!decisions!about!set!up,!both!of!
each!individual!part!and,!where!necessary,!the!instruments!to!be!shared!between!
players.!In!this!case,!Player!1!in!the!first!movement!of!the!Morgan!needs!to!have!
the!glockenspiel,!woodblocks,!and!snare!drum!close!together!in!order!to!move!
seamlessly!between!them.!These!instruments!also!can!be!played!with!the!same!
set!of!mallets!(see!ex.!5.72!and!ex.!5.73).!There!is!ample!time!to!move!to!and!
from!the!bass!drums,!so!they!can!be!positioned!further!away!(see!ex.!5.74).!So!if!
the!bass!drums!are!shared!between!Players!1!and!2!it!makes!sense!to!position!
them!where!both!players!can!access!them.!!

!
Ex.!5.72!Playing!glockenspiel!and!snare!drum,!Morgan!Battery,!bars!61T74!

!
Ex.!5.73!Playing!glockenspiel!and!woodblocks,!Morgan!Battery,(bars!161T169!

!
Ex.!5.74!Playing!glockenspiel!and!bass!drums,!Morgan!Battery,(bars!113T152!

314!!
In!setting!up!the!instruments!for!percussion!ensembles,!consideration!also!needs!
to!be!given!to!the!needs!of!the!other!players,!and!this!is!another!area!in!which!
percussion!differs!from!other!instrumental!ensembles.!Instruments!can!often!be!
played!by!two!or!sometimes!three!players,!and!so!need!to!be!set!up!in!a!manner!
that!allows!for!easy!access!by!all!who!need!to!play!them!(see!ex.!5.75).!

!
Ex.!5.75!Direction!for!players!1!&!2!to!share!bass!drum,!Morgan,!Funeral(Music,!figure!C!

As!much!as!possible!the!logistics!needed!to!take!into!account!the!visual!
aesthetics.!In!order!to!portray!the!musical!and!dramatic!effects!of!the!various!
personal!emotions,!and!religious!and!political!overtones!the!visual!aesthetics!
play!a!very!important!role,!especially!in!relation!to!movement.!This!could!be!
aided!by!careful!spatial!management!to!eliminate!awkward!or!unnecessary!
movement!between!setTups,!enabling!the!physical!movement!between!
instruments!to!be!conducted!with!grace!and!discretion!so!as!not!to!distract!from!
the!music.!

Such!a!manifestly!large!work,!Loss!by!David!Morgan,!has!commensurately!
significant!implications!for!percussion!ensemble.!Firstly!it!expands!the!musical!
potential!of!percussion!into!wider!and!deeper!associations,!forcing!
percussionists!to!combine!technical!skills!and!musical!sensitivities!in!order!to!
depict!a!range!of!dramatic!emotions.!The!implication!of!this!is!that!percussionists!
need!to!expand!their!technical!skills!and!develop!a!greater!understanding!of!how!
to!use!technique!to!produce!these!musical!and!extraTmusical!effects.!!

The!second!implication!is!one!of!management!in!a!very!new!dimension!for!the!
presentation!of!percussion!concerts.!This!dimension!includes!a!formidable!
multiplicity!of!setTups!for!seventyTfive!instruments,!a!demanding!operation!for!
such!a!number!alone.!This!has!to!accommodate!the!logistical!needs!of!players!to!
easily!reach!the!various!instruments!and!in!a!physical!manner!that!complements!

! 315!
the!atmosphere!while!not!detracting!from!the!music.!Other!considerations!are!
the!theatrical!effects!of!presenting!a!piece!of!music!to!highlight!the!musical!
elements!as!well!as!the!player’s!technical!prowess.!In!summary,!although!David!
Morgan’s!Loss!created!enormous!technical,!management,!logistical!and!theatrical!
challenges!in!its!execution,!as!a!work!of!representational!symbolism!it!has!
broadened!and!deepened!percussive!playing!and!instrumental!management!
horizons!as!well!as!adventing!a!new!dynamic!role!for!percussion!in!interpreting!
aesthetics!and!symbolic!essence!present!in!such!compositions.!
*

5.5*Legacy*

In!addition!to!the!direct!impact!of!these!pieces!on!technique!and!instrument!use,!
there!were!indirect!results.!As!the!first!works!for!percussion!written!for!
percussion!ensemble!in!South!Australia,!the(Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet!and!Loss!
were!a!catalyst!for!other!compositions,!not!least!from!Bryce!and!Morgan!
themselves.!A!further!significance!of!these!inaugural!works!is!that!creatively!for!
both!composers!the!writing!of!them!demolished!compositional!barriers,!Bryce!
because!he!did!not!believe!it!was!possible!to!write!a!Percussive!Jazz!piece,!and!
for!Morgan,!because!he!had!a!fear!of!writing!for!Percussion!(see!plate!5.06).!

Plate!5.06!David!Morgan,!Fun(and(Games,!manuscript,!title!page!1984480 ,!!

Over!the!following!thirty!years!Morgan!and!Bryce!wrote!more!works!for!
percussion!ensemble,!as!well!as!solos!for!marimba!and!vibraphone,!a!percussion!
concerto!each,!and!some!chamber!music!pieces!with!percussion.!Their!pieces!
remained!true!to!their!own!genre!and!style,!but!continued!to!follow!new!
pathways!of!compositional!direction!for!percussion,!thus!expanding!the!depth!as!
well!as!the!breadth!of!the!repertoire.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
480 !David!Morgan,!Fun(and(Games,!manuscript!in!the!author’s!collection,!1984!

316!!
These!works!also!contain!challenges!for!technique!and!instrument!use,!as!both!
composers!continued!to!explore!sounds!in!the!percussion!world,!some!examples!
of!which!are!referred!to!below.!In!Morgan’s!quartet,!Fun(and(Games!for!example,!
players!1T3!are!asked!to!bow!and!bend!notes,!down!and!back!up!again,!on!
xylophone,!marimba!and!vibraphone!respectively,!while!player!4!plays!a!
‘metallic!buzz’!by!holding!a!metal!beater!loosely!against!the!tamTtam!while!
rolling!on!it!with!a!heavy!tamTtam!beater!(see!ex.!5.76).!The!direction!to!bend!the!
notes!back!up!to!the!original!pitch!is!not!a!usual!direction,!and!calls!for!careful!
coordination!between!bow!and!mallet.!Bending!the!note!down!is!achieved!by!
moving!a!hard!mallet!along!a!struck!or!bowed!bard!from!the!node!towards!the!
centre.!Returning!the!mallet!back!to!the!node!will!reverse!the!sound,!but!if!the!
mallet!comes!too!close!to!the!centre!of!the!bar!the!sound!is!dampened!and!the!
reverse!procedure!cannot!produce!the!bending!back!up.!

Ex.!5.76!Coordinating!bow!and!mallet,!Morgan,!Fun(and(Games,!bars!109T120!

In!the!second!movement!of!the!same!work,!player!3!is!asked!to!play!a!grace!note!
on!the!HiThat!with!a!hard!stick!while!the!main!note!is!played!with!the!foot!(see!
ex.!5.77).!This!too!is!unusual,!and!challenging!to!coordinate.!

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 !

Ex.!5.77!Coordinating!hand!and!foot!playing!grace!notes,!Morgan!Fun(and(Games,(bars!
113T116!

!Moreover,!even!when!Morgan!uses!traditional!time!signatures,!he!treats!them!
differently.!12/8!for!example!is!divided!in!2!+!3!+!3!+!2!+!2,!on!top!of!which!the!
time!signatures!change!frequently,!with!precise!changes!of!tempo!to!maintain!
rhythmic!exactitude!(see!ex.!5.8).!

Ex.!5.78!12/8!Time!signature!divided!into!2!+!3!+!3!+!2!+!2,!Morgan!Fun(and(Games,(bars!
34T38!

Morgan’s!duo!for!clarinets!and!percussion,(Voyage(into(Solitude!also!asks!the!
percussionist!to!coordinate!all!four!limbs!to!play!different!rhythms!on!wind!
chimes,!cymbal,!snare!drum,!pedal!bass!drum!and!vibraphone,!while!standing!up!

318!!
(see!ex.!5.79).!The!piece!in!total!uses!twentyTfive!different!percussion!
instruments,!and!five!different!clarinets!to!be!played!by!the!two!players.!

!
Ex.!5.79!Coordinating!wind!chimes,!cymbal,!snare!drum,!pedal!bass!drum!and!
vibraphone,!Morgan,!Voyage(into(Solitude,!bars!15T33!

In!his!Concerto(for(Percussion,!while!he!does!not!demand!that!level!of!
coordination,!Morgan!does!call!for!some!very!fast!changes!of!instruments!and!
beaters!(see!ex.!5.80).!

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 !

Ex.!5.80!Fast!changes!of!beaters!and!instruments,!Morgan,!Concerto(for(Percussion,!
Cadenza,!p.!9a!

Bryce!continued!to!write!in!a!jazz!genre,!using!different!instrumental!settings.!
His!Jazz(Suite!is!for!Percussion!Keyboard!quartet,!and!is!a!parody!on!three!
different!styles!–!BeTBop,!Blues,!and!Ragtime.!The!third!movement!is!quite!slow,!
in!the!tempo!and!mood!of!early!ragtime!pieces.!After!rehearsals!and!discussion!
with!Bryce,!it!was!agreed!that!the!piece!could!be!beneficially!extended!with!a!
coda!summarising!the!third!movement,!and!played!at!double!tempo!(see!ex.!
5.81).!This!direction!is!not!written!into!the!score,!but!is!an!accepted!part!of!the!
piece,!which!is!now!always!performed!with!the!addition.!In!this!form!it!links!the!
early!ragtime!style!with!the!later!1930s!rags,!which!were!played!much!faster!
than!those!of!Scott!Joplin!and!his!contemporaries,!and!reflected!the!‘Age!of!
Speed’!of!faster!travel!on!trains!and!cars.!This!faster!and!more!exciting!style!of!
ragtime!coincided!with!the!emergence!of!fast,!‘showy’!xylophone!solos,!
encapsulated!in!the!works!and!playing!of!George!Hamilton!Green,!a!prominent!
American!xylophonist.481!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
481 !In!conversation!Bryce!expressed!the!thought!that!the!addition!of!this!coda!improved!the!
piece,!and!gave!it!the!extra!level!of!bright,!carefree!atmosphere!that!he!intended!for!the!
movement.!It!also!made!the!ending!of!the!work!more!forceful.!

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 !
Ex.!5.81!Opening,!third!movement!Bryce,!Jazz(Suite,!(‘Richard’s(Rag’),!bars!1T8!

In!the!second!movement!of!his!Concerto(for(marimba/vibraphone!Bryce!writes!
for!oneThanded!tremolo!on!marimba!(see!ex.!5.82).!This!was!discussed!in!more!
detail!in!Chapter!Two.!

!
Ex.!5.82!OneThanded!tremolo,!Bryce,!Concerto(for(marimba(and(vibraphone,(bars!101T
106!

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His!solos!for!marimba!and!vibraphone!also!explore!different!styles!of!the!Jazz!
and!Latin!genres.!Uncle(Bill,!for!marimba!and!Piano!has!a!section,!which,!while!
written!out,!also!allows!the!option!of!improvising!(see!ex.!5.83).!

Uncle(Bill!is!a!catchy!jazz!tune!set!above!a!standard!jazz!chord!progression.!The!
name!refers!of!course!to!Count!Basie,!the!famous!Big!Band!leader!who!was!
known!for!his!sparse!notes!and!frugal!piano!style.482!

!
Ex.!5.83!Option!of!improvisation,!Bryce,!Uncle(Bill,!bars!34T37!

Another!interesting!outcome!of!the!Bryce!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet!and!
Morgan!Loss!is!that!they!led!to!more!compositions!for!percussion!by!other!
composers.!Tristram!Cary,!Atis!Danckops,!Larry!Sitsky,!Ralph!Middenway!and!
Douglas!Knehans!all!wrote!works!for!Adelaide(Percussions(and!Cary,!Sitsky,!
Middenway!and!Llewellyn!also!wrote!solo!percussion!works.!These!
compositions!also!contain!their!own!challenges!or!reveal!new!insights!into!
percussive!avenues!of!expressing!musical!ideas!such!as!combining!with!tape,!
using!stones,!and!including!steel!drums!with!percussion!ensemble.!The!works!by!
other!composers!have!been!written!in!various!settings!such!as!writing!
percussion!solos!with!choir!because,!having!heard!the!works!of!Bryce!and!
Morgan,!were!inspired!to!delve!further!into!the!realm!of!percussive!sound!
sources.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
482 !Eric!Bryce,!Six(pieces(for(Percussion,!program!notes,!1987!

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5.6*Conclusion*

It!is!clear!from!the!examinations!of!both!the!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet!by!Eric!
Bryce!and!Loss!by!David!Morgan!that!composers!access!different!kinds!of!
percussion!instruments!and!other!sound!sources!to!find!the!particular!sonority!
that!will!suit!the!dramatic!or!musical!effect!or!specific!combination!of!sounds.!
This!is!amply!demonstrated!by!the!use!of!the!güiro!in!both!pieces,!taken!out!of!its!
cultural!context!and!used!for!a!different!purpose.!Bryce!used!it!sparingly!to!
emphasise!the!end!of!a!phrase!(see!ex.!5.23),!while!Morgan!used!it!as!a!noiseT
maker!to!add!an!extra!dimension!of!dissonance!to!the!Cloud(Cuckoo!movement!
(see!ex.!5.50).!!

This!introduction!of!new!instrumental!uses!to!the!genre!focused!the!attention!of!
percussionists!on!the!nuances!of!sound!required,!which!in!turn!have!had!
implications!for!technique!advancement.!While!most!of!the!instruments!are!
played!in!the!traditional!manner,!certain!instruments!call!for!a!greater!
refinement!of!those!techniques!due!to!the!peculiarities!of!the!instrument!as!
demonstrated!on!the!tubophone.!The!concentration!required!moreover,!to!play!
in!different!time!signatures!concurrently,!the!need!to!develop!finger!techniques,!
the!demand!for!chanting!as!well!as!playing!all!present!an!opportunity!to!extend!
techniques.!!

Other!issues!of!sound!also!needed!and!need!to!be!resolved.!If!for!example,!
tubophones!are!not!available,!crotales!or!possibly!song!bells!might!be!
appropriate!substitutes.!483!Alternately,!a!second!glockenspiel!played!with!
different!mallets!could!provide!the!necessary!contrast.484!Consequently,!these!
pieces!heightened!percussionists’!awareness!of!the!range!of!sound!sources!in!
their!instrumental!repertoire,!and!raised!sensitivity!to!the!nuances!between!
them.!As!well,!the!alternative!ways!of!accessing!these!sounds!has!since!
highlighted!the!need!for!players’!flexibility!and!ingenuity!in!instrumental!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
483 !Crotales!are!not!in!common!use!outside!of!orchestras!and!conservatoriums,!and!Song!Bells!
are!rare;!there!might!be!only!six!throughout!Australia.!
484 !One!glockenspiel!could!be!played!with!metal!beaters,!and!the!other!with!bakelite!for!example.!

! 323!
sourcing!and!has!become!essential!in!the!mental!preparation!for!percussionists!
to!consider!for!score!interpretation!as!compositions!become!more!demanding.!!!

These!various!examples!of!instrument!use!require!awareness!on!the!part!of!the!
player!of!their!differences!and!the!technical!ability!to!reproduce!them.!As!
demonstrated,!and!also!as!a!result!of!these!pieces,!instrumental!logistics!and!
visual!aesthetics!have!become!key!focal!points!for!the!performer.!!

Overall!the!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet!and!Loss!by!Bryce!and!Morgan,!as!well!as!
showing!some!directional!leadership!in!the!actual!music!they!wrote!for!
percussion!in!their!own!genre!are!equally!remembered!for!the!challenges!their!
works!had!on!percussion!performance.!Because!both!pieces!are!representative!
of,!and!demonstrate,!the!central!challenges!and!problems!that!compositions!
create!for!performing!percussion,!it!is!appropriate!to!use!these!works!as!specific!
illustrations!of!percussion!generically.!!

These!issues!are!not!specific!to!these!works.!In!most!works!for!percussion!
ensemble!they!have!needed!and!do!need!to!be!resolved;!and!their!resolution!is!
vital!to!the!success!of!concert!presentation,!but!these!works!highlight!the!
challenge.!Most!importantly,!however,!the!Suite!and!Loss!amply!demonstrate!that!
using!a!wide!range!of!sound!sources!and!in!close!collaboration!with!the!
composers,!percussion!can!vividly!present!emotions,!dramatic!situations,!
cultural!character!and!associations,!as!well!as!representational!musical!concepts!
across!different!musical!genres.!!

324!!
Conclusion*

This!dissertation!has!attempted!to!show!the!developments!in!the!explosion!of!
use!of!percussion!over!the!course!of!the!twentieth!century.!This!was!done!by!
investigating!a!representative!selection!of!instruments,!analysing!crucial!
elements!of!technique!and!referring!to!a!few!select!works.!This!approach!is!both!
the!strength!and!weakness!of!the!study.!The!selection!of!only!four!works!could!
be!seen!as!limiting!by!not!providing!a!wider!picture,!but!this!would!of!necessity!
be!more!superficial.!On!the!other!hand,!choosing!a!few!works!allows!for!a!deeper!
analysis!of!the!pieces!in!terms!of!their!musical!intent!and!the!challenges!they!
contain!for!instrument!use!and!technique.!For!this!reason!works!were!chosen!
that!are!representative!of!solo,!chamber!music!and!percussion!ensemble!
performance!situations.!They!are!works!with!which!the!author!has!a!strong!
personal!connection,!having!worked!collaboratively!Sculthorpe,!Bryce!and!
Morgan!and!with!percussionists!who!worked!with!Milhaud.!Hopefully,!the!
progress!made!will!inspire!further!research.!

Percussion!Art!Music!performance!during!the!twentieth!century!went!through!
many!changes!as!a!new!identity!was!forged,!placing!the!medium!in!the!centre!of!
the!stage!rathe!than!in!a!supporting!orchestral!role.!The!growth!of!percussion!
into!the!largest!of!all!instrumental!families!resulted!from!the!movement!last!
century!of!a!large!number,!type!and!style!of!percussion!instruments.!Their!
migration!out!of!contained!and!usually!narrower!cultural!situations!enabled!
them!to!be!used!in!different!contexts;!and!they!were!adapted!to!suit!the!new!
situations.!The!various!membranophones,!such!as!Chinese!tomTtoms,!Cuban!
bongos,!midTEastern!derabucca!and!military!snare!drums!epitomise!this!process!
of!adaptation.!These!various!instruments!with!their!natural!skin!heads!and!
distinctive!sounds,!but!with!limited!or!crude!tuning!possibilities,!morphed!into!
drums!with!similar!tuning!mechanisms!and!then!expanded!into!a!greater!range!
of!sound!sources.!The!improvement!of!plastic!heads!provided!a!greater!
consistency!of!sound,!and!easier,!more!accurate!tuning!created!a!nuanced!range!
of!timbres.!The!fixed!snares!on!the!snare!drums!were!advanced!with!the!
development!of!easyTaction!snare!strainers!when!adopted!into!indoor!
percussion!concert!settings,!which!in!turn,!found!a!position!back!in!the!Drum!

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Corps!and!Military!Bands.!The!development!of!different!stands!and!accessories!
such!as!foot!pedals,!also!gave!more!flexibility!in!the!use!of!the!various!
instruments.!Additionally!because!the!plastic!heads!provided!a!consistent!and!
predictable!sound,!percussion!performance!acquired!more!sophistication!
through!the!further!exploitation!of!nuances!of!timbre!on!the!different!drums.!!

Similarly,!the!adaptation!of!the!European!fourTrow!xylophone!into!a!keyboard!
layout!led!to!an!exponential!growth!of!tuned!idiophones!of!metal!and!wood!
textures,!then!further!developed!to!situational!exigencies!with!the!adoption!of!
plastic,!kelon!bars!for!outdoor!performances.!With!these!improvements!came!a!
larger!range!of!beaters!of!various!materials!of!wood,!metals,!plastic,!rubber,!felt!
and!yarn.!These!interTrelated!pathways!of!change!are!continuing!to!develop!with!
instruments!still!being!adapted!to!different!performance!situations,!as!seen!in!
the!example!of!the!rounded!strip!of!plastic!on!the!cowbell!enabling!a!more!
flexible!playing!approach!and!adding!another!textural!dimension!to!the!sound.!!

The!instruments,!within!their!various!cultures!and!situations,!had!an!established!
set!of!techniques!and!roles!in!the!repertoire,!but!taken!out!of!that!context!the!
relevance!of!these!traditional!roles!and!techniques!was!not!always!applicable.!
Consequently,!the!instruments!could!be!treated!as!new!sound!sources,!to!be!
played!in!whatever!manner!would!match!the!required!musical!effect,!and!also!
used!for!their!culturally!defined!techniques!and!musical!roles.!This!situation!is!
further!complicated!by!the!fact!that!the!instruments!themselves!do!not!have!
defined!roles.!Bongos!can!in!one!piece!have!the!lead!part!and!in!another!be!a!part!
of!rhythmic!accompaniment!or!general!texture.!In!a!third!piece!they!can!
represent!a!Cuban!cultural!association,!or!simply!provide!interjections!of!a!high!
register!in!a!fourth.!In!addition,!techniques!that!were!related!to!specific!
instruments!have!also!been!transferred!to!other!instruments!when!taken!out!of!
their!original!contexts!and!the!specificity!of!role!played!by!the!instruments!in!
traditional!repertoire!has!not!been!binding!in!any!new!type!of!repertoire.!This!
flexibility!of!application!has!positively!advanced!a!musical!and!theatrical!
versatility!to!percussion!performance!making!the!instruments!easier!to!use.!
Paradoxically!these!interTrelated!changes!have!placed!increased!technical!and!

326!!
musical!demands!on!percussionists!to!play!them,!while!effectively!incorporating!
the!sounds!into!the!intent!and!performance!of!the!music.!

Fuelled!by!the!alterations!and!adaptations!of!instruments,!the!consequential!
changes!in!playing!approach!focused!the!attention!of!players!on!developing!their!
own!personal!techniques,!which!then!impacted!further!on!general!technique!
progression.!This!is!exemplified!by!the!change!in!emphasis!regarding!movement!
on!the!keyboard!percussions!which!prompted!the!notion!of!using!three!or!four!
mallets!to!play!chords!and!so!intensify!the!harmony!of!a!piece.!In!turn,!this!gave!
rise!to!developing!variety!in!chord!voicings!and!applying!a!more!pianistic!
approach!leading!to!experiments!with!different!grips.!Accordingly,!as!players!
focused!upon!and!emphasised!their!own!growth!and!approach!to!playing,!the!
reading!of!the!music!and!enunciations!of!performance!became!more!
individualised!and!personalised.!!

Similarly!the!limitations!of!cultural!techniques!such!as!the!traditional!‘snare!
drum’!grip!and!the!leftThand!bongo!movement!in!playing!these!
membranophones!also!attracted!greater!scrutiny,!leading!to!a!movement!away!
from!the!constraints!of!these!traditional!playing!approaches.!As!a!result!the!
altered!playing!actions,!still!based!on!wrist!movement,!are!continuing!to!evolve!
within!specialised!applications.!Keyboard!percussion!also!demands!more!
sophisticated!use!of!fourTmallet!technique,!with!greater!independence!of!the!
individual!mallets;!and!this!approach!is!also!transferring!to!membranophones!
and!other!idiophones,!which!in!multiTpercussion!pieces!can!involve!playing!
simultaneously!with!three!different!types!of!mallets!with!their!respective!
variations!in!weights!of!stroke.!Similar!actions!are!being!increasingly!applied!to!
finger!techniques,!which!are!no!longer!restricted!to!the!traditional!hand!drums,!
but!are!being!used!in!expanded!form!across!a!range!of!membranophones!and!
idiophones.!Clearly!the!challenges!to!evolving!technique!acquisition!are!
considerable.!

