syllabus : Transpiration ~ process and significance. Ganong’s potometer and its limitations. The factors ‘aflecing rate of transpiration. A brief idea of guttation and bleeding. ‘Scope of Syllabus : = Concept of transpiration and its Importance to plants. Expedments related to transpiration : (@)_ Loss in weight of a potted plant or a lealy shoot in a test tube as a rosult of ‘wanspiation. (0) Use of cobalt chloride paper to ‘semonsirate unequal rate of transpiration in a dorsivental Joa. Mechanism of stomatal transpiration on the basis of potassium jon exchange theory. ‘Adoptions in plants to reduce transpiration ‘A bef Idea of guttaion and bleeding. {Transpiration is a very useful process for pants ‘for two reasons ; one, creating suction force in the stem to enable the roots to absorb water | and mineral nutrients, | and two, for cooling the plant in hot | weather. The process is demonstrated and studied by a number of | periments, which are Yery interesting to | perform, 5.1 TRANSPIRATION All plants continuously absorb water through their roots. This water is conducted upwards through the stem and is distributed to all the aerial parts including the leaves. Only a small quantity of this water (about 2%) is used by the plant in photosynthesis and other activities. The rest of it is almost lost to the atmosphere as water vapour as a result of transpiration. the een 5.2 DEMONSTRATION OF TRANSPIRATION Experiment 1, Take a medium-sized well-watered potted plant, Cover the plant with a transparent polythene bag and tie its mouth around the base of the stem (Fig. 5.1 ). Leave the plant in sunlight for an, hour or two, Drops of water will soon appear on the inner side of the bag due to the saturation of water vapour given out by the eaves (the water vapours condense only if the outside temperature is cool enough). A similar empty polythene bag with its mouth tied and Kept in sunlight will show no drops of water. This is a control to show that plants transpire water in the form of vapour. If tested with dry cae 1 An experiment to cobalt chloride paper, the Semonstrale the release of drops will be confirmed as "al" (*e Crores water only if the blue paper the plantin a polythene turns pink. bag.Fig. 5.2: An experiment to demonstrate transpiration in plants. Firstly, the water droplets appear in bell jars A and B ‘containing plants; secondly, the cobalt chloride paper turns from blue to pink in bol jar B but not in C Experiment 2 : (Fig. 5.2). Arrange three set-ups A, B and C as follows : Set-up A. Take a small well-watered potted plant, preferably one with broad leaves. Enclose the pot completely within a polythene bag and tie the mouth of the bag firmly around the base of the stem. This would prevent the escape of water vapour from the pot. Now cover the entire plant under a bell jar as in (A). Set-up B. Arrange another similar plant and cover it with a bell jar exactly in the same manner as the first one, except that here you also keep a piece of dry cobalt chloride paper by the side of the plant inside the bell jar (B). The paper may be pinned to a wooden stick or to a strip of cork sheet, Set-up C, Take a third bell jar without the plant, but still containing a similar piece of cobalt chloride paper (C), Now, keep all the three bell jars together in the sun, After about half an hour we observe that, ~ The first bell jar (A) would show water vapour condensing on its inner walls, ~The second bell jar (B) would also show a similar condensation and at the same time, the initially blue cobalt chloride paper in it would turn pink. Fig. 5.3: An experiment to show lo water by volume as well as by = The blue colour of the cobalt chloride pap the third bell jar (C) does not change at all an there are no water drops on the jat's u either, in it. By taking the three bell jars as described there is a double visual proof of transpirati (1) condensation of water vapour into droplets (2) change of colour in cobalt chloride paper. 5.3 MEASUREMENT OF TRANSPIRAT There are a number of methods for me transpiration, Some of these are: 1. Weighing method : A small light weight pott plant can be weighed before and after th of a certain period of time. The soil surface the pot should be fully covered to’ pr plant. The loss in weight by the plant time is due to the loss of water by An improvement in the weighing method. made by using a glass bottle linked by a to a graduated side tube, filled with water in Fig. 5.3A. The water level in the side tube jana loss of water through transpiration ft ¢ leaves,A] ‘This would indicate the volume of water loss that can be compared with the loss in weight with the help of a weighing machine (B) or by converting cc into grams (1 cc water weighs 1g). Another weighing experiment can be done by using a test-tube filled with water and inserting a Jeafy shoot (no roots) in it and pouring some oil on the surface to prevent loss of water by evaporation (Fig. 5.4). Place the test tube in a small beaker and weigh them together. Remove the intact test tube and keep it straight in the test tube stand for a few hours. Weigh it