Indigenous peoples of the Americas

The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are the inhabitants of

the Americas before the arrival of the European settlers in the 15th Indigenous peoples of the
century, and the ethnic groups who now identify themselves with Americas
those peoples.

Although some Indigenous peoples of the Americas were

traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the
Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and
agriculture.[30] While some societies depended heavily on
agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting and
gathering. In some regions the Indigenous peoples created
monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, city-states,
chiefdoms, states, kingdoms and empires. Some had varying
degrees of knowledge of engineering, architecture, mathematics,
astronomy, writing, physics, medicine, planting and irrigation,
geology, mining, metallurgy, sculpture and goldsmithing. Current distribution of the
indigenous peoples of the Americas
Many parts of the Americas are still populated by Indigenous (not including mixed people like
peoples; some countries have sizeable populations, especially mestizos, métis, zambos and
Bolivia, Canada, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru and the pardos)
United States. At least a thousand different Indigenous languages
are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan Total population
languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages and Nahuatl, ~54 million
count their speakers in millions. Many also maintain aspects of
Regions with significant
Indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including
populations
religion, social organization and subsistence practices. Like most
cultures, over time, cultures specific to many Indigenous peoples Mexico 25.7
have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects but also cater to million[1]
modern needs. Some Indigenous peoples still live in relative
Guatemala 6.4
isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as
million[2]
uncontacted peoples.
Peru 5.9
million[3]

Contents Bolivia 4.1

million[4]
Terminology
United States 2.9
Native American name controversy
million[5]
History
Chile 2.1
Settlement of the Americas
million[6]
Pre-Columbian era
Colombia 1.9
European colonization
million[7]
Indigenous historical trauma (IHT)
Canada 1.6
Agriculture million[8]
Plants
 Animals Ecuador 1 million[9]

Culture Argentina 955,032[10]

Languages Brazil 817,963[11]
Writing systems Venezuela 724,592[12]
Music and art
Honduras 601,019[13]
Demography
Nicaragua 443,847[14]
History and status by continent and country
Panama 417,559[15]
North America
Canada Paraguay 117,150[16]
Greenland, Denmark Costa Rica 104,143[17]
Mexico Guyana 78,492[18]
United States Uruguay 76,452[19]
Central America
Greenland 50,189[20]
Belize
Costa Rica Belize 36,507[21]

El Salvador Suriname 20,344[22]

Guatemala French Guiana ~19,000[23]
Honduras El Salvador 13,310[24]
Nicaragua
Saint Vincent and the 3,280[25]
South America Grenadines
Argentina
Dominica 2,576[26]
Bolivia
Brazil Cuba ~1,600[27]
Chile Trinidad and Tobago 1,394[28]
Colombia Grenada 162[29]
Ecuador Languages
Peru
Indigenous languages of the
Suriname
Americas, Spanish, Portuguese,
Venezuela
English, Dutch, Danish, French and
Other parts of the Americas Russian (historically)
Rise of Indigenous movements Religion
Indigenous heads of state
Inuit religion
Genetic research
Native American religion
Notable people Mesoamerican religion
See also Christianity
List of Indigenous peoples
Related ethnic groups
Culture
Population and demographics Indigenous peoples of Siberia
Latin America Mestizos
North America Métis
Zambos
References
Pardos
Sources
Journal articles
Books
Further reading
External links

Terminology
Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher
Columbus, who, in his search for India, thought that he had arrived
in the East Indies.[31][32][33][34][35][36] Eventually, those islands
came to be known as the "West Indies", a name still used. This led
to the blanket term "Indies" and "Indians" (Spanish: indios;
Portuguese: índios; French: indiens; Dutch: indianen) for the
Indigenous inhabitants, which implied some kind of racial or
cultural unity among the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. This
unifying concept, codified in law, religion and politics, was not
originally accepted by the myriad groups of Indigenous peoples
themselves, but has since been embraced or tolerated by many
Dineh boy, in the desert of
over the last two centuries.[37] Even though the term "Indian" Chihuahua, Mexico.
generally does not include the culturally and linguistically distinct
Indigenous peoples of the Arctic regions of the Americas—such as
the Aleuts, Inuit or Yupik peoples, who entered the continent as a second, more recent wave of migration
several thousand years later and have much more recent genetic and cultural commonalities with the
Aboriginal peoples of the Asiatic Arctic Russian Far East—these groups are nonetheless considered
"Indigenous peoples of the Americas".

The term Amerindian, a portmanteau of "American Indian", was coined in 1902 by the American
Anthropological Association. However, from its creation it has been controversial. It was immediately
rejected by some leading members of the Association, and while adopted by many it was never universally
accepted.[38] While never popular in Indigenous communities themselves, it remains a preferred term
among some anthropologists, notably in some parts of Canada and the English-speaking
Caribbean.[39][40][41][42]

In Canada, Indigenous peoples are commonly known as Indigenous—and sometimes Aboriginals, though
the latter has fallen out of favour in recent times[43]—which includes not only First Nations and Arctic
Inuit, but also the minority population of Métis people,[44][45] a historically First Nations-European mixed
race that developed a unique indigenous culture in Western Canada.

The Métis people of Canada can be contrasted, for instance, to the Indigenous-European mixed race
mestizos (or caboclos in Brazil) of Hispanic America who, with their larger population (in most Latin-
American countries constituting either outright majorities, pluralities, or at the least large minorities),
identify largely as a new ethnic group distinct from both Europeans and Indigenous, but still considering
themselves a subset of the European-derived Hispanic or Brazilian peoplehood in culture and ethnicity (cf.
ladinos).

Among Spanish-speaking countries, indígenas or pueblos indígenas ('Indigenous peoples') is a common

term, though nativos or pueblos nativos ('native peoples') may also be heard; moreover, aborigen
('aborigine') is used in Argentina and pueblos originarios ('original peoples') is common in Chile. In Brazil,
indígenas or povos indígenas ('Indigenous peoples') are common of formal-sounding designations, while
índio ('Indian') is still the more often-heard term (the noun for the South-Asian nationality being indiano).
Aborígene and nativo is rarely used in Brazil in Amerindian-specific contexts (e.g. aborígene is usually
understood as the ethnonym for Indigenous Australians). The Spanish and Portuguese equivalents to
Indian, nevertheless, could be used to mean any hunter-gatherer or full-blooded Indigenous person,
particularly to continents other than Europe or Africa—for example, indios filipinos.

Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans, as well as Alaska
Natives. The term "Indian" is still used in some communities and remains in use in the official names of
many institutions and businesses in Indian Country.[46]

Native American name controversy

The various Nations, tribes, and bands of Indigenous peoples of the Americas have differing preferences in
terminology for themselves.[47] While there are regional and generational variations in which umbrella
terms are preferred for Indigenous peoples as a whole, in general, most Indigenous peoples prefer to be
identified by the name of their specific Nation, tribe or band.[47][48]

Early settlers often adopted terms that some tribes used for each other, not realizing these were derogatory
terms used by enemies. When discussing broader subsets of peoples, naming has often been based on
shared language, region, or historical relationship.[49] Many English exonyms have been used to refer to
the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these names were based on foreign-language terms used
by earlier explorers and colonists, while others resulted from the colonists' attempts to translate or
transliterate endonyms from the native languages. Other terms arose during periods of conflict between the
colonists and Indigenous peoples.[50]

Since the late 20th century, Indigenous peoples in the Americas have been more vocal about how they
want to be addressed, pushing to suppress use of terms widely considered to be obsolete, inaccurate, or
racist. During the latter half of the 20th century and the rise of the Indian rights movement, the United
States government responded by proposing the use of the term "Native American", to recognize the
primacy of Indigenous peoples' tenure in the nation.[51] As may be expected among people of over 400
different cultures in the US alone, not all of the people intended to be described by this term have agreed on
its use or adopted it. No single group naming convention has been accepted by all Indigenous peoples in
the Americas. Most prefer to be addressed as people of their tribe or nations when not speaking about
Native Americans/American Indians as a whole.[52]

Since the 1970s, Indigenous (capitalized when referring to people) has gradually emerged as a favored
umbrella term. The capitalization is to acknowledge that Indigenous peoples have cultures and societies that
are equal to Europeans, Africans, and Asians.[48][53] This has recently been acknowledged in the AP
Stylebook.[54] Some consider it improper to call Indigenous people, "Indigenous Americans," or to append
any colonial nationality to the term, as Indigenous cultures have existed prior to European colonization.
Indigenous groups have territorial claims that are different from modern national and international borders,
and when labelled as part of a country, their traditional lands are not acknowledged. Some who have
written guidelines consider it more appropriate to describe an Indigenous person as "living in" or "of" the
Americas, rather than calling them "American"; or to simply call them "Indigenous" without any addition
of a colonial state.[55][56]

History

Settlement of the Americas

The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the
Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are the
subject of ongoing research and discussion.[57][58] According to
archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were
the last continents in the world to gain human habitation.[57] During
the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels
allowed people to move across the land bridge of Beringia that joined
Siberia to northwest North America (Alaska).[59][60] Alaska was a Illustration of Paleo-Indians
glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small hunting a glyptodon
population to exist. The Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North
America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska
(East Beringia) for thousands of years.[61][62]

Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral
population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia.[63][64] The isolation of these
peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years.[65][66][67] Around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers
began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond.[58][68][69] These people
are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that
stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets.[70]

Another route proposed involves migration – either on foot or using primitive boats – along the Pacific
Northwest coast to the south, including as far as South America.[71] Archeological evidence of the latter
would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age.[72]

The time range of 40,000–16,500 years ago is debatable and probably will remain so for years to
come.[57][58] The few agreements achieved to date include:[73][74]

origin from South Siberia (DNA studies reported in 2012 indicate the area of Altai Republic,
with a separation of populations 20,000-25,000 years ago)[75]
widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the last glacial period, or more
specifically what is known as the Late Glacial Maximum, around 16,000–13,000 years
before present.

Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the primary evidence of the earliest human
activity in the Americas. Archaeologists and anthropologists have studied differences among these crafted
lithic flaked tools to classify cultural periods.[76] The Clovis culture, the earliest definitively-dated Paleo-
Indians in the Americas, appears around 11,500 RCBP (radiocarbon years Before Present[77]), equivalent
to 13,500 to 13,000 calendar years ago.

In 2014, the autosomal DNA was sequenced of a 12,500+-year-old infant from Montana, whose remains
were found in close association with several Clovis artifacts.[78] These are the Anzick-1 remains from the
Anzick Clovis burial in Montana. The data indicated that the individual was closely related to present
Indigenous populations of North America. But, the DNA was ancestral to present-day Indigenous
populations of Central and South America. The implication is that there was an early divergence between
Indigenous peoples of North America and those of Central and South America. Ruled out were hypotheses
which posit that invasions subsequent to the Clovis culture overwhelmed or assimilated previous migrants
into the Americas.[78] After study, the remains were returned to Montana for burial by Native Americans.

Similarly, the skeleton of a teenage girl (named 'Naia' after a water nymph from Greek mythology) was
found in 2007 in the underwater caves called sistema Sac Actun in Mexico's eastern Yucatán Peninsula.
DNA was extracted and dated. The skeleton was found to be 13,000 years old, and it is considered the
oldest genetically intact human skeleton ever found in the Americas. Her mitochondrial DNA indicated that
she belonged to what is considered an "Asian-derived" genetic lineage that is also seen in modern Native
American populations.[79]

The remains of two infants found at the Upward Sun River site
have been dated to approximated 11,500 years ago. The genetic
evidence suggets that all Native Americans ultimately descended
from a single founding population that initially split from a Basal-
East Asian source population in Mainland Southeast Asia around
36,000 years ago, at the same time at which the proper Jōmon
people split from Basal-East Asians, either together with Ancestral
Native Americans or during a separate expansion wave. The
authors also provided evidence that the basal northern and
southern Native American branches, to which all other Indigenous
peoples belong, diverged around 16,000 years ago.[80][81] An
indigenous American sample from 16,000BC in Idaho, which is
craniometrically similar to modern Native Americans as well as
Paleosiberias, was found to have been largely East-Eurasian
genetically, and showed high affinity with contemporary East Northward expansions of Basal-East
Asians, as well as Jōmon period samples of Japan, confirming that Asians; forming the main ancestral
Ancestral Native Americans split from an East-Eurasian source lineage of the Settlement of the
population somewhere in eastern Siberia.[82] Americas.

A study published in the Nature journal in 2018 concluded that

Native Americans descended from a single founding population which initially split from East Asians at
about ~36,000 BC, with geneflow between Ancestral Native Americans and Siberians persisting until
~25,000BC, before becoming isolated in the Americas at ~22,000BC. Northern and Southern Native
American subpopulationes split from each other at ~17,500BC. There is also some evidence for a back-
migration from the Americas into Siberia after ~11,500BC.[83]

A study published in the Cell journal in 2019, analysed 49 ancient Native American samples from all over
North and South America, and concluded that all Native American populations descended from an single
ancestral source population which split from Siberians and East Asians, and gave rise to the Ancestral
Native Americans, which later diverged into the various indigenous groups. The authors further dismissed
previous claims for the possibility of two distinct population groups among the peopling of the Americas.
Both, Northern and Southern Native Americans are closest to each other, and do not show evidence of
admixture with hypothetical previous populations.[84]

Another study published in the Nature journal in 2021, which analysed a large amount of ancient genomes,
similarly concluded that all Native Americans descended from the movement of people from Northeast
Asia into the Americas. These Ancestral Americans, once south of the continental ice sheets, spread and
expanded rapidly, and branched into multiple groups, which later gave rise to the major subgroups of
Native American populations. The study also dismissed the existence of an hypothetical distinct non-Native
American population (suggested to have been related to Indigenous Australians and Papuans), sometimes
called "Paleoamerican". The authors explained that these previous claims were based on a misinterpreted
genetic echo, which was revealed to represent early East-Eurasian geneflow (close but distinct to the
40,000BC old Tianyuan lineage) into Aboriginal Australians and Papuans.[85][86]

Pre-Columbian era
The Pre-Columbian era refers to all period subdivisions
in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the
appearance of significant European and African
influences on the American continents, spanning the
time of the original arrival in the Upper Paleolithic to
European colonization during the early modern
period.[87]

While technically referring to the era before Christopher

Columbus' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the
term usually includes the history of Indigenous cultures
until Europeans either conquered or significantly
influenced them.[89] "Pre-Columbian" is used
especially often in the context of discussing the pre-
contact Mesoamerican Indigenous societies: Olmec;
Language families of Indigenous peoples in North
Toltec; Teotihuacano' Zapotec; Mixtec; Aztec and
America: shown across present-day Canada,
Maya civilizations; and the complex cultures of the
Greenland, the United States, and northern
Andes: Inca Empire, Moche culture, Muisca
Mexico
Confederation, and Cañari.

The Norte Chico civilization (in present-day Peru) is

one of the defining six original civilizations of the world, arising
independently around the same time as that of Egypt.[92][93] Many
later pre-Columbian civilizations achieved great complexity, with
hallmarks that included permanent or urban settlements,
agriculture, engineering, astronomy, trade, civic and monumental
architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these
civilizations had long faded by the time of the first significant The Kogi, descendants of the
European and African arrivals (ca. late 15th–early 16th centuries), Tairona, are a culturally-intact,
and are known only through oral history and through largely pre-Columbian society.[88]
archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with the The Tairona were the only Indigenous
contact and colonization period, and were documented in historical Andean civilization that was not fully
accounts of the time. A few, such as the Mayan, Olmec, Mixtec, conquered.
Aztec and Nahua peoples, had their own written languages and
records. However, the European colonists of the time worked to
eliminate non-Christian beliefs, and burned many pre-Columbian
written records. Only a few documents remained hidden and
survived, leaving contemporary historians with glimpses of ancient
culture and knowledge.

According to both Indigenous and European accounts and

documents, American civilizations before and at the time of
European encounter had achieved great complexity and many
accomplishments.[94] For instance, the Aztecs built one of the
largest cities in the world, Tenochtitlan (the historical site of what
would become Mexico City), with an estimated population of "The Maiden", one of the discovered
200,000 for the city proper and a population of close to five Llullaillaco mummies. A Preserved
million for the extended empire.[95] By comparison, the largest Inca human sacrifice from around the
European cities in the 16th century were Constantinople and Paris year 1500.[90][91]
with 300,000 and 200,000 inhabitants respectively.[96] The
population in London, Madrid and Rome hardly exceeded 50,000
people. In 1523, right around the time of the Spanish conquest, the entire population in the country of
England was just under three million people.[97] This fact speaks to the level of sophistication, agriculture,
governmental procedure and rule of law that existed in Tenochtitlan, needed to govern over such a large
citizenry. Indigenous civilizations also displayed impressive accomplishments in astronomy and
mathematics, including the most accurate calendar in the world. The domestication of maize or corn
required thousands of years of selective breeding, and continued cultivation of multiple varieties was done
with planning and selection, generally by women.

Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and Indigenous creation myths tell of a variety of origins of their respective peoples.
Some were "always there" or were created by gods or animals, some migrated from a specified compass
point, and others came from "across the ocean".[98]

European colonization

The European colonization of the Americas

fundamentally changed the lives and cultures of the
resident Indigenous peoples. Although the exact pre-
colonization population-count of the Americas is
unknown, scholars estimate that Indigenous populations
diminished by between 80% and 90% within the first
centuries of European colonization. The majority of
these losses are attributed to the introduction of Afro-
Eurasian diseases into the Americas. Epidemics
ravaged the Americas with diseases such as smallpox,
measles, and cholera, which the early colonists brought
from Europe.