As!a!consequence!of!these!related!progressions,!artistic!techniques!for!the!
performing!percussionist!are!gaining!further!complexity,!predominantly!

! 327!
following!two!main!directions.!The!first!emphasises!a!movement!away!from!the!
imposed!limitations!of!traditional!contexts,!viewing!the!instruments!as!sound!
sources!from!which!to!evince!a!variety!of!sounds.!The!second!still!embraces!the!
traditional!approaches,!while!at!times!also!incorporating!these!new!changes!of!
technique!and!approach.!As!a!result,!sounds!that!previously!were!not!possible!
using!traditional!techniques!alone,!or!simply!dismissed!as!undesirable,!are!now!
being!explored!anew!even!to!the!outer!reaches!of!the!instruments,!techniques!
and!repertoire!and!across!all!genres!of!music.!Many!of!these!changes!to!artistic!
performance!technique!are!recent!and!as!such!have!not!been!abstracted!into!a!
standardised!set!of!techniques!that!need!to!be!developed.!However,!with!an!open!
approach!to!sound!exploitation!and!the!strong!associations!between!traditional!
and!unconventional!technique!application,!the!obvious!implication!is!that!in!time!
this!will!happen.!

The!development!of!these!specialisations!also!impact!on!movement,!which!both!
supports!the!playing!action!and!visually!enhances!the!musical!or!dramatic!effect.!
Because!percussion!playing!is!based!on!a!single!playing!action,!techniques!
developed!on!one!instrument!can!sometimes!be!used!on!other!percussion!
instruments!in!which!context!they!can!produce!other!musical!or!dramatic!effects.!
For!example,!an!LRRR!sticking!to!play!rolls!on!marimba!can!also!be!used!on!
membranophones!to!create!a!rhythmic!insistence!of!sound;!and!can!be!expanded!
to!also!use!the!feet!in!an!F(oot)H(and)HH!combination.!These!changes!and!
developments!in!techniques!not!only!broaden!the!range!of!performance!
possibilities!for!players!and!composers,!but!also!create!further!technique!
demands!for!the!players!in!their!quest!to!deepen!the!interpretive!spectrum.!

With!this!extensive!array!of!instruments,!percussionists!have!had!to!develop!a!
keener!awareness!of!the!sound!limitations!and!potentials!of!these!sound!sources!
and!the!effect!that!playing!action!and!movement!have!on!them.!Tension!in!the!
technique!will!produce!an!uneasy,!tense!result,!softer!beaters!will!produce!a!
sound!with!less!definition,!while!playing!on!certain!parts!of!the!instruments!
produces!a!different!nuance.!The!long!sounds!produced!by!rolling!on!the!drums!
are!now!seen!in!more!subtle!ambiences!and!accordingly,!to!accentuate!these!
nuances,!different!beaters!or!actions!are!used!to!project!these!musical!effects.!In!

328!!
turn,!this!challenging!issue!of!sound!creation!impacts!on!notation,!as!the!
different!kinds!of!rolls!need!to!be!clearly!indicated!in!the!score.!Like!much!in!
percussion,!notation!is!not!standardised!and!is!still!evolving,!so!at!the!moment!
percussionists!need!be!familiar!with!five!very!different!styles!of!notation,!each!
with!its!own!set!of!characteristics,!and!often!only!locally!realised!and!
understood.!Wrestling!with!these!complex!sound!and!notational!variables!
presents!enormous!challenges!for!individual!players!to!produce!in!concert,!a!
seamless!performance!outcome.!!

Interwoven!with!sound!and!notation!is!the!issue!of!logistics,!or!spatial!
management!of!the!instruments!themselves,!highlighted!by!their!nature!and!size.!
The!set!up!of!the!instruments!should!be!in!a!manner!that!enables!easy!
playability.!They!need!to!be!accessible!and!congruent!with!the!notation!and!
movements!pertaining!to!the!playing!of!each!instrument!and!movement!between!
them,!while!preserving!the!necessary!sightlines!between!players.!However,!these!
factors!of!accessibility,!notational!congruency,!movement!and!sightlines!are!not!
always!compatible.!Accessibility!can!mean!using!more!instruments!or!editing!the!
score!and!reallocating!parts.!Setting!up!in!accordance!with!staff!notation!cannot!
follow!rigid!principles!as!each!situation!differs!according!to!the!space!available,!
instruments!used!and!methods!of!playing!and!moving!between!them.!The!level!of!
difficulty!of!accommodating!this!set!of!conditions!moreover!increases!with!the!
number!of!instruments!involved.!These!issues!need!to!be!resolved!within!the!
context!of!performance,!which!introduces!the!further!complication!of!the!visual!
aesthetics!of!presentation.!Because!the!spatial!orbit!of!percussionists!is!greater!
than!the!limits!of!the!instrument!this!more!obvious!and!usually!big!movement,!
an!integral!part!of!the!performance,!must!be!considered!in!the!player’s!fluidity!of!
movement.!The!visual!perception!of!the!sounds!being!played,!the!playing!action!
and!gestural!and!theatrical!movements!are!obvious!to!the!audience!and!as!such!
demand!congruency!with!the!feel!and!intent!of!the!music.!These!aesthetic!
aspects!of!logistics!and!movement!are!serious!challenges!for!every!percussionist!
because!they!determine!the!visual!quality!of!artistic!performance.!

! 329!
Overall,!percussion!technique!has!evolved!into!much!more!than!just!mastering!
the!playing!of!notes,!resulting!in!both!exciting,!and!sometimes!formidable,!
challenges!for!performance.!The!technical!components!of!playing!action,!sound,!
notation,!logistics,!movement!and!visual!aspects!of!performance!all!play!a!role!
that!is!still!unfolding,!complemented!and!enhanced!by!developments!in!
composition,!instruments!and!beaters.!Techniques!continue!to!build!on!and!
expand!from!the!limitations!of!traditional!contexts,!and!percussionists!are!
focusing!more!on!treating!the!instruments!as!sound!sources!from!which!more!
subtle!and!sophisticated!sounds!can!be!elicited.!Further!adaptations!of!these!
more!refined!techniques!have!been!applied!across!the!range!of!percussion!
instruments,!aiding!in!the!evolution!of!multiTpercussion!by!exponentially!
increasing!the!types!and!ranges!of!sounds!one!player!can!produce.!!

Because!of!the!lack!of!conformity!and!predictability!of!all!these!performance!
variables!compared!to!other!instrument!families,!greater!musical!leeway!is!
conferred!on!the!performer!and!is!deemed!essential!to!the!success!of!the!
presentation!of!percussion!works.!The!lack!of!standardisation!of!what!
constitutes!a!set!of!percussion!instruments,!the!unavailability!of!certain!
instruments!scored!for,!the!wide!variety!of!beaters!and!the!lack!of!a!standardised!
role!for!the!instruments!all!contribute!to!what!can!be!very!disparate!
interpretations!of!the!music.!This!necessary!interpretive!freedom!for!the!player!
is!accepted!in!the!percussion!milieu!at!present,!where!every!sound,!short!of!any!
that!will!damage!the!participants!or!instruments,!is!deemed!a!legitimate!sound,!
to!be!used!with!musical!appropriateness;!and!any!sound!source!that!can!produce!
this!outcome!is!a!legitimate!instrument.!This!has!decisively!contributed!to!more!
creativity!and!volume!in!compositional!writing,!as!well!as!player!selfTreliance!
and!initiatives!taken!in!delivering!performance!outcomes.!

This!new!percussion!medium,!developed!only!over!the!last!hundred!years,!has!
also!inspired!the!writing!of!pieces!that!revealed!and!utilised!an!abundance!of!
sound!sources,!encouraging!composers!to!continue!this!exploration!in!a!variety!
of!genres,!styles!and!performance!situations!while!consequentially!creating!new!
challenges!for!the!performer.!To!address!these!challenges!to!more!refined!
performance!outcome,!the!immediate!and!geographically!local!connection!of!

330!!
collaboration!between!composer!and!performer!has!played!a!vital!role,!
determining!the!direction!of!some!details!of!the!compositions!as!they!relate!to!
technique!and!instrument!specifics.!As!well!as!reflecting!advances!in!technique!
the!compositions!also!served!to!progress!them!further,!with!pieces!for!multiT
percussion!using!different!combinations!of!instruments!with!specific!and!
sometimes!radically!new,!technical!requirements.!Expanding!further!the!sound!
possibilities,!are!the!variety!of!beaters!that!are!used!to!produce!nuances!of!
sound.!However,!it!is!not!yet!standard!practice!to!play!the!various!percussive!
techniques!such!as!rolls!on!divergent!instruments!with!specific!beaters;!nor!to!
differentiate!between!them!in!a!standard!notation.!

This!exponential!growth!in!the!essential!elements!of!percussion!instruments,!
technique!and!repertoire!led!to!changes!in!approaches!and!practices.!As!these!
changes!were!neither!static!nor!predictable,!both!the!interTrelationships!
between!these!elements!and!performance!challenges!attained!greater!
complexity.!Indeed,!almost!every!alteration!in!any!one!of!these!elements!effected!
changes!in!the!other!two,!but!also!further!impacted!upon!the!original!element.!
This!then!fuelled!ongoing!cycles!of!instrumental,!technical!and!compositional!
development.!Moreover!the!challenges!presented!by!these!interTrelationships!
and!their!ongoing!cycles!of!change!directly!affected!the!attitudes!and!practices!of!
both!players!and!composers!towards!achieving!consummate!performance!
outcomes.!Influencing!both!players!and!composers,!and!providing!direction!for!
the!percussion!genre!as!a!whole,!the!major!shifts!and!transformations!evidenced!
in!the!twentieth!century!firmly!established!the!practices!and!principles!of!
percussion!approach!that!are!still!relevant!and!followed!today.!

With!the!continuing!development!of!techniques!demanded!by!the!increasing!
intricacies!of!musical!effects,!alongside!a!greater!awareness!of!the!subtleties!of!
available!nuances,!growth!in!percussion!composition!will!undoubtedly!continue!
to!advance,!despite!the!lack!of!current!clear!direction!as!to!what!paths!
composition!might!take.!This!period!of!directional!ambiguity!with!its!attendant!
lack!of!medium!and!notational!standardisations!is!particularly!challenging!for!
both!the!composer!and!the!player.!Therefore,!where!possible,!close!collaboration!
between!composers!and!percussionists!would!facilitate!amelioration!of!some!of!

! 331!
the!technical!and!aesthetic!difficulties!while!simultaneously!providing!
opportunity!to!progress!the!music!towards!more!creative!and!technically!
satisfying!performances.!!

The!developing!percussion!repertoire!has!also!revealed!a!plethora!of!sonorities,!
textures!and!timbres!that!have!not!only!expanded!the!horizons!of!percussion,!
but!also!those!of!wider!musical!expression.!The!four!compositions!analysed!
demonstrate!the!pioneering!work!of!innovation!and!experimentation!by!those!
composers!who!accorded!percussion!an!elevated!status!that!impacted!directly!
on!performance!practice.!Darius!Milhaud!in!his!Concerto,!set!the!pioneering!path!
for!redefining!the!parameters!of!percussion!performance!and!of!what!constitutes!
a!presentation!of!music,!with!his!vision!of!polytonality,!elevation!of!rhythm!and!
introduction!and!transfiguration!of!new!nonTinstrumental!sound!sources.!By!
removing!the!cultural!associations!from!the!instruments!he!abstracted!their!
musical!role!within!a!structure!of!timbral!harmonies!of!wood,!metal!and!skin.!His!
desire!to!represent!ethereal!effects!through!multiTpercussion!has!had!wide!
ramifications!for!music!development!with!later!composers!progressing!these!
ideas!in!a!multiplicity!of!directions.!In!these!significant!ways!Milhaud!presented!
percussionists!with!the!demanding!challenges!of!incorporating!these!very!new!
technical!demands!into!a!musical!presentation.!

Peter!Sculthorpe’s(Sonata,!as!the!first!significant!Australian!piece!of!chamber!
music!to!use!multiTpercussion,!continued!to!challenge!previous!conventions.!It!
featured!multiple,!untuned!percussion!for!a!single!player,!in!an!intimate!chamber!
setting!and!sharing!equal!partnership!with!another!instrument.!Furthermore!it!
injected!a!distinctly!Australian!flavour!with!the!use!of!clapsticks!suggesting!the!
rhythms!of!Australia’s!Indigenous!People.!Directions!such!as!playing!on!the!rim!
of!the!tamTtam!to!create!the!air!of!mystery!and!timelessness!that!characterise!the!
interior!of!the!country!enhanced!this!Australian!flavour!and!broadened!the!use!
of!instruments!for!musical!and!dramatic!effect.!The!challenge!for!percussionists!
lay!in!the!appreciation!of!adapting!dynamics!to!an!intimate!performance!
situation!and!the!projection!of!musical!intent!with!subtle!nuances!of!timbre!to!
depict!the!pictorial!aesthetic!of!the!piece.!

332!!
The(Suite(by!Eric!Bryce!was!the!first!Australian!piece!to!use!a!varietal!mix!of!only!
percussion!instruments!in!a!jazz!context,!introducing!instruments!not!common!
to!the!genre!and!at!the!time!not!usual!in!Art!Music!concerts.!Thus!he!challenged!
the!performers’!technical!skills,!musical!sensitivities!and!understanding!of!
spatial!management!to!present!a!performance!of!an!innovative!work!combining!
jazz!and!classical!elements!and!injected!with!a!touch!of!humour.!

David!Morgan’s(representational!and!symbolic!piece!Loss!highlights!the!different!
levels!of!challenge!percussion!works!present!for!performance.!The!playing!of!so!
many!instruments!requires!an!understanding!of!the!deeper!issues!of!spatial!
management!in!order!to!minimise!unnecessary!and!distracting!movement!and!
preserve!sightlines!within!the!visual!aesthetic!of!performance.!Morgan’s!use!of!
unusual!instruments,!extended!demands!of!metric!assimilation!and!vocal!and!
instrumental!coordination,!also!call!for!the!refinement!of!techniques!and!
overcoming!constraints!of!inhibition.!These!demands!all!contributed!dynamic!
technical!and!aesthetic!elements!to!the!percussionist’s!performance!repertoire.!!

These!four!works!demonstrate!that!with!a!wide!range!of!sound!sources!and!close!
collaboration!between!composers!and!performers,!percussion!can!vividly!
portray!the!emotion!and!drama!that!representational!music!conceptualises!and!
present!different!musical!genres!such!as!jazz!and!symbolism!of!cultural!
character!and!association.!With!its!direct!impact!on!the!advancement!of!
percussion!technique,!the!use!of!multifarious!soundTsources!by!composers!
across!a!vast!array!of!multiTpercussion,!tuned,!untuned!and!found!instruments,!
has!also!contributed!to!enhanced!technical!and!artistic!aspects!of!performance.!
The!works!cross!generations,!genres,!cultures!and!contexts!of!performance.!This!
span!of!compositional!history,!as!exemplified!in!this!dissertation,!indicates!that!
the!complexity!of!interTrelationships!and!challenges!of!medium,!technique!and!
repertoire!ubiquitously!permeate!the!genre!of!percussion!performance.!

This!symbiotic!relationship!has!had,!and!continues!to!have,!profound!
implications!for!percussionists!in!the!presentation!of!performance.!Percussion!is!
evolving!in!a!changing!and!dynamic!music!environment.!The!medium!itself!is!

! 333!
undergoing!continual!adjustment!as!instruments!are!improved!or!adapted!to!
specific!musical!situations,!while!other!sound!sources!are!being!introduced!and!
transfigured!into!legitimate!instruments;!and!the!various!beaters!are!also!being!
modified!to!educe!as!great!a!range!of!sounds!as!possible!from!these!many!and!
varied!instruments.!Techniques!are!in!the!process!of!ongoing!refinement!and!
expansion!across!a!growing!variety!of!playing!surfaces!with!an!increasing!
disparity!of!beaters.!In!less!than!one!hundred!years!the!repertoire!has!developed!
from!rhythmic!patterns!at!the!back!of!the!orchestra!to!a!continually!increasing!
number!and!expanding!range!of!pieces!that!highlight!percussion!as!a!discrete!
instrument!family!in!its!own!right.!Compositions!of!great!variety!and!genre!are!
written!for!disparate!numbers!and!types!of!instruments!in!solo,!chamber!music!
and!percussion!ensemble!centreTstage!contexts.!In!themselves!then,!the!
elements!of!medium,!technique!and!repertoire!are!myriad!in!number!and!
intricacy.!While!each!element!continues!to!expand!with!changes!and!
developments!in!their!complex!interTrelationships,!the!ongoing!evolution!
presents!for!percussionists!considerable!performance!exigencies!that!must!be!
constantly!addressed!in!practice!and!approach.!

The!challenge!then!for!percussionists!in!this!changing!and!complex!musical!
landscape!is!to!mature!their!practices!and!approaches!towards!mastering!
accomplished!performance!outcomes.!Firstly,!there!is!the!need!to!develop!
cognisance!of!both!the!perennial!evolution!and!the!intricacies!of!the!interT
relationships!between!medium,!technique!and!repertoire.!As!well,!progressing!
physical!practices!and!attitudinal!approaches!to!address!the!impacts!that!these!
complexities!extend!to!their!own!performance!is!imperative.!Meeting!this!
challenge!cannot!be!restricted!to!only!conscientiously!developing!the!necessary!
techniques!and!interpretive!qualities!of!playing!their!vast!instrument!base.!They!
must!also!be!literate!in!both!the!overt!and!subtle!musical!and!aural!languages!of!
the!genre!and!its!composers;!understand!the!complexities!of!how!these!sounds!
can!be!elicited!from!their!diverse!and!voluminous!instrument!armoury!of!myriad!
tuned,!untuned!and!found!instruments!and!their!accompanying,!diverse!mallet!
base;!develop!effective!communication!skills!to!collaborate!closely!with!fellow!
musicians!and!composers;!be!technically!competent!to!adapt!and!change!

334!!
instruments!to!suit!changing!situations!and!context;!effectively!manage!spatial!
requirements!to!articulate!interpretation!and!movement!aesthetics!consistent!
with!music!intent;!finally,!learn!and!develop!further!the!skills!and!theatrical!
requirements!to!present!musically!and!aesthetically!cohesive!and!satisfying!
performances.!!

Clearly,!to!realise!performance!accomplishment,!these!approach!and!practice!
requirements!of!percussionists!are!extremely!broad!ranging!and!technically!
demanding.!To!learn!and!master!the!overt!and!subtle!aptitudes!of!their!vast!
instrument!base!in!a!variety!of!music!and!performance!contexts,!to!develop!the!
necessary!attitudes!and!approaches!that!embrace!flexibility!and!inclusivity!in!
each!music!situation!in!the!constantly!evolving!percussion!genre,!collectively!
creates!considerable!professional!and!personal!challenges,!both!exciting!and!
formidable,!for!the!performing!percussionist.!

In!this!context!of!dynamic!percussive!change,!to!deliver!consummate!
performance!outcomes!through!seamless!integration!of!the!complex!interT
relationships!between!instrument,!technique!and!repertoire,!is!indeed,!the!
percussionist’s!ultimate!challenge.!

! 335!
336!!
List*of*Sources*
(listed!in!chronological!order!as!in!the!New(Grove(Dictionary(of(Music(and(
Musicians(Second!Edition!Edited!by!Stanley!Sadie!and!John!Tyrrell)!

Books*in!chronological!order*
Nikolai!RimskyTKorsakov,!Principles(of(Orchestration,!Ed!Maximilian!Steinberg,!
trans.!Edward!Agate,!NY,!Kalmus,!1912
Cecil!Forsyth,!Orchestration,(London,!Macmillan,!1914!
Gordon!Jacob,!Orchestral(Technique,(Oxford,!Oxford!University!Press,!1931!
Igor!Stravinsky,!Chronicle(of(My(Life,!translated!from!the!French,!London,!
Gollancz,!1936!
William!Ludwig,!Complete(Drum(Instructor,!Chicago,!Ludwig!Drum!Co,!1942!
Hector!Berlioz,!Treatise(on(Instrumentation,!trans.!Theodore!Front,!New!York,!
Kalmus,!1949!!
Darius!Milhaud,!Notes(without(music,!trans.!Donald!Evans,!London.,!Carlyle!Press,!
1952!
Sanford!A!Moeller,!The(Moeller(Book,!Boca!Raton!FL,!Ludwig!Music!Publishing,!
1954!
A.!M.!Jones,!Studies(in(African(Music,!Oxford,!Oxford!University!Press,!1959!

Joseph!Frederick!Wagner,!Orchestration:(A(Practical(Handbook,(New!York,!
McGrawTHill,!1959!
William!Ludwig,!The(Ludwig(Drum(Method,!Chicago,!Ludwig!Drum!Co,!1962!
Sam!Denov,!The(Art(of(Playing(Cymbals,!New!York,!Henry!Adler,!1963!
Włodzimierz!Kotoński!Instrumenty(perkusyjne(we(współczesnej(orkiestrze,!
Kraków,!PWM,!1963!!
Charles!White,!Tympani(Instructions(for(playing(Igor(Stravinsky’s(Le(Sacre(du(
Printemps([(The(Rite(of(Spring,!Los!Angeles!CA,!Charles!L.!White,!1965!
Vic!Firth,!Percussion(Symposium,!New!York,!Carl!Fischer,!1966!
Curt!Sachs,!The(History(of(Musical(Instruments,!New!York,!W.W.!Norton,!1968!
Trevor!Belmosa,!The(Soul(of(Pan,!Port!of!Spain,!Servol,!1969!
Jacob!Elder,!From(Congo(Drum(to(Steel(Band,(UWI,!St.!Augustine,!Trinidad,!1969!
Frank!MacCallum,!The(Book(of(the(Marimba,!New!York,!Carlton!Press,!1969!
Karl!Peinkofer!and!Fritz!Tannigel,!trans.!Kurt!and!Else!Stone,!Handbook(of(
Percussion(Instruments,!London,!Schott,!1969!
H.!Owen!Reed!and!Joel!T.!Leach,!Scoring(for(Percussion,!New!Jersey,!Prentice!Hall,!
1969!!

James!Blades,!Percussion(Instruments(and(their(History,!London,!Faber!and!Faber,!
1970!

! 337!
Reginald!S.!Brindle,!Contemporary(Percussion,!Oxford,!Oxford!University!Press,!
1970!!

Anthony!J.!Cirone,!Orchestral(Techniques(of(the(standard(Percussion(Instruments,!
Menlo!Pk!CA,!Cirone!Publications,!1971!
Siegfried!Fink,!‘Tabulatur!72’!Percussion(Studio,!Hamburg,!London,!Simrock,!
1972!
Vida!Chenoweth,!The(Marimbas(of(Guatemala,!Lexington,!University!of!Kentucky!
Press,!1974!
Gordon!Peters,(The(Drummer:(Man,!Wilmette!IL,!KemperTPeters!Publications,!
1975!
John!Bird,!Percy(Grainger,!London,!Paul!Elek,!1976!
James!Blades!and!Jeremy!Montagu,!Early(Percussion(Instruments!(from!the!
Middle!Ages!through!the!Baroque),!Oxford,!Oxford!University!Press,!1976!!