again by keeping it in the same beaker. Any difference in weight will indicate loss of water by the shoot (due to transpiration). Since there are no roots to actively absorb water, the water loss through transpiration will be much less. 2. Potometer method : Potometer is a device that measures the rate of water intake by a plant (L. poton: drink, meter : measure), and this water intake is almost equal to the water lost through transpiration. Note : Potometers are of various types designed by various scientists to study and measure the rate of transpiration, namely, Farmer’s potometer and Ganong’s potometer, which help to measure the ‘rate of water intake by a plant. Darwin's potometer | helps to demonstrate the suction force created due to transpiration and Garreau’s potometer demonstrates unequal transpiration from the two | surfaces of a dorsiventral leaf. Ls lL vest TUBE WATER Fig. 5.4 : A shoot inserted in water transpires to show oss in woight Ganong’s Potometer : A twig of some suitable plant (e.g. coleus) cut with a sharp knife is fixed in an apparatus as shown. in Fig. 5.5. The entire apparatus is filled with water so that no air spaces are present, An air bubble is introduced into the horizontal graduated capillary tube which is dipping into the beaker containing water, [This is done by lifting the bent capillary tube above the coloured water so that air may be sucked in due to suction pull and is again dipped into the water.) As transpiration proceeds, ie, as the water is lost from the twig, a suction force is set up which pulls the water from the beaker and the bubble in the capillary tube moves along. The readings on the capillary tube would give the volume of water lost in a given time. The air bubble can be brought back to its original position by releasing some more water from the reservoir into the capillary tube by opening the stop cock. RESERVOIR Fig. 5.5 : Ganong's potometer for measuring water uptake Potometers do not measure the water lost during transpiration but measure the water uptake by the cut shoot. Some of the water is used by the cells to carry out other processes, for example, manufacture of food (photosynthesis). Precautions in the use of potometer (i) The potometer should be made completely water-tight. The twig should be cut obliquely (to allow larger surface for the water intake) and under water to avoid suction of an air bubble into the twig which will stop the absorption of. water into the xylem. Limitations in the use of potometer (i) Introducing the air bubble is not very easy. (ii) The twig may not remain fully alive for a long time. (iii) Any changes in the outside air temperature may affect the position of the air bubble in the capillary tube. Gi)(7M iprogressicheck! 1, Transpiration is best defined as (tick-mark the: correct option). (a) loss of water from the plant. {b) loss of water as vapour from the plants. (©) evaporation of water from the surface of leaves. 2. In one of the experiments to demonstrate transpiration, we used cobalt chloride paper. What are the characteristics of this paper that suit the experiment? 3. Look at the experiment shown in Fig. 5.4. ‘Suppose you took a single flower with a long ‘talk dipping in water, instead of a leafy twig. Will it serve the purpose? Yes/No. Give reason. 4, Mention any two limitations in the use of potometers. 5.4 KINDS OF TRANSPIRATION ‘Transpiration from the aerial parts of a plant occurs from three different regions : i) From the leaves through the stomata (stomatal transpiration), (ii) Directly from the surface of the leaves and stems (cuticular transpiration) (ii) From the lenticels which are the minute ‘openings on the surface of old woody stems (lenticular transpiration). ‘The major part of the transpiration occurs through the stomata, whereas the other two types of transpiration contribute very little. 5.4.1 Mechanism of Stomatal Transpiration Stomata (singular : stoma) are minute openings in the epidermal layer of leaves, A stoma is surrounded by two bean-shaped guard cells (Fig, 5.6), During day- ‘CHLOROPLASTS, GUARD CELL. STOMA NUCLEUS ‘CELL WALL EPIDERMAL Fig. 5.5 : Porton of let opidormis showing one time, the stomata are wide open primarily for the intake of CO, for photosynthesis. The number. ‘stomata may range from 1,000-10,000 per cm*, In stomatal transpiration, the water vap escapes through the stomata of the leaf. Water, absorption by the roots from the soil, rises through the stem and reaches the tissues of the leaves through veins. A large number of spongy mesophyl cells in the leaves have their surfaces exposed to the intercellular spaces. These’ surfaces of the cells gi cout some of the water as a thin film. The water from this film evaporates and the water vapour forn saturates the air in the intercellular spaces. vapour then diffuses into the other connecti intercellular spaces and finally reaches the stomatal space, from where it escapes, through stomata. The entire moyement of water vapour: the surface of the cell into the outside atmosp! a result of diffusion (Fig. 5.7). The molecules of ‘vapour, like those of