The spread of infectious diseases was slow initially, as

most Europeans were not actively or visibly infected,
due to inherited immunity from generations of exposure
to these diseases in Europe. This changed when the
Europeans began the human trafficking of massive
Cultural areas of North America at time of
numbers of enslaved Western and Central African
European contact
people to the Americas. Like Indigenous peoples, these
African people, newly exposed to European diseases,
lacked any inherited resistances to the diseases of Europe. In 1520
an African who had been infected with smallpox had arrived in
Yucatán. By 1558, the disease had spread throughout South
America and had arrived at the Plata basin.[99] Colonist violence
towards Indigenous peoples accelerated the loss of lives. European
colonists perpetrated massacres on the Indigenous peoples and
enslaved them.[100][101][102] According to the U.S. Bureau of the
Census (1894), the North American Indian Wars of the 19th
century cost the lives of about 19,000 Europeans and 30,000
Native Americans.[103]
Eight Crow Nation prisoners under
The first Indigenous group encountered by Columbus, the 250,000 guard at Crow agency, Montana,
Taínos of Hispaniola, represented the dominant culture in the 1887
Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. Within thirty years about 70%
of the Taínos had died.[104] They had no immunity to European
diseases, so outbreaks of measles and smallpox ravaged their population.[105] One such outbreak occurred
in a camp of enslaved Africans, where smallpox spread to the nearby Taíno population and reduced their
numbers by 50%.[99] Increasing punishment of the Taínos for revolting against forced labor, despite
measures put in place by the encomienda, which included religious education and protection from warring
tribes,[106] eventually led to the last great Taíno rebellion (1511–1529).

Following years of mistreatment, the Taínos began to adopt suicidal behaviors, with women aborting or
killing their infants and men jumping from cliffs or ingesting untreated cassava, a violent poison.[104]
Eventually, a Taíno Cacique named Enriquillo managed to hold out in the Baoruco Mountain Range for
thirteen years, causing serious damage to the Spanish, Carib-held plantations and their Indian
auxiliaries.[107] Hearing of the seriousness of the revolt, Emperor Charles V (also King of Spain) sent
captain Francisco Barrionuevo to negotiate a peace treaty with the ever-increasing number of rebels. Two
months later, after consultation with the Audencia of Santo Domingo, Enriquillo was offered any part of the
island to live in peace.

The Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513, were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish
settlers in America, particularly with regard to Indigenous peoples. The laws forbade the maltreatment of
them and endorsed their conversion to Catholicism.[108] The Spanish crown found it difficult to enforce
these laws in distant colonies.

Epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population

decline of the Indigenous peoples.[109][110] After initial contact
with Europeans and Africans, Old World diseases caused the
deaths of 90 to 95% of the native population of the New World in
the following 150 years.[111] Smallpox killed from one third to
half of the native population of Hispaniola in 1518.[112][113] By
killing the Incan ruler Huayna Capac, smallpox caused the Inca
Civil War of 1529–1532. Smallpox was only the first epidemic.
Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in
1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618
Drawing accompanying text in Book
—all ravaged the remains of Inca culture.
XII of the 16th-century Florentine
Codex (compiled 1540–1585),
Smallpox killed millions of native inhabitants of Mexico.[114][115]
showing Nahuas of conquest-era
Unintentionally introduced at Veracruz with the arrival of Pánfilo
central Mexico suffering from
smallpox
de Narváez on 23 April 1520, smallpox ravaged Mexico in the
1520s,[116] possibly killing over 150,000 in Tenochtitlán (the
heartland of the Aztec Empire) alone, and aiding in the victory of
Hernán Cortés over the Aztec Empire at Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City) in 1521.[99]

There are many factors as to why Indigenous peoples suffered such immense losses from Afro-Eurasian
diseases. Many European diseases, like cow pox, are acquired from domesticated animals that are not
indigenous to the Americas. European populations had adapted to these diseases, and built up resistance,
over many generations. Many of the European diseases that were brought over to the Americas were
diseases, like yellow fever, that were relatively manageable if infected as a child, but were deadly if
infected as an adult. Children could often survive the disease, resulting in immunity to the disease for the
rest of their lives. But contact with adult populations without this childhood or inherited immunity would
result in these diseases proving fatal.[99][117]

Colonization of the Caribbean led to the destruction of the Arawaks of the Lesser Antilles. Their culture
was destroyed by 1650. Only 500 had survived by the year 1550, though the bloodlines continued through
to the modern populace. In Amazonia, Indigenous societies weathered, and continue to suffer, centuries of
colonization and genocide.[118]
Contact with European diseases such as smallpox and measles
killed between 50 and 67 per cent of the Indigenous population of
North America in the first hundred years after the arrival of
Europeans.[119] Some 90 per cent of the native population near
Massachusetts Bay Colony died of smallpox in an epidemic in
1617–1619.[120] In 1633, in Fort Orange (New Netherland), the
Native Americans there were exposed to smallpox because of
contact with Europeans. As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped
out entire population-groups of Native Americans.[121] It reached
Lake Ontario in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by Indigenous people at a Brazilian farm
1679.[122][123] During the 1770s smallpox killed at least 30% of plantation in Minas Gerais ca. 1824
the West Coast Native Americans.[124] The 1775–82 North
American smallpox epidemic and the 1837 Great Plains smallpox
epidemic brought devastation and drastic population depletion among the Plains Indians.[125][126] In 1832
the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native
Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832).[127]

The Indigenous peoples in Brazil declined from a pre-Columbian high of an estimated three million[128] to
some 300,000 in 1997.[129]

The Spanish Empire and other Europeans re-introduced horses to the Americas. Some of these animals
escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild.[130] The re-introduction of the horse,
extinct in the Americas for over 7500 years, had a profound impact on Indigenous cultures in the Great
Plains of North America and in Patagonia in South America. By domesticating horses, some tribes had
great success: horses enabled them to expand their territories, exchange more goods with neighboring
tribes, and more easily capture game, especially bison.

Indigenous historical trauma (IHT)

Indigenous historical trauma (IHT) is the trauma that
can accumulate across generations that develops as a
result of the historical ramifications of colonization and
is linked to mental and physical health hardships and
population decline.[131] IHT affects many different
people in a multitude of ways because the Indigenous
community and their history is diverse.

Many studies (e.g., Whitbeck et al., 2014;[132] Brockie,

2012; Anastasio et al., 2016;[133] Clark & Winterowd,
2012;[134] Tucker et al., 2016)[135] have evaluated the
impact of IHT on health outcomes of Indigenous Map of all Indian Residential Schools in Canada,
communities from the United States and Canada. IHT is including gravesites. This map can be expanded
a difficult term to standardize and measure because of and interacted with.
the vast and variable diversity of Indigenous people and Confirmed discoveries
their communities. Therefore, it is an arduous task to Investigations underway as of July 30, 2021
assign an operational definition and systematically Investigations that concluded with no discoveri
collect data when studying IHT. Many of the studies Other Indian Residential Schools Data
that incorporate IHT measure it in different ways,
making it hard to compile data and review it holistically.
This is an important point that provides context for the following studies that attempt to understand the
relationship between IHT and potential adverse health impacts.

Some of the methodologies to measure IHT include a "Historical Losses Scale" (HLS), "Historical Losses
Associated Symptoms Scale" (HLASS), and residential school ancestry studies.[131]: 23 HLS uses a survey
format that includes "12 kinds of historical losses," such as loss of language and loss of land and asks
participants how often they think about those losses.[131]: 23 The HLASS includes 12 emotional reactions
and asks participants how they feel when they think about these losses.[131] Lastly, the residential school
ancestry studies ask respondents if their parents, grandparents, great-grandparents or "elders from their
community" went to a residential school to understand if family or community history in residential schools
are associated with negative health outcomes.[131]: 25 In a comprehensive review of the research literature,
Joseph Gone and colleagues[131] compiled and compared outcomes for studies using these IHT measures
relative to health outcomes of Indigenous peoples. The study defined negative health outcomes to include
such concepts as anxiety, suicidal ideation, suicidal attempts, polysubstance abuse, PTSD, depression,
binge-eating, anger, and sexual abuse.[131]

The connection between IHT and health conditions is complicated because of the difficult nature of
measuring IHT, the unknown directionality of IHT and health outcomes, and because the term Indigenous
people used in the various samples comprises a huge population of individuals with drastically different
experiences and histories. That being said, some studies such as Bombay, Matheson, and Anisman
(2014),[136] Elias et al. (2012),[137] and Pearce et al. (2008)[138] found that Indigenous respondents with a
connection to residential schools have more negative health outcomes (i.e., suicide ideation, suicide
attempts, and depression) than those who did not have a connection to residential schools. Additionally,
Indigenous respondents with higher HLS and HLASS scores had one or more negative health
outcomes.[131] While there many studies[133][139][134][140][135] that found an association between IHT and
adverse health outcomes, scholars continue to suggest that it remains difficult to understand the impact of
IHT. IHT needs to be systematically measured. Indigenous people also need to be understood in separated
categories based on similar experiences, location, and background as opposed to being categorized as one
monolithic group.[131]

Agriculture

Plants

In the course of thousands of years, Indigenous peoples

domesticated, bred and cultivated a large array of plant species.
These species now constitute between 50% and 60% of all crops
in cultivation worldwide.[141] In certain cases, the Indigenous
peoples developed entirely new species and strains through
artificial selection, as with the domestication and breeding of maize A bison hunt depicted by George
from wild teosinte grasses in the valleys of southern Mexico. Catlin
Numerous such agricultural products retain their native names in
the English and Spanish lexicons.