Gardner!Read,!Contemporary(Instrumental(Techniques,!New!York,!Schirmer!
Books,!1976!
Anthony!J.!Cirone!and!Joe!Sinai,!The(Logic(of(it(All,!Menlo!Park!CA,!Cirone!
Publications,!1977!
Morris!Lang!and!Larry!Spivack,!Dictionary(of(Percussive(Terms,!New!York,!Lang!
Percussion,!1977!
James!Holland,!Percussion,!London,!MacDonald!and!James,!1978!
Claude!LeviTStrauss,!Myth(and(Meaning,!New!York,!Schocken!Books,!1979!
Jerzy!Bartz,!Instrumenty(perkusyjne(we(współczesnej(sekcji(rytmicznej,!Kraków,!
PWM,!1981!
Michael!Hannan,!Peter(Sculthorpe,(His(Music(and(Ideas(1929[1979,!St!Lucia,!
University!of!Queensland!Press,!1982!
Michael!Anthony,!Port[of[Spain(in(a(World(at(War,(1939[1945,!Port!of!Spain,!
Ministry!of!Sports,!Culture!and!Youth!Affairs,!1983!
Timothy!Garton!Ash,!The(Polish(Revolution(1980[82,!London,!Jonathan!Cape,!
1983!
Joseph!Adato!and!George!Judy,!The(Percussionist’s(Dictionary,!New!York,!BelwinT
Mills,!1984!
James!Blades,!Percussion(Instruments(and(their(History,!London,!Faber!and!Faber,!
1984!
Darius!Milhaud,!My(Happy(Life,!trans.!Donald!Evans!and!Christopher!Palmer,!
London,!Marion!Boyars,!1987!
Ryszard!Pusz,!Percussion:(A(Comprehensive(Approach,!EauTClaire!WI,!Really!Good!
Music!LLC,!1987!
Paul!Collaer,!Darius(Milhaud,!Trans.!James!Galante!1962,!San!Francisco,!!San!
Francisco!Press,!1988!
Nicolas!Slonimsky,!Perfect(Pitch:(A(Life(Story,(Oxford,!OUP,!1988!

338!!
Angelo!Caranfa,!Claudel:(Beauty(and(Grace,!Lewisburg!PA,!Bucknell!University!
Press,!1989!
Norman!Weinberg,!The(Electronic(Drummer,!Cedar!Grove!NJ,!Modern!Drummer,!
1989!
George!‘Sonny’!Goddard,!Forty(Years(in(the(Steelbands(1939[1979,!London,!Karia!
Press,!1991!
Felix!Werder,!More(Than(Music,!Melbourne,!Council!of!Adult!Education,!1991!
John!Beck,!ed.,!Encyclopedia(of(Percussion.!New!York.!Garland!Publishing.!1995!
Roger!Nichols,!Conversations(with(Madeleine(Milhaud,!London,!Faber!and!Faber!
1996!
Gary!Cook,!Teaching(Percussion,!New!York,!Schirmer,!1997!
Deborah!Mawer,!Darius(Milhaud:(Modality(and(Structure(in(Music(of(the(1920s.!
Aldershot,!Ashgate,!1997!
Ryszard!Kapuściński,!Imperium,!London,!Granta!Books,!1998!
Włodzimierz!Kotoński,!Leksykon(wspólczesnej(perkusji,!Kraków:!PWM,!1999!!
Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sun(Music,!Sydney,!ABC!Books,!1999!
Jerry!Montagu,!Timpani(and(Percussion,!New!Haven!CT,!Yale!University!Press,!
2002!
Barbara,!L.!Kelly,!Tradition(and(Style(in(the(Works(of(Darius(Milhaud(1912[1939,!
Aldershot,!Ashgate,!2003!
Malcolm!Gillies,!David!Pear,!and!Mark!Carroll!eds.,!Self[portrait(of(Percy(Grainger:(
Percy(Grainger(1882[1961,!Oxford,!OUP,!2006!
David!Pear,!ed.,!Facing(Percy(Grainger,!Canberra,!National!Library!of!Australia!in!
association!with!the!Grainger!Collection!the!University!of!Melbourne,!2006!!
Norman!Davies,!Europe(East(and(West,!London,!Pimlico,!2007!
Graham!Skinner,(Peter(Sculthorpe:(The(Making(of(an(Australian(Composer,!
Sydney,!UNSW!Press,!2007!
Mark!Carroll!and!Nicolette!Fraillon,!Patrick!McIntyre,!Ballets(Russes(in(Australia,(
1936[40,!Kent!Town,!South!Australia,!Wakefield!Press,!2008!
Mark!Carroll,!ed.,!The(Ballets(Russes(in(Australia(and(beyond,(Kent!Town,!South!
Australia,!Wakefield!Press,!2011!
Michael!Hooper,!The(Music(of(David(Lumsdaine,!Aldershot,!Ashgate,!2012!
Rhoderick!McNeill,!The(Australian(Symphony(from(federation(to(1960,!Aldershot,!
Ashgate,!2014!
John!Peterson,!The(Music(of(Peter(Sculthorpe,!Singapore,!Wildbird,!2014!

! 339!
Articles*in!chronological!order!
Oscar!Thompson,!Ed.!‘Milhaud,!Darius’,!The(International(Cyclopedia(of(Music(and(
Musicians.!New!York,!Dodd!and!Mead,!1946,!pp!1150T1151!
Thomas!L.!Davis,!‘RudimentsTTThe!Means,!Not!the!End’!Percussionist(Vol!1!No1,!
1963,!pp.!1T3!
Percival!Kirby,!‘The!Origin!of!Certain!African!Musical!Instruments’,!African(
Studies,!Vol!XXV,!No!1,!1966,!pp.!12T13!
Gene!Pollart,!‘A!Study!Of!Muscle!Efficiency!In!Comparing!The!Matched!Grip!And!
The!Traditional!Grip’,!Percussionist(Vol!4!No!4,!1967,!pp.!174T184*
Alfred!Frankenstein!Review!of!Milhaud:!Cantate!‘Les!deux!cités!‘;!Cantate!de!la!
paix!TSee!Poulenc:!Quatre!motets!pour!un!temps!de!peniT!tence.!MILHAUD:!Le!
Carnaval!d'Aix;!Concerto!for!Viola;!Concerto!for!Percussion.!Carl!Seemann,!piano;!
Ulrich!Koch,!viola;!Fauré!Daniel,!percussion;!Orchestra!of!Radio!Luxembourg,!
Darius!Milhaud,!cond.!Candide!CE!31013!High(Fidelity(Magazine!Vol!20!No!3!
March!1970,!p.!94!

V.!A.!Howard!‘On!Representational!Music’!Noûs,!Vol!6,!No!1!Mar.!1972,!pp.!41T53!

Larrick,!Geary:!‘Milhaud’s!Concerto!for!Percussion:!Analysis!and!Performance’,!
Percussive(Notes(Vol(10!No1,!1972,!p.!31!
Gary!Burton,!‘Evolution!of!Mallet!Techniques…1973’,!Percussionist(Vol!10!No!3!
Spring!1973,!pp.!74T82
Lynn!Glassock,!‘Four!Mallet!Grips’,!Percussionist(Vol!11!No!1,!Fall!1973,!pp.!2T11(
Gary!M.!Bolinger,!‘Playing!The!Snare!Drum!TTT!Musically’!Percussionist(Vol!12!No!
4,!1975,!pp.!150T153*
Niel!DePonte,!‘No.9!Zyklus:!How!and!Why?’,!Percussionist(Vol!12!No!4,!1975,!pp.!
136T149!
R.!Pusz,!‘A!Brief!Consideration!of!Notational!Problems!Associated!with!MultiT
Percussion!Solos’,(seminar(paper,!Indiana!University,!1977!
Gary!Cook,!‘Four!Mallet!Keyboard!Performance:!A!Concept!For!Beginning!
Independent!Roll!Development’!Percussive(Notes(Vol!17!No!3!Spring/Summer!
1979,!pp.!56T57(
Stephen!Dodge,!‘The!Concerto!Pour!Batterie!et!Petit!Orchestre!by!Darius!Milhaud!
With!a!Look!at!Percussion!in!His!Musical!Life’,!Percussive(Notes!Vol.!17!No!3,!
1979,!pp.!58T59!
Richard!Smith,!‘George!Gaber:!Master!Percussionist/Professor!of!Music’,!
Percussive(Notes(Vol!17!No!3,(Spring/Summer!1979,!pp.!29T31!
Warren!Howe,!‘The!Percussionists!Guide!to!Darius!Milhaud's!La(Creation(du(
Monde’,!Percussive(Notes!Vol!17,!No!1,!1979,!pp.!37T48!
Frank!McCarty,!‘Symbols!for!Percussion!Notation’,!The(Percussionist!(Research!
Edition),!Vol.!8!No!1,!1980,!pp.!8T19!

340!!
Michael!Steinberg,!‘Program!Notes!on!Concerto!for!Percussion!and!Small!
Orchestra’,!The(San(Francisco(Symphony(Program(Book,!Oct!30TNov!1!1986,!pp.!
17AT18!
Patrick!Wilson,!‘Kraft:!The!Composer!as!Orchestral!Timpanist:!an!interview’,!
Percussive(Notes,(Vol!25,!No!1,!Fall1986,!pp.!37T39!
Robert!Johnson,!‘Ritual!and!Abstraction!in!Nijinska's!Les(Noces!‘,!Dance(Chronicle,(
Vol!10,!No!2,!1987,!pp.!147T169!
Michael!Rosen,!‘Terms!Used!in!Percussion:!The!Milhaud!Concerto!pour!Batterie!
et!Petit!Orchestre’,!Percussive(Notes,!Vol!25!No!2,!1987,!pp.!31T32!
Michael!Rosen,!‘Terms!Used!in!Percussion:!The!Milhaud!Concerto!pour!Batterie!
et!Petit!Orchestre’!Percussive(Notes,!Vol!26!No!1,!1987,!pp.!27T28!
David!Harold!Cox,!‘On!the!Threshold!of!Beauty:!Form!and!Structure!in!Varèse’s!
Ionisation’,!Percussive(Notes,!Winter!1989,!pp.!57T59!
Michael!Rosen,!‘Terms!Used!in!Percussion:!William!Kraft!Comments!on!
Milhaud's!Percussion!Concerto’!Percussive(Notes!Vol.!27!No!3,!1989,!pp.!39T40!
Editorial,!Bob!Becker,!‘The!paradoxes!of!percussion’,!Contemporary(Music(Review(
Vol!7!No!1,!1992,!pp.!1T4!
Robin!Engelman,!‘Percussionists!in!the!west!—!Coping!with!change’,!
Contemporary(Music(Review,!Vol!7!No!1,!1992,!pp.!5T13!
Steve!Reich,!‘Some!thoughts!about!performance’,!Contemporary(Music(Review!Vol!
7!No!1,!1992,!pp.!39T50!
Edmund!Bowles,!‘The!Kettledrum’,!Encyclopedia(of(Percussion,!(John!Beck!ed),!
New!York,!Garland,!1995,!pp.!201T226!
William!Cahn!‘The!Xylophone’,!Encyclopedia(of(Percussion!(John!Beck!ed),!New!
York,!Garland,!1995,!pp.!147T161!
Jeffrey!Thomas,!‘Steel!Band/Pan’,!Encyclopedia(of(Percussion,!J!Beck,!(ed.),!New!
York,!Garland,!1995,!pp.!297T331!
Hal!Trommer,!‘The!Vibraphone’,!Encyclopedia(of(Percussion,!J!Beck!(ed.),!New!
York,!Garland,!1995,!pp.!339T344!
Igor!Lesnik,!‘Darius!Milhaud's(Concerto!for!percussion’,(Percussive(Notes(vol.!97!
no.4,!April!1997,!pp.!64T67!
Mervyn!Cooke,!‘The(East(in(the(West:!Evocations!of!the!Gamelan!in!Western!
music’,!The(Exotic(in(Western(Music,!ed.!Jonathan!Bellman,!Boston,!Northeastern!
University!Press,!1998,!pp.!267T268!
Articles!on!and!by!Clair!Omar!Musser,!Percussive(Notes,!April!1999,!pp.!6T17!
Ciarán!Maher,!‘James!Tenney!on!Intention,!Harmony!and!Phenomenology!—!A!
Different!View!of!the!Larger!Picture’,!Music(Works!Issue!77,!2000,!pp.!1T9!
Jeremy!Drake,!‘Milhaud,!Darius’,!The(New(Grove(Dictionary(of(Music(and(
Musicians,!2nd!ed.!(Stanley!Sadie!ed.),!Vol!16,!London,!MacMillan,!2001,!pp.!674T
683!

! 341!
Scott!Herring,!‘Developing!the!Independent!Roll!on!Marimba’,!Percussive(Notes(
Vol!39!No!4,(August!2001,!pp.!46T49(
B.!Michael!Williams,!‘Stockhausen:!Nr.!9!Zyklus’,!Percussive(Notes(Vol!39!No!3,!
2001,!pp.!60T67!
Pieter!C.!Van!Den!Toorn!‘Stravinsky's!Les!Noces!(Svadebka),!and!The!Prohibition!
Against!Expressive!Timing’.!The(Journal(of(Musicology,(Vol!20,!No!2,!Spring!2003,!
pp.!285T304!
Malcolm!Gillies!and!David!Pear,!‘Grainger,!Percy,!Aldridge’,!The(New(Grove(
Dictionary(of(Music(and(Musicians,!2nd!ed.,!(Stanley!Sadie!ed.),!Vol!10,!London,!
MacMillan,!2001,!pp.!269T273!
James!Holland,!‘Percussion’,!The(New(Grove(Dictionary(of(Music(and(Musicians,!2nd!
ed.,!(Stanley!Sadie!ed.),!Vol!19,!London,!MacMillan,!2001,!pp.!333T334!
Bruno!Nettl,!‘Music’,!The(New(Grove(Dictionary(of(Music(and(Musicians,!ed.!Stanley!
Sadie,!Vol.!17,!London,!Macmillan!Publishers!Limited,!2001,!pp.!425T437!
François!de!Médicis,!‘Darius!Milhaud!and!the!Debate!on!Polytonality!in!the!
French!Press!of!the!1920s’!Music(&(Letters,!OUP!Vol!86!No!4!Nov.!2005,!pp.!573T
591!
William!Forde!Thompson,!Phil!Graham,!and!Frank!A.!Russo,!‘Seeing!music!
performance:!Visual!influences!on!perception!and!experience’,!Semiotica!156–
1/4,!2005,!pp.!177T201!
Malcolm!Gillies,!David!Pear,!‘Great!Expectations:!Greig!and!Grainger’.!The(Musical(
Times(No!148,!2007,!pp,!7T26!
Bill!Youhass,!‘The!Art!and!Science!of!Mallet!Instrument!Tuning’,!Percussive(Notes,!
August!2007,!pp.44T46!
Donnacha!Dennehy,!‘Interview!with!James!Tenney’,!Contemporary(Music(Review,!
2008,!pp.!79T89!
Christa!Brustle,!‘Timekeepers!–!Sound!Artists!–!Drum!Machines:!Studies!of!
Notation!and!Performance!in!Contemporary!Music!for!Solo!Percussionist’.!
Twentieth[century(music,!Vol!6!No!1,!2009,!pp.!63T81!
C.!Sandell,!M.!Frykman,!K.!Chesky,!A.!FjellmanTWikund,!‘PlayingTrelated!
Musculoskeletal!Dosirders!and!StressTrelated!Health!Problems!Amonmg!
Percussionists’,!Medical(Problems(of(Performing(Artists,!Vol!24,!No!4,!Dec!2009,!
pp,!175T180!
Joshua!D.!Smith,!‘Extended!Vibraphone!Techniques!in!Deane’s!The(Apocryphal(
Still(Life’,!Percussive(Notes,(Vol!47,!No!2,(April!2009,!pp.!56T58(
Thomas!Siwe,!‘Jack!H.!McKenzie:!Matched!Grip!Pioneer’,!Percussive(Notes,!Vol!49!
No!2,!March!2011,!pp.!24T27!
Adam!Weisman,!‘Never(Having(Written(a(Note(for(Percussion!by!Tenney—on!
Snare!Drum?’,!Percussive(Notes,(Vol!49!No!3,!2011,!pp.!52T63!
William!Kraft,!‘Stravinsky!on!Histoire!du!soldat’,!Percussive(Notes,!July!2012,!pp.!
48T49!

342!!
Brian!Holder,!‘Varèse’s!drum:!the!tarole!in!Ionisation’,(Tempo!67!(266),!
Cambridge!University!Press,!2013,!pp.!65T68!
Kerry!O’Brien,*‘Hearing!Disorientation!in!Steve!Reich’s!Drumming((1971)’,*
Mitteilungen(der(Paul(Sacher(Stiftung,(No!27,!April!2014,!pp.!36T40!
Louise!Devenish,!‘The!Emergence!of!Contemporary!percussion!in!Australia:!
1960–1975’,!Musicology(Australia,!July!2015,!pp.!1T27!
!
!

Dissertations*in!chronological!order*
James!W.!Lambert,!‘Multiple!Percussion!Performance!Problems!as!Illustrated!in!
Five!Different!Works!Composed!by!Stockhausen,!Smith!Brindle,!Colgrass,!Dahl!
and!Kraft!Between!1959!and!1967’!DMA!Dissertation!University!of!Oklahoma!
1983!!
Randall!Eyles,!‘Ragtime!And!Novety!Xylophone!Performance!Practices’!DMA!
Dissertation!Catholic!University!of!America!1989!
Guy!Gregoire!Gauthreaux!II,!‘Orchestral!Snare!Drum!Performance:!An!Historical!
Study:!A!Monograph’,!DMA!Dissertation!Louisiana!State!University!and!
Agricultural!and!Mechanical!College!1989!
Craig!T.!Paré,!‘An!Examination!Of!Innovative!Percussion!Writing!In!The!Band!
Music!Of!Four!Composers:!Vincent!Persichetti!T!Symphony!For!Band,!Karel!Husa!
T!Music!For!Prague!1968,!Joseph!Schwantner!T!And!The!Mountains!Rising!
Nowhere,!Michael!Colgrass!T!Winds!Of!Nagual’!DMA!Dissertation!University!of!
Cincinnati!1993!
A.!Servadei,!‘A!critical!edition!and!exploration!of!Percy!Grainger's!The(warriors([(
music(to(an(imaginary(ballet’!Masters!Research!Dissertation!The!University!of!
Melbourne!1996!
John!Anthony!Roscigno,!‘Percy!Grainger's!The!Warriors!T!Music!To!An!Imaginary!
Ballet:!Innovations!In!OrchestrationTThe!Addition!Of!The!Melodic!Percussion!
Section!As!An!Equal!Force!In!20th!Century!Orchestral!Writing’*DMA!Dissertation,!
University!of!Arizona!1998!
Sherrie!Maricle,!‘An!Analysis!Of!Concerto!Pour!Batterie!Et!Petit!Orchestre!By!
Darius!Milhaud!And!An!Original!Composition!Entitled!Concertino!For!Solo!
Percussion!And!Orchestra!With!An!Analysis!And!Performance!Guide’!PhD!thesis!
New!York!University,!1999!
WanTChun!Liao,!‘Ney!Rosauro’s!Two!Concerti!For!Marimba!And!Orchestra:!
Analysis,!Pedagogy!And!Artistic!Considerations’!DMA!Dissertation!University!of!
Miami!2005!
Alyssa!Gretchen!Smith,!‘An!Examination!of!Notation!In!Selected!Repertoire!For!
Multiple!Percussion’!DMA!Dissertation!Ohio!State!University!2005!
Natalie!Grant,!‘Text,!movement!and!music:!an!annotated!catalogue!of!(selected)!
percussion!works!1950!–!2006’,!Bachelor!of!Music!Performance!(Honours)!
Dissertation!Victorian!College!of!the!Arts!2006!

! 343!
Laura!Christine!Amos,!‘An!Examination!of!1920s!Parisian!Polytonality:!Milhaud’s!
Ballet!La!Creation!Du!Monde’!PhD!thesis!University!of!Texas!2007!
Julio!GonzalezTAppling!Moreno,!‘The!Ox!In!The!Concert!Hall:!Jazz!Identity!And!La(
Création(Du(Monde’(MM!Dissertation!Bowling!Green!State!University!2007!
John!Richard!Hall,!‘Development!of!The!Percussion!Ensemble!through!the!
Contributions!of!the!Latin!American!Composers!Amadeo!Roldán,!José!Ardévol,!
Carlos!Chávez,!and!Alberto!Ginastera’!DMA!Dissertation!Ohio!State!University!
2008!
Brian!Scott!Archinal!‘Having!Never!Listened!to!a!Note!of!Percussion:!Critique!and!
Exploration!of!New!and!Old!Models!for!Percussion!Performance!Practice’!MA!
Dissertation!UCLA!San!Diego!2010!
Kyle!Manning!Forsthoff,!‘Challenges!Of!Technique!And!Interpretation!In!The!
Percussion!Music!Of!Fredrik!Andersson:!A!Performer’s!Analysis’!DMA!
Dissertation!University!of!Kentucky!2010!
John!Lane,!‘Abstracted!Resonances:!A!Study!of!Performance!Practices!Reflecting!
the!Influence!of!Indigenous!American!Percussive!Traditions!in!the!Music!of!Peter!
Garland’!DMA!Dissertation!University!of!Cincinnati!2010!
Wesley!Parker,!‘The!History!And!Development!of!The!Percussion!Orchestra’!
DMA!Dissertation!Florida!State!University!2010!
Shawn!M.!Roberts,!‘Aztec!Musical!Styles!in!Carlos!Chávez’s!Xochipilli:(An(
Imagined(Aztec(Music(and!Lou!Harrison’s!The(Song(of(Quetzalcóatl:(A!Parallel!and!
Comparative!Study’!DMA!Dissertation!West!Virginia!University!2010!
Kevin!D.!Lewis,!‘The!Miracle!of!Unintelligibility:!The!Music!and!Invented!
Instruments!of!Lucia!Dlugoszewski’!DMA!Dissertation!University!of!Cincinnati!
2011!
Matthew!Coleman,!‘Instrument!Design!in!Selected!Works!for!Solo!Multiple!
Percussion’!DMA!Dissertation!Arizona!State!University!2012!
Brett!Landry,!‘The!New!Solo!Timpanist:!An!Analysis!of!Selected!Compositions!
From!the!Twentieth!Century!Featuring!The!Timpanist’!MA!Dissertation!Indiana!
University!of!Pennsylvania!2012!
Brian!T.!Nozny,!‘Christopher!Rouse:!An!Exploration!Of!Three!Percussion!
Standards’,!DMA!Dissertation!University!of!Kentucky!2012!
Nicholas!Joseph!Ragheb,!‘From!Darbuka!to!Dümbelek:!The!Turkish!GobletT
shaped!Drum!and!the!Construction!of!Difference’!MMus!Dissertation!University!
of!Texas!2012!
Michelle!Colton,!‘Typologies!of!Movement!in!Western!Percussion!Performance:!A!
Study!of!Marimbists’!Gestures’!DMA!Dissertation!University!of!Toronto!2013!
Louise!Devenish,!‘...!And!Now!for!the!Noise:!Contemporary!Percussion!in!
Australia,!1970T2000’!DMA!Dissertation!University!of!Western!Australia!School!
of!Music!2015!
!

344!!
!