any gas, move from the of their higher concentration to the region of lower concentration. Tah eLs PB ae asl 40) 2 pegnerAaseqret alee ietans ys Clee wag = Sg Fig. 5:7: Vertical saction of a part ofa leat showing. water vapour trom its high concentration inside the | regions of the leaf to the lower re through stomataMOVEMENT BY ‘OSMOSIS INTERCELLULAR ‘SPACE xyLeM VESSEL MOVEMENT BY EVAPORATION ‘SUB-STOMATAL ‘SPACE A ‘STOMA WATER VAPOUR ‘SECTION THROUGH LADE C2 MOST WATER TRAVELS ALONG CELL WALLS BY XYLEM VESSEL IMBIBITION [EVAPORATION FROM CELL WALLS: J SMALL PROPORTION (OF WATER ENTERS CELLS BY OSMOSIS DIFFUSION TO THE OUTSIDE 8 ‘TRANSPIRATION ‘A-Movement of water through a leaf le pathway of water through leat cells, where it finally goes out by diffusion through the stomata. ‘The cells that lose water in this way replace it by drawing more of it from the nearest vein, Most of this water travels along the cell walls (by imbibition) and only a small quantity enters the cell by osmosis, (Fig. 5.8B). Thousands of leaf cells evaporate water in this way, causing more of water to be pulled from below via the xylem vessels. The transpiration pull thus created can draw up water to about 50 metres or more in tall trees. More transpiration occurs from the under surface of a dicot leaf. There are more stomatal openings on the undersurface of a dicot leaf and therefore, more transpiration occurs from the undersurface. This can be proved by an experiment in which pieces of dry cobalt chloride paper are attached to the two surfaces of a leaf and held in position by two glass slides on either side tied together by elastic bands or held by clips (Fig. 5.9). ‘The leaf should remain attached to its own plant. ‘The piece of paper which is facing the upper surface of the leaf either does not turn pink or turns pink in ‘a much longer time than the one on the lower surface which turns pink much faster. This proves that more transpiration takes place from the lower surface, which is on account of the numerous stomata found on it. ‘COBALT CHLORIDE PAPER. FEMAINS UNCHANGED (GLUE) ON THE UPPER. ‘SURFACE OF THE LEAF UPPER ‘SURFACE (VENTRAL) COBALT CHLORIDE PAPER (BLUE) COBALT CHLORIDE PAPER TURNS PINK ON THE LOWER ‘SURFACE OF THE LEAF LOWER ‘SURFACE ae (PORSAL) supes}| V PAPER (PINK) Result of an experiment to demonstrate the dlitferent magnitudes of transpiration from the two ‘surfaces of a dicot leat Stomatal regulation of transpiration ‘Stomata (Fig. 5.6) are minute structures occurring. in large numbers on the lower epidermis of a leaf.‘Transpiration occurs as long as the stomata are open, ut it stops when they are closed. The opening and losing mechanism of stomata is regulated by the sunt of water and solutes present in the guard cells. the stomata open during the daytime, the diffusion f gases in and out starts fulfilling the need for +hotosynthesis as well as allowing transpiration. If for ‘any reason, the water content of the leaf is falling short, the guard cells fail to remain turgid, rather, they turn flaccid (lose turgidity), thereby closing the stomatal opening and transpiration stops. A more detailed account of closing and opening mechanism of the stomata is given in the next chapter under section 6.4. Leaves of some plants wilt during midday and recover in the evening. In some plants, eg. balsam, the leaves of the plants wilt during the midday in spite of the fact that there is plenty of water in the soil. In such cases, the rate of transpiration during midday exceeds the rate of absorption of water by the roots. The cells, therefore, lose turgidity. In the evening or during the night, the stomata are constricted and the temperature is not high, therefore, there is no loss of water through transpiration and the turgidity of the leaves is re-acquired and they stand out erect. 5.4.2 Cuticular transpiration Cuticle is a waxy layer secreted by the epidermis ‘on the two surfaces of the leaf, The thickness of the cuticle varies from plant to plant. Primarily, the cuticle serves to prevent evaporation of water from the leaf surfaces. However, some evaporation does occur. The greater the thickness of the cuticle, the lesser is the evaporation (transpiration). Desert plants tend to have thicker cuticles to cut down transpiration. 5.4.3 Lenticular transpiration Lenticels are special openings that develop on the barks of older stems in place of stomata, These allow diffusion of gases for respiration as well as for photosynthesis. Lenticels never close. They remain open all the time. Water from the cell surfaces directly facing the lenticel evaporates and contributes to transpiration. The amount of transpiration from lenticels is certainly more than the cuticular transpiration, but very much less than the stomatal transpiration, 1. From the following list, pick out the: through which the water vapour af transpiration leaves the leaf and rearrang them in proper sequence Xylem vessels, mesophyll cells, intercellular space and substomatal s 2. Does diffusion play a role in the water vapour from the transpiration? If so, how 2 plant. Why is this so? 