The South American highlands became a center of early agriculture. Genetic testing of the wide variety of
cultivars and wild species suggests that the potato has a single origin in the area of southern Peru,[142] from
a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex. Over 99% of all modern cultivated potatoes worldwide are
descendants of a subspecies Indigenous to south-central Chile,[143] Solanum tuberosum ssp. tuberosum,
where it was cultivated as long as 10,000 years ago.[144][145]
According to Linda Newson, "It is clear that in pre-Columbian
times some groups struggled to survive and often suffered food
shortages and famines, while others enjoyed a varied and
substantial diet."[146]

Persistent drought around AD 850 coincided with the collapse of

Classic Maya civilization, and the famine of One Rabbit (AD
1454) was a major catastrophe in Mexico.[147]
Ancient mesoamerican engraving of
Indigenous peoples of North America began practicing farming maize, National Museum of
approximately 4,000 years ago, late in the Archaic period of North Anthropology, Mexico
American cultures. Technology had advanced to the point where
pottery had started to become common and the small-scale felling
of trees had become feasible. Concurrently, the Archaic Indigenous peoples began using fire in a controlled
manner. They carried out intentional burning of vegetation to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended
to clear forest understories. It made travel easier and facilitated the growth of herbs and berry-producing
plants, which were important both for food and for medicines.[148]

In the Mississippi River valley, Europeans noted that Native Americans managed groves of nut- and fruit-
trees not far from villages and towns and their gardens and agricultural fields. They would have used
prescribed burning further away, in forest and prairie areas.[149]

Many crops first domesticated by Indigenous peoples are now produced and used globally, most notably
maize (or "corn") arguably the most important crop in the world.[150] Other significant crops include
cassava; chia; squash (pumpkins, zucchini, marrow, acorn squash, butternut squash); the pinto bean,
Phaseolus beans including most common beans, tepary beans and lima beans; tomatoes; potatoes; sweet
potatoes; avocados; peanuts; cocoa beans (used to make chocolate); vanilla; strawberries; pineapples;
peppers (species and varieties of Capsicum, including bell peppers, jalapeños, paprika and chili peppers);
sunflower seeds; rubber; brazilwood; chicle; tobacco; coca; blueberries, cranberries, and some species of
cotton.

Studies of contemporary Indigenous environmental management—including of agro-forestry practices

among Itza Maya in Guatemala and of hunting and fishing among the Menominee of Wisconsin—suggest
that longstanding "sacred values" may represent a summary of sustainable millennial traditions.[151]

Animals

Indigenous peoples also domesticated some animals, such as turkeys, llamas, alpacas, and guinea-pigs.

Culture
Cultural practices in the Americas seem to have been shared mostly within geographical zones where
distinct ethnic groups adopting shared cultural traits, similar technologies, and social organizations. An
example of such a cultural area is Mesoamerica, where millennia of coexistence and shared development
among the peoples of the region produced a fairly homogeneous culture with complex agricultural and
social patterns. Another well-known example is the North American plains where until the 19th century
several peoples shared the traits of nomadic hunter-gatherers based primarily on buffalo hunting.

Languages
The languages of the North American Indians have been classified into 56 groups or stock tongues, in
which the spoken languages of the tribes may be said to centre. In connection with speech, reference may
be made to gesture language which was highly developed in parts of this area. Of equal interest is the
picture writing especially well developed among the Chippewas and Delawares.[152]

Writing systems

The development of writing is counted among the many

achievements and innovations of pre-Columbian American
cultures. Independent from the development of writing in other
areas of the world, the Mesoamerican region produced several
Indigenous writing systems beginning in the 1st millennium BCE.
What may be the earliest-known example in the Americas of an
extensive text thought to be writing is by the Cascajal Block. The
Olmec hieroglyphs tablet has been indirectly dated from ceramic
shards found in the same context to approximately 900 BCE, Maya glyphs in stucco at the Museo
around the time that Olmec occupation of San Lorenzo de sitio in Palenque, Mexico
Tenochtitlán began to wane.[153]

The Maya writing system was a combination of phonetic syllabic symbols and logograms—that is, it was a
logosyllabic writing system. It is the only pre-Columbian writing system known to represent completely the
spoken language of its community. In total, the script has more than one thousand different glyphs,
although a few are variations of the same sign or meaning, and many appear only rarely or are confined to
particular localities. At any one time, no more than about five hundred glyphs were in use, some two
hundred of which (including variations) had a phonetic or syllabic interpretation.[154][155][156]

The Zapotec writing system is one of the earliest writing systems in the Americas.[157] The oldest example
of the Zapotec script is a monument discovered in San José Mogote, dating from around from 600
BCE.[158] Zapotec writing was logographic and presumably syllabic.[157] The remains of the Zapotec
writing system are present in the monumental architecture. There are only a few extant inscriptions, making
study of this writing system difficult.

Aztec codices (singular codex) are books written by pre-Columbian and colonial-era Aztecs. These codices
provide some of the best primary sources for Aztec culture. The pre-Columbian codices differ from
European codices in that they are largely pictorial; they were not meant to symbolize spoken or written
narratives.[159] The colonial era codices contain not only Aztec pictograms, but also Classical Nahuatl (in
the Latin alphabet), Spanish, and occasionally Latin.

Spanish mendicants in the sixteenth century taught Indigenous scribes in their communities to write their
languages in Latin letters, and there are a large number of local-level documents in Nahuatl, Zapotec,
Mixtec, and Yucatec Maya from the colonial era, many of which were part of lawsuits and other legal
matters. Although Spaniards initially taught Indigenous scribes alphabetic writing, the tradition became self-
perpetuating at the local level.[160] The Spanish crown gathered such documentation, and contemporary
Spanish translations were made for legal cases. Scholars have translated and analyzed these documents in
what is called the New Philology to write histories of Indigenous peoples from Indigenous viewpoints.[161]

The Wiigwaasabak, birch bark scrolls on which the Ojibwa (Anishinaabe) people wrote complex
geometrical patterns and shapes, can also be considered a form of writing, as can Mi'kmaq hieroglyphics.

Aboriginal syllabic writing, or simply syllabics, is a family of abugidas used to write some Indigenous
languages of the Algonquian, Inuit, and Athabaskan language families.
Music and art

Indigenous music can vary between cultures, however there are significant
commonalities. Traditional music often centers around drumming and
singing. Rattles, clapper sticks, and rasps are also popular percussive
instruments, both historically and in contemporary cultures. Flutes are
made of river-cane, cedar, and other woods. The Apache have a type of
fiddle, and fiddles are also found among a number of First Nations and
Métis cultures.

The music of the Indigenous peoples of Central Mexico and Central

America, like that of the North American cultures, tend to be spiritual
ceremonies. It traditionally includes a large variety of percussion and wind
instruments such as drums, flutes, sea shells (used as trumpets) and "rain"
tubes. No remnants of pre-Columbian stringed instruments were found
until archaeologists discovered a jar in Guatemala, attributed to the Maya Textile art by Julia
of the Late Classic Era (600–900 CE); this jar was decorated with imagery Pingushat (Inuk, Arviat,
Nunavut, Canada), wool,
depicting a stringed musical instrument which has since been reproduced.
embroidery floss, 1995
This instrument is one of the very few stringed instruments known in the
Americas prior to the introduction of European musical instruments; when
played, it produces a sound that mimics a jaguar's growl.[162]

Visual arts by Indigenous peoples of the Americas comprise a

major category in the world art collection. Contributions include
pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry,
carvings, and beadwork.[163] Because too many artists were
posing as Native Americans and Alaska Natives[164] in order to
profit from the cachet of Indigenous art in the United States, the Chimu culture feather pectoral,
U.S. passed the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, requiring feathers, reed, copper, silver, hide,
artists to prove that they are enrolled in a state or federally cordage, ca. 1350–1450 CE
recognized tribe. To support the ongoing practice of American
Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian arts and cultures in
the United States,[165] the Ford Foundation, arts advocates and American Indian tribes created an
endowment seed fund and established a national Native Arts and Cultures Foundation in 2007.[166][167]

After the entry of the Spaniards, the process of spiritual conquest

was favored, among other things, by the liturgical musical service
to which the natives, whose musical gifts came to surprise the
missionaries, were integrated. The musical gifts of the natives were
of such magnitude that they soon learned the rules of counterpoint
and polyphony and even the virtuous handling of the instruments.
This helped to ensure that it was not necessary to bring more
musicians from Spain, which significantly annoyed the clergy.[168]
Indigenous man playing a panpipe,
The solution that was proposed was not to employ but a certain
antara or siku
number of indigenous people in the musical service, not to teach
them counterpoint, not to allow them to play certain instruments
(brass breaths, for example, in Oaxaca, Mexico) and, finally, not to
import more instruments so that the indigenous people would not have access to them. The latter was not an
obstacle to the musical enjoyment of the natives, who experienced the making of instruments, particularly
rubbed strings (violins and double basses) or plucked (third). It is there where we can find the origin of
what is now called traditional music whose instruments they have their own tuning and a typical western
structure.[169]

Demography
The following table provides estimates for each country in the Americas of the populations of Indigenous
people and those with partial Indigenous ancestry, each expressed as a percentage of the overall population.
The total percentage obtained by adding both of these categories is also given.