Scores*
Published*(in!date!order)*

Camille!SaintTSaëns!Danse(Macabre,!Paris,!Durand,!1874!
Igor!Stravinsky,!Les(Noces,!London,!Chester,!1923!
Igor!Stravinsky!L’histoire(du(soldat,!London,!Chester,!1924!
Percy!Grainger,!The(Warriors([(Music(to(an(Imaginary(Ballet,(Mainz,!Schott,!1926!
Darius!Milhaud,!Machines(agricoles,!Vienna,!UE,!1926!
Zoltán!Kodály,!Háry(János(Suite,!Vienna,!Universal!Edition,!1927!
Darius!Milhaud,!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre,!Paris,!UE,!1930!
Darius!Milhaud,!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre,!Reduction!pour!batterie!
et!piano,!Vienna,!Universal!Edition,!1931!
Edgard!Varèse,!Ionisation,!Milano,!Ricordi,!1931!
Edgard!Varèse,!Ionisation,!New!York,!Colfranc!Music!Publishing,!1934!
Lou!Harrison,!First(Concerto(for(Flute(and(Percussion,!New!York,!Peters,!1938!
John!Cage,!Forever(and(Sunsmell,(New!York,!Peters,(1942!!
Aram!Khachaturian,!Gayaneh(Ballet,!London,!Boosey!&!Hawkes,!1943!
Darius!Milhaud!and!Paul!Claudel,!L'orestie(d'Eschyle(les(choéphores,!Paris,!Heugel,!
1947!
Darius!Milhaud,!Concerto(pour(marimba(et(vibraphon,(Paris,!Enoch,!1947!
Igor!Stravinsky,!Sacre(du(Printemps,!London,!Boosey!and!Hawkes,!1947!
Yvonne!Desportes,!Thème(et(Variations,!Paris,!LeDuc,!1948!
Carlos!Chavez!,!Toccata(para(instrumentos(de(percusión,!New!York,!Mills!Music,!1954!
Michael!Colgrass,!Three(Brothers!New!York,!Music!for!Percussion,!1954!
Peggy!GlanvilleTHicks,!Sonata(for(Piano(and(Percussion,(New!York,!Associated!
Music!Publishers,(1954!
Michael!Colgrass,!Variations(for(Four(Drums(and(Viola,(New!York,!Music!for!
Percussion,!1957!
Michael!Colgrass,!Six(Unaccompanied(solos(for(snare(drum,!USA,!LawsonTGould!
Music!Publishers,!1957!
Peggy!GlanvilleTHicks,!Musica(Antiqua(No.(1(New!York,!PGH!Composers!Trust,!
available!Australia!Music!Centre,(1957!
Henk!Badings,!Passacaglia(for(timpani(and(organ,!Amsterdam,!Donemus,!1958!
Henry!Cowell,!Ostinato(pianissimo,!Bryn!Mawr!Pa,!Merion!Music,!Theodore!
Presser,!1958!

! 345!
Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone,!London,!Faber!Music,!1959!
Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion,!London,!Faber!Music,!1960!
Stockhausen,!Zyklus,(London,!Universal!Edition,!1960!
Axel!BorupTJorgensen(Musik(for(slagtøj(og(bratsch,!Op.!18,!Copenhagen,!Edition·S!
–!musicTsoundTart,!1961!
Warren!Benson,!Three(Dances(for(Solo(Snare(Drum,!Los!Angeles,!Chappell,!1962!
John!Bergamo,!Four(Pieces(for(Timpani,!New!York,!Music!for!Percussion,!1962!
Włodzimierz!Kotoński,!Trio,!for!flute,!guitar,!and!percussion!Kraków,!PWM,!1962!
William!Kraft,!Suite(For(Percussion,(Melville,!N.Y,!Mills!Music,!1963!
Alan!Hovhaness,!Fantasy(on(Japanese(Woodprints,!London,!C.F.!Peters,!1964!
William!Kraft,!Morris(Dance,(Los!Angeles,!Western!International!Music,!1964!
Grażyna!Bacewicz,!Trio(for(oboe,(harp(and(percussion,!Kraków,!PWM,!1965!
Witold!Rudziński,!Variations(and(Fugue,(Kraków,!PWM,!1965!
Darius!Milhaud,!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre,!Miniature!score,!Vienna,!
UE,!1966!
Kazimierz!Serocki,(Continuum!Sextet!for!Percussion!Instruments,!Kraków,!PWM,!
1966!
Karlheinz!Stockhausen,!Kontakte(Version(II,(London,!Universal!Edition,!1966!
Darius!Milhaud,!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre,!Vienna.!UE.!1967!
Amadeo!Roldán,!Ritmica(No.(5,!(1930),!New!York,!Southern!Music!Publishing,!
1967!
Francisco!Tarrega!ed.!Karl!Scheit,!Recuerdos(de(le(Alhambra,!Vienna,!UE,!1967!
Henry!Cowell,!Set(of(Five!(vla,!pf,!perc)!New!York,!Peters,!1968!
J.!Kent!Williams,!African(Sketches,!Cleveland!OH,!Ludwig!Music,!1968!
Michael!Colgrass,!Inventions(on(a(Motive,!New!York,!Music!for!Percussion,!1969!
Krystyna!MoszumańskaTNazar,!Three(Concerts(Studies(for(percussion(solo,!
Kraków,!PWM,!1969!!
Peter!Garland,!Apple(Blossom!Lebanon!NH,!Frog!Peak!Music,!1972!
Leo!Brouwer,!Variantes(for(one(percussionist,!Mainz,!Schott,!1973!
Siegfried!Fink,!Marcha(Del(Tambor!Hamburg,!Simrock,!1973!
Siegfried!Fink,!Zulu(Welcome,!Hamburg,!Simrock,!1973!
Steve!Reich,!Music(For(Pieces(Of(Wood,!London,!Universal!Edition,!1973!
Michael!Udow,!African(Welcome(Piece!Coral!Gables!FL,!University!of!Miami!Press,!1973!
William!Cahn,!Six(Pieces(for(Percussion,!Everett!Pa,!HoneyRock!Publishing,!1975!
William!Kraft,!English(Suite,!New!York,!Award!Music,!1975!

346!!
David!Lumsdaine,!Kangaroo(Hunt!(Piano!&!Percussion),!Universal!Edition,!
Australia,!1975!
Martin!Christoph!Redel,!Correspondances,!Berlin,(Bote!&!Bock,!1975!
Krystyna!MoszumańskaTNazar,!From(End(to(End,!for!percussion!Kraków,!PWM,!
1976!!
John!Beck,!Overture(for(Percussion(Ensemble,!Delevan!NY,!Kendor,!1977!
William!Schinstine,!Three(Means(to(an(End,!New!York,!Kendor,!1977!
William!Kraft,!Images,!Van!Nuys!CA,!New!Music!West,!1978!
Marta!Ptaszyńska,!Dreamlands(and(Magic(Spaces,!Kraków,!PWM,!1978!
Martin!Christoph!Redel,!Rounds(for(percussion(solo,!Berlin,(Bote!&!Bock,!1979!
Dmitri!Shostakovich,!Collected(Works,!volume!19,!Moscow,!State!Publishers!
‘Music’,!1979!
Marian!Borkowski,!Spectra,!Munich,!Edition!Pro!Nova,!1985!
Grażyna!PstrokońskaTNawratil,(Studio(per(una(batteria,!Kraków,!PWM,!1981!!
Grażyna!PstrokońskaTNawratil,(Bis[Joke!for!percussion!and!piano,!Kraków,!PWM,!
1985!
Henryk!Górecki,!Good(Night(/(Dobranoc(for!soprano,!alto!flute,!piano!and!3!tamT
tams,!Op.!63,!London,!Boosey!&!Hawkes,!1990!
David!Baker,!Singers(of(Songs,(Weavers(of(Dreams,!Bloomington!IN,!Frangipani!
Press,!1981!
William!Schinstine,!Recital(Suite(for(Snare(Drum,!Delevan!NY,!Kendor,!1981!
Iannis!Xenakis,!Komboï,(Paris,!Editions!Salabert,!1982!
Martin!Christoph!Redel,!Traumtanz(für(schlagzeug(und(orgel!op.30a,(Berlin,(Bote!
&!Bock,(1981/83!
Ross!Edwards,!Marimba(Dances,(Amersham,!Ricordi,!1984!and!1990!
George!Hamilton!Green,!Xylophone(Rags,!Fort!Lauderdale!FL,!Meredith!Music,!
1984!
John!Beck,!Concerto(for(Timpani(with(Percussion(Ensemble,!New!York,!Kendor,!
1985!
Marta!Ptaszyńska,!Concerto(for(marimba,(Kraków,!PWM,(1985!
Marta!Ptaszynska,!Concerto(for(marimba(&(orchestra,!Bryn!Mawr!PA,!Theodore!
Presser,!1986!
Steve!Reich,!Six(Marimbas,!London!and!New!York,!Boosey!&!Hawkes,!1986!
Roland!LeistnerTMayer,!Poem(IV!for(viola(and(marimba!Op.(44a,!Schweinfurt,!
Musikverlag!Vogt!&!Fritz,!1987!
Hanna!Kulenty,!Arcus,!for!three!percussionists,!Kraków,!PWM,!1988!
Hanna!Kulenty,!One(by(One,!for!marimba,!Kraków,!PWM,!1988!

! 347!
David!Mancini,!Concerto(for(Drum(Set(and(percussion(ensemble,!New!York,!
Kendor,!1988!
Andrzej!Panufnik,!Concertino(for(timpani,(percussion(and(string(orchestra,(
London,!Boosey!&!Hawkes,!1980!(rev,!1988)!
John!Beck,!In(The(Pocket,!Delevan!NY,!Kendor,!1999!
Raynor!Carroll,!Orchestral(Repertoire(for(the(Xylophone,!Pasadena!CA,!Batterie!
Press,!2000!
Máximo!Pujol!Variaciones(sobre(un(tema(de(Atahualpa(Yupanqui,(Columbus,!OH,!
Editions!Orphée!Inc,!2001!
Peter!Sculthorpe,!Sonata(for(Cello(Alone,!London,!Faber!Music,!2002!
David!George!Choose(Your(Own(Adventure,(Brisbane,!Rhythmscape,!2015!
Joe!W!Moore!III,!juNO,!2015,!Rhythm!Scene,!Vol.!2,!No.!4,!Indianapolis!IN,!2015!
Ryszard!Pusz,(After(M,!EauTClaire!WI,!Really!Good!Music,!2015!
Ryszard!Pusz,!an’(if…?,!EauTClaire!WI,!Really!Good!Music,!2015!
Peter!Sculthorpe,!R.!Pusz!ed,!Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion,!percussion!part,!
London,!Faber!Music,!1990,!revised,!2015!
!
!
Manuscripts*in!chronological!order*(in!the!author’s!collection)*
Percy!Grainger,!Eastern(Intermezzo,!manuscript,!1899,!obtained!in!1987,!
courtesy!of!the!Grainger!Museum,!University!of!Melbourne!
Percy!Grainger,!Arrival(Platform(Humlet,!n.d.(
Percy!Grainger,!Sailors(Song,!n.d.(
Percy!Grainger,!Bahariyale(V.(Palaniyandi,!n.d.(
Percy!Grainger,!Gamelan(Anklung,!n.d.(
Percy!Grainger,!Jalatarangam,!n.d.(
James!Tenney,(Having(Never(Written(a(Note(for(Percussion,(1971(
James!Tenney,!3(Pieces(For(Drum(Quartet,!manuscript,!1974!
Robert!Lloyd,!Etude(On(Kandian(Drum(Rhythms(for!solo!percussion,!1978!
Eric!Bryce,(Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet,!1980(
Bozidar!Kos,!Quartet!fl,!vla,!pf,!perc,!1980!
David!Morgan,(Loss(for(percussion(quartet,(1982(
Andre!Oosterbaan,(Time(of(Light(percussion!solo!&!choir,!1982(
David!Morgan,(Voyage(Into(Solitude!percussion!&!clarinet,!1983!
Francisco!Tarrega!arr!Pusz!Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra,(1983!
Atis!Danckops,(A(Different(Kind(of(Jazz(for!percussion!quartet,!1984(
Robert!Lloyd,!Sticks,!1984!

348!!
Atis!Danckops,(Songs(For(Dark(Hours!(fl,!mTsop,!gtr,!perc),!1986!
Ralph!Middenway,!Mosaics(for!reeds!&!percussion,!1986(
Ralph!Middenway,!Stone(River!bass!&!percussion!quartet,!1986!
Andre!Oosterbaan,((All(The(Reed(Will(Say!percussion!&!clarinet,!1986!
Larry!Sitsky,!Diabolus(In(Musica(percussion!quartet,!1986!
Eric!Bryce,(Jazz(Suite(Percussion!Quartet,!1987(
Tristram!Cary,!Rivers!for!Perc!Quartet!&!2!Tapes,!1987!
Becky!Llewellyn,!Early(Spring(for!glockenspiel!or!vibraphone,!1987(
Ralph!Middenway,!Mosaics(for!solo!percussion,!1987!
Felix!Werder,!Renunciation(for(viola,!percussion!&!orchestra,!1987(
Felix!Werder,!Fractured(Fancies!for!viola,!piano!&!percussion,!1987!
David!Harris,!Six(Lyric(Pieces,!perc!&!piano,!1988!
Keith!Humble,!Etchings!perc!quartet,!1988!
Douglas!Knehans,!Dawn(Panels!perc!quartet,!1988!
Eric!Bryce,(Concerto(for!marimba/vibe!&!orchestra,!1989(
Eric!Bryce,(Blue(Dew(for!vibraphone!&!piano,!1989(
Eric!Bryce,(Marimba!for!marimba!&!piano,!1989(
Eric!Bryce,(Indian(Pacific(for!vibraphone!&!piano,!1989(
Eric!Bryce,(Inner(Self(for!vibraphone!&!piano,!1989(
Eric!Bryce,(Uncle(Bill(for!marimba!&!piano,!1989(
Eric!Bryce,(Introspection(for!marimba!&!piano,!1989!
Peter!Clinch,!Apostrophe!pf,!vla,!db,!cl,!perc,!1989!
Warren!Burt,!63(Whispers!pf!vla!db!cl!perc,!1989!
Raymond!ChapmanTSmith,!Untitled(17.6.90,(1990!
Graeme!Leak,!Drum(Song!quartet,!1990!
David!Morgan,(Partita(Alla(Tedesca!Duo!for!viola!&!percussion,!1990!
David!Harris,!Chamber(Concerto!marimba!&!7!perc,!1990!
Larry!Sitsky,!The(Phantom(Drummer(Of(Tedworth((solo!perc),!1990(
Felix!Werder,!Quinny(On(The(Roof(for!solo!percussion,!1990!
David!Morgan,(Concerto(for(percussion(&(orchestra,(1991(
David!Morgan,(An(Itsy[Bitsy(Collection,(for!marimba,!1991(
Tristram!Cary,!Black,(White(&(Rose!For!Solo!Percussion!And!Tape,!1992!
Felix!Werder,!Klänge(und(Gegenklänge!for!viola!and!percussion,!1992!
Neil!Currie,!Sonata(for(Percussion(Quintet,(1993!
Richard!Lavenda,!Split(5(Ways(for!marimba,!1993!

! 349!
David!Rudder/R!Pusz,!The(Hammer!Steelband,!1993!
Becky!Llewellyn,!Sticks(And(Stones,(1994(
Becky!Llewellyn,!Whales(Weep(Not!(for!solo!marimba!and!choir,!1995(
Aleksander!Pusz,!Adelaide(Matsuri!taiko!ensemble,!1996!
Veit!ErdmannTAbele,!Duo(For!Cello!And!Marimba,!1998!
Veit!ErdmannTAbele,!Requiem(Für(Einen(Baum(solo!mba,!organ!&!choir,!1998(
Aleksander!Pusz,!Daiko[San!taiko!ensemble,!1998!
Adriana!Figueroa!Mañas,!Argentinean(Rhapsody(marimba!and!piano,!1999!
Aleksander!Pusz!Polemic(&(Rant,!personal!copy,!1999!
Aleksander!Pusz,!She(Who(Carries(Stars(in(Her(Pocket!(percussion!quintet),!1999!
Wilfred!Lehmann,!Theme(And(Variations(for(violin!and!marimba,!2000!
Aleksander!Pusz,!Zaffron!percussion!quartet,!2000!
Aleksander!Pusz,!Viscous(Summer(Days!violin!&!percussion,!2000!
Marcin!Błażewicz,!Koncert(na(marimbę(i(orkiestrę,!2000
Agata!Zubel,!Zdjęcia(z(albumu([Photographs(from(an(Album],!for!marimba!and!
string!quartet!2000!
David!Harris,!Concerto(for(multiTpercussion!w/perc!orch,!2001(
Veit!ErdmannTAbele,!Waiting(for…(for!marimba,!2002(
Jennifer!Fowler,!Towards(Release!for!violin,!guitar!and!percussion,!2003!
Becky!Llewellyn,!The(Wretched(Hourglass(duet!for!Vln!and!Mba,!2003!
Nigel!Sabin,!Postcards(from(France(for(percussion!duo/viola!&!vibes,!2004,!2006(
Felix!Werder,!Galgenlied(for!guitar!&!percussion,!2004!
Maximo!Pujol/R!Pusz,(Variaciones(sobre(un(tema(Yupanqui,(2005(
Ian!Seaborn,!Wetlands(marimba,!vibraphone!duo,!2005(
Aleksander!Pusz,!The(Wish(cl,!tpt,!cln,!cb!5!perc,!2006(
Fadhili!Williams/R!Pusz,!Malaika!Steelband,!2009!
Desmond!Wraithe/R!Pusz,!Soca(Pressure!Steelband,!2009!
Lyons/Thomas/R!Pusz,!Wine(Wave!Steelband,!2010!
Mohammed!Al!Maskeri,!Droplets(of(Joy(for!Steelband,!2010!!
Montano/R!Pusz,!Dr(Carnival!Steelband,!2010!
Alwyn!Roberts/R!Pusz,!Pan(Dingolay!Steelband,!2010!
Suliman!Al!Shuraiqi,!Al(Watan(Qaboos(Steelband,!2010(
Traditional/R!Pusz,!Buchiawa[se!Taiko!duo,!2010!
Traditional/R!Pusz,!Miyake! Taiko!duo,!2010!
Traditional/R!Pusz,!Chi[Chi(Bu(Taiko!duo,!2010!

350!!
Mohammed!Al!Maskeri,!Omani(Sweet(for!Steelband,!2011!
Dario!G/R!Pusz,!‘Carnaval(de(Steel’(Steelband,!2012!
Suliman!Al!Shuraiqi,!Razhat(Al(Raei(Steelband,!2012(
Suliman!Al!Shuraiqi,!Black(Gold(Steelband,!2012(
Ryszard!Pusz,!GD,!manuscript,!2015!
Ryszard!Pusz,!sss(c(rrr(atch,!manuscript,!2015!
!
!

Discography*in!chronological!order!of!recording*
Edgard*Varèse,!Ionisation.!Pan!American!Chamber!Orchestra,!Columbia!A!
4095N,!1933!
Milhaud:!Cantate!‘Les!deux!cités!‘;!Cantate!de!la!paix!TSee!Poulenc:!Quatre!motets!
pour!un!temps!de!penitence.!Milhaud:!Le!Carnaval!d'Aix;!Concerto!for!Viola;!
Concerto!for!Percussion.!Carl!Seemann,!piano;!Ulrich!Koch,!viola;!Fauré!Daniel,!
percussion;!Orchestra!of!Radio!Luxembourg,!Darius!Milhaud,!cond.!Candide!CE!
31013,!1970!
Michael!Colgrass,!Variations(for(four(drums(and(viola!Don!WrightT!viola,!George!
Frock!–!drums.!Recorded!1973,!University!of!Texas!Recital!Hall!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zL7_kbcXbTU!accessed!11!April!2015!
Darius!Milhaud,!Les(Choephores,!New!York!Philharmonic,!Leonard!Bernstein,!
Columbia!Masterworks,!(LP!record)!1973!
Darius!Milhaud,!Le(Boeuf(Sur(le(Toit,!Orchestre!de!L’Opera!de!Lyon,!Kent!Nagano,!
MusiFrance,!1992!
Michael!Colgrass,!Variations(for(four(drums(and(viola!André!CameronTviola,!
Pedro!CarneiroTdrumsT!Recital!in!Lisbon!Portugal!in!2000!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kg8ov59Gpno!accessed!11!April!2015!
Available!on!the!CD:!18th(Century(Concertos(for(Timpani(and(Orchestra,!Jonathan!
Haas!Timpanist,!Harold!Farberman!conductor,!Bournemouth!Sinfonietta,!CRD!
3449,!2002!
Available!on!the!CDs:!18th(Century(Concertos(for(Timpani(and(Orchestra,!CRD!
3449!(footnote!7),!and!Works(for(Timpani(and(Orchestra!(Erdődy!Chamber!
Orchestra/György!Vashegyi),!HCD!32236,!2005!
Darius!Milhaud,!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre(op.(109,!from!the!album!
Milhaud:(The(6(Little(Symphonies,!Luxembourg!Radio!Orchestra,!soloist!Daniel!
Faure,!cond.!Darius!Milhaud.!ASIN:!B001FA3MCW!VOX,!format!mp3,!2007!
Oscar!Salazar,!Milhaud!Concerto(for(percussion(and(orchestra,!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bAMXZ2pRtZQ!(video,!May!2,!2010)!
Trevor!Barroero,!Milhaud!Concerto(for(Percussion(and(Orchestra,!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bAMXZ2pRtZQ!(video,!December!31,!2010)!

! 351!
The!Wellesz!Company,!Milhaud!Les(Choephores!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AcTUJju34Lg!(video,!August!21,!2011).!
Colgrass!Michael!Variations(for(four(drums(and(viola!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AaGaimqycIo!(youtube!performance!by!Ute!
Miller,!viola!and!Drew!Lang,!percussion,!February!27,!2012)!accessed!11!April!
2015!
Laura!Trompetter,!Milhaud!Concerto(for(percussion(and(orchestra,!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtLw4K0Rmxw!(video,!November!30,!2012)(
Eric!Palmer,!Milhaud!Concerto(for(percussion(and(orchestra,!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dd3t_mkf3gg!video,!May!25,!2013!
Odriozola!Gutiérrez!Guillermo.!Concerto(for(percussion(and(orchestra,!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJ71AK0fRR0!(video,!March!12,!2014)!
Toby!Kearney,!‘A!performers!approach!to!Stockhausen’s!Nr!9!Zyklus’,!Outreach(
Ethnomusicology([(An(Online(Ethnomusicology(Community,(2014,!http://www.oT
em.org/index.php/fieldwork/77TaTperformersTapproachTtoTstockhausensTnrT9T
zyklus!accessed!1!February!2015
!
!
!
Web*Sites*in!chronological!order!of!access*
!
Steel*Drums:*http://vistapan.com/!accessed!11!April!2010!!
file:///Volumes/My%20Passport/Finale%20in%20Oman%202010/steelbandT
%20june%202011/Pan%20Info/Panyard%20pans/pans.php.html!accessed!15!
April!2010!
Kolintang:*http://www.viennajazz.org/en/2013/07/07/wangTliTwuTweiT
kolintangTkawanua/!accessed!6!July!2014!
Vintage*Drums*(Tango*drums):*
ttp://www.vintagedrumguide.com/slingerland_drumsets_1928.html!accessed!5!
November!2014*
Peter*Sculthorpe:!http://www.fabermusic.com/repertoire/sonataTforTviolaT*!
andTpercussionT1259!accessed!15!March!2015!
John*Donne:!http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/173360#poem!accessed!
21!March!2015!
Komitas*Vardapet*(1869H1935):!(http://www.komitas.am/eng/index_eng.htm!
accessed!22!March!2015*
Kolberg*Percussion:!
http://www.kolberg.com/products/en_GB/537/cross/121.html!accessed!29!
March!2015!
Steve*Weiss*Music:!http://www.steveweissmusic.com/product/weissTpiccoloT
woodblockTset/woodblocks!T!accessed!29!March!2015!
Michael*Colgrass:!(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AaGaimqycIo!accessed!
11!April!2015!