4. Out of the three kinds of tr (@ Maximum .. (i) Minimum .. A. EXTERNAL FACTORS 1. Intensity of Sunlight : During the stomata are open to facilitate the i diffusion of CO, for photosynthesis. At they are closed. Therefore, more trax during the day; the stomata are z and transpiration is reduced. em 3 2, Temperature : If the outside temp higher, there is more evaporation from the leave therefore, more transpiration, Increase j temperature allows more water to and the decrease in temper evaporation. Warm air can hold more than cold air, 3. Velocity of wind : the velocity of wind. If the wind the water vapour released duringremoved fiaster and the area outside the leaf does not get saturated with water vapour, “ality + Transpiration is reduced if the air outside is humid. High humidity in the air reduces the rate of outwand diffusion of the internal water Vapour across stomata, thereby: reducing the rate of transpiration, arbon divide : Increase in the CO, level in the outside air over normal 0.03% causes stomatal closure and results in the decrease of transpiration, Abnospheric pressure : Rate of transpiration increases with the decrease in atmospheric pressure, Thus, it enhances diffusion of water vapour. 5. INTERNAL FACTOR Water content of the leaves : If the water content cof the leaves decreases due to insufficient absorption ‘of water by the roots, the leaves wilt and transpiration is reduced. Such reduction in transpiration is indirectly due to the closure of stomata and it is a natural mechanism of conserving water within the plant. 5.6 ADAPTATIONS IN PLANTS TO REDUCE EXCESSIVE TRANSPIRATION Many plants and specially those which grow in a dry climate have evolved a variety of permanent adaptations to curtail transpiration. Some of these adaptations are as follows = 1. Sunken stomata : The stomata may be sunken or covered by hairs (e.g. Nerium) (Fig. 5.10). I ‘euaro SPERMS. RICHOME “CELL Fig 5:10 : Sunken stomata covered by half, in cleander (Nesum) 2. Fewer stomata’: ‘The number of stomata may be reduced. 4. Narrow leaves : The leaves may become narrower to reduce surface area (eg. Neriu). 4. Reduced exposed surfaces + In some cases, leaves may get wavy, rolled or folded to reduce exposed surface. 5. Loss of leaves : In some cases, leaves may be dropped or may be absent or changed into spines as in most cacti (Fig. 5.11). 6 Thick cuticle : The leaves may be covered by thick cuticle, eg. Banyan, and most evergreen trees, ‘GREEN sTEM CARRIES ‘OUT PHOTOSYNTHESIS LEAVES REDUCED TO 'SPINES TO REDUCE ‘SURFACE AREA FOR ‘swollen ore [STOMATA ARE SUNKEN IN [GROVES TO AVOID DRYING ‘STORES WATER aS siatiow pooTs DEEP ROOTS | neaces, PENETRATE VERY Secon ueaiTesT, LOW WATER TABLE RAINFALL Fig, 5:11 : Modification of leaves into spines in cactus 1. How will the following conditions affect transpiration ? wet 3 © (9 Sill ar (i) Midday high temperature = (il) Dry air (lv) Dim sunlight (v) Insufficient absorption of water anu 37 SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSPIRATION ‘Transpiration has great significance for the plants. main advantages are: (1) cooling, (2) creating ion force, and (3) distributing water, «Cooling effect : Evaporation reduces temperature of leaf surface. Therefore, transpiration is useful to plants on hot sunny days. (At intense heat, the enzymes are destroyed). 2. Suction force : Transpiration helps in the ascent of sap by producing a suction force acting from the top of a plant. Evaporation from the leaves concentrates cell sap and increases their osmotic pressure. This draws water from the cells at the lower levels in a sequential manner (ascent of sap) and finally favours absorption ‘of water from the soil by the roots (Fig. 5.12). EVAPORATION INTO [ATMOSPHERE FROM ‘LEAF SURFACE Transpiration WATER PASSES UP THE ‘TRUNK (Ascent of cop] Fig. §.12 : The transpiration stream Figure 5.12 also represents the transpiration stream. As the water evaporates from the Teaves, a suction force is produced at the top of the plant drawing more water up through the stem and making the roots absorb more of it from the soil. 3. Distribution of water and mineral salts: Since leaves are present at the tips of all branches and twigs, transpiration from their surfaces tends to draw water towards them and thus helps in the distribution of water throughout the plant body. Higher the rate oft ‘greater the rate of absorption of water an solutes from the soil. out large quantities of water during + A full grown single sunflower p estimated to lose about half a litre ¢ per day in the form of water vapour. + A single maize plant loses about 2 water per day, i ea + A large apple tree may lose about 30 itn water per day. ot sitky ‘These figures give an idea of the huge of water released into the atmosphere stretches of fields and particul: atmosphere and brings rai transpiration from plants affects climate.” wer bots te fea of pour ‘Tt is a physical forge to woneac a hmidty ofthe ae 5.6 GUI sude me aig gttation Gutte of certait margins) appens} ‘amid the root! This buil plant ane the tips structuri margins can be ol in banan