Note: these categories are inconsistently defined and measured differently from country to country. Some
figures are based on the results of population-wide genetic surveys while others are based on self-
identification or observational estimation.

This map shows the percentage of

Indigenous population in different countries
of the Americas.
 Indigenous populations of the Americas
as estimated percentage of total country's population

Part Combined
Country Indigenous Ref. Ref. Ref.
Indigenous total
North America

Greenland 89% % 89% [170]

Canada 1.8% 3.6% 5.4% [171]

Mexico 28% 62% 90% [172]

Dominican
% % %
Republic

Grenada ~0.4% ~0% ~0.4% [173]

Haiti ~0% ~0% ~0% [174]

Jamaica % % %
Puerto [175] [176][177]
0.4% 84% 84.4%
Rico
Saint Kitts
% % %
and Nevis
Saint Lucia % % %
Saint
Vincent
and 2% % % [178]
the
Grenadines
Trinidad
and 0.8% 88% 88.8%
Tobago
 Part Combined
Country Indigenous Ref. Ref. Ref.
Indigenous total
South America

Argentina 2.38% [179] 27% [180][181] 27.38%

Bolivia 20% 68% 88% [182]

Brazil 0.4% 23% 23.4% [183]

Chile 4.6% % % [184]

Colombia 4.4% [185] 49% [186] 53.4%

Ecuador 25% 65% 90% [187]

French
% % %
Guiana

Guyana 10.5% [188] % %

Paraguay 1.7% 95% 96.7% [189]

Peru 25.8% 60.2% 86% [190]

Suriname 2% [191] % %

Uruguay 0% [192] 2.4% [193] 2.4%

Venezuela 2.7% 51.6% 54.3% [194]

History and status by continent and country

North America

Canada

Indigenous peoples in Canada comprise the First Nations,[195]

Inuit[196] and Métis;[197] the descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo"
are falling into disuse. In Canada, it is quite frowned upon to use
the name "Indian" in casual conversation.[198] "Eskimo" is
considered derogatory in many other places because it was given
by non-Inuit people and was said to mean "eater of raw
meat".[199] Hundreds of Indigenous nations evolved trade,
spiritual and social hierarchies. The Métis ethnicity developed a
Bill Reid's sculpture The Raven and
culture during the 18th century after generations of First Nations
the First Men (collection of the married European settlers.[200] They were small farmers, hunters
Museum of Anthropology, University and trappers, and usually Catholic and French-speaking.[201] The
of British Columbia, Vancouver). The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during
Raven represents the Trickster figure that early period.[202] Various laws, treaties, and legislation have
common to many mythologies. been enacted between European-Canadians and First Nations
across Canada. Aboriginal Right to Self-Government provides the
opportunity for First Nations to manage their own historical,
cultural, political, health care and economic control within their communities.
Although not without conflict, early European interactions in the
east with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively
peaceful compared to the later experience of Indigenous peoples in
the United States.[203] Combined with a late economic
development in many regions,[204] this relatively peaceful history
resulted in Indigenous peoples having a fairly strong influence on
the early national culture, while preserving their own identity.[205]
From the late 18th century, European Canadians worked to force
Indigenous peoples to assimilate into the mainstream European- Some Inuit people on a traditional
influenced culture, which they referred to as Canadian culture.[206] qamutiik (dog sled) in Cape Dorset,
The government attempted violent forced integration in the late Nunavut, Canada
19th and early 20th centuries. Notable examples here include
residential schools.[207]

National Indigenous Peoples Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Indigenous peoples of
Canada.[208] There are currently over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands encompassing
1,172,790 2006 people spread across Canada, with distinctive Indigenous cultures, languages, art, and
music.[209][210][211]

Greenland, Denmark

The Greenlandic Inuit (Kalaallisut: kalaallit, Tunumiisut: tunumiit,

Inuktun: inughuit) are the Indigenous and most populous ethnic
group in Greenland.[212] This means that Denmark has one
officially recognized Indigenous group. the Inuit - the Greenlandic
Inuit of Greenland and the Greenlandic people in Denmark (Inuit
residing in Denmark).

Approximately 89 percent of Greenland's population of 57,695 is

Greenlandic Inuit, or 51,349 people as of 2012.[213][214] Tunumiit Inuit couple from Kulusuk,
Greenland
Ethnographically, they consist of three major groups:

the Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut

the Tunumiit of Tunu (east Greenland), who speak Tunumiit oraasiat ("East Greenlandic")
the Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun ("Polar Inuit")

Mexico

The territory of modern-day Mexico was home to numerous Indigenous civilizations prior to the arrival of
the Spanish conquistadores: The Olmecs, who flourished from between 1200 BCE to about 400 BCE in
the coastal regions of the Gulf of Mexico; the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, who held sway in the mountains
of Oaxaca and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; the Maya in the Yucatán (and into neighbouring areas of
contemporary Central America); the Purépecha in present-day Michoacán and surrounding areas, and the
Aztecs/Mexica, who, from their central capital at Tenochtitlan, dominated much of the centre and south of
the country (and the non-Aztec inhabitants of those areas) when Hernán Cortés first landed at Veracruz.

In contrast to what was the general rule in the rest of North America, the history of the colony of New
Spain was one of racial intermingling (mestizaje). Mestizos, which in Mexico designate people who do not
identify culturally with any Indigenous grouping, quickly came to account for a majority of the colony's
population. Today, Mestizos in Mexico of mixed indigenous and European ancestry (with a minor African
contribution) are still a majority of the population. Genetic studies vary over whether indigenous or
European ancestry predominates in the Mexican Mestizo
population.[215][216] In the 2015 census, 21.5% of the Mexican population
self-identified as indigenous. However, it is likely that the true figure is
higher, given that the criteria used involves is language-based and
discounts those who cannot speak an indigenous language and because
indigenous people often report themselves as Mestizo and forego their
native heritage in favor of national identity.[217] The CDI identifies 62
Indigenous groups in Mexico, each with a unique language.[218]

In the states of Chiapas and Oaxaca and in the interior of the Yucatán
Peninsula the majority of the population is Indigenous. Large Indigenous
minorities, including Aztecs or Nahua, Purépechas, Mazahua, Otomi, and
Mixtecs are also present in the central regions of Mexico. In Northern
Mexico, Indigenous people are a small minority.
Wixarika (Huichol) woman
The General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples grants all from Zacatecas
Indigenous languages spoken in Mexico, regardless of the number of
speakers, the same validity as Spanish in all territories in which
they are spoken, and Indigenous peoples are entitled to request
some public services and documents in their native languages.[219]
Along with Spanish, the law has granted them—more than 60
languages—the status of "national languages". The law includes
all Indigenous languages of the Americas regardless of origin; that
is, it includes the Indigenous languages of ethnic groups non-
native to the territory. The National Commission for the
Development of Indigenous Peoples recognizes the language of
the Kickapoo, who immigrated from the United States,[220] and
recognizes the languages of the Indigenous refugees from Tenejapa Carnival with Tzeltal
Guatemala.[221] The Mexican government has promoted and people, Chiapas
established bilingual primary and secondary education in some
Indigenous rural communities. Nonetheless, of the Indigenous
peoples in Mexico, only about 67% of them (or 5.4% of the country's population) speak an Indigenous
language and about a sixth do not speak Spanish (1.2% of the country's population).[222]

The Indigenous peoples in Mexico have the right of free determination under the second article of the
constitution. According to this article the Indigenous peoples are granted:[223]

the right to decide the internal forms of social, economic,

political and cultural organization;
the right to apply their own normative systems of
regulation as long as human rights and gender equality
are respected;
the right to preserve and enrich their languages and
cultures;
the right to elect representatives before the municipal
council in which their territories are located; Rarámuri marathon in Urique.

amongst other rights.

United States
Indigenous peoples in what is now the contiguous United States,
including their descendants, were commonly called American
Indians, or simply Indians domestically and since the late 20th
century the term Native American came into common use. In
Alaska, Indigenous peoples belong to 11 cultures with 11
languages. These include the St. Lawrence Island Yupik, Iñupiat,
Athabaskan, Yup'ik, Cup'ik, Unangax, Alutiiq, Eyak, Haida,
Tsimshian, and Tlingit,[224] and are collectively called Alaska
Natives. They include Native American peoples as well as Inuit,
who are distinct but occupy areas of the region.
Choctaw artist from Oklahoma
The United States has authority with Indigenous Polynesian
peoples, which include Hawaiians, Marshallese (Micronesian), and
Samoan; politically they are classified as Pacific Islander American. They are geographically, genetically,
and culturally distinct from Indigenous peoples of the mainland continents of the Americas.

Native Americans in the United States make up 0.97%[225] to 2%

of the population. In the 2010 census, 2.9 million people identified
as Native American, Native Hawaiian, and Alaska Native alone.
A total of 5.2 million people identified as Native Americans, either
alone or in combination with one or more ethnicity or other
races.[5] Tribes have established their own criteria for membership,
which are often based on blood quantum, lineal descent, or
residency. A minority of Native Americans live in land units called
Indian reservations. A Navajo man on horseback in
Monument Valley, Arizona
Some California and Southwestern tribes, such as the Kumeyaay,
Cocopa, Pascua Yaqui, Tohono O'odham and Apache, span both
sides of the US–Mexican border. By treaty, Haudenosaunee people have the legal right to freely cross the
US–Canada border. Athabascan, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Iñupiat, Blackfeet, Nakota, Cree, Anishinaabe,
Huron, Lenape, Mi'kmaq, Penobscot, and Haudenosaunee, among others, live in both Canada and the
United States. The international border cut through their common cultural territory.