352!!
Philidor*March:!http://warsoflouisxiv.blogspot.com.au/2009/04/marchTforT
twoTpairsTofTkettledrums.html!accessed!14!April!2015!
Druzhetzky:!Blair!Sanderson,!http://www.allmusic.com/album/georgT
druschetzkyTworksTforTTimpaniTandTorchestraTmw0001848965!T!accessed!14!
April!2015!(review)!
Marimba:*Mutsuko!Fujii,!trans.*Philip!Flavin,!‘The!Development!of!Music!for!the!
Xylophone!and!Marimba!in!Japan’,!PAS(Fujii(Database(vol(1,(
http://www.pas.org/resources/research/MarimbaDatabase.aspx(accessed!28!
April!2015!
Marimba:*Mutsuko!Fujii!and!Senzoku!Marimba!Research!Group,!‘Evolution!of!
the!Japanese!Marimba’,!PAS(Fujii(Database(vol(2,!
http://www.pas.org/Files/FujiiDatabaseVol2.pdf!accessed!28!April!2015!
Marimba:*Mutsuko!Fujii,!‘Database*of*Japanese*Marimba*Works’,!
http://www.pas.org/docs/defaultTsource/pasicT
archives/FujiiMarimbaDB.pdf?sfvrsn=0!accessed!28!April!2015!
Drum*Rudiments:*http://www.pas.org/docs/defaultTsource/defaultT
documentTlibrary/pasdrumrudiments2015.pdf!accessed!11!May!2015!
LP*Music:*http://www.lpmusic.com/about!accessed!15!June!2015!(Latin!Perc!
insts)*
Varèse:!Steve!Smith!‘Banging!Out!a!Revolution!In!Just!91!Measures‘!
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/18/arts/music/18varese.html?_r=0&pagew
anted=all!accessed!2!July!2015!

Instruments:!http://www.deaganresource.com/!accessed!7!July!2015!
PVC*xylophones:*http://frugalfun4boys.com/2015/03/18/howTtoTmakeTpvcT
pipeTxylophoneTinstrument/!accessed!9!July!2015!!
Cimbalom:!https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HungaryT0223_T
_Cimbalom_%287338659240%29.jpg!T!accessed!9!July!2015!
Mahler*Symphony(No.(6:!
http://burrito.whatbox.ca:15263/imglnks/usimg/5/54/IMSLP44703T
PMLP10553TMahlerTSym6.TimpPerc.pdf!accessed!10!July!2015!
Ionisation:!http://www.ubu.com/sound/varese.html!accessed!21!September!
2015!!
http://cso.org/uploadedFiles/1_Tickets_and_Events/Program_Notes/ProgramN
otes_Varese_Ionisation.pdf!accessed!21!September!2015!
http://www.ntmusic.org.uk/?page_id=180!accessed!21!September!2015!
http://www.emba.com.ar/biblioteca/ETM6B%20T%20Varese,%20Edgar%20T
%20Ionisation,%20for%2013%20percussion%20instruments%20%28full%20s
core%29.pdf!accessed!21!September!2015!
http://www.allmusic.com/composition/ionisationTforT13TpercussionistsT
mc0002360393!accessed!21!September!2015!
Varèse:!http://www.percussionsdestrasbourg.com/repertoire/ionisationT5/!
accessed!1!November!2015!

! 353!
Refraction:!
https://www.asu.edu/courses/phs208/patternsbb/PiN/rdg/lenses/lenses2.sht
ml!accessed!18!November!2015!Reading!on!Refraction,!part!2!!
Paul*Claudel:!!
http://www.britannica.com/biography/PaulTClaudel!T!accessed!22!November!
2015!
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Paul_Claudel.aspx!T!accessed!22!November!
2015!
http://www.ignatiusinsight.com/features2005/pclaudel_virgin_dec05.asp!
accessed!22!November!2015!
Milhaud,*L’homme(et(son(Désir:*Description!by!Joseph!Stevenson,!
http://www.allmusic.com/composition/lhommeTetTsonTd%C3%A9sirT
po%C3%A8meTplastiqueTballetTforT4TvoicesT12TinstrumentsT15TpercussionTorT
2TpianosTopT48Tmc0002404219!accessed!22!November!2015*
Bongos:!https://www.x8drums.com/v/blog/2007/03/historyTofTbongoT
drum.asp!accessed!30!November!2015!
Taiko:!http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2015/12/10/music/taikoT
pioneerTeitetsuThayashiTmarkT45TyearsTdrummingTbeat/#.VnTx9XtKJOh!
accessed!12!December!2015!
Standard*Music*Font*Layout*(SmuFL)*Version*1.19*(2015H08H07):*
https://w3c.github.io/smufl/gitbook/index.html!accessed!14!December!2015!
Varèse:!Pierre!Grondines,(Varèse's(Ionization([(the(Percussion(Revolution(/(July(1,(
2000,!http://www.scena.org/lsm/sm5T10/percuTen.html!accessed!15!December!
2015!
Vanderplas*vibraphones:*
http://www.vanderplastal.com/index.php/instruments!accessed!January!15,!
2016!
Komitas*Vardapet*(1869H1935):!!http://www.amazon.com/MusicTKomitasT
TigranTMansurianT
Kashkashian/dp/B00008UAFW/ref=sr_1_24?s=music&ie=UTF8&qid=14536858
67&sr=1T24!accessed!20!January!2016!
Tenosynovitis:*
https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001242.htm!accessed!3!
February!2016!
Percy*Grainger:!http://www.schottT
music.com/shop/leihwerke/show,152167.html!T!accessed!20!February!2016!!
Pictograms:*https://w3c.github.io/smufl/gitbook/index.html!accessed!20!
February!2016!
Tango*bass*drum:*http://americanpercussion.com/Vintage.html!accessed!20!February!
2016**
Lou*Harrison:!John!Solum!‘Review’,!Notes,!Second!Series,!Vol.!22,!No.!1!(Autumn,!
1965),!p.!816,!Music!Library!Association!http://www.jstor.org/stable/894453!
accessed:!02!March!2016!

354!!
Varèse:!Anne!C.!Shreffler!‘Varèse!and!the!Technological!Sublime;!or,!How!
Ionisation(Went!Nuclear’,!Approaching(Electronics,(
https://www.academia.edu/229371/Var%C3%A8se_and_the_Technological_Su
blime_or_How_Ionisation_Went_Nuclear!accessed!22!March!2016!
*
Mallets:!http://www.mikebalter.com/!accessed!23!February!2016!
John*Cage:!The!title!and!text!of!Forever(and(Sunsmell!are!from!26,!one!of!50!
poems!(1940)!by!e.e.!cummings.!
http://www.allmusic.com/composition/foreverTandTsunsmellTforTvoiceTampT2T
percussionTmc0002388589!accessed!2!March!2016!
Ionisation:(
https://www.academia.edu/229371/Var%C3%A8se_and_the_Technological_Su
blime_or_How_Ionisation_Went_Nuclear!accessed!2!March!2016(
John*Donne:!‘Poems!Of!John!Donne:!Good!Morrow,!The.’!Great(Works(of(
Literature.!Bureau!of!Electronic!Publishing,!1992.!n.pag.!eLibrary.!Web.!02!April!
2016.!
Wojciech!Oleksiak,!Breaking(it(Down:(Chopin's(Sonata(No.(2,*
http://culture.pl/en/article/breakingTitTdownTchopinsTsonataTnoT2!accessed!4!
April!2016(
!
!
Catalogues*H*printed*
Kolberg!Percussion!Instrument!maker,!Uhingen,!Germany,!catalogues!Percussion!
and!Stands(Pricelist(2007!
B.!Kolberg,!Kombi[Ständer(catalogue,!Uhingen,!2007!
!
!
Workshops*and*Forums*attended*(in!reverse!chronological!order)*
2015!! Adelaide!Drummers!Forums,!Adelaide,!Australia!

2014!! Adelaide!Drummers!Forums,!Adelaide,!Australia!

2013! Adelaide!Drummers!Forums,!Adelaide,!Australia!

2006! Percussion!Festival!&!Workshops,!Żagań!Poland!

2005! Percussion!Festival!&!Workshops,!Canberra,!Australia!

2004! Percussion!Festival!&!Workshops,!Żagań!Poland!

2001! Perkusja!2001,!Percussion!Festival!&!Workshops,!Warsaw!Poland!

1992! Percussion!Festival!&!Workshops,!Bydgoszcz!Poland!!
Residency!at!the!University!of!the!West!Indies,!Port!of!Spain!Trinidad!

1991! Percussion!Festival!&!Workshops,!Bydgoszcz!Poland!!

! 355!
1990! Workshop!by!the!Steve!Reich!Ensemble,!Flinders!Street!School!of!Music!!

! Percussion!Festival!&!Workshops,!Bydgoszcz!Poland!!

1989! Percussion!Workshop,!Chopin!Academy!of!Music,!Warsaw!Poland!

1987! International!Percussive!Arts!Society!Conference,!USA!(via!telephone!link!
from!Adelaide)!

1982! Australian!Composers!&!Musicians!Conference,!LaTrobe!University,!!

1979!! Australian!Percussion!Festival!&!Workshops,!SACAE,!Adelaide,!Australia!

1977! Seminars,!Workshops,!Performances!at!Banff!Centre!for!the!Arts,!summer!
Performing!Arts!program,!Banff,!Canada!
1975! Weekend(of(Percussion,!(with!Professor!George!Gaber)!Victorian!College!of!
the!Art!s,!Melbourne!

356!!
 Ryszard*Pusz*Performance*Biography*(1963H2015)*
(presented!in!reverse!chronological!order)*
!
2015*
Sep*30!at!Box!Hill!Tertiary!And!Further!Education!(TAFE),!Victoria,!Australia;!of!
R.!Pusz!On(The(Outer,(R.!Pusz!An!Elemental(world,(Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz!
Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra,(Maximo!Pujol/R.!Pusz!Variaciones,!Jose!Merlin/R.!Pusz!
from!Suite(del(Recuerdo,(Veit!Erdmann!Waiting(for...((for!marimba),!Richard!
Lavenda!Split(5(Ways,!Becky!Llewellyn!Song(Ball/(Song(Web,!R.!Pusz!Variations(
from(Kandy(

Aug*25!at!John!Reynolds!Music!City,!Adelaide,!South!Australia,!with!Andrew!
Timko,!Belinda!Allevi,!Levi!Whitworth;!of!R.!Pusz(Variations(on(a(Kandian(Theme(
of(Robert(Lloyd,(José!Merlin!/!R.!Pusz(Suite(del(Recuerdo,!R.!Pusz(Elemental(
Perspective,!R.!Pusz(sss(c(rrr(atch,(M!Pujol!/!R.!Pusz(Variaciones(un(tema(de(
Yupanqui,(R.!Pusz(On(The(Outer(!
Jul*8!at!launch!of!Tour(Down(Under,!Royal!Adelaide!Hospital!site,!South!Australia;!
with!Tim!Irrgang!and!Yo!Han!Lee;!of!R.!Pusz!Tour(De(Taiko!!
Jun*20!Workshop!at!University!of!South!Australia;!of!R.!Pusz!On(The(Outer,(R.!
Pusz!An!Elemental(world,!R.!Pusz!Variations(from(Kandy(
Jun*14*at!Dom!Polski!Centre,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;*of!R.!Pusz!On(The(Outer,(
R.!Pusz!An!Elemental(world,(Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz!Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra,(
Maximo(Pujol/R.!Pusz!Variaciones,!Merlin/R.!Pusz!from!Suite(del(Recuerdo,(Veit!
Erdmann!Waiting(for…((for!marimba),!Richard!Lavenda!Split(5(Ways,!Becky!
Llewellyn!Song(Ball/(Song(Web,!R.!Pusz!Variations(from(Kandy(
Apr*8*at!University!of!Western!Sydney,!Australia;*of!R.!Pusz!On(The(Outer,(R.!Pusz!
An!Elemental(world,(Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz(Recuerdos(da(Alhambra,(
Pujol/Pusz!Variaciones,!Merlin/Pusz!from!Suite(del(Recuerdo,!Llewellyn!Song(
Ball/(Song(Web,!R.!Pusz!Variations(from(Kandy,(Gerard!Brophy!arr!R!Pusz(The(
room(of(the(saints((for(marimba(and(derabucca),(Bela!Bartok!arr!R.!Pusz(from(
Mikrokosmos(
Mar*1!at!Whispered(Shadows!concert,!Migration!Museum!of!South!Australia;*of!
Maximo!Pujol/Pusz!Variaciones(Sobre(un(Tema(de(Atahualpa(Yupanqi,(Miyagi!
Michio(Spring(Sea,(R.!Pusz!On(The(Outer,!Anne!Norman!Shadow(of(a(Shadow!with!
Anne!Norman,!shakuhachi*

2014*
Sept*6!at!Mt.!Barker!Art!Group,!South!Australia;!of!R.!Pusz!On(The(Outer,(R.!Pusz!
An!Elemental(world,!R.!Pusz!Variations(from(Kandy,(R.!Pusz!Derabucca(
Improvisation(

Aug*24!at!Migration!Museum!of!South!Australia;!of!R.!Pusz!On(The(Outer,(R.!Pusz!
An!Elemental(world,(Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz!Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra,(
Pujol/Pusz!Variaciones,!Merlin/Pusz!from!Suite(del(Recuerdo,(Veit!Erdmann!

! 357!
Waiting(for...((for!marimba),!Richard!Lavenda!Split(5(Ways,!Becky!Llewellyn!Song(
Ball/(Song(Web,!R.!Pusz!Variations(from(Kandy((

2013*
Apr*12H14!at!the!First(Australian(Steelband(Festival,!Marysville,!Victoria,!
Australia,!as!director!and!performer!in!the!Royal!Guard!of!Oman!(RGO)!
Steelband,!from!Oman,!Middle!East.!This!was!followed!by!tour!of!Victorian!
country!schools;!of!Murray!Houllif!arr!R.!Pusz(Samba(Steel,!J&J!Strauss!arr!R.!
Pusz(Pizzicato(Polka,!Mohammed!al!Maskri!(ed.!R.!Pusz)(Omani(Sweet,!Machel!
Montano!arr!R.!Pusz(Dr(Carnival,!Anthony!Carter!arr!R.!Pusz(Government(Boots,!M!
Monton/Durand!arr!R.!Pusz(Yellow(Bird,!De!Leon!et!al,!arr!R.!Pusz(Jump(In(The(
Line,!Dave!Rudder,!arr!R.!Pusz(The(Hammer,!Mohammed!al!Maskri!(ed.!R.!Pusz)(
Droplets(of(Joy,!Rafael!Hernandez!arr!R.!Pusz(El(Cumbanchero,!Suliman!al!
Shuraiqi!(ed!R!Pusz)(Al(Watan(Qaboos,(Desmond!Waithe!arr!R!Pusz!Muscat(Wave,(
R.!Pusz!(after!Dario!G)!Carnaval(de(Steel,(Alwyn!Roberts!arr!R.!Pusz!Pan(Dingolay,(
Suliman!al!Shuraiqi!(ed.!R.!Pusz)!Black(Gold(from(Oman(

2012(
OctHDec!at!the!royal!palace,!Oman,!for!Fortieth!Anniversary!of!Sultan!Qaboos!as!
HM!of!Oman,!and!New!Year’s!Eve;!Manna!Palace!and!Muscat!Palace;!Equestrian!
Day;!Oman!Royal!Guard!Day,!National!Day;!directed!Royal!Guard!of!Oman!
Steelband;!of!Murray!Houllif!arr!R.!Pusz(Samba(Steel,!J&J!Strauss!arr!R.!Pusz(
Pizzicato(Polka,!Mohammed!al!Maskri!(ed.!R.!Pusz)(Omani(Sweet,!Machel!
Montano!arr!R.!Pusz(Dr(Carnival,!Anthony!Carter!arr!R.!Pusz(Government(Boots,!M!
Monton/Durand!arr!R.!Pusz(Yellow(Bird,!De!Leon!et!al,!arr!R.!Pusz(Jump(In(The(
Line,!Dave!Rudder,!arr!R.!Pusz(The(Hammer,!Mohammed!al!Maskri!(ed!R.!Pusz)(
Droplets(of(Joy,!Rafael!Hernandez!arr!R.!Pusz(El(Cumbanchero,!Desmond!Waithe!
arr!R.!Pusz!Muscat(Wave,(R.!Pusz!(after!Dario!G)!Carnaval(de(Steel,(Alwyn!Roberts!
arr.!R.!Pusz!Pan(Dingolay,(Suliman!al!Shuraiqi!(ed!R.!Pusz)!Black(Gold(from(Oman,!
Mohammed!Al!Maskri!(ed.!R.!Pusz),!Traditional(Omani(Songs,!Fadhili!Williams!
arr!R.!Pusz!Malaika,!Suleiman!Al!Shuraqi!(ed.!R.!Pusz)!Al(Watan(Qaboos!
JanHMay!in!Oman!at!Maqamat,!Halban!and!Royal!Guard!of!Oman!Headquarters,!
directed!RGO!Steelband,!Royal!Oman!Symphony!Orchestra!(ROSO)!Percussion!
Ensemble,!Muscat!Philharmonic!School!percussionists!and!Military!School!of!
Music!percussionists;!of!Suleiman!Al!Shuraqi!(ed!R.!Pusz)!Al(Watan(Qaboos,!De!
Leon!et!al!Jump(In(The(Line,!W.!A.!Mozart!Eine(Kleine(Nachtmusik((arr(for(
marimbas),!A.!Cirone!4/4(for(Four,!J.!Beck!Concerto(for(Timpani(&(Percussion(
Ensemble!D.!Rudder/R.!Pusz!The(Hammer!!

2011*
OctHDec!at!Oman’s!Royal!Guard!Day!directed!RGO!Steelband;!of!R.!Pusz!Cheda,!
Mohammed!Al!Maskri!(ed.!R.!Pusz),!Traditional(Omani(Songs,!Monton/Durand!
arr!R.!Pusz!Yellow(Bird,!D.!Rudder!arr!R.!Pusz!The(Hammer,!Fadhili!Williams!arr!
R.!Pusz!Malaika,!Suleiman!Al!Shuraqi!(ed.!R.!Pusz)!Al(Watan(Qaboos!
In!Oman!at!Maqamat,!Halban!and!Royal!Guard!of!Oman!Headquarters,!directed!
RGO!Steelband,!Royal!Oman!Symphony!Orchestra!(ROSO)!Percussion!Ensemble,!
Muscat!Philharmonic!School!percussionists!and!Military!School!of!Music!

358!!
percussionists;!of!Suleiman!Al!Shuraqi!(ed!R.!Pusz)!Al(Watan(Qaboos,!De!Leon!et!
al!Jump(In(The(Line,!W.!A.!Mozart!Eine(Kleine(Nachtmusik((arr(for(marimbas),!A.!
Cirone!4/4(for(Four,!J.!Beck!Concerto(for(Timpani(&(Percussion(Ensemble,!D.!
Rudder/R.!Pusz!The(Hammer!!
Jan*27*directed!and!performed*WadaikOman!concert!at!Japanese!Embassy!of*
Oman!with!Wataru!Takeda!(taiko),!Luca!Blasio!(violin),!Clara!Sanfilippo!(violin),!
Fabio!Pirola!(violin),!Fernando!Fracassi!(flute),!Rocio!Rodriguez!(harp);!of!
traditional!arr!R.!Pusz!Buchiawa[se,(B.!Llewellyn!Wretched(Hourglass!G!Brophy!
Room(of(the(saints!R.!Pusz!Drum(Variations,(traditional!arrangement!R.!Pusz!Chi[
Chi(Bu,(P.!Tanner!Diversions(for(flute(and(marimba,!J.!Merlin!Suite(del(Recuerdo,(E!
Bryce!Uncle(Bill,!traditional!arrangement!R.!Pusz(Miyake,!M.!Houllif/R.!Pusz!Blue(
Samba(

2010*
OctHDec!directed!RGO!Steelband!at!Royal!Guard!Day!Oman;!of!R.!Pusz!Cheda,!
Mohammed!Al!Maskri!(ed.!R.!Pusz),!Traditional(Omani(Songs,!Monton/Durand!
arr!R.!Pusz!Yellow(Bird,!D.!Rudder!arr!R.!Pusz!The(Hammer,!Fadhili!Williams!arr!
R.!Pusz!Malaika,!Suleiman!Al!Shuraqi!(ed.!R.!Pusz)!Al(Watan(Qaboos!
Directed!ROSO!Percussion!Ensemble,!Muscat!International!School!and!TaiSM!at!
The!British!School;!of!R.!Pusz!Timetech,!Houllif!arr.!R.!Pusz!Blue(Samba,!
Monton/Durand!arr!R.!Pusz!Yellow(Bird(

2009*
Feb!directed!Timéa!Szigeti!(viola)!and!percussionists!from!Royal!Oman!
Symphony!Orchestra!at!German!Embassy!of!Oman;!of!Peter!Sculthorpe!Sonata(
For(Viola(and(Percussion,!Gerard!Brophy!In(the!room(of(the(saints,!R.!Pusz,!
Kandian(Variations,(R.!Pusz(Timetech(

2007*
Apr!at!Reutlingen,!Germany,!Musica(Nova!Concert;(of!R.!Pusz!On(The(Outer,!Becky!
Llewellyn!Sticks(And(Stones,!R.!Pusz(Variations(on(a(Kandian(Etude,!James!Tenney(
Having(Never(Written(A(Note(for(Percussion,!Ross!Edwards(Marimba(Dances,!
Máximo!Pujol/Pusz!Variations(on(a(South(American(Folksong(

2006*
Dec!at!Adelaide!Festival!Centre,!South!Australia,!Artspace(Concert;(of!George!H.!
Green!Log(Cabin(Blues,(Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song,(Aleksander!Pusz!River(of(The(
Ancient(Galleon,(Ian!Seaborn!Wetlands,!Andrián!Pertout!Oración(Afro[Cubana,!
Gerard!Brophy!In(the(room(of(the(saints,(Philip!Houghton!arr.!R.!Pusz!Three(
Pieces,!Michael!Colgrass!From(Allegro(Duets,!Bela!Bartok!from(Mikrokosmos(

Aug!at!Flinders!University,!South!Australia;!of!Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song,!
Aleksander!Pusz!River(of(The(Ancient(Galleon,!Andrian!Pertout!Oración(Afro[
Cubano,!Michael!Colgrass!Duos,!Philip!Houghton!arr!R.!Pusz!3(Duos,!George!H.!
Green!Log(Cabin(Blues,!Gerard!Brophy!In(the!room(of(the(saints,!Ian!Seaborn!
Wetlands,!Bela!Bartok!from(Mikrokosmos!

! 359!
July*Percuszion(Studio(Concert(Series,!“Into!every!Life…”,!Harrogate,!South!
Australia;!with!Andrew!Timko!(conductor),!Andi!Aldam!(violin),!Alana!Dawes!
(double!bass),!Timothy!Frahn!(trumpet),!Adam!Jungfer!(clarinet)!and!Aleksander!
Pusz,!Brett!Madigan,!Benjamin!Gallasch,!Katie!Seaman!(percussion);!of!Graeme!
Leak!Drum(Song,!Aleksander!Pusz(River(Of(The(Ancient(Galleon(and(The(Wish,(Ian!
Seaborn!Wetlands,!Andrián!Pertout!Oración(Afro[Cubana,!Gerard!Brophy!In(the(
room(of(the(saints,(Philip!Houghton!arr.!R.!Pusz!Three(Pieces!(Mantis(And(The(
Moon,(Lament,(Alchemy),!George!H.!Green!Log(Cabin(Blues,!Michael!Colgrass!From(
Allegro(Duets,!Bela!Bartok!from(Mikrokosmos((Change(of(Time,(Staccato,(7/8,(
Chords(Together(and(Opposed,(Moto(Perpetuo)!!

2005*
Oct!at!Noarlunga!Technical!And!Further!Education!(TAFE),!South!Australia,!with!
Sasha!Semyonov;!of!Ian!Seaborn!Wetlands,(Becky!Llewellyn!Sticks(&(Stones,(
Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz(Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra!(marimba),!Eve!Duncan!
Where(Are(You(Now?((guitar!&!marimba),(Richard!Charlton!Red(Earth((guitar!&!
marimba),!Maximo!Pujol!Variations(on(a(Theme((marimba)!

2004*
July!at(The(Percuszion(Studio(Concert(Series,(Harrogate,!South!Australia,(with!
Patricia!Pollett!(viola);(of(Gerard!Brophy(In(the(room(of(the(saints,(Robert!Lloyd(
Etude(on(Kandian(Rhythms,(R.!Pusz(On(The(Outer,(Roland!LeistnerTMayer(Poem(
IV,(Nigel!Sabin!arr!R.!Pusz/P.!Pollett(Postcards(from(France((

Apr!at!Reutlingen,!Germany,!and!Wroclaw,!Poland!with(Bogdan!Kazimierczak!
and!Sasha!Semyonov;!of!Aleksander!Pusz!Viscous(Summer(Days,!Becky!Llewellyn!
The(Wretched(Hourglass,!Wilfred!Lehmann!Theme(&(Variations,!Michael!
Whiticker!Winamin,!Richard!Charlton!Carpentaria(Suite,!Maria!Grenfell!Di(
Primavera,!Simon!Reade!(Five(Bagatelles,!Veit!ErdmannTAbele!Waiting(for.(.(.!,!
Becky!Llewellyn!Sticks(&(Stones,!David!Morgan!It[Bit(!
Performance!and!workshops!at(Zagan(International(Percussion(Festival!and!
Workshops!with!Jacek!Wota!and!percussionists!from!Zagan!and!Wroclaw;!of!
Robert!Lloyd!Sticks,!Veit!Erdmann[Abele(Waiting(for...,!Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song,!
Bela!Bartok!Cztery(miniatury(fortepianowe(z(cyklu(“Mikrokosmos”(w(oprac.(na(
marimb",!R.!Pusz!On(The(Outer,(Becky!Llewellyn,!Sticks(and(Stones,!Francisco!
Tarrega/R.!Pusz!Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra,!Robert!Lloyd!Etude(on(Kandian(
Rhythms(
Mar!at!Adelaide(Arts(Fringe,(South!Australia!with!Aleksander!Pusz,!Bogdan!
Kazimierczak,!Sasha!Semyonov,!Wendy!Heiligenberg;!of!Gerard!Brophy(In(the(
room(of(the(saints((violin!and!derabucca),(Richard!Charlton(Carpentaria(Suite(
(guitar!&!marimba),(Astor!Piazzolla(Bordel((violin,!guitar!&!derabucca),(Virginia!
Lakeman!Lighten((violin,(guitar(&(marimba),(Becky!Llewellyn(The(Wretched(
Hourglass((violin!and!marimba),(Wilfred!Lehmann(Theme(And(Variations((violin!
and!marimba),!Aleksander!Pusz(Zaffron((violin,!guitar!&!percussion)(
Feb!at!Rhythm(of(Life(concert,!Adelaide(Arts(Fringe,!South!Australia!with!
Aleksander!Pusz,!Bogdan!Kazimierczak,!Sasha!Semyonov,!Wendy!Heiligenberg;!
of(Michael!Colgrass(from(Allegro(Duets((Allegro(con(brio,(Allegro(marziale),(

360!!
Aleksander!Pusz(Viscous(Summer(Days,!Peter!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(
Percussion,(Bela!Bartok!from(Mikrokosmos!(Change(of(Time,(Staccato,(7/8,(Chords(
Together(and(Opposed,(Moto(Perpetuo)!Roland!LeistnerTMayer(Poem(IV,(Wilfred!
Lehmann!Theme(&(Variations,!Astor!Piazzolla!Bordel,!Felix!Werder!Galgenlied,!
Aleksander!Pusz!Zaffron!(violin,!two!percussion)!!

2003*
Dec!at!Bakehouse(Theatre,!Adelaide,!South!Australia,!The(Three(Timbres!(Bogdan!
Kazimierczak,!Sasha!Semyonov!and!Ryszard!Pusz)!with!Aleksander!Pusz;!of!
Robert!Lloyd,!Etude(On(Kandian(Rhythms,!Becky!Llewellyn,!The(Wretched(
Hourglass,!Aleksander!Pusz,!Viscous(Summer(Days,!Wilfred!Lehmann,!Theme(And(
Variations,!Richard!Charlton,(Carpentaria(Suite,(Gerard!Brophy!The!room(of(the(
saints,!Virginia!Lakeman(Trio(
Oct!at!The(Percuszion(Studio(Concert(Series,!with!Aleksander!Pusz,!Bogdan!
Kazimierczak!;!of!Robert!Lloyd,!Etude(On(Kandian(Rhythms,!Becky!Llewellyn,!The(
Wretched(Hourglass,!Aleksander!Pusz,!Viscous(Summer(Days,!Wilfred!Lehmann,!
Theme(And(Variations,!William!Kraft,!Morris(Dance!!

Aug!at!Flinders!University!Concert,!South!Australia,!with!Wendy!Heilgenberg!
Violin/Viola;!of!William!Kraft!Morris(Dance,!Peter!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(and(
Percussion,!Astor!Piazzolla!L'histoire(de(Tango!!
July!at!The(Percuszion(Studio(Concert(Series,!Harrogate,!South!Australia,!with!
Sasha!Semyonov!and!Bogdan!Kazimierczak;!of!Virginia!Lakeman!Trio(for(Violin,(
Marimba(and(Guitar,!Richard!Charlton,(Carpentaria(Suite(
June(at(The(Percuszion(Studio(Concert(Series,(Harrogate,!South!Australia,!with!
Patricia!Pollett!!(viola);!of!David!Morgan,(An(Itsy(Bitsy(Collection,!Gerry!Brophy,(
The(room(of(the(saints,!Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz(Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra,!
Peter!Sculthorpe(Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion(
Feb*at!The(Percuszion(Studio(Concert(Series,(Harrogate,!South!Australia,!with!
Sasha!Semyonov!and!Bogdan!Kazimierczak;!of!Michael!Whiticker!arr.!R.!Pusz,(
Winamin,!Becky!Llewellyn,(The(Wretched(Hourglass!!

2002*
Oct*at!The(Percuszion(Studio(Concert(Series([(Opening(Concert,!Harrogate,!South!
Australia;!of!Richard!Charlton!Carpentaria(Suite,!Veit!ErdmannTAbele!Waiting(
For…!,!Aleksander!Pusz!Viscous(Summer(Days,!Becky!Llewellyn!Sticks(and(Stones,!
Wilfred!Lehmann!Theme(And(Variations(for(Violin(And(Marimba,!Bela!Bartok!
From!Mikrokosmos!(Change(of(Time,(Staccato,(7/8,((Chords(Together(and(Opposed)!
Jun*at!Darwin(International(Guitar(Festival!of!Maria!Grenfell,!Di(Primavera!(guitar!
and!marimba)!

2001*
Jun!at!Perkusja(2001,!International!Percussion!Festival,!Warsaw,!Poland.!
Performance!and!workshops!of!Tristram!Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose!(for!solo!
percussion!and!tape),!David!Harris!Concerto(for(percussion!(with!percussion!
ensemble),!David!Morgan!Loss((for!percussion!quartet),(David!Morgan!An(Itsy[

! 361!
Bitsy(Collection!(for!marimba),!Aleksander!Pusz!Zaffron!(for!percussion!quartet),!
Daiko[San!and!Adelaide(Matsuri,!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(Suite!(for!percussion!quartet),!
Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(of(Jazz,!Becky!Llewellyn!Sticks(And(Stones!!
MayHJun*Further!workshops!and!masterclasses!in!Wroclaw!and!Poznan!in!
Poland,!and!Stuttgart!in!Germany,!where!I!also!performed!with!the!
percussionists!of!the!Musikhochschule!in!a!percussion!recital;!of!Tristram!Cary!
Black,(White(and(Rose!(for!solo!percussion!and!tape),!David!Harris!Concerto(for(
percussion!(with!percussion!ensemble),!David!Morgan!An(Itsy[Bitsy(Collection!
(for!marimba),!Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(of(Jazz,!Becky!Llewellyn!Sticks(And(
Stones!!

2000*
Dec!in!Music!Academies!in!Warsaw,!Wroclaw,!Reutlingen,!Chichester,!Norwich;!
of!Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song,!Aleksander!Pusz!Zaffron,!Veit!ErdmannTAbele!
Recitatives(from!Requiem(für(einen(Baum,!Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(of(Jazz,!
David!Morgan!Funeral(Music!from!Loss!!
Nov/Dec*at!St!Martin'sTinTtheTField,!London,!and!Reading,!with!Stix(‘n’(Tones(and(
Voiceworks;(of!Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song,!Aleksander!Pusz!Zaffron(

Nov*11!at!Farewell!Concert!by!Stix('n'(Tones,!Voiceworks!and!Bogdan!
Kazimierczak!on!the!eve!of!departure!for!European!concert/workshop!tour;!of!
Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song,!Aleksander!Pusz!Zaffron,(Wilfred!Lehmann!Theme(And(
Variations((for!violin!and!marimba),(Peter!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(And(
Percussion!
Nov*4!for!the!opening!of!the!Dame!Roma!Mitchell!Arts!Education!Building,!
Adelaide,!South!Australia!with!percusSON!and!Kin(no(Taiko;!of!Graeme!Leak!
Drum(Song,!Aleksander!Pusz!Zaffron,!“Chick”!Corea!Spain,(Aleksander!Pusz(
Adelaide(Matsuri,(R.!Pusz(Tsunami(
Oct!at!South(Australia(Folk(Festival;!of!Graeme!Leak,!Drum(Song,!George!H.!Green!
Log(Cabin(Blues,!Mongo!Santamaria!arr!A.!Pusz!Afro(Blue,!Aleksander!Pusz!
Zaffron,!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(Suite,!Dizzy!Gillespie!arr!A.!Pusz!Soul(Sauce,!“Chick”!Corea!
Spain,!Robert!Lloyd!Sticks(
Sept!in!Victoria,!Australia,!Melbourne(Fringe!and!Victoria!Centre!of!the!Arts;!of!
Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song,!George!H.!Green!Log(Cabin(Blues,!Mongo!Santamaria!
arr!A.!Pusz!Afro(Blue,!Aleksander!Pusz!Zaffron,!Eric!Bryce!Bop(But(No(Bees,!Eric!
Bryce!Blue(Without(Blues,!Eric!Bryce!Richard’s(Rag,!Dizzy!Gillespie!arr!A.!Pusz!
Soul(Sauce,!“Chick”!Corea!Spain,!Robert!Lloyd!Sticks(
Sep*3!at!Pilgrim!Church,!Adelaide,!South!Australia!in!the!Chamber(Players(of(SA([(
Celebrating(Australian(Music(concert!with!Bogdan!Kazimierczak!(violin);!of!
premiere!performance!of!Aleksander!Pusz(Viscous(Summer(Days!(for!violin!and!
percussion)!!
Aug*30!recording!of!ACME(concert(of(the(Festival(of(Australian(Music,!Australian!
Broadcasting!Commission,!South!Australia,!of*David!Harris(Six(Lyric(Piece(
Aug*25!at!Festival(of(Australian(Music,!Flinders!Street!School!of!Music,!Adelaide,!
South!Australia!with!percusSON;!of!Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song,!Aleksander!Pusz!

362!!
Zaffron,!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(Suite,!Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(Of(Jazz,!Nigel!
Westlake!Omphalo(Centric(Lecture,!Robert!Lloyd!Sticks(
Aug*23!at!ACME(Concert(Festival(of(Australian(Music,!Studio!520,!Australian!
Broadcasting!Commission!(A.B.C.),!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!Tristram!Cary,!
Black,(White(and(Rose!(for!solo!percussion!and!tape)!
Jun*7!at!Chamber!Music!Workshop,!Adelaide,!South!Australia!with!percusSON;!of!
Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song,!Aleksander!Pusz!Zaffron,!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(Suite,!Atis!
Danckops!A(Different(Kind(Of(Jazz,!Nigel!Westlake!Omphalo(Centric(Lecture,!
Robert!Lloyd!Sticks!
Mar*at!Adelaide(Fringe,!Caos!Café,!South!Australia;!of!Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song,!
George!H.!Green!Log(Cabin(Blues,!Mongo!Santamaria!arr!A.!Pusz!Afro(Blue,!
Aleksander!Pusz!Zaffron,!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(Suite,!Dizzy!Gillespie!arr!A.!Pusz!Soul(
Sauce,!“Chick”!Corea!Spain(

1999*
Dec*31HJan*1!Click!!2000!Millennial!Event:!director!and!performer!
Victoria!Sq,!Adelaide,!South!Australia!of!R.!Pusz!Click(Suite(for(2000(
drummers!
Sept*18!at!Elder!Hall,!Adelaide,!South!Australia,!the!Australian!premiere!of!
"Requiem(for(a(Tree"!(for!solo!marimba,!organ!and!choir)!by!Veit!ErdmannT!
Abele,!with!Ashleigh!Tobin,!organist,!and!Voiceworks!under!Carl!Crossin.!

Aug*28!at!Adelaide!Festival!Centre!Theatre,!South!Australia,!Chamber!Players!
concert;!of!Felix!Werder!Fractured(Fancies,!Tristram!Cary!Rivers((for!percussion!
quartet!&!two!tapes),!Marta!Ptaszyńska!Dream(Lands,(Magic(Spaces!(for!solo!
violin,!piano!&!percussion!ensemble!T!with!Nicholas!&!Michael!Milton!&!Rodney!
Smith)!
Jun*20!at!Australian!Broadcasting!Commission!studios,!Adelaide,!South!
Australia,!‘Sunday(Live!‘!with!Gabriella!Smart!(piano)!&!percusSON((percussion!
duo);(of!Adriana!Figueroa!Manas!Argentinian(Rhapsody,!Marta!Ptaszyńska!
Concerto(for(marimba,(Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(of(Jazz,!Graeme!Leak!Drum(
Song!(percussion!quartet),!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(Suite!(percussion!quartet)!!
May*15!at!Charity!concert,!"Any(Dream(Will(Do",!Adelaide,!South!Australia,!for!
sufferers!of!Myalgic!Encephalopathy!(ME)!with!Gabriella!Smart!(piano);!of!
Adriana!Figueroa!Manas!Argentinian(Rhapsody!

1998*
Nov!in!Mildura,!New!South!Wales,!Australia,!with!Patricia!Pollett;!of!Peter!
Sculthorpe!Sonata(For(Viola(And(Percussion!!

Jun*16!at!Scots!Church,!Adelaide,!South!Australia!with!Ruth!Saffir,!Alison!Rosser!
and!Richard!Hornung;!of!Veit!ErdmannTAbele!Drei(Duettini((for!cello!and!
marimba),!Veit!ErdmannTAbele!Three(Solo(Recitatives(from(the(Requiem,!Jennifer!
Fowler!Lament(for(Mr(Henry(Purcell!!

! 363!
May*4!in!Reutlingen,!Waiblingen!and!Gauselfingen!with!Vokalgruppe!Ralph!
Scheidle,!conductor!Gunter!Maier!of!premiere!performance!of!Veit!ErdmannT
Abele!Requiem(for(a(Tree!(for!solo!percussion!and!choir)!

1997*
Sept*4,*5,*6*at!Nexus(Cabaret,!Adelaide,!South!Australia!with!Gabriella!Smart!
(piano);!of!Tristram!Cary!Black,(White(&(Rose,(Richard!Lavenda!Split(5(Ways,(
Becky!Llewellyn!Sticks(And(Stones,(James!Tenney!Having(Never(Written(A(Note(
for(Percussion,(David!Harris!Six(Lyric(Pieces!!

Apr*29!at!Flinders!Street!School!of!Music!concert,!Adelaide,!South!Australia!with!
Richard!Hornung!(viola)!and!Alison!Rosser!(flutes);!of!Marta!Ptaszyńska!
Cadenza,!LeistnerTMayer!Poem(IV,(Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz!Recuerdos(de(la(
Alhambra,(Peter(Sculthorpe!Sonata(For(Viola(and(Percussion,(David(Morgan!An(
Itsy[Bitsy(Collection!
Apr*17!at!Australian!Broadcasting!Commission,!Adelaide,!South!Australia!for!
Sunday(Live!with!Richard!Hornung!(viola);!of!Richard!Lavenda!Split(Five(Way,s!
Becky!Llewellyn(Sticks(And(Stones,(Peter!Sculthorpe,(Sonata!For(Viola(and(
Percussion,!Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz!Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra!(for!solo!
marimba),!LeistnerTMayer(Poem(IV,(David!Morgan(An(Itsy[Bitsy(Collection(

1996*
Directed!performances!and!workshops!at!Institut!Seni!Indonesia,!and!the!
Chamber!of!Commerce,!Jogjakarta!of!Eric!Bryce!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet,!
Carlos!Chavez!Toccata,!István!Marta!Doll’s(House(Story,!Francisco!Tarrega/R.!
Pusz!Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra!
Performance!for!Tristram(Cary's(70th(Birthday(Concert!at!the!Elder!
Conservatorium,!Adelaide,!South!Australia,!of!Tristram!Cary!Black,(White(and(
Rose(
Performance!in!Orange,!New!South!Wales,!Australia,!at!the(Orange(Music(
Workshops(of!Tristram!Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose,!Peter!Tanner!Diversions((for!
flute!and!marimba)!
Performance!in!concert!at!Flinders!University!of!South!Australia,!of!Tristram!
Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose,!Marta!Ptaszynska!Cadenza!(for!flutes!and!
percussion)!!
Recording!at!the!Australian!Broadcasting!Commission,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!
of!Tristram!Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose,!Becky!Llewellyn!Whales(Weep(Not!(

Performance!in!concert!at!Cabra!College,!Adelaide,!South!Australia,!with!
Adelaide!Chamber!Singers!of!Becky!Llewellyn!Whales(Weep(Not!(

1995!
Performance!at!The!Tasmanian!Conservatorium,!Hobart,!Australia;!of!Tristram!
Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose,!Richard!Lavenda!Split(5(Ways,!Francisco!Tarrega/!R.!
Pusz(Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra!!

364!!
Masterclass/Performance!at!Victorian!College!of!the!Arts,!Melbourne,!Australia;!
of!Tristram!Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose,!Richard!Lavenda!Split(5(Ways,!Francisco!
Tarrega/R.!Pusz!Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra,!Marta!Ptaszynska!Concerto(For(
Marimba,!Alan!Hovhaness!Fantasy(On(Japanese(Woodprints!
Masterclass!and!Performance!at!Canberra!School!of!Music,!Australian!Capital!
Territory;!of!Tristram!Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose,!Richard!Lavenda!Split(5(Ways,!
Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz(Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra,!James!Tenney!Having(
Never(Written(a(Note(for(Percussion,!Becky!Llewellyn!Sticks(And(Stones,!Robert!
Lloyd!Etude(on(Kandian(Drum(Rhythms,!Marta!Ptaszynska!Concerto(For(Marimba,!
Alan!Hovhaness!Fantasy(On(Japanese(Woodprints!
Performance!at!Flinders!Street!School!of!Music,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!
Marta!Ptaszynska!Concerto(For(Marimba,!George!Dreyfus!The(Seasons!!
Performance!at!the!Barossa(Music(Festival,(Barossa!Valley,!South!Australia,(in!
concert!with!Adelaide!Chamber!Singers;!of!Tristram!Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose,!
R.!Pusz!Fanfare(for(a(Drummer,!Becky!Llewellyn!Whales(Weep(Not!!(Premiere),!
Veljo!Tormis!Raua(needmine!
Performance!in!Adelaide(Youth(Orchestra(Concert,!Elder!Hall,!Adelaide,!South!
Australia;!of!Eric!Bryce!Concerto(For(Marimba/Vibraphone((

1994*
Performances/workshops!during!a!residency!in!the!Stuttgart!Hochschule,!
Germany;!of!Tristram!Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose,!David!Morgan!An(Itsy[Bitsy(
Collection,!David!Morgan!Concerto(For(Percussion,!David!Lumsdaine!Kangaroo(
Hunt,!Nigel!Westlake!Omphalo(Centric(Lecture,!Steve!Reich!Six(Marimbas,!Richard!
Lavenda!Split(5(Ways,!James!Tenney!Having(Never(Written(a(Note(for!Percussion,!
Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz(Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra!!!
Performances!in!Chamber(Players(Series,!Price!Theatre,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!
of!Marta!Ptaszynska!Cadenza,!Becky!Llewellyn!Sticks(And(Stones,!Tristram!Cary!
Black,(White(And(Rose,!James!Tenney!Having(Never(Written(A(Note(For(Percussion,!
Roland!LeistnerTMayer!Poem(IV,!Richard!Lavenda!Split(5(Ways!
Performance!in!Fezbah!concert,!Festival!Centre!of!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!
Marta!Ptaszynska!Concerto(For(Marimba,!Becky!Llewellyn!Sticks(And(Stones,!
Richard!Lavenda!Split(5(Ways,!Eric!Bryce!Concerto((for!marimba/vibraphone),!
Alan!Hovhaness!Fantasy(On(Japanese(Woodprints,!Aleks!Pusz!Swaying(Dance!!!
Performance!in!Orange,!New!South!Wales,!Australia,!during!Orchestral!
Workshops;!of!William!Kraft!Morris(Dance,!Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz!Recuerdos(
de(la(Alhambra,(John!Beck,!Overture(for(Percussion(Ensemble!
Recording!at!the!Australian!Broadcasting!Commission,!Adelaide,!South!Australia!
of!Tristram!Cary!Black,(White(and(Rose.!
Performance!in!Adelaide!Youth!Orchestra!Concert,!Elder!Hall,!Adelaide,!South!
Australia;!of!Marta!Ptaszynska!Concerto(for(marimba(
Performance!in!Adelaide(Percussion(Festival,!South!Australia;!of!Tristram!Cary!
Black,(White(and(Rose,!David!Morgan!Concerto(for(Percussion!

! 365!
Performance!in!PolArt('94!concert,!Nexus!Cabaret,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!
Marta!Ptaszynska!Concerto(For(Marimba,!Becky!Llewellyn!Sticks(And(Stones!
(Song!Web),!Eric!Bryce!Concerto(For(Marimba/Vibraphone!!