Central America

Belize

Mestizos (mixed European-Indigenous) number about 34% of the population; unmixed Maya make up
another 10.6% (Ketchi, Mopan, and Yucatec). The Garifuna, who came to Belize in the 19th century from
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, have mixed African, Carib and Arawak ancestry and make up another
6% of the population.[226]

Costa Rica

There are over 114,000 inhabitants of Native American origins, representing 2.4% of the population. Most
of them live in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (In the Central
Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (Northern Alajuela), Bribri (Southern Atlantic),
Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Boruca (Southern Costa Rica) and Ngäbe (Southern Costa Rica long
the Panamá border).
These native groups are characterized for their work in wood, like masks, drums and other artistic figures,
as well as fabrics made of cotton.

Their subsistence is based on agriculture, having corn, beans and plantains as the main crops.

El Salvador

Much of El Salvador was home to the Pipil, the Lenca, Xinca, and
Kakawira. The Pipil lived in western El Salvador, spoke Nawat,
and had many settlements there, most noticeably Cuzcatlan. The
Pipil had no precious mineral resources, but they did have rich and
fertile land that was good for farming. The Spaniards were
disappointed not to find gold or jewels in El Salvador as they had
in other lands like Guatemala or Mexico, but upon learning of the
fertile land in El Salvador, they attempted to conquer it. Noted
Meso-American Indigenous warriors to rise militarily against the
Spanish included Princes Atonal and Atlacatl of the Pipil people in
central El Salvador and Princess Antu Silan Ulap of the Lenca
people in eastern El Salvador, who saw the Spanish not as gods
but as barbaric invaders. After fierce battles, the Pipil successfully Indigenous Salvadoran Pipil women
fought off the Spanish army led by Pedro de Alvarado along with dancing in the traditional Procession
their Indigenous allies (the Tlaxcalas), sending them back to of Palms, Panchimalco in El
Guatemala. After many other attacks with an army reinforced with Salvador
Indigenous allies, the Spanish were able to conquer Cuzcatlan.
After further attacks, the Spanish also conquered the Lenca people.
Eventually, the Spaniards intermarried with Pipil and Lenca women, resulting in the Mestizo population
which would become the majority of the Salvadoran people. Today many Pipil and other Indigenous
populations live in the many small towns of El Salvador like Izalco, Panchimalco, Sacacoyo, and
Nahuizalco.

Guatemala

Guatemala has one of the largest Indigenous populations in Central

America, with approximately 41% of the population considering
themselves Indigenous.[227] The Indigenous demographic portion
of Guatemala's population consists of majority Mayan groups and
one Non-Mayan group. The Mayan portion, is distribuied into 23
groups namely K’iche 11.3%, Kaqchikel 8.6%, Mam 6.5%,
Q’eqchi' 5.6% and Other 9.5%.[227] The Non-Mayan group
consists of the Xinca who are another set of Indigenous people
Maya women from Guatemala
making up 0.5% of the population.[227] Other sources indicate that
between 50% and 60% of the population could be Indigenous,
because part of the Mestizo population is predominantly
Amerindian.

The Mayan tribes cover a vast geographic area throughout Central America and expanding beyond
Guatemala into other countries. One could find vast groups of Mayan people in Boca Costa, in the
Southern portions of Guatemala, as well as the Western Highlands living together in close
communities.[228] Within these communities and outside of them, around 23 Indigenous languages or
Amerindian Languages are spoken as a first language. Of these 23 languages, they only received official
recognition by the Government in 2003 under the Law of National Languages.[227] The Law on National
Languages recognizes 23 Indigenous languages including Xinca, enforcing that public and government
institutions not only translate but also provide services in said languages.[229] It would provide services in
Cakchiquel, Garifuna, Kekchi, Mam, Quiche and Xinca.[230]

The Law of National Languages has been an effort to grant and

protect Indigenous people rights not afforded to them previously.
Along with the Law of National Languages passed in 2003, in
1996 the Guatemalan Constitutional Court had ratified the ILO
Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples.[231] The ILO
Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, is also known
as Convention 169. Which is the only International Law regarding
Indigenous peoples that Independent countries can adopt. The
convention, establishes that governments like Guatemala's must A Mayan woman.
consult with Indigenous groups prior to any projects occurring on
tribal lands.[232]

Honduras

About five percent of the population are of full-blooded Indigenous descent, but as much as 80 percent of
Hondurans are mestizo or part-Indigenous with European admixture, and about ten percent are of
Indigenous or African descent.[233] The largest concentrations of Indigenous communities in Honduras are
in the westernmost areas facing Guatemala and along the coast of the Caribbean Sea, as well as on the
border with Nicaragua.[233] The majority of Indigenous people are Lencas, Miskitos to the east, Mayans,
Pech, Sumos, and Tolupan.[233]

Nicaragua

About 5% of the Nicaraguan population are Indigenous. The largest Indigenous group in Nicaragua is the
Miskito people. Their territory extended from Cape Camarón, Honduras, to Rio Grande, Nicaragua along
the Mosquito Coast. There is a native Miskito language, but large numbers speak Miskito Coast Creole,
Spanish, Rama and other languages. Their use of Creole English came about through frequent contact with
the British, who colonized the area. Many Miskitos are Christians. Traditional Miskito society was highly
structured, politically and otherwise. It had a king, but he did not have total power. Instead, the power was
split between himself, a Miskito Governor, a Miskito General, and by the 1750s, a Miskito Admiral.
Historical information on Miskito kings is often obscured by the fact that many of the kings were semi-
mythical.

Another major Indigenous culture in eastern Nicaragua are the Mayangna (or Sumu) people, counting some
10,000 people.[234] A smaller Indigenous culture in southeastern Nicaragua are the Rama.

Other Indigenous groups in Nicaragua are located in the central, northern, and Pacific areas and they are
self-identified as follows: Chorotega, Cacaopera (or Matagalpa), Xiu-Subtiaba, and Nahua.[235]

South America

Argentina

In 2005, Indigenous population living in Argentina (known as pueblos originarios) numbered about
600,329 (1.6% of total population); this figure includes 457,363 people who self-identified as belonging to
an Indigenous ethnic group and 142,966 who identified themselves as first-generation descendants of an
Indigenous people.[236] The ten most populous Indigenous
peoples are the Mapuche (113,680 people), the Kolla (70,505), the
Toba (69,452), the Guaraní (68,454), the Wichi (40,036), the
Diaguita–Calchaquí (31,753), the Mocoví (15,837), the Huarpe
(14,633), the Comechingón (10,863) and the Tehuelche (10,590).
Minor but important peoples are the Quechua (6,739), the Charrúa
(4,511), the Pilagá (4,465), the Chané (4,376), and the Chorote
(2,613). The Selknam (Ona) people are now virtually extinct in its
pure form. The languages of the Diaguita, Tehuelche, and
Selknam nations have become extinct or virtually extinct: the Owners of a roadside cafe near
Cacán language (spoken by Diaguitas) in the 18th century and the Cachi, Argentina
Selknam language in the 20th century; one Tehuelche language
(Southern Tehuelche) is still spoken by a handful of elderly people.

Bolivia

In Bolivia, the 2001 census reported that 62% of residents over the age of 15 identify as belonging to an
Indigenous people. Some 3.7% report growing up with an Indigenous mother tongue but do not identify as
Indigenous.[237] When both of these categories are totaled, and children under 15, some 66.4% of Bolivia's
population was recorded as Indigenous in the 2001 Census.[238]

The largest Indigenous ethnic groups are: Quechua, about 2.5 million people; Aymara, 2.0 million;
Chiquitano, 181,000; Guaraní, 126,000; and Mojeño, 69,000. Some 124,000 belong to smaller Indigenous
groups.[239] The Constitution of Bolivia, enacted in 2009, recognizes 36 cultures, each with its own
language, as part of a pluri-national state. Some groups, including CONAMAQ (the National Council of
Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu), draw ethnic boundaries within the Quechua- and Aymara-speaking
population, resulting in a total of 50 Indigenous peoples native to Bolivia.

Large numbers of Bolivian highland peasants retained Indigenous

language, culture, customs, and communal organization throughout the
Spanish conquest and the post-independence period. They mobilized to
resist various attempts at the dissolution of communal landholdings and
used legal recognition of "empowered caciques" to further communal
organization. Indigenous revolts took place frequently until 1953.[240]
While the National Revolutionary Movement government begun in 1952
discouraged people identifying as Indigenous (reclassifying rural people as
campesinos, or peasants), renewed ethnic and class militancy re-emerged
in the Katarista movement beginning in the 1970s.[241] Many lowland
Indigenous peoples, mostly in the east, entered national politics through the
1990 March for Territory and Dignity organized by the CIDOB
confederation. That march successfully pressured the national government
to sign the ILO Convention 169 and to begin the still-ongoing process of
Indigenous woman in recognizing and giving official title to Indigenous territories. The 1994
traditional dress, near Law of Popular Participation granted "grassroots territorial organizations;"
Cochabamba, Bolivia these are recognized by the state and have certain rights to govern local
areas.