1993*
Performance!in!The(Black(Tie(Fare(Concert,!COME!OUT!‘93!Festival!in!the!
Adelaide!Town!Hall,!South!Australia;!of!Neil!Currie!Sonata(for(percussion,!
Desmond!Waithe!The(Hammer,!traditional!arr!R.!Pusz!El(Cumbanchero!(for!
Steelband),!John!Beck,!Overture(for(Percussion(Ensemble!
Performance!at!Flute(Society(Concert,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!Peter!Tanner!
Diversions!
Performance!at!Recital(Room(Series,!Flinders!Street!School!of!Music,!Adelaide,!
South!Australia;!of!William!Kraft!Morris(Dance,!Marta!Ptaszynska!Cadenza,!
Roland!LeistnerTMayer!Poem(IV,!Richard!Lavenda!Split(5(Ways,!Francisco!
Tarrega/R.!Pusz!Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra,!George!Dreyfus!The(Seasons,!Peter!
Tanner!Diversions(

1992* *
Performances!and!workshops!in!Poland!at!the!Opole(International(Percussion(
Festival;!and!then!in!the!Music!Academies!at!Poznan,!Katowice!and!Wroclaw,!
(Poland)!and!Madrid!(Spain);!of!Tristram!Cary!Black,(White(And(Rose,!David!
Morgan!An(Itsy[Bitsy(Collection,!David!Morgan!Concerto(For(Percussion,!David!
Lumsdaine!Kangaroo(Hunt,!Eric!Bryce!Concerto(For(Marimba/Vibraphone,!
Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz(Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra!
Performances!and!workshops!in!Madrid,!Cuenca!and!Segovia!in!Spain!and!in!
Berlin,!Hannover,!Düsseldorf,!Dotternhausen,!Germany;!of!Felix!Werder!Scrutiny,!
Felix!Werder!Ricochet,!Peter!Clinch!Invention,!Peter!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(
And(Percussion,(Warren!Burt!Three(Fast(Mornings(On(Mt(Gravatt,!Peter!Graham!
Couleurs(Intergrales(
Performances!in!Singapore,!Kuching,!Penang!and!Kuala!Lumpur,!Malaysia,!with!
the!Corinthian(Singers;!of!Andre!Oosterbaan!Time(Of(Light,!George!Gershwin!
Fascinatin'(Rhythm!and!Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz(Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra!
Performance!in!the!Lights!Ensemble,!at!the!New(Music(Festival,(Melbourne,!
Victoria,!Australia;!of!Quentin!Grant!Comes(Fresh(Life,!John!Hines!Untitled,!Andi!
Aldam!Lightmotives,!John!Polglase!Charivari,!Peter!McIlwain!A(Little(Halo!
Performance!at!the!Flinders!School!of!Music!Concert,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!
of!David!Morgan!An(Itsy[Bitsy(Collection(&(Concerto(for(Percussion,!Tristram!Cary!
Black,(White(And(Rose!
Performance!at!Adelaide(Festival(of(the(Arts,!South!Australia;!of!Henryk!Gorecki!
Good(Night!!!
Performance!at!Adelaide(Festival(of(the(Arts,!South!Australia;!of!Charles!Ives!All(
The(Way(Round(And(Back,!Morton!Feldman!The(Viola(In(My(Life(1(&(2,!Warren!
Burt!63(Whispers(In(Memoriam(Morton(Feldman!
Performance!in!Recital(Room(Series,!Flinders!School!of!Music,!Adelaide,!Australia;!
of!George!Crumb!Dream(Sequence,!David!Baker!Singers(Of(Song(and(Weavers(Of(

366!!
Dreams,!Eric!Bryce!Uncle(Bill,(Indian(Pacific(and(Inner(Self,(and!Ryszard!Pusz!
Improvisation(IC(

1991* *
Performances!and!workshops!in!the!inaugural!Prague(Percussion(Days,(Prague;!
of!Eric!Bryce!Concerto(For(Marimba/Vibraphone,!Ross!Edwards!Marimba(Dances,!
Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song,!David!Morgan!An(Itsy[Bitsy(Collection!!!
Performance!in!Franz!Liszt!Academy,!Budapest,!with!the!Hungarian!Youth!
Orchestra;!of!premiere!of!David!Morgan!Concerto(for(Percussion!!and!
performance!of!Carl!Orff!Carmina(Burana,!David!Lumsdaine!Kangaroo(Hunt,!Ross!
Edwards!Marimba(Dances!!!
Performances!and!workshops!at!the!Fifth(International(Percussion(Festival!and!
Workshops!in!Bydgoszcz,!Poland;!of!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(Suite,!James!Tenney!Having(
Never(Written(A(Note(For(Percussion,!Raymond!ChapmanTSmith!Untitled(17.6.90,!
David!Morgan!An(Itsy[Bitsy(Collection,!Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(Of(Jazz,!
Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song!!
Performances!and!workshops!in!Trinidad!of!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(Suite,!Francisco!
Tarrega/R.!Pusz!Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra,!David!Morgan!An(Itsy[Bitsy(Collection,!
Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(Of(Jazz,!Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song!
Performance!for!an!Australian!Education!Council!Dinner;!of!Atis!Danckops!A(
Different(Kind(Of(Jazz,!Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz(Recuerdos(De(La(Alhambra,!
Sonitus!Humarimba(#1(&(#2,!"Chick"!Corea!Spain,!Alice!Gomez!Rainbows,!J.!Kent!
Williams!African(Sketches,!Robert!Lloyd!Sticks,!Nigel!Westlake!Omphalo(Centric(
Lecture,!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(Suite,!Alice!Gomez!Folk(Dances!!!
Workshop!for!Chamber(Music(Workshop,!University!of!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!
of!Bela!Bartok!Sonata((for!two!pianos!and!percussion)!!
Performance!in!Elder!Hall,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!Martin!Redel!Traumtanz(
für(Schlagzeug(und(Orgel,!Bela!Bartok!Sonata((for!two!pianos!and!percussion),!
Eric!Bryce!Concerto(For(Marimba/Vibraphone,!David!Morgan!An(Itsy[Bitsy(
Collection,!Larry!Sitsky!Phantom(Drummer(Of(Tedworth,!David!Lumsdaine!
Kangaroo(Hunt,!Henk!Badings!Passacaglia(for(Organ(and(Timpani,!David!Morgan!
Partita(alla(Tedesca(

1990*
Performance!in!the!Adelaide!Festival!of!the!Arts,!Kaffee(Series;!of!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(
Suite,!Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(Of(Jazz,!Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz(
Recuerdos(De(La(Alhambra,!Sonitus!Humarimba(#1(&(#2,!"Chick"!Corea!Spain,!
Alice!Gomez!Rainbows,!J.!Kent!Williams!African(Sketches,!Robert!Lloyd!Sticks,!
Etude(on(Kandian(Rhythms.!!
Performance!in!concert!at!Flinders!University!South!Australia;!of!Atis!Danckops!
A(Different(Kind(Of(Jazz,!Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz(Recuerdos(De(La(Alhambra,!
Sonitus!Humarimba(#1(&(#2,!"Chick"!Corea!Spain,!Alice!Gomez!Rainbows,!J.!Kent!
Williams!African(Sketches,!Robert!Lloyd!Sticks,!Nigel!Westlake!Omphalo(Centric(
Lecture!

! 367!
Performance!and!broadcast!in!Urizen(Concert(Series,(Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!
Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(Of(Jazz,!Robert!Lloyd!Sticks,!Nigel!Westlake!
Omphalo(Centric(Lecture!
Performance!in!concert!Sonitus,!presented!by!Urizen,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!
of!Steve!Reich!Six(Marimbas,!John!Cage!Imaginary(Landscape(No(2,!Raymond!
ChapmanTSmith!Untitled(!
Recording!for!national!broadcast!on!Australian!Broadcasting!CommissionTFM!
Radio;!of!Felix!Werder!Fractured(Fancies,!David!Harris!Chamber(Concerto((for!
marimba!and!percussion!ensemble)!!
Performances!and!workshops!in!the!Fourth(International(Percussion(Festival!and!
Workshops!in!Bydgoszcz,!Poland;!of!Larry!Sitsky!Phantom(Drummer(Of(
Tedworth,!Felix!Werder!Quinny(On(The(Roof,!Ross!Edwards!Marimba(Dances,!Eric!
Bryce!Concerto(For(Marimba/Vibraphone,!David!Harris!Chamber(Concerto((for!
marimba!and!percussion!ensemble),!Robert!Lloyd!Sticks,!David!Morgan!Down(
Under(Suite!!
Performance!in!Chamber(Players(Concert(Series,(Adelaide,(South(Australia;(of!
Larry!Sitsky!Phantom(Drummer(Of(Tedworth,(David!Morgan!Partita(alla(Tedesca,!
Martin!Redel!Traumtanz(für(Schlagzeug(und(Orgel,!Henk!Badings!Passacaglia(for(
Organ(and(Timpani,!Felix!Werder!Fractured(Fancies,!David!Harris!Chamber(
Concerto((for(marimba(and(percussion(ensemble)!
Performance!at!Flinders!Street!School!of!Music,!Adelaide,!South!Australia,!with!
visiting!virtuoso!Steven!Schick!and!the!Technical!And!Further!Education!
Percussion!Ensemble,!in!a!concert!of!contemporary!percussion!music;!of!Steve!
Reich!Music(For(Pieces(Of(Wood,!Frederic!Rzewski!To(The(Earth,!Larry!Sitsky!
Phantom(Drummer(Of(Tedworth,!Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song,!Karlheinz!
Stockhausen!Zyklus(No(9,!Peter!Sculthorpe!Sonata(For(Viola(And(Percussion,!Peter!
Garland!Apple(Blossom,!Iannis!Xenakis!Rebonds!!

1989* *
Premiere!performance!for!the!COME(OUT!Festival!of!Eric!Bryce!Concerto(for(
Marimba/Vibraphone!with!Adelaide!Symphony!Orchestra.!
Performance!in!Urizen(Concert(Series,(Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!Felix!Werder!
Fractured(Fancies!and!David!Harris!Chamber(Concerto!(for!marimba!and!
percussion!ensemble),!Ross!Edwards!Marimba(Dances,!Alan!Hovhaness!Fantasy(
on(Japanese(Woodprints,!Eric!Bryce!Concerto(For(Marimba/Vibraphone!!
Performance!in!a!Chamber(Players!concert!tour!of!the!SouthTEast!of!South!
Australia;!of!Henk!Badings!Passacaglia(for(Organ(and(Timpani,!Martin!Redel!
Traumtanz(für(Schlagzeug(und(Orgel,!David!Harris!Chamber(Concerto!(for!
marimba!and!percussion!ensemble)!!
Performance!in!concert!at!Flinders!University!of!South!Australia;!of!Eric!Bryce!
Jazz(Suite,!Eric!Bryce!Concerto(for(Marimba/Vibraphone,!Murray!Houllif!Blue(
Samba!for(percussion(ensemble,(John!Beck,!Overture(for(Percussion(Ensemble!!
Performance!at!Flinders!Street!School!of!Music,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!
David!Lumsdaine!Kangaroo(Hunt,!Ross!Edwards!Marimba(Dances,!Eric!Bryce!

368!!
Marimba,(Introspection,(Uncle(Bill,(Inner(Self,(Indian(Pacific,(Blue(Dew!(for!
Marimba/Vibraphone!&!Piano)!
Performance!in!concert!at!Broken!Hill,!New!South!Wales,!Australia;!of!Ross!
Edwards!Marimba(Dances,!Eric!Bryce!Concerto(For(Marimba/(Vibraphone,!!
George!Hamilton!Green!Xylophone(Rags,!Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz(Recuerdos(de(
la(Alhambra!!!
Performance!in!an!Accompanists'!Guild!concert;!of!David!Harris!Six(Lyric(Pieces,!
Alan!Hovhaness!Fantasy(On(Japanese(Woodprints,!Bela!Bartok!Sonata(for(two(
pianos(and(percussion!
Performance!with!Urizen,!a!contemporary!classical!concert,!Adelaide,!South!
Australia;!of!Felix!Werder!Fractured(Fancies!!!
Performance!at!Flinders!Street!School!of!Music,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!
Felix!Werder!Fractured(Fancies,!Martin!Redel!Rounds(for(percussion(solo,!
Hildemann!Kol(Nidrei(for(viola,(clarinet(and(percussion!!
Performances!at!Concert/Lecture!tour!of!USA!and!Europe;!of!Alan!Hovhaness!
Fantasy(On(Japanese(Woodprints,!Eric!Bryce!Concerto(For(Marimba/Vibraphone,!
Ross!Edwards!Marimba(Dances,!David!Harris!Six(Lyric(Pieces,!Tango,!David!
Lumsdaine!Kangaroo(Hunt,*Robert!Lloyd!Etude(On(Kandian(Drum(Rhythms,!Felix!
Werder!Fractured(Fancies,(Chaldaean(Zones,!Peter!Clinch!Apostrophe,!Warren!
Burt!63(Whispers,!Peter!Sculthorpe!Sonata(For(Viola(And(Percussion,!Peter!
Brideoake!Dialogue(2.!
Performance!at!Adelaide!Festival!Centre!Concert!and!live!ABCTFM!broadcast;!of!
Alan!Hovhaness!Fantasy(On(Japanese(Woodprints,!Eric!Bryce!Marimba,(
Introspection,(Uncle(Bill,(Inner(Self,(Indian(Pacific,(Blue(Dew!for(
Marimba/Vibraphone(and(Piano,!Ross!Edwards!Marimba(Dances,!David!Harris!Six(
Lyric(Pieces!
Performance!at!Adelaide!Town!Hall,!South!Australia,!as!conductor!of!Alan!
Hovhaness!Fantasy(On(Japanese(Woodprints(

1988*
Performed!at!the!opening!ceremony!Adelaide(Festival(of(Arts;!of!Ryszard!Pusz!
Drumworks:(Fanfare(for(75(Drummers,!Anthony!Cirone!4/4(for(Four,(J!Kent!
Williams!African(Sketches!Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song!with!Adelaide(Percussions!
Three!concerts!as!part!of!the!Adelaide(Festival(of(Arts;!of!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(Suite,!
Tristram!Cary!Rivers,!Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(Of(Jazz,!Robert!Lloyd!Sticks!
Performance!at!a!Chamber(Players(Concert;!of!Peter!Brideoake!Dialogue(for(Two,!
Douglas!Knehans!Dawn(Panels,!William!Kraft!Suite(For(Percussion,!J.!Kent!
Williams!African(Sketches,!David!Baker!Singers(of(Songs,(Weavers(of(Dreams!
Performance!at!a!Chamber(Players(Concert;!of!George!Dreyfus!The(Seasons,!Larry!
Barnes!Sunlight(Dialogues,!John!DeBeradinis!Two(Sketches,!Alan!Hovhaness!
Fantasy(On(Japanese(Woodprints!!
Performance!in!a!concert!at!Flinders!University!of!South!Australia;!of!Alan!
Hovhaness!Fantasy(On(Japanese(Woodprints,!David!Harris!Six(Lyric(Pieces,!Larry!
Barnes!Sunlight(Dialogues,!John!DeBeradinis!Two(Sketches,!Larry!Weiner!Fusions!!

! 369!
Recording!for!5UV!Radio,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!Felix!Werder!Fractured(
Fancies!and!David!Harris!Six(Lyric(Pieces!
Performance!in!the!Breakthrough(Festival(of(Contemporary(Classical(Music,!
Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!James!Tenney!Having(Never(Written(A(Note(For(
Percussion,!Morton!Feldman!Durations(One,!Richard!Wolff!Exercise(I!
Conducting!a!percussion!ensemble!in!the(Breakthrough(Festival(of(Contemporary(
Classical(Music;(of!Steve!Reich!Music(For(Pieces(Of(Wood,!Michael!Colgrass!Three(
Brothers,!Henry!Cowell!Ostinato(Pianissimo,!Edgard!Varese!Ionisation,!Michael!
Udow!African(Welcome(Piece,!James!Tenney!Three(Pieces(for(Percussion(Quartet!
Performance!in!a!community!concert!of!Alan!Hovhaness!Fantasy(On(Japanese(
Woodprints!
Performance!and!recording!for!the!Australian!Broadcasting!Commission!for!
national!broadcast!in!a!Total(Sync!concert,!Elder!Hall,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!
of!Peter!Brideoake!Dialogue(for(2!!

1987*
Performances!in!the!COME(OUT!Festival,!at!a!community!concert!and!on!IN(
TEMPO((ABCTFM!Radio);!of!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(Suite,!David!Morgan!Fun(And(Games,!
Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(Of(Jazz,!Robert!Lloyd!Sticks,!Ralph!Middenway!
Mosaics!&!Percy!Grainger!Eastern(Intermezzo,(Arrival(Platform(Humlet,(Sailor's(
Song,(Bahariyale(V.(Palaniyandi;!Broadcast!of!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(Suite,!David!Morgan!
Fun(And(Games,!Robert!Lloyd!Sticks!
Performance!in!an!Accompanists(Guild!concert,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!
David!Lumsdaine!Kangaroo(Hunt!!
Performance!of!Iannis!Xenakis!Komboi!in!"Verandah",!a!dance!piece!realised!by!
Leigh!Warren!for!an!Australian!Dance!Theatre!season!
Performances!with!Australian!Dance!Theatre;!of!Hidden(Garden!T!a!piece!for!
Dance!and!Percussion,!Harp!and!Clarinet!!
Performance!in!a!Chamber(Players(Concert!of!Darius!Milhaud!Concerto(for(
marimba/vibraphone,!David!Lumsdaine!Kangaroo(Hunt!,!Peter!Sculthorpe!Sonata(
For(Viola(And(Percussion,!Iannis!Xenakis!Komboï,!Francisco!Tarrega/R.!Pusz(
Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra!
Premiere!performances!in!a!Chamber(Players!concert;!of!Tristram!Cary!Rivers,!
Felix!Werder!Renunciation!for(Viola,(Percussion(and(Orchestra,!Eric!Bryce!Jazz(
Suite!

1986*
Opening!Ceremony,!Adelaide(Festival(of(Arts,!directed!percussion!ensemble!
in!outdoor!performance!of!Robert!Lloyd!Sticks,!Graeme!Leak!Drum(Song!
Performance!in!concert!for!the!Adelaide(Festival(of(Arts;!of!Atis!Danckops!A(
Different(Kind(of(Jazz,!Atis!Danckops!Songs(for(Dark(Hours!and!Ralph!Middenway!
Mosaics(for(Reeds(&(Percussion!
Performance!in!the!Berio(Festival(series(for(the(Adelaide(Festival(of(Arts;!of!Peter!
Sculthorpe!Sonata(For(Viola(and(Percussion,!!

370!!
Performance!in!the!Adelaide(Festival(of(Arts;(of!Andre!Oosterbaan!All(the(Reed(
Will(Say,!with!Claire!Cochrane!
Performance!in!a!Chamber!Players!concert!–!An(all(Australian(Percussion(Concert;(
of!Larry!Sitsky!Diabolus(in(Musica,!David!Morgan!Fun(and(Games,!Robert!Lloyd!
Sticks!and!Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(of(Jazz(
Performances!in!community!concerts!at!the!Adelaide!Festival!Centre!and!
Elizabeth!City!Centre,!South!Australia;!of!Anthony(Cirone!4/4(for(four,!J.!Kent!
Williams!African(Sketches,!arr.!Adelaide!Percussions!Mallet(Medley(of(popular(
pieces,!David!Morgan!Fun(and(Games,,!Larry!Spivack!Quartet(for(paper(bags,!Atis!
Danckops!A(Different(Kind(of(Jazz!!!
Presented!a!workshop!on!percussion!notation!via!a!telephone!link!to!the!
International(Percussive(Arts(Convention!in!the!USA!using!David!Morgan!Voyage(
Into(Solitude,!David!Lumsdaine!Kangaroo(Hunt!and!Peter!Sculthorpe!Sonata(For(
Viola(and(Percussion!as!examples.!

1985* *
Continuing!concert/lecture!tour!of!the!USA!in!EauTClaire!Wisconsin,!Madison!
Wisconsin,!Ann!Arbor!Michigan,!Corpus!Christi!Texas,!Cincinnati!Ohio,!Kingston!
Texas;!of!Eric!Bryce!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet,!David!Morgan!Voyage(into(
Solitude,!David!Morgan!Loss,!David!Lumsdaine!Kangaroo(Hunt,!Peter!Sculthorpe!
Sonata(For(Viola(&(Percussion,!Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(of(Jazz,!Ted!Frazeur!
Sea(Interludes,!Francisco!Tarrega/!R.!Pusz!Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra!
Performance! of! David! Morgan! Voyage( Into( Solitude,! Ted! Frazeur! Sea( Interludes,!
Francisco!Tarrega/!R.!Pusz!Recuerdos(de(la(Alhambra!in!a!concert!at!Elder!Hall.!

Performance!at!Elder!Hall,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!Karlheinz!Stockhausen!
Zyklus(No(9,!Jacques!Casterede!Alternances,!Darius!Milhaud!Concerto(pour(
marimba(et(vibraphon,!Darius!Milhaud!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre,!
Werner!Tharichen!Konzert(für(Pauken(und(Orkester!!

1984* *
Performances!at!the!Adelaide(Festival(Fringe,!South!Australia;!of!David!Morgan!
Voyage(into(Solitude!in!one!Adelaide(Percussions!concert!and!David!Morgan!Loss!
Recording!ABC!with!Sarah!De!Jong!Without(Limits.!
Performance!in!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!Andre!Oosterbaan!All(the(Reed(Will(
Say!and!David!Morgan!Voyage(into(Solitude!
Performance!at!a!Chamber(Players(concert;!of!Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(of(
Jazz!and!Ralph!Middenway!Stone(River!!
Concert/Lecture!tour!of!the!USA!in!Bloomington!Indiana,!Corpus!Christi!Texas,!
San!Francisco!California;!of!Eric!Bryce!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet,!David!Morgan!
Voyage(into(Solitude,!David!Morgan!Loss!,!David!Lumsdaine!Kangaroo(Hunt,!Peter!
Sculthorpe!Sonata(For(Viola(&(Percussion,!Atis!Danckops!A(Different(Kind(of(Jazz!!!

*
*

! 371!
1982*
Adelaide!Percussions'!inaugural!concert!featuring!commissioned!works!David!
Morgan!Loss!and!Eric!Bryce!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet.!
Premiere!performance!of!Andre!Oosterbaan!Time(of(Light!in!a!concert!with!
Corinthian(Singers.!

1980*
First!concerts!of!commissioned!works:!Adelaide!College!of!Arts!and!Education!
concert!with!Glynn!Adams,!Stephen!Whittington,!Stephen!Carter,!Ian!
MacDonough;!of!Bozidar!Kos!Quartet,!John!DeBeradinis!Dialogues(for(violin(&(
percussion,!Peter!Sculthorpe!Sonata(for(Viola(&(Percussion,!Henry!Cowell!Set(of(
Five!!
Percussion(Society(of(Australia!concert,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!Eric!Bryce!
Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet!

1978*
Concert!of!percussion!works!at!Elder!Hall,!Adelaide,!South!Australia;!of!Carlos!
Chavez!Toccata,!Kent!Williams!African(Sketches,!George!Frock!Asiatic(Dances,!
Dale!Rauschenberg!Discussion,!Tony!Cirone!4/4(for(Four(
Performance!at!Magill!Art!Centre!of!Karlheinz!Stockhausen(Zyklus(!

1977*
Performances!in!Indiana!University!and!in!Banff(Festival,!Banff!Arts!Centre,!
Canada,!under!the!direction!of!Professor!George!Gaber;!of!Carlos!Chavez!Toccata,!
Kent!Williams!African(Sketches,!George!Frock!Asiatic(Dances,!Dale!Rauschenberg!
Discussion,!Luis!Bonfa!arr!G.!Gaber!Manha(de(Carnaval,!George!Gaber!Batucadas,(
Johann(Altenburg!arr!G.!Gaber!Concerto,!David!S.!Bernstein!Ziz(!
Performance!with!Verdon!Williams!and!Adelaide!Metropolitan!Orchestra!of!
Darius!Milhaud!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre!

1976*
Performance! of! Peggy! GlanvilleTHicks! Sonata( For( Piano( And( Percussion( Quartet,!
Peter! Brideoake! Sonata( For( Flute( &( Percussion,! Helen! Gifford! Myriad! (flute! &!
percussion!ensemble),!Craig!Schlenker!Piece(for(flute(and(percussion!for!Modern!
Flute!and!Percussion!Evening!in!the!Flute!Convention.!!

Performance! of! Richard! Meale! Interiors/Exteriors,! David! Lumsdaine! Kangaroo(

Hunt!in!New!Music!SA's!concert.!

1975*
Performances,!rehearsals!and!workshops!in!St!Peter’s!College!Hall!and!Victorian!
College!of!the!Arts!under!the!direction!of!Professor!George!Gaber;!of!Carlos!
Chavez!Toccata,!Kent!Williams!African(Sketches,!George!Frock!Asiatic(Dances,!
Dale!Rauschenberg!Discussion,!Luis!Bonfa!arr!G.!Gaber!Manha(de(Carnaval,!
George!Gaber!Batucadas,(Johann(Altenburg!arr!G.!Gaber!Concerto,!David!S.!
Bernstein!Ziz,(Varèse!Ionisation!

372!!
Performance!of!Darius!Milhaud!Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre!

1964H70*
Community!concerts!in!Adelaide!and!Elizabeth!of!William!Kraft!Theme(and(
Variations(for(Percussion(Quartet,!transcriptions!of!Bach!fugues,!and!
arrangements!of!popular!music!by!Brian!Porter!and!Michael!Kenny,!with!Michael!
Askill,!Michael!Holland!and!Ian!MacDonald!

1963*
Performance!at!South!Australia!State!Music!Camp!with!Michael!Askill,!Michael!
Holland!and!Ian!MacDonald;!of!William!Kraft!Theme(and(Variations(for(
Percussion(Quartet,!transcriptions!of!Bach!fugues,!Ian!Owens!Piece(for(Percussion(
Quartet,!and!arrangements!of!popular!music!by!Brian!Porter!and!Michael!Kenny.!

! 373!
Appendix*A*

Performance*of*the*Sculthorpe*Sonata*in*a*country*town*

In!1998!coincidence!found!Peter!Sculthorpe,!the!Perihelion!ensemble!and!me!in!
the!country!town!of!Mildura,!Australia.!Knowing!that!Patricia!Pollett!(violist!in!
Perihelion)!and!I!had!played!the!work!Sculthorpe!joked!that!it!was!a!shame!that!
the!piece!could!not!be!performed!that!night.!We!decided!it!was!worth!trying.!

A!copy!of!the!score!was!faxed!down!from!Brisbane,!and!the!afternoon!was!spent!
driving!round!the!town!looking!for!substitute!instruments!and!beaters.!!

The!instruments!were!all!borrowed!from!Kit!Drummers,!so!the!Bass!Drum!was!a!
small!18”!diameter!‘Kick’!Drum,!heavily!muffled!for!nightclub!playing!conditions;!
so!I!played!much!of!the!Bass!Drum!part!on!the!floor!TomTtom!to!address!the!
need!for!resonance.!So!when!the!two!were!played!in!the!same!phrase,!different!
part!of!the!TomTtom!had!to!be!played!to!obtain!a!contrast!in!sounds.!

A!conga!was!used!for!the!Bongo,!the!bell!of!a!Cymbal!for!the!Triangle;!and!for!the!
china!Cymbal!I!experimented!through!the!performance!on!various!parts!of!a!
normal!Cymbal!for!different!sounds.!I!also!used!2!pairs!of!beaters!–!Snare!Drum!
sticks!and!wound!xylophone!beaters!as!no!doubleTended!beaters!were!available;!
nor!were!there!any!Triangle!beaters,!but!I!was!able!to!use!a!thin!metal!rod!that!
the!Art!Gallery!had!amongst!its!tools.!Amazingly!I!did!find!a!TamTtam,!though!it!
was!not!possible!to!bring!any!artistry!on!it!in!the!performance!as!it!was!on!a!low!
stand!and!not!able!to!be!positioned!to!best!effect.!The!audience!heard!the!sound!
but!were!not!fully!aware!of!its!source.!I!had!to!play!sitting!down!because!the!
drum!stands!were!all!low,!though!the!conga!was!not!so!I!reached!up!for!that;!and!
I!played!from!the!score,!with!all!the!parts!on!two!lines,!so!much!turning!of!pages!
as!well.!

Neither!of!us!had!played!the!piece!for!2!or!3!years,!and!never!with!each!other,!
but!a!quick!run!through!at!7pm!worked!well,!as!we!both!found!the!other!easy!to!
work!with.!So!the!piece!was!performed!and!the!audience!showed!its!appreciation!
warmly!and!Sculthorpe!was!also!pleased.!

374!!
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Appendix*D*

Due!to!copyright!restrictions!only!certain!pages!have!been!
reproduced.!The!whole!scores!and!parts!are!available!from!the!
publishers!for!the!Milhaud!Concerto!and!Sculthorpe!Sonata.!
Sculthorpe’s!handTwritten!manuscripts!are!available!from!the!
National!Library!Canberra.!The!Bryce!Suite!and!Morgan!Loss!are!
available!from!the!Australian!Music!Centre.!

Darius*Milhaud,*Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre( ( ( ((378*
!

! 1.!Original!orchestral!score!(1929/30)!!
!
! ! ! !!379!
2.!!Miniature!score,!1966!
!
! ! ! ! ! !!380!
3.!!Piano!reduction!score!(1958)!
!
! ! ! ! !!381!
4.!!!Piano!reduction!score!(1967).!!
!
! ! ! ! !!383!
5.!!Original!solo!part,!to!be!played!with!orchestra!(pub.!1967)!!
!
!!385!
6.!!Solo!with!piano!accompaniment!(1967)!
!
! ! ! !!387!
7.!Solo!(hand!written!by!Verdon!Williams,!undated)! ! ! !!390!

Peter*Sculthorpe,*Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion( ( ( ((( ((391*

1.!1960!version!held!in!the!National!Library,!Canberra!
! ! !
! !!393!
2.!1960!version!held!in!the!Elder!Conservatorium!Library!
!
! !!394!
3.!1960!preTpublication!version,!with!notes!by!Sculthorpe,!National!Library,!
Canberra!
!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!397!
4.!1979!published!score!(Faber!Music)!!
!
! ! ! !!399!
5.!Percussion!part,!hand!written,!1979,!from!the!original!score,!author’s!
collection!
!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!401!
6.!Sculthorpe!Sonata!percussion!part!updated!2015,!Faber!Music! !!403!
(
Eric*Bryce,*Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet( ( ( ( ( ((406*
!

1. Prelude(
!
( ( ( ( ( ( ( !!407(
2. Games(
!
( ( ( ( ( ( ( !!408!
3. Pranks( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( !!409(
(
David*Morgan,*Loss*for(Percussion(Quartet( ( ( ( ( **411*
!

1. Battery(
!
( ( ( ( ( ( ( !!412(
2. Funeral(Music(
!
( ( ( ( ( ( !!413(
3. Requiem( (
!
( ( ( ( ( ( !!414(
4. Cloud(Cuckoo(Land((
!
( ( ( ( ( !!415(
5. Fons(Amoris( ( ( ( ( ( ( !!416!(

! 377!
Milhaud*Concerto(pour(batterie(et(petit(orchestre*

Attached!are!sample!pages!from!four!versions!of!the!score!and!three!versions!of!
the!solo!part.!I!also!hand!wrote!a!solo,!but!have!not!included!it!as!it!is!written!on!
A2!size!paper!was!not!possible!to!reduce!and!obtain!a!clear!copy.!Like!the!
Williams,!my!copy!was!based!on!the!1958!piano!reduction!score!and!contained!
the!errors!of!that!edition.!There!is!an!implication!in!the!1967!version,!on!the!solo!
part,!that!an!edition!exists!for!multiple!percussion!players,!but!no!evidence!has!
been!found!for!such!an!edition.!

The!versions!in!order!are:!

1.!Original!orchestral!score!(1929/30)!

2.!Miniature!score!1931!

3.!Piano!reduction!score!(1958)!

4.!Piano!reduction!score!(1967).!The!date!is!on!the!solo!part.!It!is!not!shown!on!
the!score,!which!lists!only!the!original!publication!date!of!1931.!

5.!Original!solo!part,!to!be!played!with!orchestra,!1931!

6.!Solo!with!piano!accompaniment!(1967)!

7.!Solo!(hand!written!by!Verdon!Williams:!easier!version,!and!with!tamTtam!
error),!undated!

378!!
1.!Milhaud!Concerto,!Original!orchestral!score!

! 379!
2.!Milhaud!Concerto,!Miniature!score!

380!!
3.!Milhaud!Concerto,!Piano!Reduction!score!(1958)!

! 381!
Milhaud!Concerto,!Piano!Reduction!score!(1958)!

382!!
 4. Milhaud!Concerto,!Piano!Reduction!score!(1967)

!
!

! 383!
Milhaud!Concerto,!Piano!Reduction!score!(1967)

384!!
!

5.!Milhaud!Concerto,!Solo!(original)!

! 385!
Milhaud!Concerto,!Solo!(original)!

386!!
6.!Milhaud!Concerto,!Solo!(1967)!

! 387!
Milhaud!Concerto,!Solo!(1967)!

388!!
Milhaud!Concerto,!Solo!(1967)!

! 389!
!

7.!Milhaud!Concerto,!Solo!(hand!written!by!Verdon!Williams:!easier!version,!
with!tamTtam!error)!

390!!
Sculthorpe*Sonata(for(Viola(and(Percussion*

There!are!a!number!of!versions!of!the!Sonata!in!existence.!The!analysis!in!this!
study!is!based!on!four!of!them,!two!very!early!manuscripts,!a!preTpublication!
manuscript!that!contains!Sculthorpe’s!corrections!and!final!editing!and!the!
published!Faber!edition!of!1979.!Unfortunately,!it!has!not!been!possible!to!again!
sight!the!very!first!copy,!which!contains!the!reference!to!‘claves’!and!the!only!
written!authentication!is!Hannan’s!quote!on!page!46!of!his!book!on!Sculthorpe.!I!
had!a!copy!of!this!early!manuscript,!which!was!scored!for!claves,!but!I!disposed!
of!it!after!making!my!copy!of!the!percussion!part!and!receiving!the!Faber!edition.!
It!is!possible!that!a!copy!is!in!existence!but!as!at!June!2016,!no!copy!was!found!in!
the!National!Library!of!Australia,!where!all!Sculthorpe’s!material!has!been!
catalogued,!and!I!have!found!no!person!of!those!I!know!to!have!performed!the!
work!to!have!a!copy!either.!

The!scores!and!parts!are!listed!below!in!the!following!order:!

1. 1960!version!held!in!the!National!Library,!Canberra!
2. 1960!version!held!in!the!Elder!Conservatorium!Library!
3. 1960!preTpublication!version,!with!notes!by!Sculthorpe!
4. 1979!published!score!(Faber)!
5. Percussion!part,!hand!written,!1979,!from!the!original!score!
6. Sculthorpe!Sonata!percussion!part!updated!2015!

For!ease!of!reference!the!table!below!referred!to!the!score!in!the!same!order.!

In!the!preTpublication!manuscript!there!is!also!this!note!written!by!Sculthorpe!at!
figure!12,!which!was!either!ignored!by!the!publishers,!or!decided!against!by!
Sculthorpe,!as!those!four!bars!are!still!in!the!printed!1979!edition.!!

! 391!
Discrepancies*between*versions*

Bar* 1* 2* 3* 4*
3! mf! no!change!
28T37! very!slowly,!e!=!c.96!ad.(lib! poco(lento!e!=!c.!96!
Bar!38! a(tempo,(e!=!96( no!change!

Bar!48! ad.(lib! poco(rall(

50! no!dynamic!change!from!pp! mp(
bass!drum!roll*
50T56! ! extra!‘gong’! ( (
notes!
written!in,!
probably!by!
Smith(
82! ! ! ( roll!ends!on!grace!
note(
90! well!articulated’! Marking! (
crossed!out(
103! sticks! Changed(to(rim( rim(
148! f( ff(
152! well!articulated’! Marking! (
crossed!out(
201T203! mf! Changed(to(mp( mp(
227! triangle!beater! direction!to( ‘with!beater’(
(‘pick!up!tri.!beater’)!in!bar! ‘pick(up(tri(
225)! beater’(crossed!
out!‘with!
beater’!put!in(
240! mp( Changed!to(mf( mf(
266! No!dynamic! Made(f( f(
274! f( Changed!to(ff( ff(
276! ff(/(f( Changed!to(fff(/( fff(/(ff(
ff(
277! ff( Changed!to(fff( fff(
278! f( Changed!to(ff( ff(
279! ff( Changed!to(fff( fff(
290T299! snare!drum!or!tomTtom! snare!drum! snare!drum(
!

392!!
1. Sculthorpe!Sonata,!1960!version!held!in!the!National!Library,!Canberra!

!
!

! 393!
 !
2. Sculthorpe!Sonata,!1960!version!in!the!Elder!Conservatorium!Library!

394!!
 Sculthorpe!Sonata,!1960!version!in!the!Elder!Conservatorium!Library!

! 395!
 Sculthorpe!Sonata,!1960!version!in!the!Elder!Conservatorium!Library!

!
!

396!!
 !
3. Sculthorpe!Sonata,!1960!preTpublication!version,!with!notes!by!
Sculthorpe!

! 397!
 4.!! Sculthorpe!Sonata,!1979!published!score!(Faber!Music)!

398!!
 Sculthorpe!Sonata,!1979!published!score!(Faber!Music)!

! 399!
Sculthorpe!Sonata,!1979!published!score!(Faber!Music)!

400!!
5.!Sculthorpe!Sonata,!Percussion!part,!hand!written,!1979,!from!the!original!
score!

! 401!
Sculthorpe!Sonata,!Percussion!part,!hand!written,!1979,!from!the!original!score!

402!!
 6.!Sculthorpe!Sonata!percussion!part!updated!2015!

for Peter Komlos

SONATA
FOR VIOLA AND PERCUSSION
percussion

‹sticks
Peter Sculthorpe
œtriangle
ed. Ryszard Pusz

÷œ œtom tom œsnare drum œ bongo œ œ cymbal 48

Legend
1

œ chinese cym
bass drum tamtam

Animato e»¡§º
j j j 2 j j j j
4
÷ 8 œ œ œ . œ œ ‰ œjœ ‰œj œ ‰ « œ ‰ œœœœ œ ‰ œœœœ œ ‰ œjœ ‰ œj œ ‰ Œ
2

J
œœœ

>
œœœ œœ
P (hard sticks) f F
j jj j j j œ œ Œ 2
1 poco rall a tempo

÷ œœœ ‰ œœ ‰ œ ‰Œ Œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ j ‰ Œ
œ œ œ œ œœ ∑ Œ
10 (hard stick)
œ
j
œ
j
8
P (soft stick)
œ Œ j 2
÷ 28 48 Œ œ 28 48 ‰ œj œj ‰ 28 œjœj ‰ 48 48
2
∑ ∑
molto rall

œ
18

«
> (soft sticks)
œœ

F dim

Poco lento e»ª§

j j 3 6 ˙
÷ 48 Œ œ œ œ œ œjœ ‰ œ œ œ œ 34 œj œ ‰ Œ Œ 48(soft‰ stick)
3 (tri beater)

œ.
26

P p
a tempo e»ca. ª§
˙
4
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
2
poco rall
34 j œ Œ œ Œ
÷ ‰ œ.
40

˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ œ
> œ œ
π (soft sticks) P
j j j j (sticks) ‹ ‹
÷ œ Œ œ . œ œj œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ œj œ Œ œ œ Œ œ œ Œ œ . œ œj œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ J ‰ J
5 52

> P
‹ ‹ ‹ >‹ ‹ >
÷ ‰ J ‰ J ‰ J 24 ‰ Œ 68 ‹J Œ ‰ œj œJ ‰ ‰ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ . ‹J ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ Œ
59
6

‘
π
‹ œ œ ‰ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‰ . ‹J ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹ # ‹ ‹ ‹ ‹‹
Œ ‰ œ ‰ œ œJ ‰
accel.
j j
÷J Œ ‰ J ‰  Œ œ.
65

p p (rim)
e»¡§º
‹‹ Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2
Œ ‰ œ ‰ œ œJ ‰ 48 ˙
Animato
7
j
÷ œ. ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
70 rall.

8
πsoft sticks, begin roll when
cresc. poco a poco

> > 8 Ÿ~~~~~~~

ready

~~~~~~~~~ 4 > ‹ ‹ j j ‰ ‰ # j̊ ‰ ‰ 4 >œ. ‰ Œ 2 ∑ 4

÷ 28 œ œ ‰ ‰ J Œ ‰ J ˙ ˙ 3 œ 8 ∑ 28 ∑ 48
79

8J 8 œ 8J 8
>
œ

f p

! 403!
 2
÷ 48 Œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ œ œ 28 œ ‰ 48 Œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ œ œ 28 œ ‰ 48
90
9
well articulated

J J J J
F
>œ >‹
œ œ 2
8 œJ ‰ 48‰ Œ Œ ‰ œ œ 28 œ ‰ 48 Œ ‰ œj œj œ œ œ œ œj ‰ Œ œj œj ‰
10 (rim)
÷ J ‰ Œ Œ ‰
100
j
J J
œ œ œ ‹

F
j> j>
÷ œj œ œ œ œ œj ‰ œjœj ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj ‰ 28 œ œJ ‰ 48 œj œj ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj ‰ 28 œ œJ ‰ 48
11
109

> >
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ molto
j ‰ Œrall j‰ Œ 28 ∑ U68
12

÷ 48 œœ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ œœœ œœœ ∑ 28 ∑ 48 ∑

116

> molto cresc. >ƒ >

q»qk
‹ a tempo ‹ jœ ‹‹ ‹ 2
÷ 68 .. Œ . J ‰ ‰ ∑ J ‰ ‰ Œ . ∑ Œ . œ J Œ ∑ .. 48
(13)
Œ Œ. Œ. J Œ
126

«
p-P poco cresc

‹ qk»q ‹ ‹ ‹
∑ Œ J ‰ 28 œ œJ ‰ 48 J ‰ Œ J ‰ 28 œ œJ
14

÷ 48 J ‰ Œ 68
j j
∑ Œ ‰
136

F f
‹‹ ‹ ‹‹ ‹ >2 >œ œ œ >œ 2 œ >œ
15

÷ 68 Œ Œ . Œ . J Œ Œ Œ . Œ . J Œ Œ .œ œ œ œ JŒ Œ Œ. ∑ 48
144

J
cresc.
ƒ
Risoluto q»¡º¢ well articulated
j j j j
÷ 48 Œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ œ œ 28 œ ‰ 48 Œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ ‰ œ œ 28 œ ‰ 48
16
152

F (hard sticks)
a tempo q»¡º¢
2 j j 4 j(rim)
j j 4 6
÷ 48 2 2 28
molto rall 17

œœœœ ‰ Œ Œ ‰ œœ 8 œ ‰ 8 ‹ ‹ ‰ Œ Œ ‰ œœ 8 œ ‰ 8
160

> >
q»••
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
2
18 poco rall piu risoluto

÷ 28 ∑ 48 ∑ ∑ 28 ∑ 48 2 4
174

˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ 8 œ 8˙
p sempre (soft sticks)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
19

÷˙ 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 4
186

œ 8˙ œ 8˙ œ 8˙ œ 8˙ œ 8

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Pocojlento e»ª§ j j j j 2
20 molto rall
4
÷ 8 ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ œj œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ ‰ œj œ ‰ 34
œ Œ œ ‰ œj œ ‰
196

j œœ
P
œ

-2-

404!!
 e»ª§
j jj 3 j jj 2 Ÿ~~~~~~j œ
÷ 34 œj œ Œ œ 48 4 28
21 Alla marcia funebre

œ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ 4 œj œ Œ œ 8 œ œ œ ‰œ œ ‰ œœ ‰
206

œ œ œ̇ œ
F (rim) (rim)
f
Ÿ~~~~~~~ j
22

÷ 28 # œ . 48 œ œ œ̇ œ œœ ‰ œ 28 # œ . 48 œ œj œ ‰ œ 28 œœ 48 œj ‰
48
œ œ 8 œ
2œ
214

J J ƒJ J J J
œ
J J

Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~ j Ÿ~~~~~ j œ œ
÷ 48 œj œ̇ œ œ
23
‰ # ‰ # Œ Œ
(tri beater) poco rall

œœ œ . œ œ̇ œ œœ
222

œ œ. œ œ
j

F J J P (rim) p (rim)
a tempo e»ª§
2 j‰ ‰ j j‰ ‰ j j
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ 28
24
÷ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ
230

P con>espressione* >F cresc. f >(rim)

j j
j

÷ 28 ‰ œ œ 48 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 28 œ œ œ 48
3:2œ

œ œ œ œ ‰ œJ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
237 3

>F
œœœ œœœ

÷ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ œ œ œj ‰ Œ œ œ œj ‰ Œ
j
242
j j
3
j
3 25

J P p
Lento e»•¢
Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
26

÷˙ 58
248

˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
p (rim) sempre
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~ j >
27

÷ 58 œ . œ œ . œ 48 œj œ Œ ∑ œj œ Œ ∑ œj ˙ 68 œ œ œ Œ Œ . œ œ œJ Œ Œ .
258

> > ṗ(hardcresc. >f

>‹ ‹ Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~
sticks)

> j> j > 48 œ œ >˙

÷ œ œ œJ Œ œ œJ Œ ‘ œ œ œ Œ Œ . ‘ œ œ œJ Œ Œ ˙
268

> ‘
ƒ cresc.
~28 Risoluto q»¡º¢
>Ÿ~~~~~ dome >Ÿ~~~~~~ >
÷ œj œ ‰ œJ ‰ 28 œ 48 œj œ ‰ œJ ‰ 28 œ 48 œjœ ‰ Œ œj œ ‰ œJ ‰ œjœ ‰ Œ œj œ ‰ Jœ ‰
276 dome

J J J J J J
Ï ƒ Ï ƒ Ï F
j> j> œ > œ Ÿ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
÷ œ œ ‰ Œ œ œ ‰œ œ ‰ 28 J ‰ 48 œj œ ‰ Œ œj œ ‰ œj œ ‰ 28 J ‰ 48 œ œ ˙
29
˙
284
j
J J J J J J
F cresc.
> > >
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ >œ œj>œ œ œ >œ œj>œ œj >œ œ œj >œ œ œ œ œj œ œ œj œ œ œj U
30
˙ ˙
molto rall a tempo

÷ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ Œ
292

J J J J J J J J
œ œ

f ƒ
* If desired, the percussionist may imitate the shape of the preceding melody, playing the given rhythms on differently pitched drums.

-3-

! 405!
Bryce!Suite(for(Percussion(Quintet(

406!!
Bryce!Suite,(Prelude(

! 407!
Bryce!Suite,(Games

408!!
Bryce!Suite,(Pranks!

! 409!
Bryce!Suite,(Pranks!

410!!
Morgan!Loss(for(Percussion(Quartet((with!editing!indications)(

This!is!the!original!score,!with!my!editing!for!instrument!allocation.!Morgan!then!
rewrote!the!score!from!which!the!parts!were!written.!

! 411!
Morgan!Loss,(Battery!

412!!
Morgan!Loss,(Funeral(Music!

! 413!
Morgan!Loss,(Requiem!

414!!
Morgan!Loss,(Cloud(Cuckoo(Land!

! 415!
Morgan!Loss,(Fons(Amoris!

416!!
Morgan!Loss,(Fons(Amoris!

! 417!