Some radio and television programs are produced in the Quechua and Aymara languages. The
constitutional reform in 1997 recognized Bolivia as a multi-lingual, pluri-ethnic society and introduced
education reform. In 2005, for the first time in the country's history, an Indigenous Aymara, Evo Morales,
was elected as president.
Morales began work on his "Indigenous autonomy" policy, which he launched in the eastern lowlands
department on 3 August 2009. Bolivia was the first nation in the history of South America to affirm the
right of Indigenous people to self-government.[242] Speaking in Santa Cruz Department, the President
called it "a historic day for the peasant and Indigenous movement", saying that, though he might make
errors, he would "never betray the fight started by our ancestors and the fight of the Bolivian people".[242]
A vote on further autonomy for jurisdictions took place in December 2009, at the same time as general
elections to office. The issue divided the country.[243]

At that time, Indigenous peoples voted overwhelmingly for more autonomy: five departments that had not
already done so voted for it;[244][245] as did Gran Chaco Province in Taríja, for regional autonomy;[246]
and 11 of 12 municipalities that had referendums on this issue.[244]

Brazil

Indigenous peoples of Brazil make up 0.4% of Brazil's population, or

about 817,000 people, but millions of Brazilians are mestizo or have some
Indigenous ancestry.[247] Indigenous peoples are found in the entire
territory of Brazil, although in the 21st century, the majority of them live in
Indigenous territories in the North and Center-Western part of the country.
On 18 January 2007, Fundação Nacional do Índio (FUNAI) reported that
it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil,
up from 40 in 2005. Brazil is now the nation that has the largest number of
uncontacted tribes, and the island of New Guinea is second.[247]

The Washington Post reported in 2007, "As has been proved in the past
when uncontacted tribes are introduced to other populations and the
microbes they carry, maladies as simple as the common cold can be deadly.
In the 1970s, 185 members of the Panara tribe died within two years of Indigenous man of Terena
discovery after contracting such diseases as flu and chickenpox, leaving tribe from Brazil
only 69 survivors."[248]

Chile

According to the 2012 Census, 10% of the Chilean population,

including the Rapa Nui (a Polynesian people) of Easter Island, was
Indigenous, although most show varying degrees of mixed
heritage.[249] Many are descendants of the Mapuche, and live in
Santiago, Araucanía and Los Lagos Region. The Mapuche
successfully fought off defeat in the first 300–350 years of Spanish
rule during the Arauco War. Relations with the new Chilean
Republic were good until the Chilean state decided to occupy their
Mapuche man and woman. The
lands. During the Occupation of Araucanía the Mapuche
Mapuche make up about 85% of
surrendered to the country's army in the 1880s. Their land was
Indigenous population that live in
opened to settlement by Chileans and Europeans. Conflict over
Chile.
Mapuche land rights continues to the present.

Other groups include the Aymara, the majority of whom live in

Bolivia and Peru, with smaller numbers in the Arica-Parinacota and Tarapacá regions, and the Atacama
people (Atacameños), who reside mainly in El Loa.

Colombia
A minority today within Colombia's overwhelmingly Mestizo and
White Colombian population, Indigenous peoples living in
Colombia, consist of around 85 distinct cultures and more than
1,378,884 people.[250][251] A variety of collective rights for
Indigenous peoples are recognized in the 1991 Constitution.

One of the influences is the Muisca culture, a subset of the larger

Chibcha ethnic group, famous for their use of gold, which led to
the legend of El Dorado. At the time of the Spanish conquest, the
Muisca were the largest Indigenous civilization geographically
between the Incas and the Aztecs empires.
Guambía people relaxing in Colombia

Ecuador

Ecuador was the site of many Indigenous cultures, and civilizations of

different proportions. An early sedentary culture, known as the Valdivia
culture, developed in the coastal region, while the Caras and the Quitus
unified to form an elaborate civilization that ended at the birth of the Capital
Quito. The Cañaris near Cuenca were the most advanced, and most feared by
the Inca, due to their fierce resistance to the Incan expansion. Their
architecture remains were later destroyed by Spaniards and the Incas.

Between 55% and 65% of Ecuador's population consists of Mestizos of

mixed indigenous and European ancestry while indigenous people comprise
about 25%.[252] Genetic analysis indicates that Ecuadorian Mestizos are of
predominantly indigenous ancestry.[253] Approximately 96.4% of Ecuador's
Shaman of the Cofán Indigenous population are Highland Quichuas living in the valleys of the
people from the Sierra region. Primarily consisting of the descendants of peoples conquered
Ecuadorian Amazon by the Incas, they are Kichwa speakers and include the Caranqui, the
Ecuador Amazonian
Otavalos, the Cayambe, the Quitu-Caras, the Panzaleo, the Chimbuelo, the
forest
Salasacan, the Tugua, the Puruhá, the Cañari, and the Saraguro. Linguistic
evidence suggests that the Salascan and the Saraguro may have been the
descendants of Bolivian ethnic groups transplanted to Ecuador as mitimaes.

Coastal groups, including the Awá, Chachi, and the Tsáchila, make up 0.24% percent of the Indigenous
population, while the remaining 3.35 percent live in the Oriente and consist of the Oriente Kichwa (the
Canelo and the Quijos), the Shuar, the Huaorani, the Siona-Secoya, the Cofán, and the Achuar.

In 1986, Indigenous peoples formed the first "truly" national political organization. The Confederation of
Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador (CONAIE) has been the primary political institution of Indigenous
peoples since then and is now the second largest political party in the nation. It has been influential in
national politics, contributing to the ouster of presidents Abdalá Bucaram in 1997 and Jamil Mahuad in
2000.

Peru

According to the Census, the Indigenous population in Peru make up around 26% approximately.[3]
However, this does not include Mestizos of mixed indigenous and European descent, who make up the
majority of the population. Genetic testing indicates that Peruvian Mestizos are of predominantly
indigenous ancestry.[254] Indigenous traditions and customs have shaped the way Peruvians live and see
themselves today. Cultural citizenship—or what Renato Rosaldo has called, "the right to be different and to
belong, in a democratic, participatory sense" (1996:243)—is not yet very well developed in Peru. This is
perhaps no more apparent than in the country's Amazonian regions
where Indigenous societies continue to struggle against state-
sponsored economic abuses, cultural discrimination, and pervasive
violence.[255]

Suriname

Venezuela
Quechua woman and child in the
Most Venezuelans have some Indigenous heritage and are pardo, Sacred Valley, Cuzco Region, Peru
even if they identify as white. But those who identify as
Indigenous, from being raised in those cultures, make up only
around 2% of the total population. The Indigenous peoples speak
around 29 different languages and many more dialects. As some of
the ethnic groups are very small, their native languages are in
danger of becoming extinct in the next decades. The most
important Indigenous groups are the Ye'kuana, the Wayuu, the
Pemon and the Warao. The most advanced Indigenous peoples to
have lived within the boundaries of present-day Venezuela is
thought to have been the Timoto-cuicas, who lived in the
Venezuelan Andes. Historians estimate that there were between A Warao family from Venezuela
350 thousand and 500 thousand Indigenous inhabitants at the time traveling in their canoe
of Spanish colonization. The most densely populated area was the
Andean region (Timoto-cuicas), thanks to their advanced
agricultural techniques and ability to produce a surplus of food.

The 1999 constitution of Venezuela gives Indigenous peoples special rights, although the vast majority of
them still live in very critical conditions of poverty. The government provides primary education in their
languages in public schools to some of the largest groups, in efforts to continue the languages.

Other parts of the Americas

Indigenous peoples make up the majority of the population in Bolivia and Peru, and are a significant
element in most other former Spanish colonies. Exceptions to this include Uruguay (Native Charrúa).
According to the 2011 Census, 2.4% of Uruguayans reported having Indigenous ancestry.[193] Some
governments recognize some of the major Indigenous languages as official languages: Quechua in Peru and
Bolivia; Aymara also in Peru and Bolivia, Guarani in Paraguay, and Greenlandic in Greenland.

Rise of Indigenous movements

Since the late 20th century, Indigenous peoples in the Americas have become more politically active in
asserting their treaty rights and expanding their influence. Some have organized in order to achieve some
sort of self-determination and preservation of their cultures. Organizations such as the Coordinator of
Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin and the Indian Council of South America are
examples of movements that are overcoming national borders to reunite Indigenous populations, for
instance those across the Amazon Basin. Similar movements for Indigenous rights can also be seen in
Canada and the United States, with movements like the International Indian Treaty Council and the
accession of native Indigenous groups into the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization.
There has been a recognition of Indigenous movements on an international scale. The membership of the
United Nations voted to adopt the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, despite dissent from
some of the stronger countries of the Americas.

In Colombia, various Indigenous groups have protested the denial of their rights. People organized a march
in Cali in October 2008 to demand the government live up to promises to protect Indigenous lands, defend
the Indigenous against violence, and reconsider the free trade pact with the United States.[256]

Indigenous heads of state

The first Indigenous candidate to be democratically elected as head of a

country in Latin America was Benito Juárez, a Zapotec Mexican; he was
elected President of Mexico in 1858.[257]

In 2005, Evo Morales of the Aymara people was the first Indigenous
candidate elected as president of Bolivia and the first in South
America.[258]

Evo Morales (Aymara),

former President of Bolivia

Genetic research
Genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas primarily
focuses on Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups and Human
mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. "Y-DNA" is passed solely along
the patrilineal line, from father to son, while "mtDNA" is passed
down the matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes.
Neither recombines, and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only
by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture
between parents' genetic material.[259] Autosomal "atDNA"
markers are also used, but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that
they overlap significantly.[260] AtDNA is generally used to
measure the average continent-of-ancestry genetic admixture in the
entire human genome and related isolated populations.[260]

Genetic comparisons of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of

some Native Americans to that of some Siberian and Central Asian
Schematic illustration of maternal peoples have led Russian researcher I.A. Zakharov to believe that,
(mtDNA) gene-flow in and out of
among all the previously-studied Asian peoples, it is "the peoples
Beringia, from 25,000 years ago to
living between Altai and Lake Baikal along the Sayan mountains
present
that are genetically closest to" Indigenous Americans.[261]

Some scientific evidence links Indigenous peoples of the Americas

to Asian peoples, specifically the Indigenous peoples of Siberia, such as the Ket, Selkup, Chukchi and
Koryak peoples. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to some extent to North Asian
populations by the distribution of blood types, and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data,
and limited DNA studies.[262][263][264]

The common occurrence of the mtDNA Haplogroups A, B, C, and D among eastern Asian and Native
American populations has been noted.[265] Some subclades of C and D that have been found in the limited
populations of Native Americans who have agreed to DNA testing[263][264] bear some resemblance to the
C and D sublades in Mongolian, Amur, Japanese, Korean, and Ainu populations.[265][266]

Available genetic patterns lead to two main theories of genetic episodes affecting the Indigenous peoples of
the Americas; first with the initial peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of
the Americas.[267][268][269] The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages, zygosity
mutations, and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous peoples of the Americas
populations.[268]

The most popular theory among anthropologists is the Bering Strait theory, of human settlement of the New
World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with a possible initial layover of 10,000 to 20,000
years in Beringia for the small founding population.[63][270][271] The micro-satellite diversity and
distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Indigenous peoples of the
Americas populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[272] The Na-Dené,
Inuit and Indigenous populations of Alaska exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct
from other Indigenous peoples of the Americas with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations.[273][274][275]
This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived
from later migrant populations.[276][277]

A 2013 study in Nature reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a young boy from the
archaeological Mal'ta-Buret' culture suggest that up to one-third of the ancestry of Indigenous peoples may
be traced back to western Eurasians, who may have "had a more north-easterly distribution 24,000 years
ago than commonly thought" (with the rest tracing back to early East Asian peoples).[278] "We estimate
that 15 to 30 percent of Native American ancestry may originate through gene flow from this ancient
population", the authors wrote. Professor Kelly Graf said:

"Our findings are significant at two levels. First, it shows that Upper Paleolithic Siberians
came from a cosmopolitan population of early modern humans that spread out of Africa to
Europe and Central and South Asia. Second, Paleoindian skeletons like Buhl Woman with
phenotypic traits atypical of modern-day indigenous Americans can be explained as having a
direct historical connection to Upper Paleolithic Siberia."

A route through Beringia is seen as more likely than the Solutrean hypothesis.[278] Kashani et al. 2012 state
that "The similarities in ages and geographical distributions for C4c and the previously analyzed X2a
lineage provide support to the scenario of a dual origin for Paleo-Indians. Taking into account that C4c is
deeply rooted in the Asian portion of the mtDNA phylogeny and is indubitably of Asian origin, the finding
that C4c and X2a are characterized by parallel genetic histories definitively dismisses the controversial
hypothesis of an Atlantic glacial entry route into North America."[279]

Genetic analyses of HLA I and HLA II genes as well as HLA-A, -B, and -DRB1 gene frequencies links
the Ainu people in northern Japan and southeastern Russia to some Indigenous peoples of the Americas,
especially to populations on the Pacific Northwest Coast such as Tlingit. The scientists suggest that the
main ancestor of the Ainu and of some Indigenous groups can be traced back to Paleolithic groups in
Southern Siberia.[280]
A 2016 study found that Indigenous peoples of the Americas and Polynesians most likely came into contact
around 1200.[281]

Notable people

See also

List of Indigenous peoples

List of Greenlandic Inuit
List of Indigenous artists of the Americas
List of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
List of Indigenous writers from the Americas

Culture
Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Chunkey
Fully feathered basket
Indian Mass
Pow wow

Population and demographics

Child development of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Classification of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Indigenous Movements in the Americas
Origins of Paleoindians
Pacific Islander
Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Latin America
Indigenous peoples of South America
List of Mayan languages
Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas

North America
Genocide of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
History of the west coast of North America
List of traditional territories of the Indigenous peoples of North America
 Native Americans in the United States
List of American Inuit
Native American Languages Act of 1990
Native American weaponry
Native Americans in German popular culture
Republic of Lakotah
Redskin

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Books
König, Eva (2002). Indianer 1858-1928, Photographische Reisen von Alaska bis Feuerland.
Museum für Volkerkunde Hamburg: Edition Braus. ISBN 978-3-89904-021-0.
Cappel, Constance (2007). The Smallpox Genocide of the Odawa Tribe at L'Arbre Croche,
1763: The History of a Native American People. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press.
ISBN 978-0-7734-5220-6. OCLC 175217515 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/175217515).
Cappel, Constance, ed. (2006). Odawa Language and Legends: Andrew J. Blackbird and
Raymond Kiogima. Xlibris. ISBN 978-1-59926-920-7.
Churchill, Ward (1997). A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust and Denial in the Americas,
1492 to the Present (https://books.google.com/books?id=QXRyTRavzK4C&q=A+Little+Matt
er+of+Genocide:+Holocaust+and+Denial+in+the+Americas,+1492+to+the+Present). San
Francisco, CA: City Lights Books. ISBN 978-0-87286-323-1. OCLC 35029491 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/35029491).
 Dean, Bartholomew (2002). "State Power and Indigenous Peoples in Peruvian Amazonia: A
Lost Decade, 1990–2000". In Maybury-Lewis, David (ed.). The Politics of Ethnicity:
Indigenous Peoples in Latin American States. David Rockefeller Center series on Latin
American studies, Harvard University. 9. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University/David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies. pp. 199–238. ISBN 978-0-
674-00964-6. OCLC 427474742 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/427474742).
Dean, Bartholomew; Levi, Jerome M. (2003). At the Risk of Being Heard: Identity,
Indigenous Rights, and Postcolonial States (https://books.google.com/books?id=ESutGBut
MOAC&q=At+the+Risk+of+Being+Heard:+Identity,+Indigenous+Rights,+and+Postcolonial+
States). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-09736-4.
OCLC 50841012 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50841012).
Dean, Bartholomew (January 2006). "Salt of the Mountain: Campa Asháninka History and
Resistance in the Peruvian Jungle (review)" (http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/the_am
ericas/v062/62.3dean.html). The Americas. 62 (3): 464–466. doi:10.1353/tam.2006.0013 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftam.2006.0013). ISSN 0003-1615 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/00
03-1615). S2CID 143708252 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143708252).
Kane, Katie (1999). "Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial
Extermination". Cultural Critique. 42 (42): 81–103. doi:10.2307/1354592 (https://doi.org/10.2
307%2F1354592). ISSN 0882-4371 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0882-4371).
JSTOR 1354592 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1354592).
Krech, Shepard III (1999). The Ecological Indian: Myth and History (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=on7tKuPdlaMC&q=The+Ecological+Indian:+Myth+and+History). New York: W.
W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-04755-4. OCLC 318358852 (https://www.worldcat.o
rg/oclc/318358852).
Varese, Stefano; Ribeiro, Darcy (2004) [2002]. Salt of the Mountain: Campa Ashaninka
History and Resistance in the Peruvian Jungle (https://books.google.com/books?id=NCXw6
o3YaMkC&q=Salt+of+the+Mountain:+Campa+Ashaninka+History+and+Resistance+in+the+
Peruvian+Jungle). trans. Susan Giersbach Rascón. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
ISBN 978-0-8061-3512-0. OCLC 76909908 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/76909908).

Further reading
Hamilton, Charles, ed. 1950. Cry of the Thunderbird: The American Indian's Own Story. New
York: Macmillan Company

External links
America's Stone Age Explorers (https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/stoneage/), from PBS's
Nova
A History of the Native People of Canada (http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/archeo/
hnpc/npint00e.shtml) from the Canadian Museum of Civilization
Indigenous Peoples in Brazil (http://pib.socioambiental.org/en) from the Instituto
Socioambiental (ISA)
Official website (http://www.nmai.si.edu/) of the National Museum of the American Indian,
part of the Smithsonian Institution
Chamberlain, Alexander Francis (1911). "Indians, North American" (https://en.wikisource.or
g/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Indians,_North_American). Encyclopædia
Britannica (11th ed.).

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